INFRA OPERATORS TICK OF APPROVAL

Australian Bushland SurvivalA guide for campers and the likeZian Gibbs 3/24/2013

This guide is intended to instruct potential survival strategies and is in no way responsible for the harm from ingestion of fauna/flora listed in this guide. Use at your own risk.

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ContentsEdible Plant life ....................................................................................................................................... 4 Apple Berry ......................................................................................................................................... 6 Devil's Twine ....................................................................................................................................... 7 Wombat Berry..................................................................................................................................... 8 Scrambling Lily .................................................................................................................................... 9 Sweet Morinda.................................................................................................................................. 10 Passionfruit ....................................................................................................................................... 11 Lady Fingers ...................................................................................................................................... 12 Native Cherry .................................................................................................................................... 13 Narrow-leaved Geebung ................................................................................................................... 14 Wild Parsnip ...................................................................................................................................... 15 Common Lilly Pilly ............................................................................................................................. 16 Native Honeysuckle........................................................................................................................... 17 Sandpaper Fig.................................................................................................................................... 18 Grass Trees ........................................................................................................................................ 19 Bush Medicinal Plants ........................................................................................................................... 20 Bulrush, Cattails ................................................................................................................................ 21 Umbrella Bush-Wattle ...................................................................................................................... 22 Bracken Fern ..................................................................................................................................... 23 Rough Barked Apple.......................................................................................................................... 24 Narrow Leaved Ironbark ................................................................................................................... 25 Forest Red Gum ................................................................................................................................ 26 Snow in summer ............................................................................................................................... 27 Native Raspberry............................................................................................................................... 28 Bush Survival ......................................................................................................................................... 29 Locating Water ................................. 29 Bees ............................................................................................................................................... 29 Ants ............................................................................................................................................... 29 Mason flies .................................................................................................................................... 30 Birds Finches ............................................................................................................................. 30 Birds Wild pigeons .................................................................................................................... 31 Birds Grain eaters ..................................................................................................................... 31 Birds Flesh Eaters and Water Birds .......................................................................................... 31

2 Mammals ...................................................................................................................................... 31 Reptiles.......................................................................................................................................... 32 Eucalypts (Gum Trees) .................................................................................................................. 33 Vines (Lianas, or Monkey Ropes) .................................................................................................. 33 Plants with Milky Sap .................................................................................................................... 33 Taste Test the Water First ............................................................................................................. 33 Dew collection............................................................................................................................... 34 Water on the sea coast ................................................................................................................. 35 Moisture from fish flesh................................................................................................................ 36 Condensing salt water................................................................................................................... 36 The Solar Still Moisture condensation in arid areas ................................................................. 37 How to Purify Stagnant water ....................................................................................................... 38 Shelter .............................................. 39 Poncho Lean-To............................................................................................................................. 40 Poncho Tent .................................................................................................................................. 42 Three-Pole Parachute Tepee......................................................................................................... 43 One-Pole Parachute Tepee ........................................................................................................... 44 No-Pole Parachute Tepee ............................................................................................................. 45 One-Man Shelter ........................................................................................................................... 46 Parachute Hammock ..................................................................................................................... 47 Field-Expedient Lean-To................................................................................................................ 48 Swamp Bed ................................................................................................................................... 49 Natural Shelters ............................................................................................................................ 50 Debris Hut ..................................................................................................................................... 50 Tree-Pit Snow Shelter ................................................................................................................... 52 Beach Shade Shelter ..................................................................................................................... 52 Desert Shelters .............................................................................................................................. 53 Building a Fire .................................. 56 Modern Methods .......................................................................................................................... 74 Matches......................................................................................................................................... 74 Convex Lens .................................................................................................................................. 74 Metal Match.................................................................................................................................. 75 Battery........................................................................................................................................... 75 Gunpowder ................................................................................................................................... 75

