B. SC COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY EDUCATIONAL ...B. SC COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY...

B. SC COUNSELLINGPSYCHOLOGY

EDUCATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY

READING MATERIALCORE COURSEV SEMESTER

CUCBCSS2014 Admission Onwards

CALICUT UNIVERSITYSCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

School of distance education

Educational Psychology

CALCUT UNIVERSITYSCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

STUDY MATERIAL

CORE COURSEV SEMESTER OF

B. SC COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Prepared BY:

Sri. Eldhose N.J,Research ScholarDepartment of Psychology,University of Calicut.

Settings & Lay Out By: SDEComputer Cell.



MODULE - 1INTRODUCTION

MODULE - 2

CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING

MODULE - 3

EDUCATING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

MODULE - 4MOTIVATION



MODULE - 1INTRODUCTION

MEANING & DEFINITION

Educational psychology plays a significant role in equipping the student teacher foreffectively guiding children and young people in their growth and development through learning.

Educational psychology has made significant contributions to the theory and practice ofeducation. William James (1920) vividly described the importance of psychology by saying“Everywhere teaching must agree with psychology, but need not necessarily be the only kind ofteaching that would so agree, for many diverse methods of teaching may equally well agree withpsychological laws…. We know in advance, if we are psychologists, that certain methods will bewrong, as psychology saves us from mistakes….’ Studies by John Dewey and E.L. Thorndikehave shown that the contributions educational psychologists have made to teaching have beeninstrumental in furnishing a sounder foundation for educational theory and practice (Garrison etal., 1967). Education, in fact, has captured psychology. All modern researches in psychology arein the interest of education. School, perhaps, is the best place for testing the applicability ofpsychological theories to life.

Educational psychology helps the teacher to understand his pupils, whose education ortraining is his responsibility. It also makes him more competent to shape them. It helps him toknow himself and to adjust himself to the demands of the school environment. It gives himconfidence to deal with his pupils and the ability to control and manipulate the teaching methodsand materials. Psychology is the science that underlies that art of teaching.

Nature of Educational Psychology

Educational psychology deals with the behavior of human beings in educationalsituations. It is concerned with the study of human behavior or personality, its growth,development and guidance under the social processes of education. Since education is possibleonly because human beings can and do learn, human learning is the core of educationalpsychology. Educational psychology, however, is not merely confined to human learning. It isconcerned with all aspects to education and all factors and conditions, both internal and externalto the organism which influence or contribute to a better understanding of learning and teaching.

According to Lindgren (1960), educational psychology encompasses three aspects ofeducation. These are; the learner, the learning process or what goes on when people learn, andthe learning situation, i.e., the factors or conditions which affect the learner and the learningprocess.

These three factors are all interested, but the teacher needs to keep each of them in mindto develop an understanding of what goes on in the classroom. Many teachers tend to be overlyconcerned with the learning situation to the exclusion of the learner and the learning process.

More precisely, educational psychology, by its very nature, is a study of the processesinvolved in education. The teachers need to be equipped with educational psychology so thatthey can understand and effectively guide the processes of education. An educational



psychologist seeks to examine, analyze, explain and guide the processes of education in a waythat ensures its soundness and efficiency. To do so, he has to thoroughly study the individual, hiscapacities, aptitude, his environment, and all those actions or responses, which are in any wayconcerned with his education.

Educational psychology is a science in its own right because it possesses requisites suchas a number of facts or basic objective data a body of principles of fundamental truths, adequatetechniques of research and experimentation, and an increasing number of precise measuringinstruments. When the educational psychologist senses an educational problem, he makescarefully controlled observations, determines the pertinent facts, sets up a hypothesis, conductsexperiments to verify or prove the hypothesis, and applies the findings in actual school practices.There is, for instance, experimental evidence that the development of certain fundamental eyemovement habits significantly improves one’s efficiency in reading. A reading graph is obtainedby a carefully controlled motion picture camera, and then a suitable program of remedialinstruction is organized and systematically implemented to remove the reading difficulty(Witherington, 1946). Certain educational problems cannot perhaps be subjected to scientifictreatment today, but educational psychology, like the life science, is progressing and it should intime be able to experiment with a number of educational problems.

Scope and Functions of Educational Psychology

As educational psychology is a distinct subject of study, it has a fairly definable field ofits own, a recognized body of literature and recognized methods of systematic study(McFaarland, 1958). The study of the physical, intellectual, emotional and social development ofyoung people is an essential component of a teacher‘s education. He can discharge his dutieseffectively only when he knows what these aspects of his pupil’s development entail, how suchdevelopment occurs, how he can promote it, diagnose difficulties in the process, if any, anddecide on the remedial measures to be taken when required. Hence the inclusion of all thesedevelopmental aspects in educational psychology.

The theories and methods of learning are in the scope of educational psychology becausethe teacher can foster learning only when he knows what learning is, how it takes place, how toquicken it and which methods make learning permanent. Methods of teaching are included in thestudy because the teacher should know which methods can lead to effective learning and why itis necessary to use different methods of learning when teaching different subjects, even topics,and when the education belong to different age groups or to different educational or culturalbackgrounds.

Intelligence, abilities, aptitudes, attainments, and techniques of assessing these lie in thescope of educational psychology because the teacher has to cater to individual differences whichhe can do only when he knows what these are and in what ways these can be assessed.

Problems of backwardness, delinquency and maladjustment must be understood by theteacher because he may encounter these problems when he has to teach a heterogeneous class.He can help such children only if he knows the nature, etiology and remedies of these frequentlyoccurring problems.



The methods of observation, experiment and case study are included to enable the teacherto solve individual problems, as also to make skilled and thorough observations of arepresentative group so as to establish a generalization.

The teacher also needs to understand and assess personality to help in its proper growthand monitor it in order to know the child’s nature temperament.

The functioning of child-guidance clinics, special schools for the handicapped children,standardized tests, activity methods, and play ways also come under the scope of educationalpsychology so as to equip him to meet these specific needs and also to cater to the individualityof each pupil.

Contribution of PIAGET on Educational Psychology

Piaget’s theories have had a major impact on the theory and practice of education (Case,1998). First, the theories focused attention on the idea of developmentally appropriateeducation—an education with environments, curriculum, materials, and instruction that aresuitable for students in terms of their physical and cognitive abilities and their social andemotional needs (Elkind, 1989). In addition, several major approaches to curriculum andinstruction are explicitly based on Piagetian theory (Berrueta-Clement, Schweinhart, Barnett,Epstein, & Weikart, 1984), and this theory has been influential in constructivist models oflearning. Berk (2001) summarizes the main teaching implications drawn from Piaget as follows:

1. A focus on the process of children’s thinking, not just its products. In addition tochecking the correctness of children’s answers, teachers must understand the processeschildren use to get to the answer. Appropriate learning experiences build on children’scurrent level of cognitive functioning, and only when teachers appreciate children’smethods of arriving at particular conclusions are they in a position to provide suchexperiences.

2. Recognition of the crucial role of children’s self-initiated, active involvement inlearning activities. In a Piagetian classroom the presentation of ready-made knowledgeis deemphasized, and children are encouraged to discover for themselves throughspontaneous interaction with the environment. Therefore, instead of teaching didactically,teachers provide a rich variety of activities that permit children to act directly on thephysical world.

3. A de-emphasis on practices aimed at making children adultlike in their thinking.Piaget referred to the question “How can we speed up development?” as “the Americanquestion.” Among the many countries he visited, psychologists and educators in theUnited States seemed most interested in what techniques could be used to acceleratechildren’s progress through the stages. Piagetian-based educational programs accept hisfirm belief that premature teaching could be worse than no teaching at all, because itleads to superficial acceptance of adult formulas rather than true cognitive understanding(May & Kundert, 1997).

4. Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress. Piaget’s theoryassumes that all children go through the same developmental sequence but that they do soat different rates. Therefore, teachers must make a special effort to arrange classroomactivities for individuals and small groups of children rather than for the total class group.



In addition, because individual differences are expected, assessment of children’seducational progress should be made in terms of each child’s own previous course ofdevelopment, not in terms of normative standards provided by the performances of same-age peers.

Contribution of VYGOTSKY

Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development is based on the idea thatdevelopment is defined both by what a child can do independently and by what the child can dowhen assisted by an adult or more competent peer (Daniels, 1995; Wertsch, 1991). Knowingboth levels of Vygotsky’s zone is useful for teachers, for these levels indicate where the child isat a given moment as well as where the child is going. The zone of proximal development hasseveral implications for teaching in the classroom.

According to Vygotsky, for the curriculum to be developmentally appropriate, the teachermust plan activities that encompass not only what children are capable of doing on their own butwhat they can learn with the help of others (Karpov & Haywood, 1998).

Vygotsky’s theory does not mean that anything can be taught to any child. Only instructionand activities that fall within the zone promote development. For example, if a child cannotidentify the sounds in a word even after many prompts, the child may not benefit immediatelyfrom instruction in this skill. Practice of previously known skills and introduction of conceptsthat are too difficult and complex have little positive impact. Teachers can use information aboutboth levels of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development in organizing classroom activities inthe following ways:

Instruction can be planned to provide practice in the zone of proximal development forindividual children or for groups of children. For example, hints and prompts that helpedchildren during the assessment could form the basis of instructional activities.

Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children at different levelswho can help each other learn.

Scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976) is a tactic for helping the child in his or herzone of proximal development in which the adult provides hints and prompts at differentlevels. In scaffolding, the adult does not simplify the task, but the role of the learner issimplified “through the graduated intervention of the teacher” (Greenfield, 1984, p. 119).

For example, a child might be shown pennies to represent each sound in a word (e.g.,three pennies for the three sounds in “man”). To master this word, the child might be asked toplace a penny on the table to show each sound in a word, and finally the child might identify thesounds without the pennies. When the adult provides the child with pennies, the adult provides ascaffold to help the child move from assisted to unassisted success at the task (Spector, 1992). Ina high school laboratory science class, a teacher might provide scaffolding by first givingstudents detailed guides to carrying out experiments, then giving them brief outlines that theymight use to structure experiments, and finally asking them to set up experiments entirely ontheir own.



Contribution of SKINNER

Recalling that Skinner is a behaviorist who limits himself to describing observablephenomena rather than speculation on any internal activities of the human mind, learning isconsidered a change in behavior – nothing more, nothing less. So when talking about the act oflearning Skinner is really talking about the act of behavioral change. Behavior changes aredepending upon the consequences of that behavior. If a specific behavior is reinforced then theprobability of that behavior occurring again is increased. This then is how the act of learningoccurs because learning is nothing more than a change in behavior in Skinner's view.

Consequence Definition Example

Receive reinforcer(positivereinforcement)

A behavior is followed by thepresentation of a positivestimulus, thus the behaviorincreases.

Giving students a gold star forcompleting work on time

Removeunpleasantstimulus (negativereinforcement)

A behavior is followed by theremoval of an unpleasantstimulus, thus the behaviorincreases.

Putting on sunglasses to remove theglare of the sun; allowing students toquit working problems that don'tinterest them if they followclassroom rules about arriving ontime

Receiveunpleasantstimulus(punishment)

A behavior is followed by thepresentation of an unpleasantstimulus, thus the behaviordecreases at least temporarily.

Spanking a child who misbehaves;assigning additional homeworkproblems to a student who isdisruptive

Withhold pleasantstimulus(extinction)

A behavior is followed by thewithholding or removal of apositive stimulus, thus thebehavior decreases.

Not allowing a student to go out onthe playground when he has notcompleted his work as scheduled

Contribution of ROGERS

Rogers views our schools as generally rigid, bureaucratic institutions which are resistantto change. Applied to education, his approach becomes "student-centered learning" in which thestudents are trusted to participate in developing and to take charge of their own learning agendas.The most difficult thing in teaching is to let learn.

Student-centered learning (also called child-centered learning) is an approachto education focusing on the needs of the students, rather than those of others involved inthe educational process, such as teachers and administrators.

This approach has many implications for the design of curriculum, course content, andinteractivity of courses.

For instance, a student-centered course may address the needs of a particular studentaudience to learn how to solve some job-related problems using some aspects ofmathematics.

In contrast, a course focused on learning mathematics might choose areas of mathematicsto cover and methods of teaching which would be considered irrelevant by the student.



Student-centered learning, that is, putting students first, is in stark contrast to existingestablishment/teacher-centered lecturing and careerism.

Student-centered learning is focused on the student's needs, abilities, interests, andlearning styles with the teacher as a facilitator of learning.

This classroom teaching method acknowledges student voice as central to the learningexperience for every learner. Teacher-centered learning has the teacher at its centre in anactive role and students in a passive, receptive role. Student-centered learning requiresstudents to be active, responsible participants in their own learning.

Background

Traditionally, teachers were at the centre of learning with students assuming a receptiverole in their education. With research showing how people learn, traditional curriculumapproaches to instruction where teachers were at the centre gave way to new ways of teachingand learning. Key amongst these changes is the idea that students actively construct their ownlearning (known as constructivism). Theorists like John Dewey, Jean Piaget, and LevVygotsky whose collective work focused on how students learn is primarily responsible for themove to student-centered learning. Carl Rogers' ideas about the formation of the individual alsocontributed to student-centered learning. Student centered-learning means reversing thetraditional teacher-centered understanding of the learning process and putting students at thecentre of the learning process.

Assessment of student-centered learning

One of the most critical differences between student-centered learning and teacher-centered learning is in assessment. In student-centered learning, students participate in theevaluation of their learning. This means that students are involved in deciding how todemonstrate their learning. Developing assessment that supports learning and motivation isessential to the success of student-centered approaches. One of the main reasons teachers resiststudent-centered learning is the view of assessment as problematic in practice. Since teacher-assigned grades are so tightly woven into the fabric of schools, expected by students, parents andadministrators alike, allowing students to participate in assessment is somewhat contentious.

Contribution of MASLOW

Maslow’s theory has great impact on educational structure. In order to maximize on theeffectiveness of school-wide and individual classroom teaching programs, administrators andteachers must consider student needs and their hierarchical order. This must be a top priority inthe development of these programs so that students have the capability of reaching their highestlevels of potential. For instance, if a student has not had her breakfast before she comes toschool, she will not be concentrating on learning; she will be preoccupied with the need for food.Because there are many children who come to school without a proper breakfast, school systemsmust meet this need by providing breakfast programs so that these children will be more likely tolearn effectively.

Learning can only take place when basic needs have been met. Learner perceive education in more accurate terms when needs are met and learning

becomes the priority.



How students emotionally view the world- sets the foundation for learning

The most important educational goal is for students to learn. Another important goal is tomake this newly gained knowledge and information purposeful and meaningful to the students sothat it may be retained and useful through their lives. An essential factor involved in meetingthese goals is motivation. If students are unmotivated in one way or another, it is likely that littlelearning will take place, or if by chance some learning should take place, it is probable that it willnot be retained.

Contribution of GARDENER

Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983) proposes that intelligentbehavior does not arise from a single unitary quality of the mind. The seven intelligencesproposed by Gardner are linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical,interpersonal and intrapersonal.

Linguistic intelligence enables individuals to read, write and speak well. Logical-mathematical intelligence encompasses logical thinking (as might be used in

chess or deductive reasoning, for example) as well as mathematical and scientificproblem-solving.

Spatial intelligence makes its appearance when an individual navigates an unfamiliar setof streets, or when an architect visualizes her plans for a building.

Musical intelligence generates the set of skills that allow musicians to play a tune by ear,or to execute a phrase with sensitivity and grace.

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is necessary for problem-solving that requires theindividual to use his or her physical body, as would be necessary for performing acomplex surgical procedure, executing a series of dance steps or catching a fly ball.

Interpersonal intelligence drives social skills and things like empathy and intuition aboutwhat motivates other people-a type of understanding that is necessary for salespersons,teachers and clergy, for example.

Intrapersonal intelligence involves a similar set of abilities, but these are turned towardthe self; individuals who have high intrapersonal intelligence have an accurate self-understanding, and can use this to their advantage in problem-solving.

Gardner asserts that logical-mathematical and linguistic intelligences are overemphasizedin traditional models of human intelligence, but that this is a cultural artifact; in different lifecircumstances, different intelligences would gain higher priority (Gardner, 1993).

According to Howard Gardner, knowledge is “the ability to resolve 'genuine problems ofdifficulties' within certain cultural settings.” In his view, Learning takes place when anindividual has the ability to solve genuine problems and they can take their knowledge and adaptit to their individual learning styles. Skills and knowledge are acquired by adapting informationto fit the different intelligences of each individual and utilizing their cultural backgrounds anddifferences to acquire the knowledge. Mistakes are a part of the learning process and will helpstudents to solve problems.



MODULE - 2CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING

Age-level characteristics and education - Overview

Children in Preschool and Kindergarten (3, 4, & 5 years) Children in the Primary Grades (6, 7, & 8 years) Children in the Elementary Grades (9 & 10 years) Youth in Middle School (11, 12, & 13 years) Youth in High School (14, 15, 16, & 17 years)

Children in Preschool and Kindergarten (3, 4, & 5 years)

Physical Characteristics of Children in Preschool and Kindergarten

Children are extremely active Children need frequent rest periods Children’s large muscles are more developed than those that control fingers and hands Eye-hand coordination is still developing Children’s bodies are flexible and resilient Gender differences do not emerge until kindergarten

Social Characteristics of Children in Preschool and Kindergarten

Most children have one or two best friends, but these friendships change rapidly Play activities contribute to social, emotional, and cognitive development, and should be

encouraged Children show preferences for gender of play peers and for pair vs. group play Awareness of gender roles and gender typing is evident

Emotional Characteristics of Children in Preschool and Kindergarten

Children tend to express their emotions freely and openly, with anger bursts beingfrequent

Jealousy among classmates is fairly common as these children tend to have muchaffection for their teacher and actively seek approval

Cognitive Characteristics of Children in Preschool and Kindergarten

Children begin to develop a theory of mind Children are becoming quite skillful with language Many children overestimate their competence for particular tasks Competence is encouraged by interaction, interest, opportunities, and signs of affection

Children in the Primary Grades (6, 7, & 8 years)



Physical Characteristics of Children in the Primary Grades (1-3)

Children are still extremely active and so need breaks like recess, which enhances theircognitive functioning

Children still need rest period because they become fatigued easily Large-muscle control is still superior to fine coordination Children may have difficulty focusing on small print or objects Children tend to be extreme in their physical activities Bone growth is not yet complete

Social Characteristics of Children in the Primary Grades (1-3)

Children become somewhat more selective in their choice of friends and are likely tohave a more permanent best friend

