,aw;gpay; Universe Formation composition of galache gas...
Transcript of ,aw;gpay; Universe Formation composition of galache gas...
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 1
Nguz;lk; - Universe mz;lk; - (includes) tpz;kPd;> #hpad;> re;jpud;> Nfhs;fs;> vhpkPd;fs; cs;slf;fpait.
kpy;ypad; mz;lntspfs; cUkz;lyk; (Galaxies) cs;sd.
xU gpugQ;r tUlk; (cosmic year) - mz;lntspiar; (galaxy) Rw;wptu #hpad; vLj;Jf;nfhs;Sk; fhyk; (25 Nfhb Mz;Lfs; )
Geocentric concept – Ptolemy – (g+kpNa Nguz;lj;jpd; ikak;)
Heliocentric concept – coperniccus Keplar - #hpad; Nguz;lj;jpd; ikay;y #hpa
FLk;gj;jpd; ikak;. Hershell - #hpaf;FLk;gj;ijj; jhz;b gy
cUkz;lyq;fs; cz;L. E. Hubble – first demonstrated existence & galaxies
beyond milkyway. our galaxy name (cLkz;lyk;) – ghy; tPjp (Akash
Ganga -Mfha fq;if)
o Spiral (RUs; tbt cLkz;lyk;) o our nearest Galaxy – Andromeda
mz;l ntspapy; cs;s midj;Jk; <h;g;G tpirapdhy; ,ize;J cs;sd.
Big Bang theory: everything in the universe emerged
from a point - singularity ngUntbg;Gf; nfhs;ifg;gb (Big Bang theory) take
place 13.7 bn years ago. sun origin → 5 bn years ago. earth origin → 4.6 bn years ago. moon origin → 11 bn years ago. pulsating (oscillating) theory – after explosition from
primordial body, then contracts back & explodes
again over immensely long cycles ad infinitum. measurement units of space (thdpay; njhiytpw;fhd myF) 1. Light year (xsp Mz;L) – xU Mz;L fhyj;jpy; xspf;fjph; ntw;wplj;jpy; Vwf;Fiwa 3 x 108 kPl;lh; tpdhb Ntfj;jpy; nry;yf;$ba njhiyT xU xsp Mz;L 1 LY = 9.46 x 10
12 km
2. Astronomical Unit (thdpay; myF) = g+kpapypUe;J #hpadpd; njhiyT. 1 AU = 1.496 x 10
8 km.
- #hpadpypUe;J g+kpia te;jila vLj;Jf;nfhs;Sk; fhyk; 8mm 20 sec.
- #hpaDf;F mLj;J mUfhikapy; cs;s star.
- #hpaDf;F mLj;J mUfhikapy; cs;s Brightest
star – sirivs (Dog star)
- <h;g;G tpirapdhy; gpizf;fg;gl;l xspUk; thapf;fisf; nfhz;l xU kpfg;nghpa te;J Nghd;wJ
- pronima centauri (4.2 LY)
- Alpha Centauri (4.3 LY)
- Barnard’s star (5.9 LY)
- xU star-y; 98% gq;F – self luminars bodies
2% gq;F – Interstellar / gallaztic gas & dust henuated
term
- star forming clouds – 1000 times denser than the
normal intersteller gas. - star forming matter in richer than hydrogen & helium - star’s colour based on the temp of the surface - Blue color – max. temp they comes yellow & Red etc.
Formation composition of galache gas & dust
- generates heat (Hydrogen converted into helium by
nuclear fusion) emitting large amount of heat & light.
Black hole: stars having mass > 3 times that of bun. b’coz of
their great gravitational power.
- contract & develop – super density of 1016 grams /
cm3
- It dense that nothing not even light can escape from its
gravity.
- #hpaf; FLk;gk; - Muk; 5.6 x 109 km
Nfhs;fs; (Planets): - jhNk xspuhJ> #hpa xspiag; ngw;W gpujpgypf;ff;
$bait. Jizf;Nfhs;fs; (Moons)
- Nfhspd; fhh;g;G tpirahy; mf;Nfhisr; Rw;wptUk; tpz;nghUs;.
FWq;Nfhs;fs; (Asteroids)
- nrt;tha; & tpahod; ,ilapy; ePs;tl;lg;ghijapy; gy Mapuf;fzf;fhd tpz;fw;fs; (They r different
size) vhpel;rj;jpuq;fs; tpz;tPo;foy; - tpz;ntspapypUe;J g+kpapd; Nkw;gug;ig tspkz;lyj;jpy; topahf milAk; nghUs;. vhpel;rj;jpuk; / vhpfw;fs; (meteors) – tpz;fw;fs; g+kpapd; tspkz;lyj;jpw;F cs;Ns mjpNtfj;jpy; EioAk; NfhL Nghd;w xspald; tho;fpd;wd. ,tw;wpy; rpy vhpe;J fhw;wpy; fye;JtpLfpd;wd. (Meteoroids) – tpOfw;fs; - rpy ghjp vhpe;j epiyapy; g+kpapy; tpOfpd;wd. Meteorites: Asteroids %yk; Asteroids → Inner planets
Comets → from outer planets (Altu Jupiter)
Pluto – Fs;sf;Nfhs; (Dwarf Planets – pluto, Charon, ceres,
eris, make make, haumia) - 2006 Mk; Mz;L - Nfhs;fs; Rw;Wtl;lg;ghijapy; kw;nwhU Nfhs;
gq;Fngw;wikahy;
#hpad; Mas; - 10 bn. yrs - 5bn yrs. over
gbg;G – Heliology
core – (ikag;gLj;j/cs;sfk;)
ntg;gepiy / 15 mm. kelvin/ 1, 50, 00, 000 C
Photosphere (xspf;Nfhyk;) - ntg;gepiy – 5760 k - #hpadpd; fhzg;gLk; fUik thpfs;> fUk;Gs;spfs; - #hpad; - cyfpd; Mw;wy;%yk; - ntg;gepiyia Stephenson ehd;kbtpjp %yk;
fzf;fplyhk;. - #hpadpd; <h;g;G tpir g+kpapdij tpl 28 klq;F
mjpfk; - g+kpia tpl 109 klq;F nghpaJ. - g+kp - #hpad; distance – 150 mm km - gpuhd;N`hh; thpfs; (Fraunhoter) - #hpa Gs;spfs; → ntg;gepiy #hpaidtpl FiwT
Sunspots (fUk;Gs;spfs;) – cooler – temp - 1500 c
- periodically of 11 yrs. Nfhs;fs; (planets)
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 2
ghdwh;Nfhs;fs;/cgNfhs;fs; → ,Uk;G kw;Wk; ghiwfshy; MdJ. ngUq;Nfhs;fs; / ntspNfhs;fs; (gaseous planets)- Hydrogen,
He & CH4. thAf;fshy; MdJ. Gjd; (mercury)
- kpfr;rpwpa Nfhs; - kpf Ntfkhf (#hpaidr; Rw;wptUk;) tyk; tUk;
Nfhs; (revolution 88 days) - tspkz;lyKk; Jizf;Nfhs;fs; → ,y;iy.
nts;sp (venus) – (g+kpapd; ,ul;il)
- xspkpf;f Nfhs; / hottest & brightest planet - NtW ngah;fs; - fhiy el;rj;jpuk; / khiy
el;rj;jpuk; /Ml;biladpd; tpsf;F - xU ehs; > xU tUlk;
(Rotation period > Revolution period) - atmosphere contains → Co2 → 90 – 95% - like Uranus rotates E → W
Mars (rptg;Gf; Nfhs;) nrt;tha;
- Nitrogen + axgon, Nyrhd tspkz;lyk; - satellites phobos, deimos - highest Mt. Nix Olympia
tpahod; (Jupiter) (Lord of the heavens)
- kpfg;nghpaJ - Ntfkhf RoYk; Nfhs; (9.8 hrs) - Atmosphere contains Hydrogen, He, CH4, Ammonia - fdpkpl; (Gannymede) – largest satellite
rdp (saturn)
- ePhpy; kpjf;Fk; (b’coz ePiu tpl Fiwe;j mlh;j;jp) - kpf NyrhdJ - satellite Titan – has nitrogen in its atmosphere. - system of rings – well defined. - There are separate particles that move indep. in
circular orbits. - space probe cassini.
Uranus (gr;irf;Nfhs;)
- identical by William Herchel. - Rotation – rolling – b’coz 98 inclined at an angle. - satellites – Ariel, Miranda.
Neptune:
- Satellite Triton - Coldest
All planets rotates W → E except Venus & Uranus
Comet shoemaker Levy – 9 – Jupiter (1994)
re;jpud; (Moon) - epyitg;gw;wpa gbg;G (selenology) - Rw;wsT circm – 11,000 km. - tpl;lk; diameter – 3475 km - <h;g;G tpir 1/6
th of the earth elliptical
- avg. distance 3, 82, 800 km - moon in 1/4
th size of this earth
- one revolution → 27 days 7 hrs. 43 min - one rotation → 27.3 - so we see only one side of the moon (59% of its
surface) - moon has no atmosphere
- light takes 1.3 sec to reach earth. - gpujpgypg;G – low
(albedo) only 7% but earth has 30% venus 70%
- July 2, 1969 → Apollo XI – foot on moon
(mikjpf;fly;) spot – sea of tranquillity. - shackleton crate (Moon impact probe) - M3 – epytpy; %yf;$W cs;sJ. - moon’s size – 1/3 of the earth - Mass – 1/8 th - Gravitation – 1/6
th
- density – ½ nd - mineral (fzpkk;) → Titanium – move - highest mts → 35,000 ft
(Lielonitz mts) yPg;pspl;]; kiyfhh;. Asteroids – very small planets / fragments
- not only b/w mars & Jup. (Asteroid belt) - occur in everywhere but Jupiter tiuf;Fk; - no atmosphere b’coz small size
- alter Jupiter comets thy; el;rj;jpuk; - Icy gas – My; MdJ
- thy; #hpaDf;F vjph;jpirapy; mikAk; - Asteroids – Meteorites
- Meteors – remains & comets
1. Hailey’s comet → 76 tUlj;jpw;F xUKiw tUk; filrpahf 1986-y;
2. comet smith tuttle – 2116-y; g+kpf;F tUk; damage 1.6
Mn times of hydrogen bails.
Nfhs;fSf;F- GJ tpsf;fk; (in 2006) (Inter Astronomical Union) #hpar; FLk;gj;jpy; Nfhs; vd;gJ 1. #hpaid tyk; tUtjhfTk; 2. NghJkhd epiw & cUz;ilahd mikg;GilajhfTk; (hydrostatis equilibrium) 3. mjd; tyk; tUk; ghijapy; NtW cwtpdh; ,Uf;ff;$lhjjhfTk;. i) kl;Lk; epiwNtw;wpdhy; small solar System body.
i) & ii) kl;Lk; epiwNtw;wpdhy; Dwarf planet (Fs;sf;Nfhs;/ Fwisf;Nfhs;) Nfhs; #hpaDf;F
Ks;s njhiyT
tpl;lk;
Jizf; Nfhs;
RoYjy;
tyk; tUjy;
Gjd; 5.79 4878 0 58.65 days
88 days
nts;sp 10.82 12102 0 257 days
225 days
Earth(Gtp)
14.96 12755 1 23 hrs
56 min
41 sec
365 d
5hr 48
min nrt;tha; 22.79 6787 2 Almost
24 hrs 687 d
tpahod; 77.83 142800 63 9.8 hrs 12 yrs rdp 142.70 120500 61 10.3 hrs 29 yrs ANud]; 287.96 51400 27 10.8
days 84 yrs
neptune 497.06 48600 13 15.7 days
165 yrs
g+kp Rw;wsT – 40> 232 km Area – 510 mm km
distance from sun – 149 mm km
Perihelion(Fiwe;j gl;r J}uk; - 147 mm km)
Aphelim (mjpfgl;r J}uk;) – 152 mm km
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 3
g+kpapd; Roy; mr;R g+kp #hpaidr; Rw;wp tUk; jsj;jpd; Neh;$j;jpw;F 23 1/2 rha;e;Js;sJ. epyeLf;Nfhl;L Rw;wsT – 40> 067 km
fUtg;gFjp Rw;wsT – 40>000 km
g+kpapd; efh;Tfs; RoYjy; (daily movt.) W → E 23 hrs 56 mm 41 sec
velocity 1667 km/hr @ equator @ poles - zero tpisTfs; - gfy; ,uT
- 1 hr - 15 mg;ghy; - fhw;wpd; jpiria khw;Wk; ePNuhl;lj;jpd; - Nguiyfspd; cah;T/jho;T - Equator day & nights – almost equal - longest day (NH) – June 21 - Shortest day (NH) – Dec 22 - Vice versa m SH
rkepiyehs; (Equators)
- day & night equal - sun directly over equ. - mar 21 – vernal equinox - sep 21 – Autumnal equinox
Solstice – xU tUlj;jpy; gfYf;fhd Neuj;jpw;Fk; ,uTf;fhd Neuj;jpw;Fk; cs;s tpj;jpahrk; mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk; Neuk;. #hpad; - Tropics – y; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ epfOk; Jun 21 – summer solstice
Dec 22 – winter solstice
Annual movt. (tyk; tUjy;) 365 days 5hr 48 mm
29 km/sec
tpisTfs;
- gUtfhy khw;wk; - gfy; ,uT Neu khw;wk; - fhw;Wg;gl;ilfis efh;j;Jk;
gUtfhyq;fs; spring – march 21
- sun - @ equ - spring in NH
summer – Jun 21
- sun @ cancer - NH – summer
Autumn – sep 23
- sun return to equator - NH – autumn
Winter – Dec 22
- sun @ T.O. Capricorn - NH – winter
Mh;bf; tl;lk;> mz;lhh;bf; tl;lk;
(es;spuT #hpad;) gfy; 6 khjk; ,uT 6 khjk; due to
tilted angle 231/2° North pole – 21st March to 23
rd Sep.
South pole – 23rd
sep to 21st march
,UNfhLfs; - g+kpapd; Nfhs; msT 360°
jpiugl;lkhf tiuag;gLtJ – Latitudes ml;rf;NfhLfs; nrq;Fj;jhf tiuag;gLtJ - Longitudes jPh;f;ff;NfhLfs;
0° latitude – g+kj;jpa Nuif – epyQ;NfhL g+kpia tl & njd; miuf;Nfhlhf 231/2°N - flf Nuif(cancer)
231/2 S – kfu Nuif 631/2 ° N – Mh;bf; tisak; 631/2 ° S – mz;lhh;bf; tisak; Ptolemy – first person drew the latitudes and longitudes ml;rf;NfhLfs; 1° - 11.1 km
jPh;f;fNfhLfs; 1° - 4 min
0° longitude – Kjd;ik jPh;f;fNuif (GMT) (Greenwich fhrhpNeuk;) 13T – 82 ½° - myfhghj; topNa 5.30 hrs difference
90° N & S – point not a line
181 Latitudes – including equator vy;yhk; tl;lkhf ,Uf;F Mdhy; xU mstpy; ,y;iy. ,U lati fpilg;gJ. J}uk; rkk;
- longitude semicircles. - distance between 2 meridian not equal. - 180° jPh;f;ff;NfhL rh;tNjr ehs;NfhL - Earth divided into 24° longitudinal zones – each being
15° / 1 hr apart. - longitude & time Russia – 11 time zones
USA & Canada – 5 time zones
rh;tNjr ehs;NfhL 4 ,lj;jpy; tpisT – Aleutian jPTfs;> inji, samba,
gilbert Islands
#hpa fpufzk; (xspkiwT) ghjpahfTk;/ KOikahfTk; ,Uf;Fk; only in
mkhthir(New Moon day) Moons inclination dhy; mkhthir md;Wk; fpufzk; tUtjpy;iy. re;jpu fpufzk;
- occurs only in full moon (ngsh;zkp) - 1 hr 40 min tiu epfOk; - g+kpapd; cs;sikg;G – crust – SIAL mantle (ftrk;) - core (fUtk;/ikag;gFjp) - Normal gain rate – every 32 m/ic
Endogenic – cs; ,af;f rf;jp
- Tectonic movt/ fz;l ehh;Tfs; - nkJthfTk;> jpNjudTk; Vw;gLk; - ,J ,UNtW rf;jpfshy; Vw;gLk;.
Epienogenic
- fz;lMf;f efh;T> kiyahf;f efh;T Orogenic movt – kbg;G kiyfs; (fold mts) focus – epyeLf;f iklk; epicentre – Gs;sp ntspikak;
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 4
msÅLfS«, Ïa¡fK«
Û£l®, »nyh»uh«, édho ngh‹wit £l myFfŸ.
FPS Kiw – mo, gΩL, édho (Foot, Pound, Second)
CGS Kiw –br‹oÛ£l®, »uh«, édho (Centimetre,
Gram, Second)
MKS Kiw –Û£l®, »nyh»uh«, édho (Metre,
Kilogram, Second)
1971-M« M©L g‹dh£L myF Kiw
V‰gL¤j¥g£lJ. Ïjid SI myF Kiw v‹g®.
msÎ SI myF F¿pL
Ús« Û£l® Û (M)
ãiw »nyh»uh« »» (Kg)
fhy« édho é (V (s))
»nyhÛ£l® v‹gJ Ús¤Â‹ g‹kl§F.
br‹oÛ£l® k‰W« äšèÛ£l® v‹gJ Ús¤Â‹ Jiz¥
g‹kl§F.
xU Û£l® = 1000 äšèÛ£l®
xU Û£l® = 100 br‹oÛ£l®
xU »nyhÛ£l® = 1000 Û£l®
ãiwæ‹ SI myF »nyh»uh«.
Fé©lhš, bk£ç¡l‹ v‹gJ ãiwæ‹ g‹kl§FfŸ.
äšè»uh«, »uh« v‹gJ ãiwæ‹
Jiz¥g‹kl§FfŸ.
xU »uh« = 1000 äšè»uh«.
xU »nyh»uh« = 1000 »uh«.
xU Fé©lhš = 100 »nyh»uh«.
xU bk£ç¡l‹ = 1000 »nyh»uh«.
fhy¤Â‹ SI myF édho.
ãäl«, kâ, ehŸ, thu«, khj«, M©L v‹gJ
fhy¤Â‹ g‹kl§FfŸ MF«.
äšèédho, ik¡nuh édho M»ait fhy¤Â‹
Jiz¥ g‹kl§FfŸ MF«.
xU édho = 1000 äšèédho.
xU édho = 1000000 ik¡nuhédho.
neu¤ij¥ bghW¤J xU bghUë‹ ãiw khwhkš
ÏUªjhš mJ XŒÎ ãiyæš cŸsJ.
neu¤Â‰F neu« xU bghUŸ jdJ ãiyia kh‰¿¡
bfh©nl ÏUªjhš m¥bghUŸ Ïa¡f¤Âš cŸsJ.
xU bghUŸ ne®¡nfh£L¥ ghijæš Ïa§»dhš
m¤jifa Ïa¡f« ne®¡nfh£L Ïa¡f«. v.fh. jhnd
éG« bghUë‹ Ïa¡f«, ä‹ö¡»æ‹ Ïa¡f«.
xU bghUŸ xU òŸëia ikakhf it¤J
t£l¥ghijæš Ïa§»dhš m¤jifa Ïa¡f« t£l
Ïa¡f«. v.fh. Fil uh£od«, fofhu¤Â‹ KŸ.