3 Primitive Methods......................................................................................................................... 75 Flint and Steel ............................................................................................................................... 75 Fire-Plow ....................................................................................................................................... 75 Bow and Drill ................................................................................................................................. 76 Satisfying Hunger ............................. 78 Figure Four Trap. ........................................................................................................................... 79 The Paiute Trap ............................................................................................................................. 83 Deadfall Trap ................................................................................................................................. 87 Wounds ............................................................................................................................................... 120 Open Wounds ............................................................................................................................. 120 Skin Diseases and Ailments ......................................................................................................... 122 Boils ............................................................................................................................................. 122 Fungal Infections ......................................................................................................................... 122 Rashes ......................................................................................................................................... 122 Frostbite ...................................................................................................................................... 123 Trench Foot ................................................................................................................................. 123 Burns ........................................................................................................................................... 123 Camouflage ......................................................................................................................................... 125 Personal Camouflage ...................................................................................................................... 125 Methods of Stalking ........................................................................................................................ 128

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Edible Plant lifeAboriginal people have occupied the Australian continent for at least forty thousand years, and over this time they have found ways of surviving that reveal an extensive and detailed knowledge of the environment. Their understanding of native plants goes far beyond just knowing what is edible. They used plants for healing and medicine, and for weapons and tools. They understood the changes of the seasons and the life cycles of animals and plants, and how these processes effected their own survival. However, current knowledge of Aboriginal diet and herbal medicine is quite limited, since the Aboriginal lifestyle was obliterated long before it could be recorded. The Australian bush contains a bounty of wild edible plant species that runs into the thousands, ranging from starchy seeds and tangy fruits to mushrooms, tubers, leaves and seaweeds. However, knowing how to identify edible plants is not easy. The knowledge Aboriginal people have about which plants are edible, which plants are poisonous, and which plants are poisonous but can be prepared in certain ways that make then safe to eat would have been acquired over generations (6,000 years) of trial and error. To the Aborigines, plant foods supplied up to 80% of their diet in desert regions, and as little as 40% in coastal areas, where shellfish, fish and game were abundant. Diets and food preparation techniques varied from one region to another and also from one tribe to another. Local custom and belief often effected what was hunted and gathered (i.e. would not eat totemic animals). It has been suggested that Aborigines were originally a relatively healthy people before the arrival of Europeans (brought infectious diseases) and thus needed little medication. Occasional digestive upsets (causing diarrhoea), fevers, toothaches, xand sores, colds, rheumatism and wounds were all adequately treated with a large variety of herbal remedies. Most bush medicines were applied, as rubs or poultices; or inhaled, for example by using crushed aromatic leaves.

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THE UNIVERSAL EDIBILITY TEST When tasting unknown plants follow these guidelines to find out whether it is edible. 1. Test only one part of a potential plant at a time 2. Smell the potential food plant for strong or acid odours (but remember smell alone does not indicate if plant is edible). 3. Select a small portion of a single part o the plant (i.e. fruit) and prepare it in the way you plan to eat it. 4. Touch a small portion to the outer surface of the lips (testing for itching or burning sensation). 5. If no reaction after 3 minutes then place the plant part on the tongue holding there for 15 minutes 6. If no reaction, chew a portion without swallowing and wait 15 minutes 7. If no burning, itching, numbing, stinging or other irritation occurs during the 15 minutes, swallow. 8. Wait 8 hours, if any ill effects occur during this time drink lots of water and induce vomiting. 9. If no ill effects occur eat half a cup of the plant part prepared the same way. Wait 8 hours, if no ill effects occur then the plant part as prepared is edible.

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Apple BerryOther names: Dumplings Uses: Edible Fruit Small twining creepers. The small cylindrical or egg-shaped berries have many tiny seeds. There are about 20 species of Billardiera in Australia, some of the others are also edible.

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Devil's TwineOther names: Dodder laurel, devils guts Uses: The small fruits are edible. Aborigines sometimes used the stems as twine These are twining shrubs that are parasitic on the plants they grow on, forming such a mass that the host eventually collapses. There are 14 species in Australia. C. paniculata is found in Cattai National Park, and C. pubescens is common in the Blue Mountains.