Children like organized games but may become overly concerned with rules Quarrels are still frequent

Emotional Characteristics of Children in the Primary Grades (1-3)

Children are sensitive to criticism and ridicule and may have difficulty adjusting tofailure

Most children are eager to please the teacher Children of this age are becoming sensitive to the feelings of others

Cognitive Characteristics of Children in the Primary Grades (1-3)

Children understand that there are different ways to know things and that some ways arebetter than others

Children begin to understand that learning and recall are caused by cognitive processesthat they can control

Children of this age do not learn as efficiently as older children Talking aloud to oneself (private speech) reaches a peak between the ages of six and

seven

Children in the Elementary Grades (9 & 10 years)

Physical Characteristics of Children in the Elementary Grades (4-5)

Boys and girls become leaner and stronger Obesity can become a problem for some children of this age group Gender differences in motor skill performance are apparent This is a period of relative calm and predictability in physical development

Social Characteristics of Children in the Elementary Grades (4-5)

The peer group becomes powerful and begins to replace adults as the major source ofbehavior standards

Friendships become more selective and gender based Organized play continues to contribute to social, emotional, and cognitive development



Emotional Characteristics of Children in the Elementary Grades (4-5)

Children develop a more global, integrated, and complex self-image Self-image composed of self-description, selfesteem, and self-concept Disruptive family relationships, social rejection, and school failure may lead to

delinquent behavior

Cognitive Characteristics of Children in the Elementary Grades (4-5)

Children can think logically, although such thinking is constrained and inconsistent On simple memory tasks, children this age can perform as well as adolescents or adults With more complex memory tasks, the performance of children this age is limited

Youth in Middle School (11, 12, & 13 years)

Physical Characteristics of Adolescents in Middle School

Physical growth tends to be both rapid and uneven, producing early-maturing and latematuring patterns of development

Pubertal development is evident in practically all girls and in many boys Concern and curiosity about sex are almost universal

Social Characteristics of Adolescents in Middle School

The development of interpersonal reasoning leads to greater understanding of the feelingsof others

The desire to conform reaches a peak at this age

Emotional Characteristics of Adolescents in Middle School

View of adolescence as a period of “storm and stress” is exaggerated Nevertheless, some students experience anxiety, low self-esteem, and depression Middle school students are often self-conscious and self-centered as a result of the

continued influence of egocentric thought

Cognitive Characteristics of Adolescents in Middle School

Middle school students need a classroom environment that is open, supportive, andintellectually stimulating

Self-efficacy becomes an important influence on intellectual and social behavior

Youth in High School (14, 15, 16, & 17 years)

Physical Characteristics of Adolescents in High School

Most students reach physical maturity and virtually all attain puberty Many adolescents are sexually active but the long-term trend is down The birthrate for unmarried adolescents has fallen in recent years yet it is still

unacceptably high The rate of sexually transmitted diseases is also rather high for high school students



Social Characteristics of Adolescents in High School

Parents and other adults are likely to influence long-range plans Peers are likely to influence immediate status Girls seem to experience greater anxiety about friendships than boys do Many high school students are employed after school Part-time work can have both beneficial and detrimental effects

Emotional Characteristics of Adolescents in High School

Many psychiatric disorders either appear or become prominent during adolescence The most common type of emotional disorder during adolescence is depression If depression becomes severe, suicide may be contemplated

Cognitive Characteristics of Adolescents in High School

High school students become increasingly capable of engaging in formal thought, butmay not use this ability

Between the ages of 12 and 16, political thinking becomes more abstract, liberal, andknowledgeable

LEARNING: BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH

According to the behaviorists, learning can be defined as the relatively permanent changein behavior brought about as a result of experience or practice. [Note: an internal event displayedby overt behavior; contrasted with biological maturation or genetics as an explanation forrelatively permanent change.] In fact, the term "learning theory" is often associated with thebehavioral view. Researchers who affiliate with this position do not generally look with favor onthe term "behavior potential" (i.e., may be capable of performing but did not for some reasonsuch as illness, situation, etc.) that was included in a definition accepted by those with acognitive or humanistic viewpoint. The focus of the behavioral approach is on how theenvironment impacts overt behavior. The psychomotor domain is associated with overt behaviorwhen writing instructional objectives. Behavior analysis is the term used to describe thescientific study of behavior and behavior modification is the term used to describe theapplication of behavior analysis concepts and principles for the systematic or programmaticchanging of behavior.

There are three types of behaviorial learning theories:

1. Contiguity -- any stimulus and response connected in time and/or space will tend to beassociated (a baseball player wearing a certain pair of socks on the day he hits three homeruns; a student making a good grade on a test after trying several different studytechniques)

ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY:1. stimulus = environmental event2. response = action = behavior = overt behavior



2. Classical (Respondent) Conditioning -- association of stimuli (an antecedent stimulus willreflexively elicit an innate emotional or physiological response; another stimulus willelicit an orienting response)

ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY:1. conditioning = learning2. antecedent = a stimulus occuring "before" a response3. reflexive = involuntary (e.g., involuntary responses cannot be consciously

stopped once they start)4. innate = inborn5. elicits = causes (to bring forth)

3. Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning -- connection of emitted behavior and itsconsequences (reinforcement and punishment)

ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY:1. emitted = voluntary (e.g., voluntary responses can be consciously stopped)2. consequent or consequences = a stimulus occurring "after" a response that

changes the probability the response will occur again

Note: Observational (Social) learning (learning through observing and modeling) is sometimesconsidered a behavioral learning theory

There are several terms associated with the behavioral approach that deserve further explanation.

Extinction -- the breaking of the stimulus-stimulus or stimulus-response connection

1. Contiguity theory -- if the stimulus is no longer paired with the response, theassociation will be discontinued.

2. Classical conditioning -- if the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presentedby itself (without pairing with the unconditioned stimulus [US]) the conditioning /association process is reversed, and the CS will become an NS.

3. Operant conditioning -- if the response is no longer followed by a consequence (itis not reinforced or punished), it will cease to be emitted.

4. Social learning theory -- if the observed response is no longer followed by aconsequence (it is not reinforced or punished), or if the model begins to display anincompatible behavior, the response will cease to be emitted.

Spontaneous recovery: Sometimes, after extinction in classical conditioning, if the conditionedstimulus (CS) is again presented, it will "spontaneously" elicit the conditioned response (CR).

Higher (or second) order conditioning: Classical conditioning does not have to involve pairinga neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US). If an NS is paired with an existingconditioned stimulus (CS), the NS will also become a CS.



Stimulus generalization and discrimination

generalization -- behaviors learned in one context or situation are transferred toanother (e.g., studying hard in Ed Psyc is transferred to studying hard in otherclasses)

discrimination -- behaviors reward or punished in one context or situation have adifferent contingency in another (e.g., spending 5 hours per week in most coursesis OK, but must spend 10 hours per week in Ed Psyc)

OBJECTIVES OF INSTRUCTION

Instruction is vital for education, as it is the transfer of learning from one person toanother. Any time you are given directions or told how to do something you arereceiving instruction. Instruction (the purposeful guidance of the learning process) is complexand can take many forms. It is a vitally important classroom activity, but must be considered inthe context of such factors as measures of desired student learning (including overlappingobjectives taught to objectives tested), controlling student behavior (classroom managementactivities), individual differences among students, and school processes and characteristics.Under the best conditions it takes many years of experience for most teachers to meet the idealsof instructional practice that they set for themselves as preserve undergraduate students.

Instruction was defined previously as “the purposeful direction of the learning process”and is one of the major teacher class activities (along with planning and management).Professional educators have developed a variety of models of instruction, each designed toproduce classroom learning.

Instructional objectives should specify four main things:

Audience - Who? Who is this aimed at? Behavior - What? What do you expect them to be able to do? This should be an overt,

observable behavior, even if the actual behavior is covert or mental in nature. If you can'tsee it, hear it, touch it, taste it, or smell it, you can't be sure your audience really learnedit.

Condition - How? Under what circumstances will the learning occur? What will thestudent be given or already be expected to know to accomplish the learning?

Degree - How much? Must a specific set of criteria be met? Do you want total mastery(100%), do you want them to respond correctly 80% of the time, etc. A common (andtotally non-scientific) setting is 80% of the time.

This is often called the ABCD's of objectives, a nice mnemonic aid!

Instructional objectives should be SMART:

Specific - Use the ABCDs to create a clear and concise objective. Measurable - Write the objective so that anyone can observe the learner perform desired

action and objectively assess the performance. Achievable - Make sure the learner can do what is required. Don't, for example, ask the

learner to perform complex actions if they are a beginner in an area.



Relevant - Demonstrate value to the learner. Don't teach material that won't be used or onwhich you will not assess.

Timely and Time Bound - Ensure the performance will be used soon, not a year fromnow. Also, include any necessary time constraints, such as completing a task in "10minutes or less."

MASTERY LEARNING

Benjamin Bloom, of Bloom's Taxonomy fame, came up with mastery learning in 1971.Mastery learning refers to the idea that teaching should organize learning through ordered steps.In order to move to the next step, students have to master the prerequisite step. Mastery learningengages the learner in multiple instructional methods, learning levels and multiplecognitive thinking types.

Bloom, when first proposing his mastery learning strategy in 1968, was convinced thatmost students can attain a high level of learning capability if the following conditions areavailable:

instruction is approached sensitively and systematically students are helped when and where they have learning difficulties students are given sufficient time to achieve mastery there is some clear criterion of what constitutes mastery.