äÂt©o r¡fu¤Â‹ Ïa¡f« t£l Ïa¡f«. Mdhš
äÂt©oæ‹ KGghfK« Ïa§FtJ ne®¡nfh£L
Ïa¡f«.
cUS«gªJ, Jis¥nghL« ÏaªÂu« ngh‹wit
x‹W¡F nk‰¥g£l Ïa¡f¤Â‰F cjhuz§fŸ.
nuhnghé‹ jªij vd¥gLgt® #r¡ mÁnkh.
nuhnghé‹ _is v‹gJ xU ä‹dQ ÁšY (Á¥ò).
msÅ£oaš
bghUŸ x‹¿‹ nk‰gu¥Ã‹ msÎ mj‹ gu¥gsÎ
vd¥gL«.
gu¥gsé‹ myF Û£l® X Û£l® = Û£l®2
.
mo¥gil msÎfŸ Ús«, ãiw, fhy« MF«
fdmsÎ k‰W« ml®¤Â v‹git xU Áy tê
msÎfshF«.
1 Û£l® = 3.28 mo
1 rJuÛ£l® = 10.76 rJu mo
bghUŸ x‹W mil¤J¡bfhŸS« Ïl¤Â‹
msÎ gUk‹ vd¥gL«.
gUkid ms¡F« myF fdÛ£l® vd¥gL«. (m3).
1 è£l® = 1000 brÛ3
Ã¥bg£, F¿¥Ã£l fdmsΟs Âut¤ij msªJ
vL¡f¥ ga‹gL»‹wJ.
msÅ£L rho, Âut¤Â‹ fdmsit msél¥
ga‹gL»‹wJ.
miz¡f£Lfëš mšyJ Ú®¤nj¡f§fëš
nj¡» it¡f¥ gL« Úç‹ fdmsit Mæu«
äšèa‹ fdmo ( t M c ) v‹W
F¿¥ÃL»‹wh®fŸ.
xuyF gUk‹ bfh©l bghUë‹ ãiw mj‹
ml®¤Â vd¥gL«. ml®¤Â = ãiw / gUk‹
ml®¤Âia »»/Û3
(kg/m3) v‹w myfhš
F¿¥ÃL»‹nwh«.
ghjur¤Â‹ ml®¤Â Úç‹ ml®¤Âia¥ nghy 13.6
kl§F.
fèènah v‹w Ãugy éŠPhå Ϥjhèæ‹
igrh efu¤Âš cŸs Ϥjhè »¿¤Jt¡
nfhæY¡F br‹wnghJ, Úskhd r§»èahš f£o
bjh§fél¥g£l és¡F Óuhf miyÎWtij¡
f©lh®. mt® jdJ eho¤Jo¥ig¡ bfh©L
és¡»‹ miyÎfis¡ fz¡»£lh®. és¡»‹
miyÅ¢R FiwªjnghJ« neu« khwhkš
ÏU¥gij¡ f©lh®. és¡»‹ miyéid¡
T®ªJ neh¡»aj‹ _y« miyÎfhy¤Â‹
khwhj j‹ikæ‹ K¡»a¤Jt¤ij cz®ªjh®.
mt® 1642M« M©L Ïw¥gj‰F K‹ Crš
fofhu« x‹¿id totik¡f £lä£lh®.
ÏUªjnghÂY« bt‰¿fukhf KjyhtJ Crš
fofhu« l¢R eh£L m¿P® »¿°oa‹ iA#‹°
v‹gtuhš 1657M« M©L totik¡f¥g£lJ.
ϪÂa é©btë MuhŒ¢Á fHf« - (ISRO)
thåaš myF v‹gJ òé¡F« NçaD¡F«
Ïil¥g£l ruhrç¤ bjhiyÎ MF«.
1 thåaš myF = 150 äšèa‹ »nyhÛ£l®
(15nfho »Û)
xë M©L v‹gJ bt‰¿l¤Âš xëahdJ xU
tUl¤Âš fl¡F« bjhiyÎ MF«.
1 xë M©L = 9.46 X 1012
»Û (9,46,000 nfho »Û)
xUt‹ xëæ‹ Âirntf¤Âš brštjhf¡
bfhŸnth«. mt‹ xU édhoæš cyf¤ij 7½
Kiw R‰¿ tªJéLth‹. mt‹ NçaåèUªJ
òéia tªjila 8 ãäl« 20 édho (500 édho)
fhy« MF«.
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 5
Ïa¡féaš
2008M« M©L Õí§»š eilbg‰w xè«Ã¡
ngh£oæš cir‹ nghš£ 100 Û. bjhiyit 9.6
édhofëY«, 200 Û. bjhiyit 19.19
édhofëY« Xo rhjid gil¤jh®. Ït® 4 X
100 Û bjhl® X£l¤ÂY« FGédUl‹ bt‰¿
bg‰WŸsh®. ÏtuJ mÂntfkhdJ mtiu
"ä‹dš nghš£" v‹wiH¡f¡ fhuzkhdJ.
Âirntf« = flªj bjhiyÎ / vL¤J¡ bfh©l
neu«. Ïjid m/s vd¡ F¿¥Ãlyh«.
flªj bjhiyÎ = ntf« x fhy«.
ntfkhå (speedometer) thfd¤Â‹ ntf¤ij
mséL«. k‰bwhU gFÂæš thfd« flªj
bkh¤j bjhiyit mséLkhW fUé XnlhÛ£l®
(Odometer) vd¥gL« mikªÂU¡F«.
månkhÛ£l® (Anemometer) v‹gJ fh‰¿‹
ntf¤ij msél¥ga‹gL« fUéahF«.
Âirntf« vd¥gLtJ bghUŸ xU édhoæš
milÍ« Ïl¥bga®¢Á MF«.
Âirntf« = Ïl¥bga®¢Á / vL¤J¡bfh©l
fhy«.
Âirntf¤Â‹ myF Û/é (m/s)
xU édhoæš Âirntf¤Âš V‰gL« kh‰w«
KL¡fkhF«.
KL¡f« = ÂirntfkhWghL / vL¤J¡bfh©l
neu«
KL¡f¤Â‹ myF Û/é2
(m/s2)
òép®¥ò KL¡f¤Â‹ ruhrç kÂ¥ò 9.8 Û/é2
. ÏJ
‘g’ v‹w vG¤jhš F¿¡f¥gL»‹wJ.
g = 9.8 Û/é2
jäœeh£o‹ ntÿ® kht£l¤Âš cŸs Vy»ç
kiy nyrhd rçÎfis¡ bfh©LŸsJ. vdnt,
ÏJ gw¤jš éisah£o‰F V‰wjhf
mikªJŸsJ.
jäœehL R‰Wyh¤JiwahdJ x›bthU tUlK«
Mf°£-br¥l«g® khj§fëš, Vy»çæš
bjh§»¥ gw¤jš éisah£L éHhit
el¤J»‹wd®.
mséaš
1971 M« M©oš midtU« xnu Óuhf
ga‹gL¤jj¡f myF Kiwahf SI myF Kiw
m¿é¡f¥g£lJ.
SI myF Kiw VG mo¥gil msÎfisÍ«, 22
tê msÎfisÍ« cŸsl¡»aJ.
msÎ SI myF F¿pL
Ús« Û£l® m
ãiw »nyh »uh« kg
fhy« édho S
bt¥gãiy bfšé‹ K
ä‹ndh£l« M«Ãa® A
bghUë‹ msÎ nkhš mol
xë¢br¿Î nf©oyh cd
SI Kiwæš bfšé‹ v‹gJ bt¥gãiyæ‹
myfhF«.
M«Ãa® v‹gJ SI myF Kiwæš
ä‹ndh£l¤Â‰fhd myfhF«.
SI myF Kiwæš bghUë‹ msÎ nkhš v‹w
myfhš ms¡f¥gL»wJ.
SI Kiwæš xëæ‹ br¿it ms¡f¥ ga‹gL«
myF nf©oyh MF«.
SI Kiwæš js¡nfhz¤Â‹ myF nuoa‹.
SI Kiwæš Â©k nfhz¤Â‹ myF °onuoa‹.
xèæ‹ mséid ms¥gj‰F yh¡ujä¡
myfhd blÁgš v‹w myF ga‹gL«.
ãyeL¡f¤Â‹ mséid ç¡l® msÎnfhyhš
ms¡fyh«.
äf Ú©l (nfhŸfŸ k‰W« é©Û‹fS¡F
Ïilna cŸs bjhiyÎ) bjhiyéid ms¡f¥
ga‹gL« myF thåaš myF MF«.
mséL« fUéfŸ
Û£l® msÎnfhiy¡ bfh©L msél¡ Toa
äf¡Fiwªj Ús« 1 ä.Û. MF«. ÏJ Û£l® msÎnfhè‹
Û¢Á‰wsit vd¥gL«.
Ãuh‹R eh£L m¿P® Ãaç bt®åa® mt®fŸ
totik¤j bt®åa® msÎnfhš v‹w Jiz
msÎnfhiy¥ ga‹gL¤Â 0.1 ä.Û. mšyJ 0.01 br.Û.
msé‰F rçahf ms¡fKoÍ«.
xU fUéia¡ bfh©L msél¡ Toa äf¡
Fiwªj msÎ mj‹ Û¢Á‰wsit vd¥gL«.
Û¢Á‰wsit (LC) = 1 K.nfh.à – 1 bt.nfh.Ã
bt®åa® msé bt®åa® j¤Jt¤ij
mo¥gilahf¡ bfh©lJ.
bt®åa® msÎnfhYl‹ Ïiz¡f¥g£l
bkšèa g£il cŸÇl‰w bghUŸfë‹ MH¤ij
msél¥ ga‹gL»‹wJ.
ãiwæ‹ S.I. myF »nyh»uh«.
bghU£fë‹ ãiwia äšè»uh« msé‰F
Jšèakhf ms¡f Ïa‰Ãaš juhR ga‹gL»wJ.
1984M« M©L xè«Ã¡ ngh£oæš P.T.cõh 400
Û£l® jil X£l¤Â‰fhd bt©fy¥ gj¡f¤ij xU
édhoæš ü¿š xU g§F fhy mséš ( 1 / 100 édho)
jtw é£lh®.
j‰fhy¤Âš v©ây¡f fofhu§fŸ (oí£lš),
mQ¡fofhu§fŸ k‰W« Fth®£° fofhu§fŸ bfh©L
Á¿a fhy ÏilbtëfŸ Jšèakhf ms¡f¥gL»‹wd.
ϧ»yhªÂ‹ £l neukhdJ, »ç‹Å¢ ruhrç
neu« (GMT) vdmiH¡f¥gL»wJ.
IST kÂ¥ò GMT kÂ¥ig él 5½ kâneu« KªÂ
mik»wJ.
éirÍ« mG¤jK«
g‹dh£L myF Kiwæš (SI myF Kiw)
éiræ‹ myF ãô£l‹ MF«.
r® Ir¡ ãô£l‹ (1642-1727) m¿éaš cy»‹
äf¢Áwªj m¿éayhs®fSŸ xUt®. Ït® ϧ»yhªJ
eh£il¢ rh®ªj fâjéayhs®, Ïa‰Ãayh® k‰W«
thåayh®. éiræ‹ SI myF Ït® bgaç£nl
tH§f¥gL»wJ.
éir¡F ntW Áy myFfS« c©L. il‹,
»nyh»u« éir k‰W« gΩ£ éir M»aitÍ«
éiræ‹ myFfns.
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 6
cuhŒÎ éirÍ« xU bjhL éirna
fhªj éir, òép®¥ò éir, ãiy ä‹ éir
v‹gJ xU bjhlh éir MF«
òé bghU£fë‹ ÛJ brY¤J« Ñœneh¡»a
ÏGéirna òé<®¥ò éir vd¥gL«.
òé<®¥ò éir v‹gJ ekJ òé¡F k£Lnk cila
g©ò mšy. c©ikæš ekJ m©l¤Âš cŸs mid¤J
bghU£fSnk (Á¿aitnah, bgçaitnah) k‰w
bghU£fë‹ ÛJ xU <®¥ò éiria brY¤J»‹wd.
Ï›éirna <®¥ò éir vd¥gL«.
XuyF gu¥Ãš brašgL« éirna mG¤j«
vd¥gL«.
mG¤j« = éir / brašgL« gu¥ò.
g‹dh£L myF Kiwæš (SI myF Kiw)
mG¤j‹ myF ã.Û-2
MF«. ‘gh°fš‘ (Pa) v‹w
myfhY« ms¡f¥gL«
Âut§fë‹ mG¤j« òé <®¥ò éiria¢ (g)
rh®ªjJ
flè‹ MHkhd gFÂfëš mG¤j« äf mÂf«.
Ïjdhš flèš FÂ¥gt®fŸ (Sea divers) j§fis¥
ghJfh¤J¡ bfhŸs, Ïj‰bfd jahç¡f¥g£l Áw¥ghd
cilfisna ga‹gL¤Jt®.
miz¡f£Lfë‹ mo¥gFÂ nkš gFÂiaél
äf¤ jokdhfΫ, cWÂahfΫ f£l¥gL»‹wd.
Vbdåš mo¥gFÂæš Úç‹ mG¤j« äf mÂf«.
flš k£l mséš tëk©ly mG¤j¤Â‹ kÂ¥ò
1,00,000 ã/Û2
(105
ã/Û2
) MF«. òéæèUªJ eh« nkny
bršy bršy tëk©ly mG¤j¤Â‹ msÎ Fiw»wJ.
tëk©ly mG¤j¤ij ms¡f¥ ga‹gL« fUé
‘ghukhå’ (Barometer) MF«.
».à 1643-š lhçbršè v‹w Ϥjhèa m¿éaš
m¿P® Kjš ghjur ghukhåia cUth¡»dh®. måuhŒL
ghukhå k‰W« gh®o‹ ghukhå M»a ghukhåfS«
tëk©ly mG¤j¤ij ms¡f¥ ga‹gL»‹wd.
_l¥g£l ãiyæš xU Âut¤Â‹ xU gFÂæš
bfhL¡f¥gL« mG¤jkhdJ mj‹ mid¤J¥
gFÂfëY« rkkhf¡ fl¤j¥gL»wJ. ÏJnt gh°fš éÂ
v‹W miH¡f¥gL»wJ.
jFªj cuhŒÎ¥ bghU£fis¥ ga‹ gL¤Jtj‹
_y« cuhŒit¡ Fiw¡fyh« (v.fh. v©bzŒ (Á¿a
vªÂu§fS¡F) »ç° (bgça vªÂu§fS¡F).
cuhŒit xU nghJ« K‰¿Y« xê¡f KoahJ.
mid¤J gu¥òfS« nkL gŸs§fis Á¿njD«
cilaitna. nkLgŸs§fs‰w gu¥òfns Ïšiy vdyh«.
mséL« fUéfŸ
äf¢Á¿a bghUŸfë‹ gçkhz§fis 0.001
br.Û. msΡF¤ Jšèakhf ms¡f¥ ga‹gL« fUé
ÂUF msé MF«.
ÂUF msé ÂUF¤ j¤Jt¤Â‹ mo¥gilæš
ntiy brŒ»wJ.
ÂUF mséæ‹ Rê¥ÃiH : ne®¥ÃiH Z.E. = +(n
x L.C.), Rê¤ÂU¤j« Z.C. = -(n x L.C.)
ÂUF mséæ‹ Rê¥ÃiH : v®¥ÃiH Z.E. = -
(100 – n) x L.C.,
Rê¤ÂU¤j« Z.C. = +(100 – n) x L.C.
f«Ãæ‹ é£l« = P.S.R. + (H.S.C. x L.C.) ± Z.C.
1 thåaš myF (AU) = 1.496 x 1011m
1 xë M©L = 3 x 108ms-1
x1 M©L (behofëš)
= 9.467 x 1015
m
1. 0.01 mm tiu gçkhzKŸs bghUŸfë‹
gçkhz§fis ms¡f ÂUF msé ga‹gL¤j¥gL»wJ.
2. ÂUF mséæš jiy¡nfhš Rê¥ÃçÎ
òç¡nfhè‹ tiu nfh£o‰F Ñoe mik»wJ. våš
Rê¥ÃiH - ne®¡F¿
3. ÂUF msé bkšèa f«Ã-‹ é£l¤ij ms¡f¥
ga‹gL»wJ.
xU xë M©L v‹gJ 365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60 x 3
x 108 m
thåaš myF v‹gJ òéæ‹ ika¤Â‰F«
Nça‹ ika¤Â‰F« Ïil¥g£l ruhrç¤ bjhiyÎ. (ãyh,
, br›thŒ)
éirÍ« Ïa¡f éÂfS«
xU bghUë‹ XŒÎãiyianah mšyJ Ïa¡f
ãiyianah kh‰W»‹w mšyJ kh‰w Ka‰Á¡»‹w
braš éir vd¥gL«.
éir xU bt¡l® msÎ.
mj‹ S.I myF ãô£l‹.
xU bghUë‹ ãiyk¥gg©ò mj‹ ãiwia¢
rh®ªjJ.
xU bghUë‹ ãiw(m) k‰W« mj‹
Âirntf«(v)M»at‰¿‹ bgU¡f‰gy‹ cªj«
vd¥gL«. (p = mv)
ãô£lå‹ Ïu©lh« Ïa¡f éÂæ‹go cªj¤Â‰F v© kÂ¥ò«, ÂirÍ« c©L. ÏJ xU bt¡l®
msÎ. cªj¤Â‹ Âir, Âir ntf¤Â‹ Âirænyna
mikÍ«. mj‹ myF kg m s-1.
cªj khWgh£LÅj« rkk‰w éir¡F ne®¤jféš
miktnjhL m›éiræ‹ Âirænyna mikÍ«. (F = ma)
éiræ‹ myF = 1 kg x 1 ms-2 = 1 ãô£l‹
éiræ‹ myF kg m s-2 mšyJ ãô£l‹. mj‹
F¿pL ‘N’ .
éir v‹gJ bghUë‹ ãiw k‰W« KL¡f«
Ït‰¿‹ bgU¡f‰gy‹ MF«.
ãô£lå‹ _‹whtJ éÂ¥go x›bthU
éid¡F« mj‰F¢ rkkhd Mdhš v®Âiræš
brašgLtJkhd X® v®éid c©L.
J¥gh¡» RL« nghJ F©L mÂf éirÍl‹
K‹ndh¡»¥ ghOEtJ éidahF«. Ïj‰F¢ rkkhd
v®éirÍl‹ F©L J¥gh¡»ia¥ Ëndh¡»¤
jŸStJ v® éidahF«.
rkk‰w òwéirfŸ brašglhj tiu xU
mik¥Ã‹ bkh¤j cªj« kh¿è v‹gJ cªj« khwh¡
nfh£ghL MF«. (m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1+ m2v2)
nkhjY¡F K‹ mik¥Ã‹ bkh¤j cªj«
nkhjY¡F¥ Ë bkh¤j cªj¤Â‰F¢ rk«.