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Wombat BerryOther names: Orange vine Uses: Edible fruits, tubers A wiry vine which trails over low branches or across the ground. A common vine of open forests, extending into dry woodlands and rainforest. It can be mistaken for the very similar Geitonoplesium cymosum (Scrambling lily), which has shiny black inedible berries.

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Scrambling LilyUses: Shoots edible when boiled, roots possibly edible A climber. The shoots may be boiled and eaten, and have been compared to asparagus. The black berries are inedible. Resembles Eustrephus latifolius (Wombat berry), though the leaves of Geitonoplesium are usually thinner.

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Sweet MorindaOther names: Native jasmine, jasmine morinda Uses: Edible fruits A scrambling climber with stems to a few metres long. The fruit is an orange aggregate, 10-12mm wide, and edible when soft, with a rotten cheese flavour.

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PassionfruitOther names: Passion flowers Uses: Fruits edible There are 3 species of native passionfruit in Australia, and 7 introduced American species which have become naturalised (that is, they grow wild). Passiflora edulis, the commercial Black Passionfruit, is naturalised in Sydney bushland.

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Lady FingersOther names: White Fingers, Pink Fingers Uses: The tubers are edible raw or cooked These are ground or terrestrial orchids (as opposed to tree or epiphytic orchids which grow on other plants). Caladenia catenata (White Fingers) is the most common Caladenia in the Sydney area. It is very similar to Caladenia carnea (Pink Fingers), however C. catenata has no red-pink bars on the labellum and column in the middle ofthe flower. All ground orchids produce tubers, which were roasted or eaten raw by Aboriginies. Epiphytic tree orchids lack tubers but have thickened stems which can be sucked for their starch.

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Native CherryOther names: Cherry ballart Uses: Edible fruits Small trees with drooping, leafless stems resembling a she-oak (Casuarina spp.) or cypress pine.

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Narrow-leaved GeebungOther names: Pine-leaved Geebung Uses: The fruits are edible A large shrub about 3m high with dark flaky, papery bark. A very common understorey shrub in many habitats. Persoonia fruits have a stalk protruding from the underside of the fruit, which helps to identify them. They are not ripe until after they fall from the tree to the ground. The skin (and usually the seed also) is discarded.

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Wild ParsnipUses: The thickened taproot is edible raw or cooked, tasting rather like a parsnip An erect herb to 50cm high. Tiny white flowers, fragile, in a dense terminal umbel appear in summer.

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Common Lilly PillyOther names: Common Lilly Pilly, Acmena smithii, Eugenia smithii Uses: The fruits are edible The scientific name of the Common Lilly Pilly used to be Acmena smithii, recently it has been renamed to Syzygium smithii in line with many other Lilly Pillies that were already in the genus Syzygium. The Common Lilly Pilly is a well-known Australian bush tucker plant. It is either a shrub or tree up to 20 metres high, depending on the conditions where it is growing. In the Blue Mountains it is a tree that grows along rainforest creek banks. By the seashore it may not grow so tall, perhaps only 1-2 metres. It is often grown as an ornamental tree, seen in private home gardens and in commercial places. For example it surrounds some of the multilevel car parks at the Westfield shopping centre at Penrith (do not eat these as they may have been sprayed with chemicals). The fruits were widely eaten by Aboriginies. The fruits of coastal (especially seashore) growing Lilly Pillies are the least best tasting, often quite small and tough.

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Native HoneysuckleUses: Nectar from flowers can be sucked or made into a drink by soaking in water Banksia is distinguished from other Proteaceae by the dense flower spikes and distinctive woody follicles.

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Sandpaper FigOther names: Creek fig Uses: Edible fruits, leaves used as sandpaper A straggly, small tree common on creek beds in subtropical rainforest. The leaves are so rough they can be used as sandpaper, to polish timber and even ivory or bone. Each species of fig is dependent on a single species of wasp for fertilisation.