According to Davis & Sorrel (1995), “The mastery learning method divides subjectmatter into units that have predetermined objectives or unit expectations. Students, aloneor in groups, work through each unit in an organized fashion. Students must demonstratemastery on unit exams, typically 80%, before moving on to new material. Students whodo not achieve mastery receive remediation through tutoring, peer monitoring, smallgroup discussions, or additional homework. Additional time for learning is prescribed forthose requiring remediation. Students continue the cycle of studying and testing untilmastery is met. Block (1971) states that students with minimal prior knowledge ofmaterial have higher achievement through mastery learning than with traditional methodsof instruction. ”

Cited from Davis & Sorrel (1995), “In summary, mastery learning is not a new method ofinstruction. It is based on the concept that all students can learn when provided withconditions appropriate to their situation. The student must reach a predetermined level ofmastery on one unit before they are allowed to progress to the next. In a mastery learningsetting, students are given specific feedback about their learning progress at regularintervals throughout the instructional period. This feedback, helps students identify whatthey have learned well and what they have not learned well. Areas that were not learnedwell are allotted more time to achieve mastery. Only grades of "A" and "B" are permittedbecause these are the accepted standards of mastery. Traditional instruction holds timeconstant and allows mastery to vary while mastery learning or systematic instructionholds mastery constant and allows time to vary (Robinson, 1992).”



BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES

Behavior modification assumes that observable and measurable behaviors are goodtargets for change. All behavior follows a set of consistent rules. Methods can be developed fordefining, observing, and measuring behaviors, as well as designing effective interventions.Behavior modification techniques never fail. Rather, they are either applied inefficiently orinconsistently, which leads to less than desired change. All behavior is maintained, changed, orshaped by the consequences of that behavior. Although there are certain limits, such astemperamental or emotional influences related to ADHD or depression, all children functionmore effectively under the right set of consequences. Reinforcers are consequences thatstrengthen behavior. Punishments are consequences that weaken behavior. Students' behaviorsare managed and changed by the consequences of classroom behavior. To manage behaviorthrough consequences, use this multi-step process:

1. The problem must be defined, usually by count or description.2. Design a way to change the behavior.3. Identify an effective reinforcer.4. Apply the reinforcer consistently to shape or change behavior.

Consequences of behavior are directly related to the events that either come immediately beforeor after them. Table 4.2 provides examples of behavioral outcomes as they relate to variousevents.

Table 4.1. Popular models and techniques for dealing with discipline referrals

Model Techniques emphasized

Focusing on Prevention

Preventativeclassroommanagement

Effective teaching practices, frequent monitoring, clear rules andprocedures, social praise, and so forth

Prosocial behavior Systematic reinforcement, modeling of prosocial behavior, verbalinstruction, role playing

Moral education Classroom moral discussions of real-life dilemmas, hypotheticalsituations, and literature; role playing; student participation in schoolgovernment

Social problemsolving (SPS)

Direct teaching of SPS skills (e.g. alternative thinking, means-endsthinking), self- instruction training, dialoguing

Effectivecommunicationmodels

Values clarification activities, active listening, communication andinterpersonal skills training for students and teachers

Focusing on Correction and Control of Misbehavior

Behaviormodification

Direct instruction; reinforcement techniques, including social praise,material reinforcers, and tokens; punishment-oriented techniques,including verbal reprimand, response cost, and time-out; group



contingency techniques such as the Good Behavior Game; behavioralcontracting

Assertive discipline Teacher assertion, systematic use of behavior modification techniques,continuous monitoring

Reality therapy Confrontation questioning, classroom meetings, classroom moraldiscussions, social problem solving, behavioral contracting, logicalconsequences, time-out, preventative techniques such as democraticgovernance

Focus on Treatment

Social skillstraining

Direct instruction, modeling and rehearsal, coaching, self-instruction,manipulation of antecedents and consequences

Aggressionreplacementtraining

Social skills training techniques, self- instruction (e.g. anger controltraining), moral discussions

Parent managementtraining

Parent training in application of behavioral techniques

Family therapy Variety of therapeutic and educational techniques, depending on theparticular model

Behavior therapy Variety of cognitive, behavioral, and operant techniques



MODULE - 3EDUCATING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

EDUCATION OF GIFTED CHILDREN

Intellectual giftedness is an intellectual ability significantly higher than average. It is acharacteristic of children, variously defined, that motivates differences in school programming. Itis thought to persist as a trait into adult life, with various consequences studied in longitudinalstudies of giftedness over the last century. There is no generally agreed definition of giftednessfor either children or adults, but most school placement decisions and most longitudinal studiesover the course of individual lives have been based on IQ in the top 2 percent of the population,that is above IQ 130.

The various definitions of intellectual giftedness include either general high ability orspecific abilities. For example, by some definitions an intellectually gifted person may have astriking talent for mathematics without equally strong language skills. In particular, therelationship between artistic ability or musical ability and the high academic ability usuallyassociated with high IQ scores is still being explored, with some authors referring to all of thoseforms of high ability as "giftedness," while other authors distinguish "giftedness" from "talent."There is still much controversy and much research on the topic of how adult performanceunfolds from trait differences in childhood, and what educational and other supports best help thedevelopment of adult giftedness.

Below is a table of comparisons of the Bright Child and the Gifted Child.

BRIGHT CHILD GIFTED CHILD Knows the answers Asks the questions Is interested Is highly curious Is attentive Is mentally & physically involved Has ideas Has wild, silly ideas Works hard Plays around, yet tests well Answers the question Discusses in detail, elaborates Top group in class Beyond the group Listens with interest Shows strong feelings and opinions Learns with ease Already knows 6 – 8 repetitions for mastery 1 – 2 repetitions for mastery Understands ideas Constructs abstractions Enjoys peers Prefers adults Grasps the meaning Draws inferences Completes assignments Initiates projects Is receptive Is intense Copies accurately Creates a new design Enjoys school Enjoys learning Absorbs information Manipulates information Technician Inventor Good memorizer Good guesser



Enjoys straight forwardsequential presentation

Thrives on complexity

Is alert Is keenly observant Is pleased with own learning Is highly self-critical

There are several characteristics credited to the gifted child:

The Gifted Child exhibits intensity and curiosity sooner than the average child. They respond toevents with stronger emotion, sensitivity and passion than the average child.

When they are interested in something, they pursue it with passion! They seek out informationto discover as much about it as possible.

The gifted child has an excellent memory, which may account for their ability to rememberdetails, spelling words, or math problems with ease.

Younger gifted children can watch television or work at the computer for longer periods oftime, and sit quietly and listen to a story for longer than their peers.

These children need to be challenged. They have a thirst for information, and general educationclasses frustrate them, as they don’t like repeating or practicing things they already know.

They are often perfectionists, highly organized, and expect to do well at everything. Gifted children often speak at an early age and have an impressive vocabulary. They learn to

read sooner than most, often before kindergarten. They can be sensitive to sound, clothes tags, or wrinkles in socks. They are perceptive to facial

expressions, body language, and often have a good sense or humor. They are voracious in their search for answers, including reading and internet research, and

tend to ask a lot of questions. These children are methodical thinkers, have definite opinions, and are very motivated when

curious about a topic. They work well on their own. Because their intelligence is highlydeveloped, they are not interested in typical activities of their chronological peers. Rather, theyprefer the company of older children or adults.

Identifying if a child is gifted is an important step to establish the best way to advocate for thechild in school.

EDUCATION OF JUVENILE DELINQUENTJuvenile delinquency, also known as "juvenile offending", is participation in illegal

behavior by minors (juveniles, i.e. individuals younger than the statutory age of majority).Most legal systems prescribe specific procedures for dealing with juveniles, such as juveniledetention centers, and courts. A juvenile delinquent is a person who is typically below 18 years ofage and commits an act that otherwise would have been charged as a crime if they were an adult.Depending on the type and severity of the offense committed, it is possible for people under 18 tobe charged and treated as adults.Delinquency prevention is the broad term for all efforts aimed atpreventing youth from becoming involved in criminal, or other antisocial, activity.

Because the development of delinquency in youth is influenced by numerous factors,prevention efforts need to be comprehensive in scope. Prevention services may include activitiessuch as substance abuse education and treatment, family counseling, youth mentoring, parentingeducation, educational support, and youth sheltering. Increasing availability and use of familyplanning services, including education and contraceptives helps to reduce unintendedpregnancy and unwanted births, which are risk factors for delinquency. Education is the great



equalizer, opening doors to lift themselves out of poverty. Education also promotes economicgrowth, national productivity and innovation, and values of democracy and socialcohesion. Prevention through education aides the young people to interact more effectively insocial contexts, therefore diminishing need for delinquency.

Under this prevention and early intervention framework, an increasing body of researchis being conducted to determine which of the many existing programs are truly effective. Currentliterature indicates that effective programs are those that aim to act as early as possible and focuson known risk factors and the behavioral development of juveniles. In general, the Office ofJuvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention recommends that the following types of school andcommunity prevention programs be employed:

Classroom and behavior management programs

Multi-component classroom-based programs

Social competence promotion curriculums

Conflict resolution and violence prevention curriculums

Bullying prevention programs

Afterschool recreation programs

Mentoring programs

School organization programs

Comprehensive community interventions

EDUCATION OF LEARNING DISABLED

Learning disability is a classification that includes several areas of functioning in which aperson has difficulty learning in a typical manner, usually caused by an unknown factor orfactors. Given the "difficulty learning in a typical manner", this does not exclude the ability tolearn in a different manner. Therefore, some people can be more accurately described as having a"Learning Difference", thus avoiding any misconception of being disabled with a lack of abilityto learn and possible negative stereotyping.