ãô£lå‹ <®¥òé G =Fd2 / m1 m2
SI myFfis¥ ÃuÂæ£lhš G ‹ myF N m2 kg-2
G‹ v© kÂ¥ò 6.673 X 10 -11
N m2 kg
-2
ãiw, vil Ït‰¿‰F ÏilnaÍŸs ntWghL
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 7
ãiw vil
mo¥gil msÎ tê msÎ
bghUëš cŸs
gU¥bghUŸ msÎ
bghUë‹ ÛJ brašgL«
<®¥Ãaš éir msÎ
myF »nyh»uh« myF ãô£l‹
Ïl¤Â‰F Ïl« khwhJ Ïl¤Â‰F Ïl« khW«
Ïa‰Ãaš juhÁdhš
ms¡f¥gL»wJ.
éš juhÁdhš
ms¡f¥gL»wJ.
xU bghUëYŸs gU¥bghUë‹ msÎ
m¥gU¥bghUë‹ ãiw vd¥gL«.
xU bghUë‹ vil v‹gJ mªj Ïl¤Âš mJ
czU« <®¥Ãaš éir mšyJ m¥bghUis v›tsÎ
tèikahf <®¥Ãaš éir <®¡»wJ v‹gij¡ fh£L«
msÅlhF«.
òé<®¥ò KL¡f« g = 9.8 ms-2
1958 #&‹ 2-« ehŸ kæšrhä m©zh¤Jiu
Ãwªjh®.
j‰nghJ kæšrhä m©zh¤Jiu rªÂuha‹ I
k‰W« rªÂuha‹ II Ït‰¿‹ £l Ïa¡Fe® Mth®.
rªÂuha‹ I ãyÎ¥gaz¤Â‰fhd xU fy‹.
2008M« M©L m¡nlhg® khj« MªÂukhãy¤ÂYŸs
$Açnfh£lhéèUªJ ISRO-Mš é©âš Vt¥g£lJ.
ÏJ ISRO-é‹ IªJ ga‹ Rikfis
vL¤J¢br‹wJ. nkY«, ÏJ mbkç¡fhé‹ NASA
é©btëika«, Inuh¥Ãa é©btëika« (ESA),
gšnfça é©btëika« Ït‰¿‹ 6 ga‹RikfisÍ«
Ïytrkhf vL¤J¢br‹wJ.
rªÂuha‹ 312 eh£fŸ é©âš brašg£lJ.
m¥nghJ £läl¥g£l Ïy¡Ffëš 95 rjÅj¤ij ãiwÎ
brŒjJ.
ve;jputpay; ke;jpuq;fs; ,lg; ngah;r;rp (Displacement): xU nghUs; xU Gs;spapy;
,Ue;J kw;nwhU Gs;spf;F xU Fwpg;gpl;l jpirapy; efh;e;j njhiyT@ myF-kPl;lh;
jpir Ntfk; (Velocity): xU nghUspd; ,lg;ngah;r;rp fhyj;ijg; nghUj;J khWk; tPjk;. myF – m/s
KLf;fk; (Accleration): xU nghUspd; jpir Ntfk;> fhyj;ijg; nghUj;J khWk; tPjk;. myF – m/s²
ce;jk; (momentum): xU nghUspd; epiwiaj; jpir Ntfj;jhy; ngUf;f fpilg;gNj ce;jk;. myF – Kg m/s
tpir (Force): xU Fwpg;gpl;l epiwAs;s nghUs; kPJ nray;gLk; KLf;fj;jpd; tpisT. myF – epa+l;ld;
Ntiy (Work): xU nghUspd; kPJ nray;gLk; tpirahy; me;jg; nghUs; efh;e;j njhiyitg; ngUf;f fpilg;gJ. tpir x njhiyT. ,jd; myF – [_y;
Mw;wy; (Energy): Ntiy nra;aj; Njitg;gLk; rf;jpNa Mw;wy;. myF – [_y;
jpwd; (Power): xU Ntiy vt;tsT Neuj;jpy; nra;ag;gLfpwJ vd;gNj jpwd;. myF – [_y;
xU nghUs;> khwhj jpir Ntfj;jpy; nrd;why; mjd; KLf;fk; g+[;[pakhf ,Uf;Fk;
thfdq;fspy; jpir Ntfj;ij khw;wk; fUtp KLf;fp (accelerator) vdg;gLfpwJ.
xU nghUs; efh;e;jhy; kl;LNk ,aw;gpaypy;> Ntiy nra;ag;gl;ljhFk;.
,aw;gpaypy;> Ntiyf;fhd tiuaiwg;gb xU efuhj Rtiuj; js;spf;nfhz;L epw;gNjh> xU thsp jz;zPiuj; J}f;fpg; gpbj;jgb epw;gNjh Ntiy my;y.
Mw;wy;> Ntiy ,uz;Lf;Fkhd rh;tNjr myF [_y;. nkl;hpf; myF fNyhhp
xU Ntiyiar; nra;Ak; ,U egh;fspy; vth; me;j Ntiyia tpiuthfr; nra;thNuh (Fiwe;j Neuj;jpy;) mtNu jpwd; kpf;fth;.
,lg; ngah;r;rp vd;gJ ntf;lh; msT
njhiyT (Distance) vd;gJ ];Nfyh; msT
jpir Ntfk; vd;gJ ntf;lh; msT Ntfk; (Speed) vd;gJ ];Nfyh; msT nek;GNfhy;fs;(Levers) gSTf;Fk; jpwDf;Fk; ,ilNa ikag; Gs;sp ,Ug;gJ
Kjy; tif nek;GNfhy; fj;jhpf;Nfhy;> flg;ghiu> rPrh Nghd;wit Kjy; tif
nek;GNfhy;fs;. ikag; Gs;spf;Fk; jpwDf;Fk; ,ilNa gS miktJ
,uz;lhk; tif nek;GNfhy; ghf;F ntl;b> ghl;by; jpwg;ghd; Nghd;wit ,uz;lhk;
tif nek;G Nfhy;fs; ikag; Gs;spf;Fk; gSTf;Fk; ,ilNa jpwDs;sJ
%d;whk; tif nek;G Nfhy; ,Lf;fp> Jilg;gk; Nghd;wit %d;whk; tif
nek;GNfhy;fs;
Ïa¡fK« Âut§fS«
ntf« v‹gJ bjhiyé‹ fhy khWghL Åj«
mšyJ xU édhoæš fl¡F« bjhiyÎ MF«.
ntf« = flªj bjhiyÎ / vL¤J¡ bfh©l fhy«
ntf« Û / é (m/s) ms-1
v‹w myfhš
F¿¥Ãl¥gL»wJ.
xU édhoæš bghUŸ milÍ« Ïl¥bga®¢Á
mšyJ Ïl¥bga®¢Áæ‹ khWghLÅj« bghUë‹
Âirntf« vd¥gL«.
Âirntf« = Ïl¥bga®¢Á khWghL / fhy«
Âirntf« Û/é v‹w myfhš
F¿¥Ãl¥gL»‹wJ.
KL¡f« = Âirntf khWghL / fhy«
KL¡f« Û / é2 ( ms
-2) v‹w myfhš
F¿¥Ãl¥gL»‹wJ.
a = ÏW¤ Âirntf« - bjhl¡f¤ Âirntf« /
fhy« (a = v – u / t)
bghUë‹ Âirntf« go¥goahf¡ FiwªJ
bfh©nl tªJ bgUk cau¤Âš Rê MF«.
g -‹ ruhrç kÂ¥ò = 9.8 Û/é2
nfhz Ïl¥bga®¢Á, nuoa‹ v‹w myfhš
msél¥gL»wJ.
nfhz¤ Âirntf« = nfhz Ïl¥bga®¢Á /
vL¤J¡ bfhŸS« fhy«
nuoa‹ / édho v‹gJ nfhz¤Âirntf¤Â‹
myfhF«.
ne®nfh£L Âirntf« = t£l¥ghijæ‹ Mu« x
nfhz Âirntf«
k»GªJ x‹W tiséš ÂU«ò«nghJ laU¡F«,
jiu¡F« Ïil¥g£l cuhŒÎ éir njitahd
ikaneh¡F éiria¤ jU»‹wJ.
nfhŸfŸ Nçaid¢ R‰¿ Ïa§F«nghJ
nfhŸfS¡F«, NçaD¡F« Ïil¥g£l <®¥Ãaš éir
ikaneh¡F éirahf¢ bra‰gL»‹wJ.
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 8
c£fUit¢ R‰¿tU« vy¡£uhD¡F¤ njitahd
ikaneh¡F éir, vy¡£uhD¡F« c£fUé‰F«
Ïil¥g£l ãiy ä‹åaš <®¥ò éirahš
bgw¥gL»‹wJ.
jæ® filÍ«nghJ ikaéy¡F éiræ‹
fhuzkhf bt©bzŒ gh¤Âu¤Â‹ Xu¤Â‰F¢
brš»‹wJ.
äÂt©o X£Lgt® tisthd ghijæš
bršY«nghJ jdJ cliy cŸneh¡» rhŒ¡»wh®. ϧF
brašgL« cuhŒÎ éir (ikaneh¡F éir) ikaéy¡F
éir (mv2/r) ahš rk‹ brŒa¥gL»wJ.
Âut¤ÂDŸ VnjD« xU òŸëæš mG¤j« p =
hdg
M®¡»äo° »nu¡f eh£il¢ nr®ªj m¿éaš
m¿P®(287-212 B.C). ãiyæaš k‰W« Ú®k ãiyæaèš
Ït® f©LÃo¤j gy K¡»a¤ j¤Jt§fŸ
eilKiw¥gL¤j¥g£LŸsd. Ïtç‹ jªij xU
thåayhs®. iruhf° eh£L k‹d‹ bAŒnuh ÏtuJ
e©gD« cwédU« Mth®. Ït® j‹Dila fšé k‰W«
gæ‰Áfis, m¡fhy¤Âš f‰gj‰F Áw¥ò¥bg‰w
mby¡[h‹oçahéš f‰W¡bfh©lh®. be«ònfhè‹
j¤Jt¤ij¡ f©LÃo¤jtU« Ïtnu.
ml®¤Âæ‹ myF Kgm-3
x¥gl®¤Â¡F myF Ïšiy.
xU ÏU«ò¤J©L ghjur¤Âš äj¡F«. Mdhš
Úçš _œF«. Ïj‰F¡ fhuz« ghjur¤Â‹ ml®¤Â (13600
»»Û-3), Úç‹ ml®¤Âia (1000 »»Û-3) él mÂf«.
ÏU«ò¤ J©L _œFtjhš btëna‰w¥gL« ghjur«
k‰W« Úç‹ fdmsÎfŸ ÏU«ò¤J©o‹ fdmsé‰F¢
rkkhf ÏUªjnghÂY«, ÏU«ò¤J©odhš
btëna‰w¥g£l, ghjur¤Â‹ vil ÏU«ò¤J©o‹
viliaél mÂfkhf ÏU¡F«. Mdhš, btëna‰w¥gL«
Úç‹ vil ÏU«ò¤J©o‹ vilia él¡ Fiwthf
ÏU¡F«.
ÏU«Ãdhš brŒa¥g£l f¥gš Úçš äj¡»wJ.
fhuz« f¥gè‹ totik¥Ãš mÂfmséš
fhèælkhdJ fh‰whš ãu¥g¥g£LŸsJ. Ïj‹
éisthf¡ f¥gš Úçš äj¡F« nghJ btëna‰W« Úç‹
fdmsÎ, f¥gè‹ f£Lkhd¥ gâfS¡F¥
ga‹gL¤j¥g£l ÏU«Ã‹ fdmsitél mÂfkhf
ÏU¡F«. vdnt, f¥gš äj¥gÂdhš btëna‰w¥gL«
Úç‹ vilahdJ f¥gè‹ viliaél mÂf«.
äj¡F« bghUë‹ vilahdJ, mjdhš
btëna‰w¥gL« Âut¤Â‹ vil¡F¢ rk«.
äj¡F« bghUë‹ <®¥òikaK«,
btëna‰w¥gL« Âut¤Â‹ <®¥ò ikaK« (äjit ika«)
xnu br§F¤J¡nfh£oš mikant©L«.
Âl¥bghUŸfŸ k‰W« Âut§fë‹
x¥gl®¤Âia¡ fhz¥ ga‹gL« ÂutkhåfŸ, äj¥ò
éÂfis mo¥gilahf¡ bfh©L,
totik¡f¥gL»‹wd.
ghè‹ ml®¤Âia, mj‹ x¥gl®¤Â _y«
msél ga‹gL¤j¥gL« ghškhå, bghJ¤ Âutkhå
tifia¢ nr®ªjJ.
ntiy, Âw‹, M‰wš k‰W« bt¥g«
brŒa¥gL« ntiy = éir x Ïl¥bga®¢Á (W =
Fs)
ntiyæ‹ myF #&š (J) MF«.
»nyh #&š (1000#&š)
bkfh #&š (10 Ïy£r« #&š)
n#«° Ãç°nfh£ #&š , Ãç£lid nr®ªj
äf¢Áwªj m¿éaš m¿P® Mth®. bt¥g Ïa¡féaš
k‰W« ä‹åaèš Ït® brŒj MŒÎfŸ Ïtiu¥g‰¿
gyU« m¿a¢ brŒjd. ä‹ndh£l¤Â‹ bt¥géisÎ
rh®ªj éÂfis¤ jUé¤jt®. nkY«, M‰wš mêé‹ik
éÂia¢ nrhjid _y« rçgh®¤jt®. bt¥g ÏaªÂuéaš
Ïizkh‰¿‹ kÂ¥Ãid¡ f©l¿ªjt®. ntiy k‰W«
M‰wè‹ myFfŸ ÏtUila bgauhd #&š v‹w
myfhš miH¡f¥g£L tU»wJ.
M‰wè‹ myF« #&š MF«.
jhnd jilæ‹¿ éG« bghUë‹ ãiyah‰wš
k‰W« Ïa¡f M‰wè‹ TLjš khwhkš cŸsJ. <®¥Ãaš
éir brašgLtÂdhš bghUë‹ vªÂu M‰wš
kh‰wkiltšiy.
Âw‹ = brŒa¥g£l ntiy / vL¤J¡bfh©l
fhy«
Âwå‹ myF #&š / édho. ÏJ th£ vd¥gL«.
Ïj‹ F¿pL W
tâf Kiwæyhd Âwå‹ myF »nyh th£
kâahF«.
eh« ga‹gL¤J« ä‹dh‰wY¡fhd f£lz«
ôå£ mšyJ »nyhth£kâ v‹w myfhš
fz¡»l¥gL»wJ. (1000 th£ kâ = 1 »nyh th£ kâ)
M‰wš kh‰w§fŸ
mizæèUªJ
btënaW« Ú®
ãiyah‰wš, Ïa¡f M‰wyhf
khWjš
xèth§»
xè M‰wš , ä‹dh‰wyhf
khWjš
bjhiy¡fh£Á
ãH‰gl¡ fUé
xë M‰wš, ä‹dh‰wyhf
khWjš
xë ä‹fy‹
xë M‰wš, ä‹dh‰wyhf
khWjš
ä‹ ryit¥ bg£o
ä‹dh‰wš, bt¥g M‰wyhf
khWjš
xè¥gh‹
ä‹dh‰wš, xè M‰wyhf
khWjš
ä‹éÁ¿
ä‹dh‰wš, Ïa¡f M‰wyhf
khWjš
ä‹és¡F
ä‹dh‰wš, xë M‰wyhf
khWjš
bt¥g V‰ò¤Âwid #]š / bfšé‹ (JK-1) v‹w
myfhš F¿¥Ãlyh«.
j‹bt¥g V‰ò¤ Âwå‹ myF
#]š/».»/bfšé‹ (JKg-1
k-1
).
Úç‹ j‹bt¥g V‰ò¤Âw‹ 4180 JKg-1
K-1
MF«.
mjhtJ 1 ».». Úç‹ bt¥gãiyia 1K ca®¤j
njit¥gL« bt¥g M‰wè‹ msÎ 4180 #]š vd
m¿ayh«.
bkG»‹ cUF ãiy 570C.
jå¢Rê bt¥gãiyæš _y¡TWfë‹ Ïa¡f«
KGtJkhf ã‹WéL«. ÏJ 0 K (m) -2730
C vd¡
F¿¥Ãl¥gL«.
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 9
bfšé‹ xU Ïa‰Ãayhs® k‰W« bgh¿ahs®.
bt¥g Ïa¡féaiy¥ g‰¿ všnyhU¡F« bjçait¤jJ
ÏtuJ K¡»akhd g§fë¥ò k‰W« rhjidahF«.
bt¥gãiyia ms¥gj‰fhd msit¡ f©LÃo¤jt®.
bt¥gãiy¥ g‰¿a ms¥gça rhjid¡fhf ÏtuJ bganu
bt¥gãiyæ‹ myfhf bfšé‹ v‹W bgaçl¥g£lJ.
bfšé‹ msÎ(K) = bršÁa° msÎ + 273
bršÁa° msÎ(0C) = bfšé‹ msÎ (K) – 273
ghæš é : pv = kh¿è
rh®y° é : V / T = kh¿è
#h¡Fæ° rh®y° (1746-1823), Ït® xU ÃbuŠR
eh£il¢ nr®ªj f©LÃo¥ghs®. Balloonist v‹w Áw¥ò¥
bg‰wt®. Kjš iA£u#‹ gÿid totik¤jj‹ _y«
bgU« òfêidÍ«, nguhjuitÍ« bg‰wh®. Âutkhåia¡
f©LÃo¤jtU« Ïtnu.
M‰wè‹ tiffŸ
m‹whl brašgh£o‰F M‰wš mtÁa«.
M‰wiy eh« c©Q« czéèUªJ bgW»nwh«.
ntiy brŒa njitahd Âwikna M‰wš MF«.
ãiyahf cŸs bghUŸ bg‰WŸs M‰wš ãiyah‰wš
Ïa¡f¤Âš cŸs bghUŸ bg‰WŸs M‰wš Ïa¡f
M‰wš
ãiyah‰wY« Ïa¡f M‰wY« nr®ªjnj ÏaªÂu
M‰wš vd¥gL«.
fh‰¿‹ Ïa¡f M‰wiy¡ bfh©L, fh‰whiyfë‹
_y« ä‹dh‰wiy¤ jahç¡fyh«.
eh« c©Q« czéY« nt M‰wš ÏU¥gjhšjh‹,
e«khš gšntW ntiyfis brŒa Ko»wJ.
nk£^®, gthå rhf® ngh‹w Áy miz¡f£Lfëš Ú®
M‰wš _y« ä‹rhu« jahç¡f¥gL»wJ.
bt¥g« xU tif M‰wš v‹gij¡ f©LÃo¤jt®
n#«° #&š. Ïjdhšjh‹ M‰wè‹ myif #&š
v‹»nwh«.
ä‹fy§fëš cŸs nt M‰wèèUªJ ä‹ M‰wš
»il¡»wJ.
vçbghUŸfëš cŸs nt M‰wš bt¥g
M‰wyhfΫ, xë M‰wyhfΫ kh‰w¥gL»‹wJ.
ä‹és¡»š ä‹ M‰wš xëah‰wyhfΫ, ä‹
éÁ¿æš ä‹dh‰wš Ïa¡f M‰wyhfΫ kh¿
»il¡»wJ.
mdšä‹ ãiya§fëš ãy¡fçia vç¥gjhš
»il¡f¥bgW« bt¥g M‰wš ä‹dh‰wyhf
kh‰w¥gL»wJ. fh‰whiyfëš fh‰¿‹ Ïa¡f M‰wš
_y« ä‹dh‰wš bgw¥gL»wJ.