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Grass TreesOther names: Blackboy Uses: Nectar, Starch from base of plant and leaf bases, resin, firemaking, spear shafts An endemic genus (that is, only found in Australia) with 15 species, distributed in all states. One of the most interesting and distinctive of Australian plants, and one of the most useful. Grass-trees have a short trunk, which may be underground, a large crown of slender leaves and (when flowering) a tall scape with a dense spike of tiny white-brown flowers at the top. The flowering period is short and does not always happen every year. Nectar from flowers can be sucked or made into a drink by soaking in water. The wood from the flower stalks is very light, almost like balsa wood, and is one of the best to use for friction firemaking, such as the bow drill fire or hand drill fire. The flower stalks were used to make the tail ends of spear shafts, with a heavier wood used for the head. Resin can be extracted from the plant, which was used as a glue.

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Bush Medicinal PlantsMore than five hundred of the plant species native to Australia can be used medicinally. Some uses have been minor, others more complex. There are a number of properties that make plants valuable in medicine, these include: Tannins, Mucilage, oils, Latex, Alkaloids and several other groups of chemicals. However, preventative medicine is the best option (dont get sick in the first place). Move slowly and surely through the bush, scan the ground in front of you and to the sides. Look up and around and be aware of where you step. Walk with a stick and thump the ground as you walk so snakes move out of your path. Dont grab onto plants before checking to see if they have thorns and learn to identify the stinging tree and stinging nettle. If sickness is unavoidable here are some medicines that can be prepared from plants in the Mitchell Park Region. We recommend that you do not try making bush medicines to drink because some medicines have the potential to be poisonous if the concentration is incorrect, especially if they contain alkaloids.

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Bulrush, CattailsOther Names: Cumbungi, Wonga, Reed-mace Uses: Many survival and wilderness living uses (see below) Typha is commonly known as Bulrush in Australia and Cattails in the United States. In many northern hemisphere survival books it is presented as one of the "big four" survival foods. The other three are grass, pine trees and oaks, not all of which are relevant to Australia. Typha has many survival uses. As a food, starch can be eaten from the roots/tubers. It can be eaten raw or cooked and was a staple food of Aborigines. The starch is a lot like wheat and contains gluten, just like wheat and many other common cereal foods. Some tribes also ate the raw green flower stalk (the part that looks like a bottle cleaner) during spring. The pollen may be baked or steamed into nutritious cakes. The leftover fibres from the roots were often spun into tough string. The leaves may be used for mat and basket making, rafts, chairs, and many other uses.. The dried flower stalks can be used for hand drill fires and for arrow shafts. The fluffy "cotton" in the seed heads makes excellent tinder and can also be used for insulation in clothing or bedding. If that wasn't enough, the plant also has medicinal uses as an antiseptic, and when they are burned the smoke is said to repel insects.

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Umbrella Bush-WattleUses: Soak the bark in water or boil it and use as a cough medicine.

A shrub (3m high) with leaf-like phyllodes (4-9cm long) that are narrow, linear to oblong and are tapered at both ends with a recurved tip and rather thick. The seed pod is hard and constricted between individual seeds. Flowers occur from late winter to early spring as a profusion of yellow-orange balls.

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Bracken FernUses: The sap from the stems of young ferns was applied directly to insect bites by Aboriginal people to relieve the pain. A tea made from leaves and leaf stalks can be used to help rheumatism A perennial shrub (0.7-1.5m tall) with dark green, glossy and hard fronds on stiff stalks joined to hairy rhizomes (underground root-like stems) that contain slimy white starch.

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Rough Barked AppleUses: The Kino (a reddish sap exuded from the trunk) was used by Aboriginals for the treatment of diarrhoea and stomach upset; 150 to 200g of a 10% solution in water was taken internally Medium-sized to large tree (30m tall) with rough grey-brown back that is fibrous and generally furrowed. Leaves are glossy green to dull grey-green, narrow to oval shaped (5-15cm long) and tapered to a point at the ends. Flowers are white with a green keels, fruit are cup shaped and contain reddish-brown seeds.