Specific learning disabilities commonly affect skills in the areas of:

Reading (called dyslexia) Writing (called dysgraphia) Listening Speaking Reasoning Math (called dyscalculia)

Many children and youth with diverse learning needs can and should be educated withinthe regular education classroom. This setting is appropriate for some, but not all, students withlearning disabilities. More than 90% of students with learning disabilities are taught in regulareducation classrooms for some part of their school day. When provided appropriate support



within this setting, many of these students can achieve academically and develop positive self-esteem and social skills. The regular education classroom is one of many educational programoptions but is not a substitute for the full continuum necessary to assure the provision of anappropriate education for all students with learning disabilities.

Factors Related to Effective Education of Students with Learning Disabilities

The education, social, and emotional needs of the individual, the types of disabilities, andthe degree of severity should determine the design and delivery of educational programsand services.

A continuum of education placements, including the regular education classroom, mustbe available to all students with learning disabilities and must be flexible enough to meettheir changing needs.

Specialized instructional strategies, materials, and appropriate accommodations must beprovided as needed.

Because the educational, social, and emotional needs of students with learning disabilitieschange over time, systematic and ongoing review of the student's progress and needs isessential to make appropriate adjustments in current educational programs and relatedservices.

Because learning depends on the quality of the programs and services provided,systematic and ongoing evaluation of programs and their effectiveness in producingdesired long-term outcomes is essential.

Due to the chronic nature of learning disabilities and the changes that occur across thelife span of the individual, coordinated educational and vocational planning are required.Therefore, provisions must be made to facilitate transitions that occur at all majorjunctures in the student's education.

Social acceptance has a significant impact upon self-esteem of students with learningdisabilities. Social acceptance of these students requires the sensitivity of the entireschool community.

To ensure effective mainstreaming of students with learning disabilities, the buildingprinciple must set the tone for a positive and accepting learning environment for allchildren.

Problems Related to the Education of Students with Learning Disabilities in RegularEducation Classrooms The regular education teacher is required to deal with multiple factors including an

increasing number of students with diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds,developmental variations, disabilities, family and social problems, and large class size.The co-occurrence of these factors compounds the situation.

Many regular education teachers are not prepared to provide the kinds of instruction thatbenefit a wide diversity of students in the classroom.

The characteristics of individuals with learning disabilities and the ways in which theyinteract with curricular demands are not understood by all school personnel.

Teachers often are required to adhere rigidly to a prescribed curriculum and materials,and, therefore, may not have the flexibility to address the unique needs of students withlearning disabilities.



Adequate support services, materials, and technology often are not available for either theteacher or the student with learning disabilities.

Time and support for the ongoing planning and assessment that are needed to makeadjustments in students' programs and services often are inadequate.

Schools rarely have a comprehensive plan to evaluate the effectiveness of programs andservices for students with learning disabilities, especially those served in regulareducational classrooms.

Coordinated planning is lacking for students with learning disabilities as they maketransitions from home to school to work, across levels of schooling and amongeducational settings.

Communication concerning students with learning disabilities among administrators,teachers, specialists, parents, and students is often insufficient to facilitate thedevelopment and implementation of effective programs.

Recommendations

Implementation of the following recommendations is essential to provide appropriate educationfor students with learning disabilities in regular education classrooms.

Establish system-wide and school-based plans for educating students with learningdisabilities in the regular education classroom when such placement is appropriate. Theresponsibility for developing plans must be shared by regular and special educators,parents, and student consumers of the services. Once developed, a plan must be supportedat all levels of the educational system.

Establish mechanisms for the development of collaborative relationships amongprofessionals, parents, and students.

Establish instructional conditions and environments that allow teachers to capitalize onthe strengths and remediate or compensate for the weaknesses of students with learningdisabilities. These should include:

reasonable class size;

reasonable paperwork requirements and non-instructional assignments forteachers;

appropriate physical environments, including attention to noise levels;

sufficient time for teaching and collaborative planning;

appropriate materials and technology; and

Flexibility in determining the array of skills necessary for attainment of overallcurricular objectives.

Ensure the availability of services needed to support the education of students withlearning disabilities in the regular education classroom, including:

appropriate related services for students;

consultation services for teachers;



direct services for students from teachers certified in the area of learningdisabilities and other qualified professionals such as school psychologists,counselors, speech-language pathologists, reading teachers, audiologists, andsocial workers; and

teaching assistants/aides trained to work with students who have learningdisabilities.

Provide time and support for planning and communication among and betweenprofessionals and parents.

Ensure the involvement and participation of the regular education classroom teacher inthe development and implementation of the Individualized Education Program forstudents with learning disabilities served in regular education classrooms.

Establish a system-wide plan for helping students with learning disabilities to maketransitions from home to school, from level to level through the school years, and fromschool to work and life in the community.

Conduct district and school-building level program evaluation of regular educationclassroom programs serving students with learning disabilities that focus on studentprogress and effectiveness of instruction. Based on the evaluation, modifications to theprogram should be made as needed.

Require in-service programs for all school personnel to give them the knowledge andskills necessary to provide education for students with learning disabilities in the regulareducation classroom. The in-service program should be:

research validated;

use components other than the single workshop format; and

include activities to help participants learn strategies to meet individual needs ofstudents, foster attitudes conductive to educating students with learningdisabilities in the regular education classroom, and promote collaboration.

Provide in-service programs for those school personnel who have not previously had suchtraining in the following areas:

child and adolescent development

individual differences

spoken and written language development and disorders

cognitive development and learning theory

social and emotional development

cultural diversity

nature of learning disabilities

informal assessment



validated instructional strategies

adaptation of instructional materials and teaching techniques

classroom management

collaboration, consultation, and team teaching

multidisciplinary team interaction

parent and family support

EDUCATION OF MENTALLY RETARDEDAlthough mental retardation is commonly used, other terms are used to describe this

condition, including intellectual disability, cognitive disability, mental deficiency, mentalsubnormality, mentally handicapped, or intellectually challenged. Mental retardation is alsoreferred to as one type of the more general term, developmental disability (Beirne-Smith, Patton,& Kim, 2006).

The definition of the American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR, 2002) states that:

Mental retardation is a disability characterized by significant limitations both inintellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social,and practical adaptive skills. This disability originates before age 18.

According to the American Psychological Association (APA), mild mental retardationrepresents the upper range of functioning within the mental retardation classification with IQscores between 55 to 70. Scores between 35 and 54 are considered moderate mental retardation,scores of 20 to 34 are severe, and scores below 20 are associated with profound mentalretardation (Jacobson & Mulick, 1996).

Individuals with mental retardation may have difficulty learning basic skills of reading,writing, and mathematics (Young, Moni, Jobling, & van Kraayenoord, 2004). The rate oflearning new information may be very slow, and students may require repetition and concrete,meaningful examples on all learning activities.

Classroom Adaptations for Students with Mental Retardation

PreparationsCareful preparation can greatly enhance the successful inclusion of students with mental

retardation. First, have an open, accepting classroom environment so that students feel welcomeas genuine class members. Provide students with the same materials—desks, lockers,mailboxes—as the other students. Involve students in daily activities. Meet with them privatelyand preteach the daily routine. Show them where materials are kept and how things in the classproceed. This will help build their confidence before they come in for the first time in front ofthe general education peers. More information for preparing classmates is given in the In theClassroom feature.

Monitor Peer RelationshipsAlthough peers can be good friends and strong supporters of students with mental

retardation, teachers also should be aware that some students may try to take advantage ofstudents with mental retardation. For example, in one sixth-grade class, several boys bullied a



boy with mental retardation and consistently took away part of his lunch. In another example,high school students who had been smoking cigarettes in the girls’ restroom handed theircigarettes to a girl with mental retardation when a teacher entered the restroom. Carefulmonitoring can decrease the likelihood of either negative situation occurring and increase thelikelihood that peer relations will be positive and productive.

Instructional ModificationsMany of the modifications described in the learning disabilities section may also be

helpful for students with mental retardation. However, additional modifications probably will berequired if the general education experience is to be successful.

Prioritize objectives for students with mental retardation in general education classes, andteach directly to these prioritized objectives.

Adapt materials to the needs of students, by reducing reading, writing, and languagerequirements and simplifying work sheets.

Adapt instruction by employing clear, organized presentations, providing concrete,meaningful examples and activities, providing frequent reviews, and encouragingindependent thinking.

Communicate with families to further your understanding and obtain additionalinformation on how students work best. The Diversity in the Classroom feature describesa model of “Person-Centered Planning” for working with Asian American families.

Adapt evaluation using individual testing, portfolio assessments, tape or videorecordings.

Use specialized curriculum when necessary. Some students with mental retardation mayrequire an alternative, more functional curriculum. Such a curriculum may includecommunication, community living, domestic skills, socialization, self-help, andvocational and leisure skills. Additionally, some students may benefit from a life-skillscurriculum, which emphasizes transition to adulthood. This curriculum could includeeducation in home and family, community involvement, employment, emotional-physicalhealth, and personal responsibility and relationships (see Cronin & Patton, 1993).