NçaåläUªJ ÏUªJ »il¡F« M‰wny Nça
M‰wš MF«.
ãy¡fçæ‹ ntÂah‰wš, bt¥g M‰wyhf
kh‰wkilªJ mÂèUªJ ä‹dh‰wš »il¡»wJ.
xè¥bgU¡»æš ä‹ M‰wš xè M‰wyhf
kh‰w¥gL»wJ.
».K. 212š M®¡»äo° v‹w »nu¡f eh£L m¿P®
Nça M‰wiy¥ ga‹gL¤Â cU¥bgU¡» _y«
nuhkhåa ngh®¡f¥gšfis vç¤jh®.
cau¤Âš nj¡» it¡f¥g£LŸs Úç‹ ãiy
M‰wyhdJ ÑnH éG«bghGJ Ïa¡f M‰wyhf kh¿,
ä‹dh¡»æ‹ _y« r¡fu¤ij¢ RHy¢ brŒtjhš ä‹
M‰wš jahç¡f¥gL»wJ.
ku«, ãy¡fç, bg£nuhš, Orš, vçthÍ ngh‹wt‰iw
vça it¡F« nghJ nt M‰wš bt¥g M‰wyhf
btë¥gL»wJ.
xë¢nr®¡ifæ‹ nghJ, jhtu§fŸ, NçaåläUªJ
bgW« xë M‰wiy nt M‰wyhf¢ nrä¤J
it¡»‹wd.
ä‹rhu miH¥ò kâ, fh®fëš cŸs xèvG¥Ãfëš
ä‹ M‰wš xè M‰wyhf kh‰w¥gL»wJ.
lh®¢ és¡»š cŸs ä‹fy¤bjhF¥Ã‹ nt M‰wš
ä‹dh‰wyhf kh¿ mÂèUªJ xë M‰wš
bgw¥gL»wJ.
Mw;wy; khw;wk; ,af;f Mw;wy; - kpd; Mw;wy;> ildNkh kpd; Mw;wy; - ,af;f Mw;wy;> Nkhl;lhh; kpd; Mw;wy; - xsp Mw;wy;> kpd; tpsf;F xsp Mw;wy; - kpd; Mw;wy;> xspkpd;fhyk; fhe;j Mw;wy; - xyp Mw;wy;> Nlg; hpf;fhh;lh; kpd; Mw;wy; - ntg;g Mw;wy> ,];jphpg; ngl;b Ntjp Mw;wy; - ntg;g Mw;wy;> #hpad; Ntjp Mw;wy; - kpd; Mw;wy;> kpd;fyk; ,jpy; ,e;j Mw;wy; Njf;fpa mizf;fl;L ePh;: epiy Mw;wy; jpwf;fg;gl;l mizf;fl;L ePh;: ,af;f Mw;wy; mbf;fg;gl;l ge;jpy; Vw;gLtJ: ,af;f Mw;wy; gpbf;fg;gl;l ge;jpy; ,Ug;gJ: epiy Mw;wy; Mw;wy; fzf;fPL epiy Mw;wy; fzf;fpl tha;g;ghL (PE)=mgh ,af;f Mw;wy; fzf;fpl tha;g;ghL (KE)=1/2mv² Mw;wy; moptpd;ik tpjp Mw;wiy Mf;fNth mopf;fNth KbahJ. xUtif Mw;wiy kw;nwhU tifahf khw;wyhk; Mw;wy; khw;wk; epfOk;NghJ rpwpJ ntg;g Mw;wy;
ntspg;gLk;
fhªjéaš
fhe;jk;> nkf;dPrpah vd;w ,lj;jpy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ. Gtpapd; fhe;j mr;R 17° rha;e;Js;sJ. ,Uk;G> epf;fy;> Nfhghy;l; Mfpait /ngh;Nuh fhe;jq;fs;. Mf;rp[d;> ghuh fhe;jj;jd;ik nfhz;lJ. kpd;rhu miog;G kzpapy; kpd;fhe;jk; gad;gLfpwJ. fhe;jg;nghUs; jd; fhe;jj;jd;ikia ,of;Fk;
ntg;gepiy fpa+hpg; Gs;sp vdg;gLk;. ,Uk;gpd; fpa+hpg; Gs;sp 780°C epf;fy;> Nfhghy;l; ,tw;wpd; fpa+hpg; Gs;spfs; KiwNa
360°C, 1,090°C kpd;fhe;jj; J}z;liyf; fz;lwpe;jth;: /ghuNl kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; fhe;j tpisitf; fz;lwpe;jth;:
xah;];ll; fhªj¤jhš <®¡f¥gL« bghUŸfŸ fhªj j‹ikÍŸs
bghUŸfŸ.
fhªj¤jhš <®¡f¥glhj bghUŸfŸ fhªj j‹ika‰w
bghUŸfŸ.
xU r£l fhªj¤ij üèš f£o bjh§fé£lhš
tl¡nf neh¡F« Kid tlJUt«, bj‰nf neh¡F«
Kid bj‹JUt« MF«.
fhªj¤Â‹ v®v® JUt§fŸ x‹iwbah‹W
<®¡»‹wd.
x¤j JUt§fŸ x‹iwbah‹W éy¡F»‹wd.
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 10
ä‹fhªj bjhl®t©o¡F äj¡F« bjhl®t©o
v‹w¥ bgaU« c©L. Ãuh‹° eh£oš gw¡F«
bjhl®t©o v‹W« TW»wh®fŸ.
ä‹fhªj bjhl®t©o fhªj éy¡F k‰W« <®¥ò
éirfis¡ bfh©l bjhêšE£g¤Â‹ _y«
Ïa§F»wJ. Ϫj äj¡F« bjhl®t©o bršY« nghJ
r¤jnk nf£fhJ.
kh¡dil£ v‹gJ X® Ïa‰if fhªj«.
fhªj¤Â‹ ÏU KidfëY« <®¥ò r¡Â mÂf«
ÏU¡F«.
khYäfS¡F Âir¡fh£L« fUéia më¤jt®fŸ
Ód®fŸ.
1853-M« M©L ϪÂahé‹ Kjš bjhl®t©o
K«igæèUªJ jhnd v‹w CU¡F¢ br‹wJ.
b#a©£Åš vd¥gL« äf¥bgça Ïuh£od§fis
Ïa¡f ä‹fhªj§fŸ njit.
miy miyfspd; ,U tiffs;-FWf;fiy kw;Wk;
nel;liy FWf;fiyfs; mfL> KfLfshf guTfpd;wd. nel;liyfs; ,Wf;fk;> jsh;r;rpahfg; guTfpd;wd. xU nghUspy; FWf;fiy cUthFk;NghJ
mjpYs;s Jfs;fs; miy guTk; jpirapNyNa mjpUk;.
xU nghUspy; nel;liy guTk;NghJ mjpYs;s Jfs;fs; miy guTk; jpirf;F nrq;Fj;jhf mjpUk;.
xsp miyfSk;> xU J}zpy; xU Kid kl;Lk; fl;lg;gl;l fapw;wpy; Vw;gLk; miyfSk; FWf;fiyfs; (Transverse Waves)
xyp miyfSk; ];gphpq;fpy; Vw;gLk; miyfSk; nel;liyfs; (Longitudinal Waves).
xyp miyfs; ,ae;jpu miyfs; vd;gjhy; mit gut Clfk; Njit.
xsp miyfs; kpd; fhe;j miyfshf ,Ug;gjhy; mit gut Clfk; Njitapy;iy
xyp miyfs; nel;liyfs; vd;gjhy; mit js tpisTf;F cl;gLtjpy;iy.
xsp miyfs; FWf;fiyfs; vd;gjhy; mit js tpisTf;F cl;gLfpd;wd.
,ir
fk;gp fUtp> fhw;W fUtp> jhsf; fUtp - ,itNa %tif ,irf; fUtpfs;.
tPiz> fplhh;> Nfhl;L thj;jpak;> Nkz;lypd;> taypd; Mfpait Kf;fpa fk;gp fUtpfs;
ehf];tuk;> n\dha;> `hh;Nkhdpak;> rhf;]Nghd;> Gy;yhq;Foy; Mfpait Kf;fpa fhw;Wf; fUtpfs;.
ehf];tuk;> n\dha;> `hh;Nkhdpak;> rhf;]Nghd; Nghd;wit CJFoy; cs;s fhw;Wf; fUtpfs;
ehf];tuk;> n\dha; Mfpait ,ul;il CJFoy; nfhz;lit
rhf;]Nghd; xw;iw CJFoy; cilaJ. Gy;yhq;Foy; CJFoyw;w fhw;Wf; fUtp CJFoy; (Read) nky;ypa gpypk; Nghd;wpUf;Fk;. ,uz;L ,irf; fUtpfis (xU tPiz> xU
fplhh;) xNu mjph;T vz;> xNu xypr; nrwpT> xNu xypr; Ruj;jpy; xypf;fr; nra;jhYk; mtw;wpd; ,iria ehk; NtWgLj;jp czuyhk;. mjw;Ff; fhuzk; me;jf; fUtpfspd; xypj; juk;.
,irf; fit xj;jpirT jj;Jtj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; nray;gLfpwJ.
lhy;gp xyp vd;gJ ,iur;ry; ePf;fg;gl;l> tbfl;lg;gl;l xyp.
NubNah xypgug;G gfiytpl ,utpy; njspthff; Nfl;gjw;F> ,utpy; NubNah miyfs; gazpf;Fk; maNdh];gpah;> #hpa xspahy; ghjpf;fg;glhky; ,Ug;gNj.
xëæaš
fèènah 1609M« M©L bjhiyneh¡»ia¡
f©LÃo¤jh®.
bjhiyneh¡» f©LÃo¤J 400 M©LfŸ
ãiwtilªjij x£o 2009M« M©L, cyf
é©btë M©lhf¡ bfh©lhl¥g£lJ.
fèènah ga‹gL¤Âa bjhiyneh¡»¡ fUé j‰nghJ
Ϥjhè eh£oš cŸs ~Ãshu‹° efçš cŸsJ.
bghUŸfis gh®¡f ek¡F xë njit
jhkhf xëia¤ jU« bghUŸfŸ xëU« bghUŸfŸ
jhkhf xëia¤ juhj bghUŸfŸ xëuh¥ bghUŸfŸ
rªÂu‹ bghèÎl‹ ÏUªjhY« mJ xëuh¥ bghUŸ.
mJ NçaåläUªJ xëia¥ bg‰nw xë®»‹wJ.
Nça xë òéia tªJ miltj‰F 8 ãäl§fŸ 20
édhofŸ M»‹wd.
Nça xëia btW« f©fshš neçilahf Ú©l
neu« gh®¡f¢ TlhJ.
nfkuhéš Jisæ‹ msit mÂfç¤jhš bjëthd
ëg« »il¡fhJ. ëg« k§fyhf¤jh‹ bjçÍ«.
f©zho, öaÚ® ngh‹wit xëòF« bghUŸfŸ.
fš, gªJ ngh‹wit xëòfh¥ bghUŸfŸ.
v©bzŒ¤ jléa¤jhŸ Áy¤Jë ghš fyªj Ú®
ngh‹wit xë¡fÁÍ« bghUŸfŸ.
j‹ têna xëia bršy mDk¡F« bghUŸfŸ
xëòF« bghUŸfŸ.
j‹ têna xëia bršy mDk¡fhj bghUŸfŸ
xëòfh¥ bghUŸfŸ.
j‹ têna gFÂahf xëia bršy mDk¡F«
bghUŸfŸ xëfÁÍ« bghUŸfŸ.
xëahdJ ne®¡nfh£oš brštjhšjh‹ ãHš
V‰gL»wJ.
xëæ‹ ne®¡nfh£L Ïa¡f¤jhšjh‹ Nça k‰W«
rªÂu »ufz§fŸ V‰gL»‹wd.
Nça‹, óä, rªÂu‹ Ïit _‹W« xnu ne®¡nfh£oš
mikÍ« nghJ »ufz§fŸ c©lh»‹wd.
óäæ‹ ãHš rªÂuåš éGtjhš rªÂu‹
kiw¡f¥gL»wJ. ÏJ rªÂu »ufz«. Ïš Nça‹
xë _ykhfΫ, óä xë¥òfh¥ bghUshfΫ, rªÂu‹
ÂiuahfΫ mik»‹wd.
rªÂuå‹ ãHš óäæš éGtjhš Nça‹
kiw¡f¥gL»wJ. ÏJ Nça »ufz«. Ïš Nça‹
xë _ykhfΫ, rªÂu‹ xë¥òfh¥ bghUshfΫ, óä
ÂiuahfΫ mik»‹wd.
fhiy neu§fëš ãHèš msÎ ÚskhfΫ, e©gfèš
äf¢ÁwajhfΫ, Û©L« khiy neu¤Âš ãHè‹ Ús«
äf¥bgçajhf ÏU¥gj‰F fhuz«, neu¤ij¥
bghW¤J, xë_ykhd NçaD¡F« ãHiy
cUth¡F« bghUS¡F« Ïilna cŸs nfhz«
khWtnj MF«.
xspapd; jpir Ntfk;> ntw;wplj;jpy; tpehbf;F 3X108 kPl;lh;.
xspapd; jpir Ntfk;> fz;zhbapy; tpehbf;F 2X108 kPl;lh;.
xypapd; jpir Ntfk;> fhw;wpy; tpehbf;F 330 kPl;lh;.
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 11
xyp Ntfk; ePhpy; tpehbf;F 1>450 kPl;lh;
xyp Ntfk; ,Uk;gpy; tpehbf;F 5000 kPl;lh;
xsp gut Clfk; Njitapy;iy@ xyp gut Clfk; Njit.
Clfj;jpd; mlh;j;jp mjpfhpj;jhy; xypapd; jpir Ntfk; mjpfhpf;Fk;.
Clfj;jpd; mlh;j;jp mjpfhpj;jhy; xspapd; jpir Ntfk; FiwAk;.
xsp miyfs; FWf;fiyfs; (Transverse Waves).
xyp miyfs; nel;liyfs; (Longitudinal Waves)
njhiyf;fhl;rpia Md; nra;jTld; glk; tUtjw;FKd; xyp te;JtpLtjw;Ff; fhuzk;> glj;ij cUthf;Fk; Picture Tube #lhf rpwpJ Neuk; vLj;Jf;nfhs;tJ.
xëæaš k‰W« xèæaš
xë vÂbuhë¥ò¤ js¤Âš gL»‹w xë¡f®
‘gLf®’ MF«.
xë¡f® vÂbuhë¥Ã‰F¥ ÃwF vÂbuhë¥ò
js¤ÂèUªJ mnj Clf¤Âš bršY« f®
‘vÂbuhë¥ò¡f®’ MF«.
gLfÂU¡F« vÂbuhë¥ò¤js¤Âš gLòŸëæš
tiua¥g£l F¤J¡nfh£o‰F« Ïilna cŸs nfhz«
‘gLnfhz«’ i MF«.
vÂbuhë¥ò¡ fÂU¡F« gLòŸëæš tiua¥g£l
F¤J¡nfh£o‰F« Ïilna cŸs nfhz« ‘vÂbuhë¥ò¡
nfhz«’ r MF«.
ëg§fë‹ 360
v©â¡if = --------------------- –1
nfhz«
bgç°nfh¥ : ÏU rkjs Mofshš bjhl®ªJ
vÂbuhë¥ò miltnj Ïj‹ j¤JtkhF«.
bkšèa Nça xë¡f‰iw x‹iw K¥g£lf¤Â‹
têna brY¤J«nghJ, kWg¡f« bt©Âiuæš Cjh,
fUÚy«, Úy«, g¢ir, kŠrŸ, MuŠR k‰W« Át¥ò
(VIBGYOR) M»a VG ãw§fë‹ bjhFÂfshf
fhzyh« v‹gij m¿éaš m¿P® r®. Ir¡ ãô£l‹
f©l¿ªjh®.
itu§fŸ äDäD¡f K¡»a fhuz« KGmf
vÂbuhë¥ò MF«.
kåjå‹ f© bt›ntW bghU£fë‹
bt›ntW bjhiyé‰F V‰g éêby‹Á‹
Féa¤öu¤ij kh‰¿ ëg¤ij éH¢ brŒ»wJ.
Óèaç¤jirfŸ RU§FtjhY« éçtjhY« éêby‹Á‹
Féaöu« kh‰wkil»wJ. Ï¢brany ‘f©jf mikjš’
MF«.
Fiwghl‰w f©gh®it bfh©l xUtU¡F xU
bghUis¤ bjëthf¡ fhz¡Toa äf¡ Fiwªj msÎ
25brÛ MF«. ÏJ bjëΡfh£Áæ‹ Û¢ÁW bjhiyÎ
MF«.
xè fh‰W k‰W« Âut§fis él Âl¥bghUëš
ntfkhf guΫ.
xè guÎtj‰F Clf« njit. xè bt‰¿l¤Âš
guthJ.
M©fë‹ Fuš eh©fë‹ Ús« 20äÛ
bg©fS¡F mJ Rkh® 15äÛ. Mdhš FHªijfS¡F
äf¢Á¿a Fušeh©fŸ cŸsd.
kåjå‹ bré _‹W K¡»a¥ ghf§fis¡
bfh©lJ. 1) btë¥òw bré 2) bré¥giw 3) eL¢bré
m®bt©â‹ myF bA®£° (Hz) MF«.
miyΡfhy¤Â‹ myF beho MF«.
Å¢Á‹ myF Û£l® (m) MF«.
kåjå‹ bréahš 20 bA®£° Kjš 20000
bA®£° tiu m®bt©fis cila xè miyfis
nf£Lzu Ko»wJ.
20 bA®£[]¡F ÑœcŸs m®bt© bfh©l
xè k‰W« 20000 bA®£° m®bt©Q¡F« mÂfkhd
m®bt© bfh©l xèia bréahš nf£Lzu KoahJ.
Ïjid bréÍzuh m®bt©fŸ vd¥gL«.
xëæaš
xë bghUŸfë‹ ÛJ g£L ÂU¥Ã mD¥g¥gL«
braš vÂbuhë¥ò vd¥gL«.
Mo rkjskhf mikªjhš mJ rkjs Mo
vd¥gL«.
Âiuæš Ão¡f Koahj ëg« kha ëg«
vd¥gL«.
kha ëg« v¥nghJ« neuhfnt mikÍ«.
rkjs Moæš njh‹W« ëg« v¥nghJ« neuhd
khaëgkhF«.
rkjs Moæš njh‹W« ëg« v¥nghJ« Ïlty
kh‰w« milªJ fhz¥gL«.
Moæš KG cUt¤ij¡ fhz Moæ‹ cau«
FiwªjJ bghUë‹ cau¤Âš ghÂasÎ ÏU¡f
nt©L«.
Mo¡F K‹ bghUŸ v›tsÎ bjhiyéš
cŸsnjh mnj bjhiyéš Mo¡F¥Ã‹ bghUë‹ Ã«g«
njh‹W«.
nkšneh¡» tisªj gu¥òila Mo, Fé Mo
vdΫ cŸneh¡» tisªj Mo, Fê Mo vdΫ
miH¡f¥gL«. Ïit tisªj MofŸ vd¥gL«.
jhë‹ ÛJ mšyJ Âiuæ‹ ÛJ éG« ëg«
bkŒÃ«g« vd¥gL«.
kha ëg¤ij¤ Âiuæš cUth¡f ÏayhJ.
bghUŸ Fê Mo¡F äf mUfhikæš cŸsnghJ
MoæDŸ bgça neuhd khaëg« cUthF«.