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Narrow Leaved IronbarkUses: Kino (sap exuded from the trunk) was used by Aborigines for the treatment of diarrhoea; a 10% solution in water, dose is about 150g of solution is drunk every 24 hours Slow growing tree (10-25m high) with rough furrowed bark and long green leaves. Flowers are white and occur throughout April and September-November. The small seeds are contained in a woody capsule (3-7mm long) and are released between August and January.

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Forest Red GumUses: Kino was used to treat diarrhoea; a 5% solution in water was drunk A large tree (up to 30m high), with smooth white or grey bark that is shed in long strips in autumn. Flowers are white and small seeds are contained in a woody capsule (4-8mm long) which is shed in November.

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Snow in summerUses: The oil, obtained by stem-distillation of the foliage can be used to externally treat boils, abscesses, sores, cuts and abrasions, as well as in conditions resulting in a pussy discharge. Crushed leaves were inhaled to relieve headaches A small tree (rarely up to 18m high), with papery bark, slender branches and hairy young shoots (see picture on left). Leaves are mostly opposite and are quite narrow and often keeled (12-35mm long). Its creamy white flowers occur in dense spikes around the end of stems (see picture on left). Woody seed capsules occur in dense elongated clusters around smaller branches (3mm in diameter). Flowers occur in spring and summer.

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Native RaspberryUses: Aboriginals soaked the small leaves in warm water and drank the infusion when suffering from stomach upset A scrambling shrub or climber covered in prickles. Leaves are also prickly, round to elliptical, 3-5lobed, covered with rusty hair on the underside and margins are serrate. Flowers are white or red and fruit is a red nearly globular berry (12mm in diameter) that ripens during summer

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Bush SurvivalDespite the vast size of Australia, becoming lost in the bush is quite difficult. Most watercourses, coastlines and roads soon lead to civilisation (Low, 1988). In the rare event of major mishap, the need to find food is usually secondary (people can survive weeks without food). It is more important to have water, shelter from extremes, and to be positioned where help will arrive.

Locating Water It is essential to know how to find water when surviving in the bush. Look for the lowest points in the landscape (bottom of hills, cliffs and gullies) water tends to collect in these areas. Seasonal creeks can hold water just under the surface months after the water above ground has dried up, look for lush vegetation before you start digging. Follow well-worn animal tracks downhill they will generally lead to water sources. Dew can be mopped up with cotton clothing and wrung out into containers. Bees Bees in an area are a certain sign of water. Rarely will you find a hive of wild bees more than three or four miles from fresh water. A bee flies a mile in 12 minutes. You can be sure that if you see bees you are not far from fresh water, but you will probably have to look for further indications before you actually find the water supply.

Ants Many of the ants require water, and if you see a steady column of small black ants climbing a tree trunk and disappearing into a hole in a crotch it is highly probable that there will be a hidden reservoir of fresh water stored away there. This can be proved by dipping a long straw or thin stick down the hole into which the ants are

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going. Obviously if it is wet when you draw it out there is water there. To get the water do not on any account chop into the tree. If the hole is only very small, enlarge it with your knife-point at the top. Make a mop by tying grass or rag to a stick. Dip the mop into the water and squeeze into a pannikin. Another method is to take a long hollow straw and suck the water you require from the reservoir. These natural tree reservoirs are very common in dry areas, and are often kept full by the dew which, condensing on the upper branches of the tree, trickles down into the crotch and so into the reservoir inside the tree. Water reservoirs are very common in the she-oaks (casuarinas) and many species of wattle. Mason flies These large, hornet-like creatures are a certain indicator of water. If you see a mason fly's buildings in an area you can be sure that you are within a few hundred yards [metres] of a soak of wet earth. Search around carefully and you will see the mason fly hover and then suddenly drop to the ground. If you examine the place where she landed you will find the soil is moist, and that she is busy rolling a tiny pellet of mud for her building. By digging down a few inches (or at, most, a couple of feet) you will assuredly find a spring and clear, fresh, drinkable water.