In the Classroom: Getting Classmates Ready for Students with Disabilities

Prepare general education students for the arrival of students with disabilities by asking aspecial educator to talk about disabilities and explain strengths and limitations ofindividuals with disabilities.

Encourage students to ask questions, and set a model of open acceptance. Tell students about their roles as possible peer tutors and helpers. Provide models of how

peers can assist, but make it clear that they should also encourage independentfunctioning. They should not try to do everything for students with disabilities.

Explain that all classmates, even if they are not peer tutors or helpers, can encouragestudents with disabilities to be active participants and members of the class.



EDUCATION OF PHYSICALLY DISABLED

A physical disability is a limitation on a person's physical functioning, mobility, dexterityor stamina. Other physical disabilities include impairments which limit other facets ofdailyliving, such as respiratory disorders, blindness, epilepsy and sleep disorders.Types of Physical Disabilities

The term "physical disabilities" encompasses a wide range of congenital and acquiredconditions and impairments. While students with varying diagnoses and severities benefit fromphysical, occupational and speech therapies, each child has differing abilities and requiresindividualized supports. Some conditions, such as muscular dystrophy, are progressive, but thosesuch as cerebral palsy and epilepsy can improve with treatment.

To maintain inclusive classrooms, teachers should have knowledge of physicalimpairments, assistive technology, teaching strategies, and necessary accommodations andmodifications. Students may have physical disabilities arising from conditions such as congenitaldeformities, spina bifida and/or hydrocephalus, muscular dystrophy, cerebral palsy, brittle bones,haemophilia, cystic fibrosis or severe accidental injury. It is important to state that there is nonecessary direct correlation between the degree of physical disability and the inability to copewith the school curriculum, apart from the elements involving physical activity. Students withsevere physical disability may have minimal special educational needs, while those with minimalphysical disability may have serious learning needs. Physical access can be a major concern forstudents who have physical disabilities as those who use wheelchairs, braces, crutches, rolators,canes or prostheses, or those who fatigue easily may have difficulty moving around a schoolcampus.The Practice of Inclusion

Inclusion has become the typical practice in educating students with many types ofdisabilities. Unlike mainstreaming, inclusion offers students support services to assist withfunctioning in the general classroom. In an inclusive classroom, general educators set the tone tocreate an accepting learning environment that can benefit all students.

Assistive TechnologyAny device or tool that enables a student to participate in learning activities can be called

assistive technology. Simple pencil grips or ergonomically designed pens can make holding andmanipulating writing instruments easier. Oversized art supplies and handmade adaptations canallow students with fine motor difficulties to create art.

For those with more severe impairments, assistive technology lets students have access tocomputers for learning and expressing themselves. Keyboard and mouse alternatives replacestandard input devices. Voice recognition software allows users to speak what they want to inputinstead of typing it.

Classroom and Teaching StrategiesTeachers can significantly improve educational outcomes of students with physical

disabilities by implementing specific strategies. Classroom arrangement with easy access tosupplies can prevent accidents and improve participation in activities. Using a buddy system orworking with paraprofessionals can provide students with necessary assistance to completeassignments. Finally, individual accommodations and encouragement can promote learning andease frustrations over physical difficulties.



Accommodations and ModificationsSince each student differs in degrees of impairment and ability, accommodations and

modifications must be individualized according to needs. Although some subjects are moredifficult to accommodate and modify for certain disabilities, many options make learning moreaccessible. Accommodations can include note takers, the use of scribes for written assignments,handouts in alternative formats, and separate rooms for testing. A teacher’s creativity also opensnew opportunities to learn.

Adaptive Physical EducationPhysical disabilities should not exclude students from participating in gym activities.

Depending on a student’s disability, a separate, adaptive class or modifications within a typicalgym class both offer physical education. Basketball, golfing and tennis can be adapted orparticipated in with the assistance of a physical education teacher or aide. Other physicalactivities, even swimming, can provide great therapeutic benefits to students.

Making Inclusion WorkTo make inclusion work, general classroom teachers, support specialists, parents and

students themselves must work together to create the best educational environment possible.With knowledge of inclusive practices and strategies, teachers can manage classrooms thatencourage learning and discovery among all students, regardless of physical abilities.

Education of Emotional and Behavioural DisorderedAn emotional and behavioral disorder is an emotional disability characterized by the following:

1. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and/orteachers. For preschool-age children, this would include other care providers.

2. An inability to learn which cannot be adequately explained by intellectual, sensory orhealth factors.

3. Consistent or chronic inappropriate type of behavior or feelings under normal conditions.4. Displayed pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.5. Displayed tendency to develop physical symptoms, pains or unreasonable fears

associated with personal or school problems.

Emotional or behavioral disorders can be divided into three groups that are characterized by:

1. Externalizing behaviors2. Internalizing behaviors3. Low incidence disorders

Some emotional or behavioral disorders manifest themselves outwardly. Externalizingbehaviors constitute an acting-out style that could be described as aggressive, impulsive,coercive, and noncompliant. Other disorders are more accurately described asinward. Internalizing behaviors are typical of an inhibited style that could be described aswithdrawn, lonely, depressed, and anxious (Gresham et al., 1999). Students who exhibitexternalizing and internalizing behaviors, respectively, are the two main groups of students withemotional or behavioral disorders, but they do not account for all of the conditions that result inplacement in this special education category.Low incidence disorders occur very infrequently



but are quite serious when they do occur. Consider schizophrenia, which can have tragicconsequences for the individuals involved and their families. Schizophrenia, sometimesconsidered a form of psychosis or a type of pervasive developmental disability (APA, 2000), isan extremely rare disorder in children, although approximately 1 percent of the generalpopulation over the age of 18 has been diagnosed as having schizophrenia. When it occurs, itplaces great demands on service systems.

Examples of Externalizing and Internalizing Behavior Problems

Externalizing Behaviors Internalizing BehaviorsViolates basic rights of others Exhibits painful shynessViolates societal norms or rules Is teased by peersHas tantrums Is neglected by peersSteals; causes property loss ordamage

Is depressed

Is hostile or defiant; argues Is anorexicIgnores teachers' reprimands Is bulimicDemonstrates obsessive/compulsivebehaviors

Is socially withdrawn

Causes or threatens physical harmto people or animals

Tends to be suicidal

Uses lewd or obscene gesturesHas unfounded fears andphobias

Is hyperactive Tends to have low self-esteemHas excessive worriesPanics

Strategies for Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

As with other conditions, students with emotional and behavioral disorders need apositive, structured environment which supports growth, fosters self-esteem, and rewardsdesirable behavior.

Rules and Routines

Rules need to be established at the beginning of the school year, and must be written insuch a way as to be simple and understandable. The wording of rules should be positive:"Respect yourself and others" is a better rule than "Don't hurt anyone." Keep it simple: 6 rules orless.

Consequences for breaking rules should also be established at the beginning of the schoolyear, and applied consistently and firmly whenever the rules are broken. The consequences mustbe consistent and predictable. When administering consequences, provide feedback to thestudent in a calm, clear manner. That way, the student understands why the consequence isnecessary. Try to avoid becoming emotionally reactive when rules are broken. Emotionalreactivity gives the student negative attention, which many children find very rewarding. Remain



calm and detached, be firm yet kind. It's a difficult balance to achieve, but crucially important forpositive results.

Routines are very important for classroom management. Students with emotional andbehavioral disorders tend to struggle with transitions and unexpected change. Going over a visualschedule of the day's activities is an effective way to start the day, and helps the students feelgrounded.

Techniques for Supporting Positive Behavior

Students with emotional and behavioral disorders often need to receive instruction in aspecial education setting because their behavior is too maladaptive for a general educationclassroom. Here are a few ideas to guide and support growth towards more positive, adaptivebehavior:

Token Economy - Students earn points, or tokens, for every instance of positive behavior.These tokens can then be used to purchase rewards at the token store. In order for a tokeneconomy to be effective, positive behavior must be rewarded consistently, and items inthe token store must be genuinely motivating for the student. This takes a fair amount ofpreparation and organization, but has proven to be quite effective.

Classroom Behavior Chart - A chart which visually plots the level of behavior of everystudent in the classroom. Students who are behaving positively progress upwards on thechart; those who are behaving negatively fall downwards. This makes every studentaccountable, and helps you monitor and reward progress. This won't work if difficultstudents perpetually stay on the bottom of the chart. Focus on the positive to the fullestdegree possible, and keep them motivated.

Lottery System - Similar to the token economy, students who behave in positive ways aregiven a ticket with their name on it. These tickets are placed in a jar, and once or twice aweek you draw one out. The winner of the lottery is rewarded with a prize.

Positive Peer Review - Students are asked to watch their peers, and identify positivebehavior. Both the student who is behaving positively and the student who does theidentifying are rewarded. This is the exact opposite of "tattle-telling," and fosters a senseof teamwork and social support in the classroom.

Teaching children with emotional and behavioral disorders can be extremely challenging.Fostering and rewarding positive behavior has proven to be vastly more effective than attemptingto eliminate negative behavior. Punishment and negative consequences tend to lead to powerstruggles, which only make the problem behaviors worse. It is not easy to remain positive in theface of such emotionally trying behaviors, but don't give up. Your influence could mean a worldof difference to these students who are struggling with an incredibly difficult condition.