Fê Moæ‹ ga‹fŸ
k»GªÂ‹ Kf¥ò és¡FfëY«, bjhiy
neh¡»fëY« vÂbuhë¥ò Moahf¥ ga‹gL»‹wd.
Kf« rtu« brŒÍ« Moahf¥ ga‹gL»wJ.
gš k‰W« fhJ, _¡F¤ bjh©il kU¤Jt®fŸ
mt®fŸ gh®¡f nt©oa gFÂfë‹ ÛJ xëia¡
Fé¡f¥ga‹gL»‹wd.
Nça mL¥òfëš rik¡f nt©oa
czÎ¥bghUŸfë‹ ÛJ Nça xëia¡ Fé¡f¥
ga‹gL»‹wd.
Fé Moæ‹ ga‹fŸ
thfd§fëš Ã‹òw¤Âš cŸst‰iw¥ gh®¡f¥
ga‹gL»‹wd.
mÂfkhd Ïl¤ij¡ f©fhâ¡F« Mofshf¥
ga‹gL»‹wd.
MÁahényna bgça vÂbuhë¥ò
bjhiyneh¡»fëš, x‹W jäœeh£oš cŸs #›thJ
kiyæš (ntÿ® kht£l«) mikªJŸs fhtÿ® MuhŒ¢Á
ika¤Âš cŸsJ.
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 12
fz;zhb NgUe;J Xl;LeUf;F mUfpypUg;gJ Ftp Mb
(Convex mirror) gy; lhf;lh;fs; gad;gLj;JtJ Fop Mb (Concave
mirror) NgUe;J n`l;iyl;Lfspy; vjpnuhspg;ghdhfg;
gad;gLtJ gutisaf; Fop Mb. rtuf; fz;zhbahfg; gad;gLtJ Fop Mb. fhkpuh nyd;]hfg; gad;gLtJ Ftp nyd;]; nly];Nfhg;gpd; fz;zUF nyd;]; Fiwe;j
Ftpa J}uKs;s Ftp nyd;]; nly];Nfhg;gpd; nghUsUF nyd;]; mjpf Ftpa
J}uKs;s Ftp nyd;]; $l;L Ez;Nzhf;fpapd; fz;zUF nyd;]; mjpf
Ftpa J}uKs;s Ftp nyd;]; $l;L Ez;Nzhf;fpapd; nghUsUF nyd;];
Fiwe;j Ftpa J}uKs;s Ftp nyd;]; vspa Ez;Nzhf;fpapy; Fiwe;j Ftpa J}uKs;s
Ftp nyd;]; gad;gLfpwJ. fpl;lg; ghh;itia rhpnra;a Fop nyd;];@ J}ug;
ghh;itia rhpnra;a Ftp nyd;]; Fop nyd;]pd; Ftpa J}uk; ‘ikd]py;’
Fwpg;gplg;gLk;. Ftp nyd;]pd; Ftpa J}uk; ‘g;s];]py;’
Fwpg;gplg;gLk; nyd;]pd; jpwd; (Power) ‘lahg;lh;’ myfhy;
Fwpg;gplg;gLk;. nyd;]pd; jpwd; mjd; Ftpa J}uj;jpd; jiyfPo;
tpfpjk;.
xèæaš
m®ÎW« bghUŸfë‹ K‹, Ë Ïa¡f¤Â‹
fhuzkhf xè miy guλwJ.
Clf¤ÂYŸs JfŸfŸ miy guΫ Âir¡F
Ïizahfnth mšyJ mt‰¿‹ Âirænynah
m®ÎWtjhš c©lhF« miyfŸ be£liyfŸ
vd¥gL«. v.fh. xè miyfŸ
Clf¤JfŸfŸ, miyguΫ Âir¡F,
br§F¤jhd Âiræš m®ÎWtjhš cUthF« miyfŸ
FW¡fiyfŸ vd¥gL«. v.fh ÚuiyfŸ,
ÏG¤J¡f£l¥g£l f«Ãæ‹ m®ÎfŸ
FW¡fiyfŸ Clf¤Â‹ têna KfL,
mfLfshf¥ guλ‹wd.
Å¢R (a): myF Û£l®.
miyÎ fhy« (T) : myF édho.
m®bt© (n): myF bA®£° (hertz).
miyÚs« (λ): myF Û£l®.
xèahdJ fh‰¿š bršY« ntf¤ijél, Úçš
IªJ kl§F ntfkhfΫ, ÏU«Ãš ÏUgJ kl§F
ntfkhfΫ brš»wJ.
xëæ‹ Âirntf« (3x108
Û/é) MdJ xèæ‹
Âirntf¤ijél (340 Û/é) äf, äf mÂf«. xëahdJ
xèiaél äšèa‹ kl§F ntfkhf¢ brš»wJ. Ïj‹
fhuzkhf¤jh‹ Ïo ä‹dè‹ nghJ, ä‹dš щW
Kjèš òy¥gL»wJ. Ëd® Ïonahir nf£»wJ.
vªj xU xèÍ« 1/10 édhoæš 34 Û bjhiyÎ
gaz« brŒÂU¡F«. vdnt vÂbuhè
nf£f¥glnt©Lbkåš xèia vÂbuhè¥ò mila¢
brŒÍ« jilbghUshdJ FiwªjJ
17 Û bjhiyéš mika nt©L«.
fiy mu§f«, bgça miw, Âiu mu§f« k‰W«
xè¥gÂÎ Tl§fŸ ngh‹wt‰¿š v® KH¡f neukhdJ
ng¢Á‰F 0.5 éehoÍ«, Ïir¡F 1 Kjš 1.5 éehoÍ«
ÏU¤jš nt©L«. v® KH¡f neu¤ij¡ Fiw¥gj‰F,
fiymu§f¤Â‹ nk‰Tiu, Rt®fŸ ngh‹wit xè
c£ftU« j‹ik bfh©l bghUŸfshyhd mK¡f¥g£l
eh® m£il, Âiu¢ÓiyfŸ k‰W« Ãsh°l® ngh‹w
bghUŸfshš nk‰ó¢R brŒa¥g£oU¡F«.
gh®itahs®fŸ mkU« ÏU¡iffŸ xèia c£ftU«
g©Ã‹ mo¥gilæš bjçÎ brŒa¥ gL»‹wd.
20 Hz Kjš 20,000 Hz tiu m®bt© beL¡f«
bfh©l xèia kåj®fë‹ bréÍz® beL¡f«
v‹»nwh«. (1 Hz = 1 R‰W / édho )
20,000 Hz ¡F« mÂfkhd m®bt© bfh©l
xè Ûbahè vd¥gL«.
20 Hz ¡F« Fiwthd m®bt© bfh©l xè
F‰bwhè vd¥gL«.
b#®k‹ eh£il¢ nr®ªj m¿éaš m¿P®
bA®£°, Kj‹ Kjyhf nuonah miyfŸ ÏU¥gij
MŒé‹ _y« ã%äjh®. m®bt©â‹ myfh»a
R‰WfŸ / éeho ÏtuJ bgauhnyna bA®£° v‹w
myfhf kh‰w¥g£lJ.
Ûbahè tç¡f©nzh£l« v‹gJ j‰nghJ
eilKiwæš cŸs fUéš cŸs ÁRéid MŒÎ
brŒÍ« ghJfh¥ghd, Ô§F éisé¡fhj Jšèakhd,
k‰W« kèthd KiwahF«.
kåj‹ k‰W« bt›ntW äUf§fë‹ bréÍz®
beL¡f« (Hz)
kåj‹ 20 - 20,000
ahid 16 - 12,000
gR 16- 40,000
óid 100 - 32,000
ehŒ 40 - 46,000
Kaš 1000 - 1,00,000
btsthš 1000 - 1,50,000
lhšÃ‹fŸ 70 -1,50,000
flšehŒ 900 – 2,00,000
nrhdh® v‹gJ Ûbahèfis¥ ga‹gL¤Â,
flè‹ MH«, ÚU¡foæš cŸs bghU£fë‹ bjhiyÎ,
Âir, k‰W« ntf« M»at‰iw ms¡f¡ Toa
fUéahF«.
xèæaš lh¥s® éisÎ : xè _ynkh mšyJ
nf£Fenuh (mšyJ) Ïu©L« Ïa¡f¤Âš cŸsnghnjh
nf£FeU¡F xèæ‹ m®bt©âš xU kh‰w« ÏU¥gJ
nghy njh‹W«.
»¿°oa‹ n#hA‹ lh¥s® (1803 - 53) : Ït®
M°Âça eh£il¢ nr®ªj fâj k‰W« Ïa‰Ãaš m¿P®
Mth®. 1842M« M©L Ïu£il é©Û‹fëèUªJ tU«
t©z xëia¥g‰¿a MŒé‹ _y« lh¥s® éisit¡
f©l¿ªjh®. xè_y« Ïa¡f¤Âš cŸsnghJ, mJ
cUth¡F« xèæ‹ RUÂæš njh‰w kh‰w« V‰gL« v‹w
fU¤Âid btëæ£lh®. ÏtuJ Ï¡fU¤J Âirntf«
k‰W« bghU£fë‹ bjhiyÎ f©l¿Í« KiwfS¡F
äfΫ gaDŸsjhŒ mikªJŸsJ.
nulh® (Radio Detection and Ranging) - lh¥s®
éisÎ j¤Jt¤Â‹ mo¥gilæš brašgL« nulh®
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 13
fUéia¡ bfh©L Ú®_œ»¡f¥gš k‰W« th}®Âfë‹
Ïa¡f« k‰W« Âirntf« f©l¿a¥gL»wJ.
ngh¡Ftu¤J f£L¥gh£L thfd¤ÂèUªJ,
ntfkhf bršY« thfd¤ij neh¡» ik¡nuh miyfŸ
mD¥g¥gL»‹wd. Ïa§F« thfd¤ÂèUªJ vÂbuhè¥ò
bgW« miyfŸ, f£L¥gh£L thfd¤ÂYŸs gF¥gh‹
cjéædhš czu¥gL»‹wJ. m®bt©âš V‰gL«
lh¥s® Ïl¥bga®¢Áæ‹ _y« thfd¤Â‹ ntf«
fz¡»l¥gL»wJ.
th}®Â ãiya¤Âš cŸs nulhç‹ _y«
bgw¥gL« lh¥s® Ïl¥bga®¢Áæ‹ cjéÍl‹ th}®Â
cŸs cau«, ntf«, beU§F« th}®Âæ‹ bjhiyÎ
ngh‹wit¡ fz¡»l¥gL»‹wd.
btsthšfŸ Ûbahèfis cUth¡F« k‰W«
czU« g©òfŸbfh©lit.
xypapd; gz;Gk; gaDk; xyp miyfs; mjph;ntz; (Frequency)> nrwpT
(Intensity)> Ruk;(Pitch)> juk; (Quality) Mfpa gz;Gfis cilait
mjph;T vz; vd;gJ xU nehbapy; Vw;gLk; xyp miyfspd; vz;zpf;if
xyp mjph;T vz; myF: n`h;l;]; ek; fhJfs; Nfl;fty;y xyp mjph;T vz;: 20-
20>000 n`h;l;]; ntsthy;fSf;F kP xypiaf; Nfl;Fk; rf;jp
cz;L. ntsthy;fspd; mjpfgl;r kP xyp miy mjph;T
vz;: 1>00>000 n`h;l;]; 20 n`h;l;]{f;Ff; fPo; mjph;T vz; nfhz;lit
Fw;nwhyp miyfs; (Infrasonic waves). Fw;nwhyp miyfisf; Nfl;Fk; jpwd; nfhz;l
tpyq;F ahid xypr; nrwptpd; (Intensity of sound) myF: nlrpgy; xypr; nrwpT vd;gJ xypapd; rg;jj;ij (loudness)
Fwpf;fpwJ. nlrpgy; myF klf;if msTNfhiy (Log scale)
mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ. 10 nlrpgiy tpl 20 nlrpgy; E}W klq;F
rg;jkhdJ. KZKZj;jy; vd;gJ 20 nlrpgy; xU rhjhuz ciuahlypd; xypr;nrwpT: 65
nlrpgy; gugug;ghd xU rhiyapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J ,iur;ry;:
75 nlrpgy; n[l; tpkhdk; fpsk;Gk;NghJ Vw;gLk; ,iur;ry;:
140 nlrpgy; 80 nlrpgYf;F Nkw;gl;l xyp> xyp khR
vdg;gLfpwJ. Mz; Fuiy tpl ngz; FuYf;F xypr; Ruk;(Pitch)
mjpfk;. Mz; Fuiy ngz; FuypypUe;J NtWgLj;JtJ
xypr; Ruk;. xU eghpd; FuypypUe;J kw;nwhU eghpd; Fuiy
NtWgLj;JtJk; xypj; juNk. Xh; miwapy; vjpnuhyp Nfl;f Ntz;Lkhdhy;
miwapd; ePsk; Fiwe;jgl;rk; 17 kPl;lh; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
kio fhyj;jpy; fhw;wpy; <ug;gjk; mjpfk; ,Ug;gjhy; ePz;l njhiyTf;F xypiaf; Nfl;fyhk;.
#lhd jfty;fs; ntg;gj;ij mstpl nrd;bfpNuL> /ghud;`Pl;>
nfy;tpd; vd;w %d;Wtpj myFfs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
kdpj clypy; ruhrhp ntg;gepiy 98.4°F my;yJ 37°C my;yJ 310K
ePhpd; nfhjp epiy 100°C my;yJ 212°F my;yJ 373K
ePhpd; ciw epiy 0°C my;yJ 32°F my;yJ 273K njh;khkPl;lh;fpsy; ghjurk; gad;gLfpwJ. kpff; Fiwe;j ntg;gj;ij msf;Fk; fUtp
My;f`hy; njh;khkPl;lh; kUj;Jt njh;khkPl;lhpy; 35°C Kjy; 42°C
tiuapyhd msTfs; ,Uf;Fk; #lhd ePiutpl Fsph;e;j ePh; mjpf ntg;gj;ij
cl;ftUk; ‘Mtpahjy; Fsph;r;rpia Vw;gLj;Jk;’ vd;w
jj;Jtj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; ,aq;FfpwJ /g;hp[; Fsph;rhjd miwapy; ntg;g epiy 23-25°C-Yk;
<ug; gjk; 60-65% vd;w mstpYk; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
ntg;g ,d;[pd;fs; ntg;g ,d;[pd;fs; (Heat Engine) vd;gJ ntg;g
Mw;wiy ,af;f Mw;wyhf khw;Wk; mikg;G ntg;g ,d;[pd;fs; ntsp vhp ,d;[pd;fs;> cs; vhp
,d;[pd;fs; vd ,U tifg;gLk; ePuhtp ,d;[pd; xU ntsp vhp ,d;[pd; ngl;Nuhy; ,d;[pd;> Bry; ,d;[pd;> n[l; ,d;[pd;
Nghd;wit cs; vhp ,d;[pd;fs; ntsp vhp ,d;[pdpy; vhp nghUs; ,d;[pDf;F
ntspNa vhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. cs; vhp ,d;[pdpy; vhp nghUs; ,d;[pDf;F
cs;Ns vhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ePuhtp ,d;[pd;> jhk]; epa+ Nfhkd; vd;gtuhy;
1705-y; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;L N[k;]; thl;lhy; 1769-y; khw;wpaikf;fg;gl;lJ.
ngl;Nuhy; ,d;[pd;> Bry; ,d;[pd; Nghd;wit ehd;F tPr;R (Four Stroke) ,d;[pd;fs;
Bry; ,d;[pdpd; nray; jpwd; (Efficiency) ngl;Nuhy; ,d;[pdpd; nray; jpwid tpl mjpfk;
Bry; ,d;[pdpd; nray; jpwd; 40% Mdhy; ngl;Nuhy; ,d;[pdpd; nray; jpwd; 15%.
Bry; ,d;[pdpy; fhh;GNul;lNuh> kpd; nghwpNah fpilahJ.
Bry; ,d;[pdpy; fhw;wpd; gUkd; mjd; 1/16 msTf;F mOj;jg;gLtjhy; Vw;gLk; ntg;gj;jhy; vhpnghUs; vhpfpwJ.
ePuhtp ,d;[pd;> n[l; ,d;[pd; Mfpatw;wpd; nray; jpwDk; 15% kl;LNk.
kpd;rhuk;
vyf;l;uhdpd; Xl;lj;ij kpd;Ndhl;lk; vd;fpNwhk;. kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; myF: Mk;gpah; kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij mstpLk; fUtp: mk;kPl;lh; kpd; mOj;jj;jpd; myF: Nthy;l; kpd; mOj;jj;ij mstpLk; fUtp: Nthy;l; kPl;lh; kpd; jilapd; myF: Xk; kpd; jilia mstpLk; fUtp: Xk;kPl;lh; kpd; jpUj;jp (Rectifier) vd;w fUtp khW jpir
kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij Neh; jpir kpd;Ndhl;lkhf khw;WfpwJ.
kpd; khw;wp (Transformer) vd;gJ kpd; mOj;jj;ijj; $l;lNth> Fiwf;fNth gad;gLfpwJ.
xU kpd; Rw;wpy; kpd;Ndhl;lk; cs;sjh> ,y;iyah vd mwpa cjTtJ-fhy;tdh kPl;lh;.
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 14
xU kpd; Rw;wpy; kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij mstpl cjTtJ > mk;kPl;lh;.
xU fhy;tdh kPl;liu mk;kPl;luhf khw;w Fiwe;j kpd; jilia gf;f ,izg;gpy; ,izf;f Ntz;Lk;.
xU fhy;tdh kPl;liu Nthy;l; kPl;luhf khw;w mjpf kpd; jilia njhlh; ,izg;gpy; ,izf;f Ntz;Lk;.
ä‹åaš k‰W« bt¥géaš
ϪÂahéš fh‰W M‰wš _y« ä‹c‰g¤Â
brŒÍ« khãy§fëš jäœehL Kjèl« t»¡»‹wJ. ÏJ
5000 bkfh th£ ä‹dh‰wiy c‰g¤Â brŒÍ« Âw‹
bfh©lJ.
jäœeh£oYŸs ö¤J¡Fo, f‹åah¡Fkhç
k‰W« ÂUbešntè kht£l§fëš bgU«ghyhd
fh‰whiyfŸ mikªJŸsd.
Kj‹ Kjyhf ÿæ fhšthå v‹w Ϥjhèa
éŠPhåahš ä‹fy« cUth¡f¥g£lJ. myrh©nuh
nthšlh v‹gtuhš nk«gL¤j¥g£lJ.
ä‹fy« mšyJ ä‹fy mL¡F. -
ä‹ndh£l¤ij¤ jU« _y«.
Ïiz¥ò¡f«ÃfŸ - ä‹ndh£l¤ij vL¤J¢
bršy.
ä‹és¡F ngh‹w ä‹dh‰wiy ga‹gL¤J«
mik¥ò.
rhé - ä‹ndh£l¤ij¤ njitahd nghJ
brY¤jnth mšyJ ãW¤jnth ga‹gL« mik¥ò. ÏJ
ä‹R‰¿‹ v¥gFÂæY« Ïiz¡f¥glyh«.