Birds Finches All the finches are grain-eaters and water-drinkers. In the dry belts you may see a colony of finches and you can be certain that you are near water, probably a hidden spring or permanent soak.

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Birds Wild pigeons Wild pigeons are a reliable indicator of water. Being grain and seed eaters they spend the day out on the plains feeding, and then, with the approach of dusk, make for a waterhole, drink their fill and fly slowly back to their nesting places. Their manner of flight tells the experienced bushman the direction of their water supply. If they are flying low and swift they are flying to water, but if their flight is from tree to tree and slow, they are returning from drinking. Being heavy with water, they are vulnerable to birds of prey. It is obvious then that the direction of water can be discovered by observing the pigeons' manner of flight.

Birds Grain eaters All the grain eaters and most of the ground feeders require water, so that if you see their tracks on the ground you can be reasonably certain that there is water within a few miles of your location. An exception to this is parrots and cockatoos, which are not regarded as reliable indicators of water. Birds Flesh Eaters and Water Birds The carnivores, being flesh eaters, get most of the moisture they require from the flesh of their prey, and consequently are not reliable waterdrinkers. Therefore, do not regard the presence of flesh-eating birds as an indicator of water in the area, nor should you regard the water living birds as indicators of fresh or drinkable water. Mammals Nearly all mammals require water at regular intervals to keep themselves alive. Even the flesh eaters must drink, but animals can travel long distances between drinks, and therefore, unless there is a regular trail you cannot be confident of finding water where you see animals' trails. This is a general rule.

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However, certain animals never travel far from water. For example, a fresh track of a wild pig is one sign that there is water in the vicinity, also the fresh track of 'roos and most of the grazing animals, whose habit it is to drink regularly at dawn or dusk. In general, water will be found by following these trails downhill. Reptiles Most of the land-living reptiles are independent, to a very large extent, on water. They get what they require from dew and the flesh of their prey, and as a result are not an indicator of water in the area.

The roots and branches of many trees contain sufficient free-flowing fluid to relieve thirst, and this can be collected by breaking into 3 ft. lengths the roots or branches and standing these in a trough (of bark) into which the collected fluid will drain to the pannikin. In some plants the amount of water stored is truly unbelievable, the fluid literally gushing out when the plant is cut.

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These vegetable "drinking waters" cannot be kept for more than twenty-four hours. The fluid starts to ferment or go bad if stored, and might be dangerous to drink if in this condition. The nature of the plant, if judged by the properties of its foliage, is no guide to the drinkability of the fluids which are its sap. Eucalypts (Gum Trees) For example, the eucalypts, whose leaves are heavily impregnated with oils of eucalyptus, and in many cases poisonous to human beings, contain a drinkable fluid, easily collected (from the branches or roots). This fluid is entirely free from the essential oils and with no taint of the eucalyptus. Vines (Lianas, or Monkey Ropes) The lianas or monkey ropes found in tropical areas are an example of a prolific source of water. There are certain precautions, and a few danger signs, with regard to vegetable fluids. Plants with Milky Sap If the fluid is milky or coloured in any way, it should be regarded as dangerous, not only to drink but also to the skin. Many of the milky saps, except those of the ficus family, which contain latex, or a natural rubber, are extremely poisonous. The milky sap of many weeds can poison the skin and form bad sores, and if allowed to get into the eye may cause blindness and severe pain. Taste Test the Water First With all vegetable sources of fluid even though the water itself is clear, taste it first and, if quite, or almost, flavourless, it is safe to drink. For vegetable sources of water in arid areas the best volume is generally obtained by scratching up the surface roots. They are discovered close to

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the ground, and if cut close to the tree, may be lifted and pulled, each root yielding a length of from ten to twenty feet. These must be cut into shorter lengths for draining. Many people who have tried to obtain drinking water from vegetable sources failed to get the precious liquid to flow because they did not break or cut the stalk or root into lengths. Unless these breaks are made, the fluid cannot flow, and the conclusion is that the root, branch or vine is without moisture.