MODULE - 4MOTIVATION

DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION

Motivation is typically defined as the forces that account for the arousal, selection,direction, and continuation of behavior. Nevertheless, many teachers have at least two majormisconceptions about motivation that prevent them from using this concept with maximumeffectiveness. One misconception is that some students are unmotivated. Strictly speaking, that isnot an accurate statement. As long as a student chooses goals and expends a certain amount ofeffort to achieve them, he is, by definition, motivated. What teachers really mean is that studentsare not motivated to behave in the way teachers would like them to behave. The secondmisconception is that one person can directly motivate another. This view is inaccurate becausemotivation comes from within a person. What you can do, with the help of the variousmotivation theories discussed in this chapter, is create the circumstances that influence studentsto do what you want them to do.

Many factors determine whether the students in your classes will be motivated or notmotivated to learn. You should not be surprised to discover that no single theoreticalinterpretation of motivation explains all aspects of student interest or lack of it. Differenttheoretical interpretations do, however, shed light on why some students in a given learningsituation are more likely to want to learn than others. Furthermore, each theoretical interpretationcan serve as the basis for the development of techniques for motivating students in theclassroom.

BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE

Behaviorism is the theoretical perspective in which learning and behavior are describedand explained in terms of stimulus-response relationships. The key assumptions of behaviorismare:

The environment influences behavior. Behaviorists believe that people's behaviors are aresult of their interaction with the environment. Specifically, people become conditioned,or molded, to respond in certain ways based on responses like feedback, praise andrewards.

Learning is described through stimuli and responses. Behaviorists focus on observableevents rather than events that occur inside a person's head, such as thoughts, feelings andbeliefs.

Learning must involve a behavioral change. Theorists believe that learning has notoccurred unless there is an observable change in behavior.

Learning must result when stimulus and response occur close together in time. Learnersmust associate their response with a stimulus. In order for that to occur, the two musthappen in conjunction with each other, or, in other words, be contiguous.

Animals and humans learn in similar ways. Behaviorists, unlike many other theorists,performed their experiments using animals because they believed the study of animalscould explain human learning behavior.



The major behaviorists you should be familiar with include John Watson, known as the fatherof behaviorism; Ivan Pavlov, best known for classical conditioning; B.F. Skinner, known foroperant conditioning; and Edward Thorndike, known for the law of effect.

Behavioral Views of Motivation

Operant Conditioning and Social Learning Theory

The Effect of Reinforcement discussing Skinner's emphasis of the role of reinforcementin learning. After demonstrating that organisms tend to repeat actions that are reinforced and thatbehavior can be shaped by reinforcement, Skinner developed the technique of programmedinstruction to make it possible for students to be reinforced for every correct response. Accordingto Skinner, supplying the correct answer--and being informed by the program that it is the correctanswer--motivates the student to go on to the next frame; and as the student works through theprogram, the desired terminal behavior is progressively shaped.

Following Skinner's lead, many behavioral learning theorists devised techniques ofbehavior modification on the assumption that students are motivated to complete a task by beingpromised a reward of some kind. Many times the reward takes the form of praise or a grade.Sometimes it is a token that can be traded in for some desired object; and at other times thereward may be the privilege of engaging in a self-selected activity.

Operant conditioning interpretations of learning may help reveal why some students reactfavorably to particular subjects and dislike others. For instance, some students may enter arequired math class with a feeling of delight, while others may feel that they have been sentencedto prison. Skinner suggests that such differences can be traced to past experiences. He wouldargue that the student who loves math has been shaped to respond that way by a series of positiveexperiences with math. The math hater, in contrast, may have suffered a series of negativeexperiences.

The Power of Persuasive Models

Social learning theorists, such as Albert Bandura, call attention to the importance ofobservation, imitation, and vicarious reinforcement (expecting to receive the same reinforcer thatwe see someone else get for exhibiting a particular behavior). A student who identifies with andadmires a teacher of a particular subject may work hard partly to please the admired individualand partly to try becoming like that individual. A student who observes an older brother or sisterreaping benefits from earning high grades may strive to do the same with the expectation ofexperiencing the same or similar benefits. A student who notices that a classmate receives praisefrom the teacher after acting in a certain way may decide to imitate such behavior to win similarrewards. Both vicarious reinforcement and direct reinforcement can raise an individual's sense ofself-efficacy for a particular task, which, in turn, leads to higher levels of motivation.

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

The next perspective of educational psychology is the cognitive perspective. Cognitivepsychologyis the theoretical perspective that focuses on learning based on how people perceive,



remember, think, speak and problem-solve. The cognitive perspective differs from thebehaviorist perspective in two distinct ways. First, cognitive psychology acknowledges theexistence of internal mental states disregarded by behaviorists. Examples of these states arebelief, desire, ideas and motivation (non-observable states). Second, cognitive psychologistsclaim memory structures determine how information is perceived, processed, stored, retrievedand forgotten. Cognitive psychology encompasses perception, categorization, memory,knowledge representation, language and thinking processes.

The major cognitive psychologists you should be familiar with include Jean Piaget, whodeveloped Piaget's theory of cognitive development and stages of cognitive development; LevVygotsky, best known for his sociocultural development theory; Noam Chomsky, referred to asthe father of modern linguistics; and Jerome Bruner, who coined the term 'scaffolding.'

Cognitive Views of Motivation

Cognitive views stress that human behavior is influenced by the way people think aboutthemselves and their environment. The direction that behavior takes can be explained by fourinfluences: the inherent need to construct an organized and logically consistent knowledge base,one's expectations for successfully completing a task, the factors that one believes account forsuccess and failure, and one's beliefs about the nature of cognitive ability.

The Impact of Cognitive Development

This view is based on Jean Piaget's principles of equilibration, assimilation,accommodation, and schema formation. Piaget proposes that children possess an inherent desireto maintain a sense of organization and balance in their conception of the world (equilibration).A sense of equilibration may be experienced if a child assimilates a new experience by relating itto an existing scheme, or the child may accommodate by modifying an existing scheme if thenew experience is too different.

In addition, individuals will repeatedly use new schemes because of an inherent desire tomaster their environment. This explains why young children can, with no loss of enthusiasm,sing the same song, tell the same story, and play the same game over and over and why theyrepeatedly open and shut doors to rooms and cupboards with no seeming purpose. It alsoexplains why older children take great delight in collecting and organizing almost everythingthey can get their hands on and why adolescents who have begun to attain formal operationalthinking will argue incessantly about all the unfairness in the world and how it can be eliminated(Stipek, 1993).

HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE

Abraham Maslow earned his Ph.D. in a psychology department that supported thebehaviorist position. After he graduated, however, he came into contact with Gestaltpsychologists (a group of German psychologists whose work during the 1920s and 1930s laid thefoundation for the cognitive theories of the 1960s and 1970s), prepared for a career as apsychoanalyst, and became interested in anthropology. As a result of these various influences, hecame to the conclusion that American psychologists who endorsed the behaviorist position had



become so preoccupied with overt behavior and objectivity that they were ignoring otherimportant aspects of human existence (hence the term humanisticto describe his views). WhenMaslow observed the behavior of especially well-adjusted persons--or self-actualizers, as hecalled them--he concluded that healthy individuals are motivated to seek fulfilling experiences.

The Humanistic View of Motivation

Maslow's Theory of Growth Motivation

Maslow describes seventeen propositions (Motivation and Personality, 3d ed., 1987), thathe believes would have to be incorporated into any sound theory of growth motivation (or needgratification) to meet them. Referring to need gratification as the most important single principleunderlying all development, he adds that "the single, holistic principle that binds together themultiplicity of human motives is the tendency for a new and higher need to emerge as the lowerneed fulfills itself by being sufficiently gratified". He elaborates on this basic principle byproposing a five-level hierarchy of needs. Physiological needs are at the bottom of the hierarchy,followed in ascending order by safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualizationneeds. This order reflects differences in the relative strength of each need. The lower a need is inthe hierarchy, the greater is its strength because when a lower-level need is activated (as in thecase of extreme hunger or fear for one's physical safety), people will stop trying to satisfy ahigher-level need (such as esteem or self-actualization) and focus on satisfying the currentlyactive lower-level need (Maslow, 1987).

The first four needs (physiological, safety, belongingness and love, and esteem) are oftenreferred to as deficiency needs because they motivate people to act only when they are unmet tosome degree. Self-actualization, by contrast, is often called a growth need because peopleconstantly strive to satisfy it. Basically, self-actualization refers to the need for self-fulfillment -- the need to develop all of one's potential talents and capabilities. For example, an individualwho felt she had the capability to write novels, teach, practice medicine, and raise children wouldnot feel self-actualized until all of these goals had been accomplished to some minimal degree.Because it is at the top of the hierarchy and addresses the potential of the whole person, self-actualization is discussed more frequently than the other needs.

Maslow originally felt that self-actualization needs would automatically be activated assoon as esteem needs were met, but he changed his mind when he encountered individuals whosebehavior did not fit this pattern. He concluded that individuals whose self-actualization needsbecame activated held in high regard such values as truth, goodness, beauty, justice, autonomy,and humor (Feist, 1990).