ä‹és¡»DŸ l§°ldhš brŒa¥g£l
RUŸtot¡ f«Ã cŸsJ. ÏJ ä‹åiH vd¥gL«.
ä‹ndh£l« Ïj‹ têna brY¤j¥gL«nghJ Nlh»
xë®»‹wJ. ϧF ä‹dh‰wš xë
M‰wyhfkh‰w¥gL»‹wJ.
ä‹ éyh§F Û‹ v‹gJ ä‹rhu¤ij
cUth¡ftšy ÛdhF«. Ï›tif Û‹fŸ mnkrh‹
eÂæ‹ öa ÚçY« k‰W« bj‹ mbkç¡fhéš cŸs
Xçndh¡ bfh e gLifæY« thœ»‹wd.
ä‹ndh£l¤Â‹ fhªjéisÎ g‰¿ l¢R eh£il¢
rh®ªj m¿P® »¿°oa‹ xa®°bl£ 1820M« M©L
f©l¿ªjh®.
fhªj CÁahdJ v¥nghJ« tl¡F-bj‰F
Âiræš ã‰F«.
Åzhd bghUŸfë‹ Féaèš ÏUªJ ÏU«ò
Ãç¤bjL¡f ä‹fhªj§fŸ ga‹gL»‹wd.
#&š v‹gJ M‰wiy msél¥ga‹gL« myF
MF«
bt¥gãiyia¡ F¿¥Ãl bršÁa° k‰W«
~ghu‹Ë£ v‹w ÏU myFfisÍ« ga‹gL¤jyh«.
SI msÅ£L Kiwæš bt¥gãiy bfšé‹ v‹w
myfhš msél¥gL»‹wJ.
bršÁa° msÅ£oèUªJ ~ghu‹Ë£
msÅ£o‰F kh‰w ga‹gL« bjhl®ò C / 100 = (F-
32)/180
kU¤Jt bt¥gãiykhå 35ºC Kjš 42ºC tiu
msél¥g£oU¡F«.
kåjå‹ ruhrç clš bt¥gãiy 36.9º C (m)
98.4º F MF«.
j‰nghJ oí£lš bt¥gãiykhåfis¡ bfh©L
bt¥gãiy msél¥gL»‹wJ. ÏJ f©zho k‰W«
ghjur« Ïšyhj xU ä‹dQ mik¥ò MF«. ÏJ vëš
cilahJ k‰W« ga‹gL¤JtJ ghJfh¥ghdJ.
nehahëæ‹ ifæ‹ moænyh mšyJ thænyh it¤j
xU ãäl¤Â‰F¥ ÃwF ÁW r¥j¤ij V‰gL¤J«. mJ
bt¥gãiyæ‹ msit neuoahf v©fëš fh£L«.
ä‹rhuéaš k‰W« bt¥géaš
ä‹ndh£l¤ij¡ fl¤J« xU fiurš mšyJ
cU»a ãiyæš cŸs xU bghUisna ä‹gFë
v‹»nwh«.
J¤jehf Kyh« ór¥g£l ÏU«ò fhštidRL
ÏU«ò (GI) vd¥gL«. ÏJ JU¥Ão¡fh ÏU«ò¡ FHhŒfŸ
brŒa¥ga‹gL»wJ. Vbdåš, J¤jehf¥ ó¢R
JU¥Ão¤jiy¤ jL¡»wJ.
ä‹}£l§fis¡ f©l¿tj‰F« mt‰iw
ms¥gj‰F« ga‹gL« fUéna ä‹}£l§fh£o
vd¥gL«.
ä‹}£l« bg‰w bghUŸ x‹W ä‹}£l« m‰w
bghUnshL bjhl®ò bfhŸS« nghJ, ä‹}£l§fŸ
gçkhW»‹wd. Ïu©oY« ä‹}£l msÎ rkkhF«
tiuæš gçkh‰w« ãfœ»‹wJ. Ïjidna ä‹åw¡f«
v‹»nwh«.
ä‹}£l« bg‰w bghUŸ x‹iw fl¤J f«ÃfŸ
_ykhfnth mšyJ bjhLjš _ykhfnth òénahL
Ïiz¥gijna òé¥Ãiz¥ò v‹»nwh«.
òé Vuhskhd ä‹}£l§fis¥ bg‰w xU
miz¡f£L ngh‹wJ. mjndhL bjhl®ò bfhŸS«
bghUS¡F V‰g vy¡£uh‹fis më¡fnth mšyJ
V‰fnth brŒÍ« ÏašòilaJ.
ekJ ÅLfëš ga‹gL« bgU«ghyhd
ä‹rhjd§fŸ (Fë®rhjd¥ bg£o, khtiu¡F«
ÏaªÂu«, JâJit¡F« ÏaªÂu« ngh‹wit)
òé¥Ãiz¥ò brŒa¥g£oU¡F«. Vbdåš ÏJ
kåj®fisÍ«, ä‹rhjd§fisÍ« ghJfh¡F«.
Ïo jh§»ia¡ f©LÃo¤jt® bgŠrä‹
~Ãuh§¡ë‹ v‹w m¿éayhs® Mth®.
bt¥g« v‹gJ xU tifahd M‰wš
ä‹ndh£léaY« M‰wY«
ä‹}£l¤Â‹ SI myF TY«. 1 TY« v‹gJ 6
x 1018
vy¡£uh‹fë‹ ä‹}£l¤Â‰F¢ rk«.
ä‹ndh£l¤Â‹ myF M«Ãa® (A) MF«.
M«¥Ãa® v‹gJ ÃbuŠ¢ eh£L m¿éaš m¿P®
bgauhF«.
ä‹ndh£l¤ij ms¡f m«Û£l® v‹»w rhjd«
ga‹gL»wJ.
ä‹dG¤j ntWgh£o‹ SI myF nthš£ (V)
1 nthš£ = 1 #&š / 1 TY«
ä‹dG¤j ntWgh£il nthš£ Û£liu¡
bfh©L ms¡»nwh«.
1827 M« M©L b#®k‹ eh£L Ïa‰Ãaš m¿P®
#h®{ irk‹ X« xU fl¤Âæš ghÍ« ä‹ndh£l« I¡F«
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 15
fl¤Âæ‹ KidfS¡»ilnaahd ä‹dG¤jntWghL
V¡Fkhd bjhl®ig ¡ f©l¿ªjh®.
X« éÂ¥go V α I V = IR
ä‹jilæ‹ SI myF X«. Ïj‹ F¿pL Ω .
ä‹jilah¡»fis ÏUKiwfëš
Ïiz¡fyh«. mit m) bjhlçiz¥ò, M) g¡f Ïiz¥ò
xU ä‹jilæš cUth¡f¥gL« bt¥gkhdJ (1)
F¿¥Ã£l ä‹jil¡F mj‹ têna ghÍ«
ä‹ndh£l¤Â‹ ÏUko¡F (I²) ne® é»j¤ÂY« (2)
F¿¥Ã£l ä‹ndh£l¤Â‰F ä‹jilah¡»æ‹ ä‹
jil¡F (R) ne®é»j¤ÂY« (3) ä‹jilah¡»æ‹ têna
ä‹ndh£l« ghÍ« neu¤Â‰F (t) ne® é»j¤ÂY«
ÏU¡F«. ÏJ #&š bt¥g é vd¥gL»wJ.
#&š bt¥g éisé‹ bghJthd ga‹ghL ä‹
R‰¿š ga‹gL« ä‹ cU»ahF«. (fuse). ÏJ xU
cnyhf¡ fyitahš (37% fhça«, 63% <a« ) Md f«Ã
MF«.
ekJ eh£oš Ï›éU f«ÃfS¡Fäilna
ä‹dG¤j ntWghL 220 V ÏU¡F«.
ntiy brŒa¥gL« Åj« Âw‹ vd¥gL«.
ä‹dh‰wš vL¤J¡ bfhŸs¥gL« Åj« ä‹Âw‹
vd¥gL«.
ä‹Âwå‹ SI myF th£ (W).
xU th£ kâ v‹gJ 1 th£ Âw‹ xU kâ neu«
ga‹gL¤j¥g£oU¥gij¡ F¿¡»wJ. thâg ßÂæš
ä‹dh‰wiy »nyh th£ kâ v‹w myfhš (kwh)
ms¡»nwh«. mJ bghJthf ôå£ vd¥gL»wJ.
1 kwh = 1000 th£ x 3600 édho = 3.6 x 106 Éš ( J
)
ä‹dG¤j ntWghL 1.08 V MF«.
by¡yhŠÁ ä‹fyå‹ ä‹ Ïa¡F éir 1.5. V
fhßa mäy nrk¡fy‹ bghJthf¥ga‹gL«
Jiz ä‹fydhF«.
éirahê¡F¤ njitahd ntf¤ij ãiyãW¤j
fh‰¿‹ ntf« 15 ».ä / kâiaél äf mÂfkhf ÏU¡f
nt©L«.
xU mQ¡fU mšyJ Ínuåa¤Â‹ ÃsÎ
ãy¡fçæ‹ xU fh®g‹ mQ v绋wnghJ c‰g¤ÂahF«
M‰wiyél 10 äšèa‹ kl§F mÂf M‰wiy c‰g¤Â
brŒ»wJ.
nkl« nkç »ôçÍ« mt® fzt® Ãaç »ôçÍ«
äFªj f®ŢR bfh©l jåk§fshd nuoa« k‰W«
bghnyhåa¤ij¡ f©l¿ªjd®.
mQ v© 82I él mÂfkhd fdkhd jåk§fŸ
α (Alpha) , β (Beta) k‰W« γ (Gama) ngh‹w mÂf
CLUΫ f®fis j‹å¢irahf btëéL« m‰òj
ãfœÎ fÂça¡f« vd¥gL»wJ.
b#®k‹ m¿éayhs®fŸ M£nlh Ah‹ k‰W«
°£uh°nk‹ 1939š Ínuåa« mQ¡fU ãô£uh‹
bfh©L jh¡f¥gL«nghJ M‰wš btëp£Ll‹,
x¥Ãl¡Toa ãiwfSila ÏU J©L fshf¥
ÃsÎgLtij f©LÃo¤jd®.
f®ŢÁ‹ msÎ uh©£#‹ v‹w myfhš
msél¥gL»wJ (R).
xU »uh« fh‰¿š 1.6 x 1012
n#ho maåfis
cUth¡F« f®ŢÁ‹ msÎ xU uh©£#‹ vd¥gL«.
Mg¤J gFÂfëš gâ òçÍ« bghGJ, fhßa
nky§»Í«, fhßa ifÍiwÍ« ga‹ gL¤j¥glnt©L«.
kÂ¥ÕL
gFÂ - m
1. 20 X« ä‹jilÍŸs f«Ãæš 0.2 A ä‹ndh£l«
cUth¡f¤ njit¥gL« ä‹dG¤j ntWghL -----
(100 V, 4 V, 0.01 V, 40 V)
2. ÏU ä‹és¡Ffë‹ ä‹jilfë‹ é»j« 1 :
2. mit bjhluhf xU R‰¿š Ïiz¡f¥gL»‹wd våš
mit vL¤J¡ bfhŸS« M‰wšfë‹ é»j« -----
(1 : 2, 2 : 1, 4 : 1, 1 : 1)
3. »nyhth£ kâ v‹gJ ------‹ myF MF«.
(ä‹dG¤j ntWghL, ä‹Âw‹, ä‹dh‰wš, ä‹}£l«)
4. x¤j ãgªjidfëš ------ gu¥ò k‰w gu¥òfis
él mÂf bt¥g¤ij c£ft®»wJ.
(bt©ik, brhubrhu¥ghd, fUik, kŠrŸ)
5. Ïa‰if¡ fÂça¡f¤jåk¤Â‹ mQ v© ----
--
(82I él mÂf«, 82I él¡ FiwÍ,
tiuaW¡f¥gléšiy, FiwªjJ 92)
ä‹ndh£l¤Â‹fhªj éisΫ xëæaY«
fhªj¤ij¢ R‰¿Y« mj‹ éir czu¥gL«
gFÂ fhªjòy« vd¥gL«.
ÏU«ò¤JfŸfshš xU§fik¡f¥g£L cUthF«
nfhLfŸ fhªj éir¡ nfhLfŸ vd¥gL«.
fhªj¤Â‹ cŸns òy¡nfhLfŸ bj‹Kidæš
bjhl§» tlKidæš KoÍ«. fhªj¥òy¡ nfhLfŸ _oa
tisnfhLfshF«. Ïit xUnghJ« x‹iwbah‹W
bt£o¡bfhŸshJ.
R£Léuš fhªj¥òy¤Â‹ ÂiriaÍ«, eLéuš
ä‹ndh£l¤Â‹ ÂiriaÍ« F¿¤jhš f£iléuš fl¤Â
Ïa§F« Âiria¡ F¿¡F«. ÏJnt ~Ãsä§ Ïl¡if
é vd¥gL«.
ä‹nkh£lh® v‹gJ ä‹dh‰wiy vªÂu
M‰wyhf kh‰w¡Toa RHY« fUéahF«.
~ghunl 1831š, ä‹fhªj¤ ö©lš v‹w ãfœit
f©l¿ªjh®.
ty¡ifæ‹ R£Léuš, eLéuš, bgUéuš
_‹iwÍ« x‹W¡bfh‹W ne®¡F¤jhf it¡fΫ.
R£Léuš fhªj¥òy¤Â‹ ÂiriaÍ«, bgUéuš fl¤Â
Ïa§F« ÂiriaÍ« F¿¤jhš, eLéuš ö©L
ä‹ndh£l¤Â‹ Âiria¡ F¿¡F«. ÏJ~Ãsä§
ty¡if é vd¥gL«.
ä‹fhªj¤ ö©lš j¤Jt¤ij¥ ga‹gL¤Â
ÅLfŸ k‰W« bjhê‰ rhiyfë‹ ga‹gh£o‰fhd
ä‹rhu« jahç¡f¥gL»wJ. ä‹åa‰¿æš vªÂu M‰wš
ä‹dh‰wyhf kh‰w¥gL»wJ.
ne®¤Âir ä‹ndh£l¤ij (DC) cUth¡f Ïš
eGÎ tisa§fS¡F¥ gÂyhf ÃsÎg£l tisa¤ Âir
kh‰¿ ga‹gL¤j¥gL»wJ.
Âw‹ ÏH¥ò Ïšyhkš Xçl¤ÂèUªJ k‰nwh®
Ïl¤Â‰F ä‹ Âwid mD¥òtš ne®¤Âir
ä‹ndh£l¤ij él khW Âir ä‹ndh£l« cfªjjhF«.
cŸ neh¡»a vÂbuhë¡F« tisgu¥ò bfh©l
MofŸ Fê MofŸ vd¥gL«. btëneh¡»a
vÂbuhë¡F« tisgu¥ig¡ bfh©l MofŸ FéahofŸ
vd¥gL«.
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 16
nfhsf Moæ‹ vÂbuhë¡F« gu¥Ã‹
ika¥òŸë Mo ika« vd¥gL«.
Mo vªj¡ nfhs¤Â‹ gFÂnah, mªj¡
nfhs¤Â‹ ika« Moæ‹ tisÎ ika« vd¥gL«. mJ
‘C’ v‹w vG¤jhš F¿¡f¥gL«.
nfhsf Mo vªj¡ nfhs¤Â‹ gFÂnah mj‹
Mu« Moæ‹ tisÎ Mu« vd¥gL«. mJ R v‹w
vG¤jhš F¿¡f¥gL«.
nfhsf Moæ‹, Mo ika« k‰W« tisÎ ika«
M»at‰¿‹ têna bršY« f‰gidahd ne®nfhL
Moæ‹ Kj‹ik m¢R vd¥gL«.
nfhsf MofS¡F tisÎ Mu« Féa¤öu¤Â‹
ÏU kl§fhF«. R = 2f
FêahofŸ bghJthf if és¡FfŸ, bjU
és¡FfŸ, thfd§fë‹ Kf¥ò és¡FfŸ M»at‰¿š
br¿Î ä¡f Ïiz¡f®fis¥ bgWtj‰F«, Kf¤Â‹
bgçjh¡f¥g£l njh‰w¤ij¡ fh£L« rtu¡
f©zhoahfΫ, gš kU¤Jt®fŸ nehahëfë‹
g‰fë‹ cU¥bgU¡f¥g£l njh‰w¤ij¡ fhzΫ, Nça
mL¥òfëš xëia¡ Fé¤J, bt¥g¤ij c©lh¡fΫ
ga‹gL»‹wd.
Féaho, thfd§fë‹ g¡fth£oš bghU¤j¥
g£L, Ëdhš tU« thfd§fis¥ gh®¥gj‰fhd
f©zhoahf¥ ga‹gL»wJ. ghJfh¥ghd gaz¤ij
cW brŒ»wJ. bghUë‹ neuhd ëg¤ij cUth¡F«.
bghUë‹ KG cUt¤ijÍ« gh®¡fyh«.
xë CLUΫ xU Clf¤ÂèUªJ k‰bwhU
Clf¤ÂDŸ bršY«nghJ mj‹ Âir khW« ãfœÎ
xëéyfš vd¥gL«.
xë bt‰¿l¤Âš 3 x 108 ms
-1 v‹w
bgUk¤Âirntf¤Âš bršY«.
ëg¤Â‹ msΡF« bghUë‹ msΡF« cŸs
jfÎ by‹Á‹ cUbgU¡f« vd¥gL«.
by‹Á‹ Féa¤bjhiyé‹ jiyÑê mj‹
Âw‹ vd tiuaW¡f¥gL«.
by‹Á‹ Âw‹ 1 ilah¥l® MF«.
Át¥ò t©z xë äf¡Fiwªj msΫ, Cjh
t©z xë äf mÂf msΫ éyfyilÍ«.
é©Û‹fŸ ä‹Djš bgça mséyhd
tëk©ly xëéyfyhš njh‹WtjhF«.
éê¡nfhs« Vw¤jhH 2.3 brÛ é£lKila
nfhstot mik¥ig¡ bfh©lJ.
iknahÃah v‹gJ »£l¥gh®it vd¥gL«.
Ï¡FiwghLŸs xUt® mU»š cŸs bghUŸfis¤
bjëthf¥ gh®¡f KoÍ«. bjhiyéš cŸs
bghUŸfis¤ bjëthf¥gh®¡f KoahJ.
»£l¥gh®it cilatç‹ f©âš bjhiy
bghUë‹ Ã«g« éê¤Âiu¡F K‹ghfnt
njh‹Wé¡f¥gL»wJ. éê¤Âiuæš
njh‰Wé¡f¥gLtšiy
éêby‹Á‹ mÂf¥goahd tisÎ, éê¡nfhs«
ÚŸtJ ngh‹wit »£l¥gh®it FiwghL
njh‹Wtj‰fhd fhuz§fŸ
»£l¥gh®itia jFªj ÂwDila Fêby‹ir
cgnah»¤J¢ rçbrOEayh«.
iAg®bk£nuhÃah v‹gJ öu¥gh®it vd¥gL«.