In general, water is more plentiful from plants in gullies than on ridges, and the flow is wasted if the roots are broken into sections and not cut. Cutting tends to bruise and seal the capillary channels. Dew collection In barren areas where there are no trees, it may be possible to collect sufficient moisture from the grass in the form of dew, to preserve life. One of the easiest ways of dew collection is to tie rags or tufts of fine grass round the ankles and walk through the herbage before the sun has risen, squeezing the moisture collected by the tufts or rags into a container. Many early explorers saved their lives by this simple expedient. Pig Face (Mesembryanthemum) [now called Carpobrotus] and Ice Plant (Parakylia) and Pig Weed contain large proportions of drinkable moisture.

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Water on the sea coast

Fresh water can always be found along the sea coast by digging behind the wind-blown sandhills which back most ocean beaches. These sandhills trap rain water, and it floats on top of the heavier salt water which filters in from the ocean. Sandhill wells must be only deep enough to uncover the top inch or two [2.5 or 5 cm] of water. If dug deeper, salt water will be encountered and the water from the well may be brackish and undrinkable. It will be noticed, too, that the water in these wells rises and falls slightly with the tides. These sand wells are a completely reliable source of water all over the world. When digging it is necessary to revet the sides with brushwood, otherwise the sand will fall into the well.

On coastal areas where cliffs fall into a sea a careful search along the lower edges of the cliff will generally disclose soaks or small springs. These in general follow a fault in the rock formation and frequently are evident by a lush growth of ferns and mosses.

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Moisture from fish flesh

Another source of liquid sufficient to sustain life at sea, when fresh water has ceased to be available, is from the flesh of fish. The fish are diced, and the small portions of flesh placed in a piece of cotton cloth and the moisture wrung out. This moisture from sea fish is not in itself excessively salty, and can sustain life for a long period. Condensing salt water It is possible to condense sea water without equipment and obtain sufficient fresh water for drinking purposes. (See moisture condensation, below).

A Coolamon is made, or alternatively a hole is scraped in the ground and lined, and the salt water is put into this hole. A fire is built, and stones are put in the fire to heat. These when hot are put in the salt water, which soon boils, and the water vapour is soaked up by a towel or thick mat of cloth. In time, this will literally become saturated, and may be wrung out, yielding a fair quantity of fresh drinkable water. Once the cloth is damp and cool, the collection of water vapour is fairly rapid.

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The Solar Still Moisture condensation in arid areas A simple still for water condensation in arid areas can be made from a piece of light plastic sheeting, about 4 ft. square. A hole is dug or scooped in the ground in a sunny position. The hole should be about 3' [90 cm] across and 15" to 18" [38 to 45 cm] deep or deeper if possible. The site should preferably be in moist ground, a depression in a creek bed is ideal if one can be found. If green material such as shrubs or succulent herbage is in the vicinity, the hole should be lined with this and the material packed down. It may be necessary to weigh the material down with a few flat stones. In the centre of the hole, and in the deepest part, a billy or container is placed to catch the moisture collected by condensation. Lay the sheet of plastic to cover the top of the hole, and weigh the edges with stones and use some of the earth scooped from the hole to seal the edges lightly. Place a stone in the centre of the upper side of the plastic sheet above the approximate centre of the water container to weigh it down to just over the container. Moisture in the soil, and in the greenery placed in the hole will be drawn off by the heat of the sun and condense on the underside of the plastic. Condensation results because the air above the plastic is considerably cooler than the air on the underside of the plastic. The condensed moisture will collect into droplets, coalesce and trickle down the underside to the lowest point where it drops off into the container. If the underside of the plastic sheet is slightly roughened with fine sandpaper or a similar fine abrasive such as a piece of finely grained stone, the droplets will coalesce and run off more cleanly than if the underside is absolutely smooth. Body waste, such as urine, waste food, moist tea leaves, etc., can be put in the hole. The pure moisture only is condensed. From one to four or five pints [0.5 to 2 or 2.5 litres] of water a day can be collected by this method. If the stay in the area is likely to be of some duration the top few inches of the hole can be removed and fresh green

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material replaced and the still will continue to work when this is done. Fresh still sites may be necessary every second or third day. How to Purify Stagnant waterStagnant water, or water which has become polluted, can be made drinkable and pure without equipment. If time permits, such water can be filtered through a sieve of charcoal. This will both clarify and to a large extent purify the water, but it is always safer to boil it before drinking.