In addition to the five basic needs that compose the hierarchy, Maslow describescognitive needs (such as the needs to know and to understand) and aesthetic needs (such as theneeds for order, symmetry, or harmony). While not part of the basic hierarchy, these two classesof needs play a critical role in the satisfaction of basic needs. Maslow maintains that suchconditions as the freedom to investigate and learn, fairness, honesty, and orderliness ininterpersonal relationships are critical because their absence makes satisfaction of the five basicneeds impossible. (Imagine, for example, trying to satisfy your belongingness and love needs or



your esteem needs in an atmosphere characterized by dishonesty, unfair punishment, andrestrictions on freedom of speech).

IMPLICATION OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY FOR EDUCATORS

Achievement Motivation – also referred to as the need for achievement, is an importantdeterminant of aspiration, effort, and persistence when an individual expects his performancewill be evaluated in relation to some standard of excellence. Such behavior is calledachievement-oriented.

In the early 1960s John Atkinson (1964) proposed that such differences in achievementbehavior are due to differences in something called the need for achievement. Atkinsondescribed this need as a global, generalized desire to attain goals that require some degree ofcompetence. He saw this need as being partly innate and partly the result of experience.Individuals with a high need for achievement have a stronger expectation of success than they doa fear of failure for most tasks and therefore anticipate a feeling of pride in accomplishment.When given a choice, high-need achievers seek out moderately challenging tasks because theyoffer an optimal balance between challenge and expected success. By contrast, individuals with alow need for achievement avoid such tasks because their fear of failure greatly outweighs theirexpectation of success, and they therefore anticipate feelings of shame. When faced with achoice, they typically opt either for relatively easy tasks because the probability of success ishigh or rather difficult tasks because there is no shame in failing to achieve a lofty goal.

Atkinson's point about taking fear of failure into account in arranging learningexperiences has been made more recently by William Glasser inControl Theory in theClassroom (1986) and The Quality School (1990). Glasser argues that for people to succeed atlife in general, they must first experience success in one important aspect of their lives. For mostchildren, that one important part should be school. But the traditional approach to evaluatinglearning, which emphasizes comparative grading (commonly called "grading on the curve"),allows only a minority of students to achieve A's and B's and feel successful. The self-worth ofthe remaining students (who may be quite capable) suffers, which depresses their motivation toachieve on subsequent classroom tasks (Covington, 1985).

IMPLICATION OF ATTRIBUTION THEORY FOR EDUCATORS

Attribution theory provides an important method for examining and understandingmotivation in academic settings. It examines individuals' beliefs about why certain events occurand correlates those beliefs to subsequent motivation. The basic premise of this theory is thatpeople want to understand their environments and, therefore, strive to understand why certainevents happen. In the classroom, the understanding students have about the causes of past eventsinfluences their ability to control what happens to them in the future. For example, if students faila test, they will probably attribute that failure to a specific cause, such as (1) lack of ability, (2)lack of effort, or (3) poor instruction. The selected attribution will affect their subsequentmotivation to engage in similar learning activities.

There are many practical implications of attribution theory for educators. First, teachersneed to realize that they can affect the types of attributions that students make. Teachers affectstudents' attributions on a daily basis, through their comments to students, feedback on



assignments and examinations, and the types of praise that they offer during instruction. Thesecomments can have important long-term effects on student learning and motivation. A studentwho consistently learns to attribute failures to a lack of ability in a particular subject area isunlikely to continue to be motivated to achieve in that subject area in the future. Educators needto remember the power they have in shaping students' attributions.

Second, teachers can educate parents about attributions. Since parents provide feedbackand make comments to their children about performance on academic work, teachers canencourage parents to provide effective feedback. For example, teachers can send home a weeklynewsletter to parents explaining what is being learned in class and offering specific suggestionsto parents about providing appropriate feedback to children.

Finally, educators should be aware that students do think about the causes of their ownsuccesses and failures. Teachers can engage students in conversation to learn about theirstudents' attributions and to monitor potentially inaccurate and harmful beliefs. Teachers may besurprised by some of their students' attributional beliefs; one-on-one conversations may provideinsight to teachers and provide opportunities for shaping students' beliefs about theirperformance.

TEACHER EXPECTATIONS AND STUDENT LEARNINGAlthough it is widely accepted that teacher’s expectations affect students’ achievement,

recent classroom observations have led some researchers to conclude that expectancy effects aremore complex than previously thought. Claude Goldenberg believes that teachers and studentsaffect one another in more complicated and reciprocal ways that are not easy to predict or tochange. The relationship between expectancy and achievement appears to be partly the result ofstudents’ effects on teachers. Student behaviors, such as motivation and academic focus, helpshape teachers’ expectations. Some researchers suggest that teachers’ expectations may predictstudents’ performance, not simply because their expectations create self-fulfilling prophecies, butbecause they are accurate reflections of student behaviors that are critical for academic success.

Expectation Effects

When researchers speak of expectations in educational settings, they refer specifically tothe teacher's expectations of student achievement. These expectations are based on a variety ofassumptions. A teacher may expect a certain level of achievement from one student based onassumptions about that student's ability alone, while the teacher may have expectations ofanother student's achievement based on a combination of assumptions about ability, amenabilityto instruction, and motivation. These elements add up to a basic expectation - or prediction - ofthe student's future achievement.

The most commonly observed differential behaviors by teachers are:

Maintaining closer physical proximity to high expectation students; seating lowexpectation students ("lows") far from the teacher or in a group; talking to students seatedfurther away and maintaining a more flexible, conversational interaction with studentsseated closer.

Paying more attention to and using more supportive and friendly tones and non-verbalbehaviors with high expectation students ("highs") in academic situations (smiling and



nodding head more often, maintaining closer physical proximity and longer, more directeye contact).

Providing more output (interaction) opportunities to highs: calling on highs more often toanswer classroom questions or to make public demonstrations; providing greaterassistance and continued interaction with highs in failure situations (i.e., rephrasing ofquestions, providing clues to answers, asking follow-up questions).

Waiting longer time for highs to answer questions and waiting longer after theirresponses before speaking; interrupting performance of highs less frequently than lows.

Providing differential praise and criticism: "Criticizing lows more frequently than highsfor incorrect public responses; Praising lows less frequently than highs after successfulpublic responses; Praising lows more frequently than highs for marginal or inadequatepublic responses."

Providing less accurate, less detailed, and less frequent feedback for lows than for highs. "Demanding less work and effort from lows than from highs."

There are two variations of the relationship between expectations and behavior, eachhaving positive and negative forms. One variation is the self-fulfilling prophecy, in which initialexpectations of student achievement, based on false assumptions about the student, result in theexpected outcome. The second form of expectation relationship - the self-sustaining expectation- occurs when expectations of future achievement are based on past achievements and behavior,rather than on false assumptions, and those expectations again result in the expected outcome,thus reinforcing the initial expectation. These expectation effects can operate to influence studentlearning individually or as a group.

TECHNIQUES FOR ENHANCING STUDENT MOTIVATION

The Nature of Learning Tactics and Strategies

A learning strategy is a general plan that a learner formulates for achieving a somewhatdistant academic goal (like getting an A on your next exam). Like all strategies, it specifies whatwill be done to achieve the goal, where it will be done, and when it will be done.

A learning tactic is a specific technique (like a memory aid or a form of notetaking) thata learner uses to accomplish an immediate objective (such as to understand the concepts in atextbook chapter and how they relate to one another).

Tactics have an integral connection to strategies. They are the learning tools that move youcloser to your goal. Thus, they have to be chosen so as to be consistent with the goals of astrategy.

Types of Tactics

Most learning tactics can be placed in one of two categories based on each tactic'sintended primary purpose.

One category, called memory-directed tactics, contains techniques that help produceaccurate storage and retrieval of information.



The second category, called comprehension-directed tactics, contains techniques that aidin understanding the meaning of ideas and their interrelationships (Levin, 1982).

Within each category there are specific tactics from which one can choose. The first two, rehearsal and mnemonic devices, are memory-directed tactics. Both can

take several forms and are used by students of almost every age. The last two, notetaking and self-questioning, are comprehension-directed tactics and are

used frequently by students from the upper elementary grades through college.

Suggestions for Teaching in Classroom: Motivating Students to Learn1. Use behavioral techniques to help students exert themselves and work toward remote goals.2. Make sure that students know what they are to do, how to proceed, and how to determine

when they have achieved goals.3. Do everything possible to satisfy deficiency needs -- physiological, safety, belongingness, and

esteem.a) Accommodate the instructional program to the physiological needs of your students.b) Make your room physically and psychologically safe.c) Show your students that you take an interest in them and that they belong in your

classroom.d) Arrange learning experiences so that all students can gain at least a degree of esteem.

4. Enhance the attractions and minimize the dangers of growth choices.5. Direct learning experiences toward feelings of success in an effort to encourage an orientation

toward achievement, a positive self-concept, and a strong sense of self-efficacy.a) Make use of objectives that are challenging but attainable and, when appropriate, that

involve student input.b) Provide knowledge of results by emphasizing the positive.

6. Try to encourage the development of need achievement, self-confidence, and self-direction instudents who need these qualities.

a) Use achievement-motivation training techniques.b) Use cooperative-learning methods.

7. Try to make learning interesting by emphasizing activity, investigation, adventure, socialinteraction, and usefulness.

References :1. Bichler, R. F & Snowman, J (1990) Psychology Applied to Teaching (6th Edn) Boston:

Houghton Mifflin Company.

2. Santrock, J.W. (2011). Educational Psychology (4th ed.). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.

3. Woolfolk, A (2004) Educational Psychology (9th Edn) Delhi: Pearson Education

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