öu¥gh®itÍila xUt® bjhiyéš cŸs
bghUŸffs¤ bjëthf¡ fhz ÏaY«. m©ikæYŸs
bghUŸfis¤ bjëthf¡ fhzKoahJ.
v£l¥gh®it cilatç‹ f©âš mU»YŸs
bghUëèUªJ tU« xë¡f®fŸ
éê¤Âiu¡F¥Ã‹dhš Féa¥gL¤j¥gL»wJ.
éêby‹Á‹ Féa¤bjhiyÎ Ú©oU¤jš,
éê¡nfhs« Á¿ajhtJ ngh‹wit v£l¥gh®it
FiwghL njh‹Wtj‰fhd fhuz§fŸ
v£l¥gh®itia jFªj ÂwDila Féby‹ir¥
ga‹gL¤Â Ï¡Fiwia¢ rç brOEayh«.
Áy neu§fëš xUt® »£l¥gh®it, öu¥gh®it
Ïu©lhY« gh¡f¥glyh«. m¤jifat®fS¡F
ÏUFéa¡ f©zhofŸ njit¥gL»wJ.
A¥òŸ bjhiyneh¡» xU th‹ bjhiy
neh¡»ahF«. v£é‹ A¥òŸ v‹w mbkç¡f
thdhŒths® bga® Ïj‰F¢ N£l¥g£lJ.
1990M« M©L V¥uš khj« mj‹
R‰W¥ghijæš brY¤j¥g£lJ.
1993M« M©L Kjš 2002M« M©Ltiu
eh‹F Kiw guhkç¥ò¥gâfŸ nk‰bfhŸs¥g£lJ.
Ϥbjhiy neh¡» 2014M« M©Ltiu
brašgL« vd v®gh®¡f¥gL»wJ.
rªÂuha‹ I-‹ rhjidfëš Áy
ãyé‹ k©âš Ú® _Y¡TWfŸ mÂf gu¥Ãš
guéæU¥gij¡ f©l¿ªjJ.
rªÂuhaå‹ fåk tiu fUé(Moon minerology
Mapper), ãyÎ K‰fhy¤Âš K‰¿Y« cU»a
ãiyæèUªjij cW brŒ»wJ.
Inuh¥Ãa é©btë ika¤Â‹ ga‹Rik -
rªÂuha‹ I glkh¡F« X-f® (CXIS) ãwkhiykhå,
24¡F« nk‰g£l tèik F‹¿a Nça xë¥òašfis¥
gÂÎ brŒjJ.
75 eh£fëš rªÂuha‹ òif¥gl¡ fUé
40,000¡F« nk‰g£l gl§fis¥ òé¡F mD¥ÃaJ.
Âut ie£u#‹, Âut Ëèa« ngh‹wit gy Fëç
ga‹ghLfëš K¡»akhdjhF«. éÂfë‹go
ehLfëilna bgw ÏaYtJ«, Fëç¤ bjhêš E£g¤Âš
mÂf« ga‹gLtJ« Âut ie£u#‹ MF«. Âut Ëèa«
äf¡ Fiwªj bt¥gãiyia¥ bgw¥ bghJthf¥
ga‹gL¤j¥gL»wJ. 6 mo cauK« 3 mo é£lK«
bfh©l Âth® FLitfëš Ï¤Âut§fŸ
it¡f¥gL»‹wd.
Ïu©lh« cyf¥nghç‹ nghJ Fëçaš Jiw
ts®¢ÁailªjJ. m¿éayhs®fŸ äfΫ Fë%£l¥g£l
cnyhf§fë‹ cW¤j‹ik mÂfç¥gij¡
f©l¿ªjd®. ÏJ Fëç tY¥gL¤Jjš vd¥gL«. v£ò°
v‹gtuhš 1966M« M©L thâg ßÂæš brašgL«
Fëç¤ bjhê‰rhiy cUth¡f¥g£L cy»‹ gHikahd
Fëç ãWtdkhf kh¿aJ.
Âut ie£u#‹ ngh‹w FëçfŸ, Fë®é¡F«
k‰W« ciwa¢ brŒÍ« ga‹ghLfëš ga‹gL»‹wd.
tèikahd fhªj¥òy« Âut Ëèa¤ÂDŸ
it¡f¥g£l Û¡fl¤J f«Ã¢RUŸfis¥ ga‹gL¤Â
cUth¡f¥gL«.
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 17
eÅd é©btë ãiya§fŸ, é©btëæš Áy
thu§fŸ mšyJ Áy khj§fŸ mšyJ Áy tUl§fŸ
j§» MŒÎ¥gâfŸ nk‰bfhŸtj‰fhf
totik¡f¥g£lit. mšnk{, ršô£ tçir, °ifny¥,
ä® ngh‹wit Ï›tif é©btë ãiya§fshF«.
uhQt« ga‹gL¤Âa filÁ é©btë ãiya«
ršô£ 5 MF«. ÏJ 1976 k‰W« 1977 « M©oš nrhéa¤
FoauÁ‹ mšnk{ £l¤Â‹go ga‹gL¤j¥g£lJ.
é©btë ãiya§fŸ bghJthf ÏUtif¥gL«.
ršô£ °ifny¥ M»ait x‰iw mL¡F tifahF«.
Ïit Kjèš Vt¥g£L Ë é©btë MŒthsuhš
têel¤j¥gL«.
ršô£ 6, k‰W« ršô£ 7 M»ait Áy
kh‰w§fis cŸsl¡» ÏU mL¡FKiwæš
cUth¡f¥g£ld. ÏJ, Ïu©lhtJ é©btë MŒths®
òÂa é©fy« _y« mjid¢ br‹wiltj‰F«
bghUŸfis¡ bfh©L nr®¡fΫ têtF¤jJ.
°ifny¥ Ïu£il mL¡F tifia¢ rh®ªjJ.
Ïu©lh« mL¡F Ú©l fhy MŒÎ¡F« têtF¡F«.
Ïu©lh« tifia¢ rh®ªj ä®, k‰W« g‹dh£L
é©btë ãiya«( International space Station-ISS)
M»ait jåahf Kjèš Vt¥g£L, njitahd gFÂfŸ
go¥goahf mjDl‹ Ïiz¡f¥g£lJ.
oah§fhŒ-I v‹w é©btë ãiya¤ij 2011-
M« M©o‹ Jt¡f¤Âš Ódh Vt cŸsJ. mj‹Ã‹
cy»š é©btë ãiya¤ij Véa ehLfëš
_‹whtjhf Ódh mikÍ«.
kÂ¥ÕL
gFÂ - m
1. xU bghUë‹ KL¡f¤Â‰F¡ fhuz«
________________.
(rk‹ brŒa¥g£l éir, rk‹ brŒa¥glhj éir,
ãiyä‹åaš éir)
2. cªj khWgh£L Åj¤Â‰F¢ rkkhd Ïa‰Ãaš
msÎ ________________.
(Ïl¥bga®¢Á, KL¡f«, éir, fz¤jh¡Féir)
3. XŒÎ ãiyæYŸs fdkhd bghUë‹ cªj«
________________.
(äf mÂf«, äf¡ FiwÎ, Rê, Koéè)
4. òé¥gu¥Ãš 50 ».». ãiwÍŸs kåjå‹ vil
________________.
(50 N, 35 N, 380 N, 490 N)
5. cæç bjhêšE£g CÁ kUªJfis¡ Fëu¢
brOEÍ« Fëç bjhêšE£g mik¥òfŸ _____________.
(Ëèa«, ie£u#‹, m«nkhåah, Fnshç‹)
fz;Lgpbj;jth;fs; Gtp <h;g;G tpir> ,af;f tpjpfs; - Irf; epa+l;ld; rhh;gpay; jj;Jtk;> xsp kpd; tpisT – Id;];Bd; njhiy Nehf;fp> tpahodpd; Jizf; Nfhs;fs; -
fypypNah fypyp Nfhs; ,af;f tpjpfs; - N[hfd; nfg;sh; mZ cl;fU (Atomic Nucleus) - &jh;/Nghh;l; mZf; fUf;nfhs;if (Atomic Theory) – [hd;
lhy;ld; vyf;l;uhd;(Electron)-n[.n[. jhk;]d; GNuhl;lhd;(Proton)- Nfhy;];Bd; epA+l;uhd; (Neutron) – rhl;tpf; kpjj;jy; tpjpfs; - Mh;f;fpkpb]; kpd;fhe;jj; J}z;ly; - ikf;Nfy; /ghuNl
,bjhq;fp – ngQ;rkpd; /g;uhq;fpspd; mZitg; gpsj;jy; - Ml;Nlh`hd;> ];l;uh];Nkd; Ftp> Fop fz;zhb (bifocal lens) – ypadhh;Nlh
lhtpd;]p nraw;iff; fjphpaf;fk;(Artificial Radio Activity)-
n`d;wp ngf;nfhuy; kpd;fhe;j miyfs; (Electromagnetic Waves)-
N[k;]; fpshh;f; khf;];nty; Fthz;lk; nfhs;if – khf;]; g;shq;f;
mZTk; fjphpaf;fKk; mZtpd; cl;fUtpypUe;J mjpf Mw;wYs;s
mZj; Jfs;fSk; fjph;fSk; ntspg;gLtNj fjphpaf;fk;.
cyfpYs;s 2>300 mZf;fspy; Rkhh; 2000-f;F Nkw;gl;lit fjphpaf;fk; nfhz;lit
,aw;if fjphpaf;fj;ij gpuhd;]; ehl;ilr; Nrh;e;j n`d;wp ngf;Nfhuy; vd;w tpQ;Qhdp 1896-y; fz;lwpe;jhh;
n`d;wp ngf;Nfhuy; ANudpak; jdpkj;jpd; fjphpaf;fj;ijf; fz;lwpe;jhh;
fjphpaf;fj; jdpkq;fshd ANudpak;> Nghyhdpak; Mfpatw;iw Nklk; fpa+hp fz;lwpe;jhh;.
mZ vz; 82-f;F Nkw;gl;l jdpkq;fs; fjphpaf;fk; nfhz;lit
82-f;Ff; Fiwthd mZ vz; nfhz;l 9 vspa jdpkq;fspd; IN]hNlhg;GfSk; fjphpaf;fj;ij ntspapLfpd;wd
fjphpaf;fk; nfhz;l vspa jdpk IN]hNlhg;Gfspy; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fit 14-C6
(fhh;gd;) kw;Wk; 40-K 19 (nghl;lhrpak;) IN]hNlhg;G vd;gJ xj;j mZ vz;Zk;
NtWgl;l mZ vilAk; nfhz;l jdpkj;jpd; khWgl;l tbtq;fs;
Vohk; thpir jdpkq;fspy; ,aw;ifapy; fpilf;Fk; 5 jdpkq;fs;@ Nubak;> Mf;bdpak;> Njhhpak;> Guf;bdpak; kw;Wk; ANudpak;
fjphpaf;fg; nghUspd; miu Mas; fhyk; (half life period) vd;gJ me;jg; nghUspd; nrwpT ghjpahf Fiwtjw;F MFk; fhyk;
fh];kpf; fjph;fspYs;s epa+l;uhd;fs; tspkz;ly iel;u[id Nrjg;gLj;Jtjhy; 14C6 IN]hNlhg; cUthfpwJ.
fjphpaf;f jdpkq;fs; ‘My;gh’ fjph;fis ckpo;fpd;wd
My;gh fjph;fisf; fz;lwpe;jth; n`d;wp ngf;Nfhuy;.
gPl;lh fjph;fisf; fz;lwpe;jth; vh;d];l; &jh;/Nghh;l;
fhkh fjph;fisf; fz;lwpe;jth; gpa+hp fpa+hp fjphpaf;fj;jpd;NghJ α>β>¥ fjph;fs;
ntspaplg;gLfpd;wd. α fjph;fs; rpq;f; ry;igL> Nghpak; gpshl;bNdh
raidl; Nghd;w Ntjpg; nghUl;fis xspur; nra;fpd;wd
α fjph;fs; `Pypak; mZtpd; cl;fUit xj;jit
ve;j xU fjphpaf;fg; nghUSk; α,β fjph;fis xNu rkaj;jpy; ckpo;tjpy;iy.
rpy fjphpaf;fg; nghUl;fs; α fjph;fisak; NtW rpy nghUl;fs; β fjph;fisAk; ckpo;fpd;wd
α fjph;> β my;yJ ¥ fjpNuhL Nrh;j;J ckpog;gLfpwJ.
,aw;gpay;
Compiled By Rex Christopher 18
α kw;Wk; β fjph;fs; fhe;j kw;Wk; kpd;Gyq;fspy; tpyf;fg;gLfpd;wd
¥ fjph; fhe;j kpd;Gyq;fspy; tpyf;fkiltjpy;iy
α fjph;fs; Neh; kpd; RikAlDk;> β fjph;fs; vjph; kpd; RikAlDk;> ¥ fjph;fs; kpd; Rikaw;Wk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd
¥ fjph;fs; kpf mjpf CLUTk; jd;ik nfhz;lit
α fjph;fs; mjpf mahdpahf;Fk; jpwd; nfhz;lit
β fjph;fs; vyf;l;uhid xj;jit α,β fjph;fs; nraw;if fjphpaf;fj;ijj;
J}z;l ty;yit α fjph;fs; GNuhl;lhid Nghy; 2 klq;F Neh;
kpd; RikiaAk;> 4 klq;F mlh;j;jpiaAk; nfhz;lit.
md;whl mwptpay;
flw;fiu kzypy; elf;f rpukkhf ,Uf;ff; fhuzk;> kzypd; Fiwe;j cuha;T tpir (Friction)
jhtuq;fs; ePiu cwpQ;rf; fhuzk; Ez;Giof; fth;r;rp (Capillarity)
tpsf;Fj; jphpapy; vz;iza; Vwf; fhuzk; Ez;Giof; fth;r;rp
gpshl;bq; Ngg;gh; ikia cwpQ;RtJ Ez;Giof; fth;r;rp
JzpapypUe;J mOf;if Nrhg;G mfw;wf; fhuzk; - gug;G ,O tpir (Surface Tension)
ePh;j; Jspapd; Nfhs tbTf;F fhuzk; - gug;G ,O tpir
ghy; ghapd;l; Ngdh nray;glf; fhuzk; - gug;G ,O tpirAk;> Ez;Giof; fth;r;rpAk;
mOj;jk; mjpfhpj;jhy; ePhpd; nfhjp epiy mjpfhpf;Fk; vd;Dk; jj;Jtj;jpy; ,aq;FtJ gpu\h; Ff;fh;.
kiyg; gpuNjrj;jpy; mOj;jk; Fiwtjhy; ePhpd; nfhjp epiy Fiwe;J czT Ntf jhkjkhfpwJ.
ePhpd; nfhjp epiy ePyfphp kiyapy; 94°C MfTk;> gpu\h; Ff;fhpy; 120°C MfTk; ,Uf;Fk;
ghjurj;jpd; Ra %yf;$W fth;r;rp> ntsp %yf;$W fth;r;rpiatpl mjpfk; vd;gjhy;> ghjurk; fz;zhbapy; xl;Ltjpy;iy
kz; ghidapy; ePh; Fsph;e;jpUf;ff; fhuzk; ghid Ez;Jisfs; topNa ePh; njhlh;e;J MtpahtNj
vz;nza;> ePiug; Nghy ghAk; jd;ik (Fluidity) mjpfkpd;wp totog;ghf ,Uf;ff; fhuzk; mjpf ghF epiy (Viscosity)
ghF epiy mjpfKs;sjhy;> ,ae;jpuq;fspy; cuha;itf; Fiwf;Fk; caTg; nghUshf (Lubricant) vz;nza; gad;gLfpwJ.
thdtpy; Vw;glf; fhuzk; xspg; gphpif (Dispersion of light)
thdk; ePykhfj; njaf; fhuzk; miy ePsk; Fiwe;j ePy epwk;> fhw;wpd; %yf;$Wfshy; mjpfk; rpjwbf;fg;gLfpwJ.
njhLthdk; (Horizon) rptg;ghfj; njhpaf; fhuzk;> miy ePsk; mjpfKs;s rptg;igf; jtpu> gpw epwq;fs; midj;Jk; rpjwbf;fg;gLfpwJ.
ePhpy; Ko;fpAs;s Fr;rp tise;jJ Nghy; njhpaf; fhuzk;> xsp tpyfy;
thdpy; el;rj;jpuq;fs; kpd;df; fhuzk;> xsp tpyfy;
ituk; kpd;Dtjw;Fk;> fhdy; ePh; njhptjw;Fk; fhuzk;> KO mf vjpnuhspg;G (Total Internal
Reflection)
fz;zhb xsp ,iofspy; KO mf vjpnuhspg;G mjpfk; cs;sjhy; mit jfty; njhopy;El;gj;jpy; gad;gLfpd;wd.
xw;iw epw xspf; fw;iwfis (Monochromatised
light) cUthf;fg; gad;gLtJ Nyrh; LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation Nghyuha;l; fhkpuhtpd; nray;ghl;Lj; jj;Jtk; -
xspapd; js tpisT (Polarisation of Light) kpd;dYf;Fg; gpd; ,bNahir Nfl;ff; fhuzk; -
xypapd; Ntfj;ijtpl xspapd; Ntfk; mjpfk;. ghu#l;> Gtp <h;g;G tpirf;F vjpuhf
nray;gLtjhNyNa ghu#l;by; nkJthf jiuapwq;f KbfpwJ.
Mw;W ePiutpl fly; ePhpy; mlh;j;jp mjpfk; ,Ug;gjhy;> flypy; vspjhf ePe;j KbfpwJ.
RLePh; Cw;wg;gl;l fz;zhb lk;shpd; cs;> ntsp mLf;Ffs; ntt;NtW Ntfj;jpy; tphptiltjhy; mJ tphpry; milfpwJ.
rptg;G epw xspf;F miy ePsk; mjpfk; ,Ug;gjhy; mJ Nghf;Ftuj;J rpf;dypy; gad;gLfpwJ.
#hpa xspapy; VO epwq;fs; ,Ug;gijf; fz;lwpe;jth;: Irf; epa+l;ld;
xspr; rpjwy; gw;wpa rh; rp.tp. uhkdpd; fz;Lgpbg;Gf;F uhkd; tpisT vd;W ngah;.
tpjpfs;
ePhpay; mOj;j gk;G (hydraulic pressure pump) gh];fy; tpjpapd; mbg;gilapy; ,aq;FfpwJ.
epa+l;ldpd; Kjy; tpjp epiyk my;yJ rlj;Jt tpjp vdg;gLk;
Gw tpir VJk; nray;glhj tiuapy; ,aq;Fk; nghUs; njhlh;e;J ,aq;fpf; nfhz;Lk;> epiyahd nghUs; njhlh;e;J epiyahf ,Uf;Fk; vd;gNj Kjy; tpjp.
Nghh;itia cjw> J}rp gwg;gJ epa+l;ldpd; Kjy; tpjpf;Fr; rhd;W
fy; vwpe;J> kuj;jpypUe;J khq;fhia tPo;j;Jtij Kjy; tpjpg;gb tpsf;fyhk;
XLk; NghJ jpBnud epWj;jg;gLk;NghJ Kd; rPl;by; ,Ug;gth; epiy jLkhwp Kd;Gwk; rha;tij Kjy; tpjpg;gb tpsf;fyhk;
epa+l;ldpd; ,uz;lhtJ tpjpg;gb xU nghUs; kPJ nray;gLk; tpir mjd; epiw kw;Wk; KLf;fk; Mfpatw;Wf;F Neh;tpfpjj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;
nehpryhd njU xd;wpy; thfdk; Xl;Lk;NghJ mjpf ngl;Nuhy; nrythtij epa+l;ldpd; ,uz;lhk; tpjpg;gb tpsf;fyhk;
xt;nthU tpirf;Fk;> rkkhd> mjd; vjph;jpirapy; nray;gLk; tpir xd;W cz;L vd;gNj epa+l;ldpd; %d;whk; tpjpiaf; nfhz;L tpsf;fyhk;
fg;gy; kpjg;gij tpsf;FtJ Mh;f;fpkpb]; Nfhl;ghL.
tpkhdk; Gwg;gLtij tpsf;FtJ ngh;Ndhypapd; jj;Jtk;
Giftz;b ek;ik tpl;L tpyfpr; nry;Yk;NghJ> mjd; xyp RUjp FiwtJ Nghy; Njhd;WtNj lhg;sh; tpisT
/ghuNl tpjpfs;> nyd;]; tpjp kw;Wk; /gpskpq;fpd; tyJ if tpjp Mfpad kpd;fhe;jj; J}z;ly; gw;wpait
/gpskpq;fpd; ,lJ if tpjp kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; ,ae;jpu tpisT gw;wpaJ
Mk;gpah; ePr;ry; tpjpAk;> khf;];nty; jpUF tpjpAk; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; fhe;j tpisT gw;wpait
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Compiled By Rex Christopher 19
kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; ntg;g tpisT> [_y; ntg;g tpisT tpjpahy; tpsf;fg;gl;lJ.
/ghuNlapd; kpd;dhw;wy; gFg;G tpjpfs;> kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; Ntjpapay; tpisit tpsf;Ffpd;wd
kpd;Ndhl;lj;Jf;Fk; kpd; mOj;j NtWghl;Lf;Fk; cs;s njhlh;ig tpsf;FtJ Xk;.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
QUANTITY UNIT (SI) Length Metre, mil Time Second Mass Kilogram/ownice Area Square metre Volume Cubic metre Velocity Metre/second Acceleration Metre/second square Density Kilogram metre/cube Momentum Kilogram metre/second Work Joule Energy Joule Force Newton Pressure Pascal or Newton / sq.mtre Frequency Hertz Power Watt Weight Newton or Kilogram Impulse Newton-second Angular Velocity Radian/second Viscosity Poise Surface tension Newton/square metre Heat Joule Temperature Kelvin Absolute temperature Kelvin Resistance Ohm Electric current Ampere Electromotive force Volt Electrical conductivity Ohm/metre Electric energy Kilo watt hour Electric power Kilo watt or watt Magnetic intensity Orsted Charge Coulomb Magnetic induction Gauss Luminous flux Candela Intensity of sound Decibel Power of lens Dioptre Depth of sea Fathom Luminous velocity candela Loudness Phon Volume / Capacity Gallon Electric charge Coloumb horse power 747.7 watts Parsec Astronomical unit of distance IMPORTANT SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS Instrument Use Altimeter It measure altitude and is used in aircrafts Ammeter It measures strength of electric current (in amperes) Anemometer It measures force and velocity of wind Audiometer It measures intensity of sound. Audiophone It is used for improving imperfect sense of hearing
Barograph It is used for continuous recording of atmospheric pressure.
Barometer It measures atmospheric pressure. Binocular It is used to view distant objects Bolometer It measures heat radiation Calorimeter It measures quantity of heat. Carburettor It is used in an internal combustion
engine for charging air with petrol vapour.
Cardiogram It traces movements of the heart, recorded on a cardiograph.
Chronometer it determines longitude of a place kept onboard ship.
Cinematography It is an instrument used in cinema making to throw on screen and enlarged image of photograph.
Crescograph It measures the growth in plants. Cyclotron A charged particle accelerator which can
accelerate charged particles to high energies.
Dynamo converts mechanical energy into electrical energy Dynamometer It measures electrical power. Electrometer It measures electricity Electroscope It detects presence of an electric charge. Endoscope It examines internal parts of the body. Eudiometer A glass tube for measuring volume
changes in chemical reactions between gases.
Actinometer measures intensity of electromagnetic radiation.
Altazimuth measures altitude & azimuth of celestial bodies.
Cryometer measures low temp. Pyrometer measures very high temp. Daisy meter determines density of gas plato meter measures changes in volume of substances Geiger Muller counter – detection of radioactive radiations. Fathometer It measures the depth of the ocean Galvanometer It measures the electric current of low
magnitude. Hydrometer It measures the specific gravity of liquids. Hygrometer it measures humidity in air. Hypsometer measures boiling point of liquids. Hydrophone It measures sound under water. Kymograph It graphically records physiological
movements (Blood pressure & heart beat)
Lactometer It determines the purity of milk. Manometer It measures the pressure of gases. Mariner’s compass It is an instrument used by the sailors to
determine the direction. Microphone It converts the sound waves into
electrical vibrations and to magnify the sound.
Microscope it is used to obtain magnified view of small objects.
Odometer An instrument by which the distance covered by wheeled vehicles is measured
Ohmmeter measures electrical resistance. Phonograph An instrument for producing sound.
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Compiled By Rex Christopher 20
Photometer The instrument compares the luminous intensity of the source of light.
Periscope It is used to view objects above sea level (used in sub-marines)
Potentiometer It is used for comparing electromotive force of cells.
Pyrometer It measures very high temperature. Radar It is used for detecting the direction and
range of an approaching plane by means of radio microwaves.
Rain Gauge An apparatus for recording rainfall at a particular place.
Radiometer It measures the emission of radiant energy Refractometer It measures refractive index. Saccharimeter measures the amount of sugar in solution. Seismograph measures the intensity of earthquake
shocks. Salinometer It determines salinity of solution. Sextant This is used by navigators to find the
latitude of a place by measuring the elevation above the horizon of the sun or another star.
Spectrometer It is instrument for measuring the energy distribution of a particular type of radiation.
Speedometer to record its speed. Sphygmomanometer It measures blood pressure. Spherometer It measures the curvatures of surfaces Stereoscope It is used to view two dimensional pictures. Stethoscope An instrument which is used by the
doctors to hear and analyse heart and lung sounds.
Straboscope it is used to view rapidly moving objects. Tachometer An instrument used in measuring speeds
of aeroplanes and mot boats. Teleprinter This instrument receives and sends typed
messages from one place to another. Telescope It views distant objects in space. Theodolite It measures horizontal and vertical angles. Thermometer This instrument is used for the measurement Thermostat It regulates the temperature at a
particular point. Viscometer It measures the viscosity of liquids. venturimeter It measures rate of flow of fluids. Voltmeter It measures the electric potential
difference between two points. Waltmeter it measures the power of an electrical circuit. Nephelometer measures the scattering of light by
particles suspended in a liquid. Rectifier device for converting AC into DC Thermopile for detecting & measuring heat radiations Electro dynamometer – measures current, voltage / power in
both DC & AC circuit. Beckmann thermometer – measures small changes in
temp.(small as 0.01) Scientific Explanations of Common Phenomena
Carbon monoxide is poisonous. The filament of an electric bulb is made of tungsten. A wick in a stove keeps burning continuously capillary action. The sky appears blue because the light of the Sun is spread or scattered by the dust particles in the air. Food cooks faster at high temperature. A man weighs more at the poles than at the equator because the polar radius of the Earth is less than the equatorial radius. Hence the gravitational pull is more at the poles that at the equator. The boiling point of sea water will be more than the boiling point of pure water. Soft iron is used as an electromagnet because it remains a magnet only while the current passes through the coil around it. An electric bulb makes a bang when it is broken because there is a vacuum inside the electric bulb. The rushing of air produces a noise generally referred to as the ‘bang’. The launching of Earth satellite should be from a place near the equator to take the fullest advantage of the Earth’s movements. The regions of the Earth closer to the equator are moving faster through space as compared to regions elsewhere. In deserts, day temperatures are very high and night temperatures are extremely low because the specific heat of sand is very low. The air escaping from a punctured tyre feels cold because the air escaping from a punctured tyre enters a region of low pressure and thus suffers a fall in temperature. It is hotter on a cloudy night that on a clear night because clouds prevent the heat radiated by the Earth from escaping into the sky. Ice wrapped in a blanket does not melt away quickly because woollen blanket is a bad conductor of heat. Steam causes more severe burns than boiling water because stem at the same temperature has more latent heat. We experience difficulty in breathing on mountains because the pressure of the air outside is less as compared to the pressure of air inside the lungs. When a gun is fired at a visible distance, the sound is heard a little after the smoke is seen because the velocity of light is much higher than that of sound.
Invention Year Inventor Country Acetylene gas 1862 Berthelot France Adding machine 1642 Pascal France Adhesive tape, (Scotch)
1930 Richard Drew U.S.A.
Aeroplane 1903 Orville & Wilbur Wright
U.S.A.
Air conditioning 1902 Carrier U.S.A. Airplane, (Jet engine)
1939 Ohain Germany
Airship (Non-rigid)
1852 Henri Giffard France
Aerosol spray 1926 Erik Rotheim Norway Artificial heart 1957 Willem Kolff Netherla
nds Atomic bomb 1945 J. Robert
Oppenheimer U.S.A.
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Compiled By Rex Christopher 21
Atomic numbers 1913 Moseley Britain Atomic theory 1803 Dalton Britain Automatic rifle 1918 John Browning U.S.A. Bakelite 1907 Leo H. Baekeland Belgium Ballistic missile 1944 Wernher von
Braun Germany
Balloon 1783 Jacques & Joseph Montgolfier
France
Ball-point pen 1888 John J Loud U.S.A. Barometer 1644 Evangelista
Torricelli Italy
Battery (electric) 1800 Alessandro Volta Italy Bicycle 1839-
40 Kirkpatrick Macmillan
Britain
Bicycle tyres (Pneumatic)
1888 John Boyd Dunlop
Britain
Bifocal lens 1780 Benjamin Franklin
U.S.A.
Bleaching powder 1798 Tennant Britain Bunsen burner 1855 R. Willhelm von
Bunsen Germany
Burglar alarm 1858 Edwin T. Homes U.S.A. Calculus 1670 Newton Britain Camera (Kodak) 1888 Walker Eastman U.S.A. Canned food 1804 Appert France Car (steam) 1769 Nicolas Cugnot France Car (petrol) 1888 Karl Benz Germany Carburetor 1876 Gottlieb Daimler Germany Cassette, (Audio) 1963 Philips Co Holland Cassette (Videotape)
1969 Sony Japan
Celluloid 1861 Alexander Parkes Britain Cement (Portland) 1824 Joseph Aspdin Britain Chemotherapy 1909 Ehrlich Germany Chronometer 1735 John Harrison Britain Cinema 1895 Nicolas & Jean
Lumiere France
Clock (Mechanical)
1725 I-Hsing & Liang Ling – Tsan
China
Clock (Pendulum) 1656 Christian Huygens
Netherlands
Cloning, (DNA) 1973 Boyer, Cohen U.S.A. Cloning (Mammal)
1996 Wilmut, et al U.K.
Compact disc 1972 RCA U.S.A. Compact disc player
1979 Sony, Philips Japan, Netherlands
Computer, (Laptop)
1987 Sinclair Britain
Computer (Mini) 1960 Digital Corp. U.S.A. Crossword puzzle 1913 Arthur Wynne U.S.A. CT scan 1973 Hounsfield Britain Diesel Engine 1895 Rudolf Diesel Germany Disc broke 1902 Dr. F. Lanchester Britain Disc, (Video) 1972 Philips Co. Holland DNA, (Structure) 1951 Crick-UK, Watson
–US, Wilkins- UK U.K. / U.S.
Dynamo 1832 Hypolite Pixli France Electric flat iron 1882 H. W. Seeley U.S.A. Electric lamp 1879 Thomas Alva
Edison U.S.A.
Electric motor (DC)
1873 Zenobe Gramme Belgium
Electric motor (AC)
1888 Nikola Tesla U.S.A.
Electric iron 1882 Henry W. Seely U.S.A. Electric washing machine
1906 Alva J Fisher U.S.A.
Electro-magnet 1824 William Sturgeon Britain
Electron 1897 Thomson J Britain Electroplating 1805 Luigi Brugnatelli Italy Electronic computer
1824 Dr. Alan M Turing
Britain
Facsimile machine 1843 Alexander Bain Britain Fibre optics 1955 Kepany Britain Film (Moving outlines)
1885 Louis Prince France
Film (Talking) 1922 J. Engl, J. Mussolle & H. Vogt
Germany
Film (Musical sound)
1923 Dr Le de Forest U.S.A.
Floppy disk 1970 IBM U.S.A. Frequency Modulation (FM)
1933 E.H. Armstrong U.S.A.
Frisbee 1948 Fred Morrisson U.S.A. Fountain pen 1884 Lewis E.
Waterman U.S.A.
Galvanometer 1834 Andre-Marie Ampere
France
Glider 1853 Sir George Cayley Britain Gramophone 1878 Thomas Alva
Edison U.S.A.
Helicopter 1924 Etienne Oehmichen
France
HIV 1984 Martagnier French Holography 1947 Denis Gason Britain Hydrogen bomb 1952 Edward Teller U.S.A. Intelligence testing
1905 Simon Binet French
Jet Engine 1937 Sir Frank Whittle Britain Laser 1960 Theodore
Maiman U.S.A.
Launderette 1934 J.F. Cantrell U.S.A. Lift (Mechanical) 1852 Elisha G. Otis U.S.A. Lighting conductor
1752 Benjamin Franklin
U.S.A.
Locomotive 1804 Richard Trevithick
Britain
Logarithms 1614 Napier Britain Loom, (power) 1785 E. Cartwright Britain Loudspeaker 1900 Horace Short Britain Machine gun 1718 Richard Gatling Britain Magnetic recording tape
1928 Fritz Pfleumer Germany
Match, (safety) 1826 John Walker Britain Microphone 1876 Alexander
Graham Bell U.S.A.
Microprocessor 1971 Robert Noyce & Gordon Moore
U.S.A.
Microscope (Comp)
1590 Z. Janssen Nether lands
Microscope (Elect) 1931 Ruska knoll Germany Microwave oven 1947 Percy LeBaron
Spencer U.S.A.
Motor cycle 1885 G. Daimler Germany Movie projector 1893 Thomas Edison U.S.A. MRI 1971 Damadian U.S.A. Neon lamp 1910 Georges Claude France Neutron 1932 Chadwick Britain Neutron bomb 1958 Samuel Cohen U.S.A. Nylon 1937 Dr. Wallace H.
Carothers U.S.A.
Optical fibre 1955 Narinder Kapany Germany Paper A.D.1
05 China
Pacemaker 1952 Zoll U.S.A. Pasteurization 1867 Louis Pasteur France Pencil 1792 Lacques-Nicolas France
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Compiled By Rex Christopher 22
Conte Periodic table 1869 Mendeleyev Russia Photocopier 1938 Carlson U.S.A. Photoelectric cell 1893 Julius Elster,
Hans F Geitel Germany
Photo film, (celluloid)
1893 Reichenbach U.S.A.
Photo film, (Transparent)
1884 Goodwin Eastman
U.S.A.
Photography (On metal)
1826 J.N. Niepce France
Photography (On paper)
1835 W.H. Fox Talbot Britain
Photography (On film)
1888 John Carbutt U.S.A.
Piano 1709 Cristofori Italy Pistol, revolver 1836 Colt U.S.A. Plutonium fission 1940 Kennedy, Whal,
Seaborg, Segre U.S.A.
Pop-up toaster 1927 Charles Strite U.S.A. Printing Press 1455 Johann
Gutenberg Germany
Printing (Rotary) 1846 Richard Hoe U.S.A. Printing (Web) 1865 William bullock U.S.A. Proton 1919 Rutherford N.
Zealand Quantum theory 1900 Plank Germany Radar 1922 A.H. Taylor & Leo
C. Young U.S.A.
Radiocarbon dating
1947 Libby U.S.A.
Radio telegraphy 1864 Dr. Mohlon Loomis
U.S.A.
Radio telegraphy (Trans Atlantic Rayon)
1901 1883
G. Marconi Sir Joseph Swan
Italy Britain
Razor (Electric) 1931 Col. Jacob Schick U.S.A. Razor (Safety) 1895 King C. Gillette U.S.A. Refrigerator 1850 James Harrison,
Alexander catlin U.S.A.
Relativity theory 1905 Einstein Germany Rubber (Latex foam)
1928 Dunlop Rubber Co
Britain
Rubber (Tyres) 1846 Thomas Hancock Britain Rubber (Vulcanised)
1841 Charles Goodyear U.S.A.
Rubber (Waterproof)
1823 Charles Macintosh
Britain
Safety pin 1849 Walter Hunt U.S.A. Safety razor 1903 King Camp
Gillette U.S.A.
Seat belt 1959 Volvo Sweden Self-starter 1911 Charles F.
Kettering U.S.A.
Ship (Steam) 1775 I.C. Perier France Ship (Turbine) 1894 Hon Sir S.
Parsons Britain
Silk manufacture 50 B.C.
China
Skyscraper 1882 W. Le Baron Jenny
U.S.A.
Slide rule 1621 William Oughtred Britain Spinning frame 1769 Sir Richard
Arkwright Britain
Spinning jenny 1764 James Hargreaves
Britain
Spinning mule 1779 Samuel Crompton Britain Steam Engine 1698 Thomas Savery Britain Steam engine(Piston)
1712 Thomas Newcomen
Britain
Steam engine (Condenser)
1765 James Watt Britain
Steel (stainless) 1913 Harry Brearley Britain Stethoscope 1819 Laennec French Submarine 1776 David Bushnell U.S.A. Super computer 1976 J.H. Van Tassel U.S.A. Synthesiser 1964 Moog U.S.A. Tank 1914 Sir Ernest D.
Swington Britain
Tape recorder 1899 Fessenden Poulsen
Denmark
Telegraph 1787 M. Lammond France Telegraph code 1837 Samuel F.B.
Morse U.S.A.
Telephone, (Cellular)
1947 Bell Labs U.S.A.
Telephone (Imperfect)
1849 Antonio Meucci Italy
Telephone (Perfected)
1876 Alexander Graham Bell
U.S.A.
Telescope 1608 Hans Lippershey Netherlands
Television (Mechanical)
1926 John Logie Baird Britain
Television (Electronic)
1927 P.T. Farnsworth U.S.A.
Television (Colour)
1928 John Logie Baird Britain
Transformer 1831 Michael Faraday Britain Transistor 1948 Bardeen,
Shockley & Brattain
U.S.A.
Transistor radio 1955 Sony Japan Uranium Fission, (Atomic reactor)
1942 Szilard Fermi U.S.A.
Vacuum Cleaner (Elec)
1907 Spangler U.S.A.
Video tape 1956 Charles Ginsberg U.S.A. Velcro (Hook and loop fastener)
1948 Georges de Mestral
Switzerland
Washing machine (Elec)
1907 Hurley Machine Co
U.S.A.
Watch 1462 Bartholomew Manfredi
Italy
Welder (Electric) 1877 Elisha Thomson U.S.A. Windmill 600 Persian Corn
grinding
Wireless (telegraphy)
1896 G. Marconi Italy
X-ray 1895 W.K. Roentgen Germany Zip fastener 1891 W.L. Judson U.S.A.