If the water is muddy, the clay particles in flotation in the water can be precipitated by a pinch of alum, which will flocculate and precipitate the particles and so clarify the water. This, however, requires at least 12 hours' wait.

If no artificial means are available, the polluted or dirty water can be filtered by straining through closely woven garments such as a felt hat or a pair of thick drill trousers. The water, if polluted, can be sterilised by adding hot stones to the water in the filter. The water will soon boil and so made sterile and safe for drinking.

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In areas where there is a likelihood of water being infected with bacteria, it is always advisable to boil before drinking or, failing this, to chlorinate the water with a pinch of chloride of lime. Boiling water for 1 minute at sea level, adding 1 minute for each additional 300 meters above sea level, or boil for 10 minutes no matter where you are.

Shelter It is best to start looking for shelter at least 2 hours before sunset. Look for natural shelters such as caves and rocky crevices with overhangs. Make sure the site is safe from rock falls and away from large over hanging tree limbs (may fall). Check for snakes and stinging insects such as ants and wasps before setting up camp. Building a raised platform off the ground can save you from coming into contact with insects in the soil and under leaf litter that bite and cause serious itching.

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Poncho Lean-To It takes only a short time and minimal equipment to build this lean-to (Figure 5-1). You need a poncho, 2 to 3 meters of rope or parachute suspension line, three stakes about 30 centimeters long, and two trees or two poles 2 to 3 meters apart. Before selecting the trees you will use or the location of your poles, check the wind direction. Ensure that the back of your lean-to will be into the wind.

To make the lean-to-

Tie off the hood of the poncho. Pull the drawstring tight, roll the hood longways, fold it into thirds, and tie it off with the drawstring. Cut the rope in half. On one long side of the poncho, tie half of the rope to the corner grommet. Tie the other half to the other corner grommet. Attach a drip stick (about a 10-centimeter stick) to each rope about 2.5 centimeters from the grommet. These drip sticks will keep rainwater from running down the ropes into the lean-to. Tying strings (about 10 centimeters long) to each grommet along the poncho's top edge will allow the water to run to and down the line without dripping into the shelter. Tie the ropes about waist high on the trees (uprights). Use a round turn and two half hitches with a quick-release knot. Spread the poncho and anchor it to the ground, putting sharpened sticks through the grommets and into the ground.

If you plan to use the lean-to for more than one night, or you expect rain, make a center support for the lean-to. Make this support with a line. Attach one end of the line to the poncho hood and the other end to an overhanging branch. Make sure there is no slack in the line.

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Another method is to place a stick upright under the center of the lean-to. This method, however, will restrict your space and movements in the shelter. For additional protection from wind and rain, place some brush, your rucksack, or other equipment at the sides of the lean-to. To reduce heat loss to the ground, place some type of insulating material, such as leaves or pine needles, inside your lean-to. Note: When at rest, you lose as much as 80 percent of your body heat to the ground. To increase your security from enemy observation, lower the lean-to's silhouette by making two changes. First, secure the support lines to the trees at knee height (not at waist height) using two knee-high sticks in the two center grommets (sides of lean-to). Second, angle the poncho to the ground, securing it with sharpened sticks, as above.

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Poncho Tent This tent (Figure 5-2) provides a low silhouette. It also protects you from the elements on two sides. It has, however, less usable space and observation area than a lean-to, decreasing your reaction time to enemy detection. To make this tent, you need a poncho, two 1.5- to 2.5-meter ropes, six sharpened sticks about 30 centimeters long, and two trees 2 to 3 meters apart.

To make the tent-

Tie off the poncho hood in the same way as the poncho lean-to. Tie a 1.5- to 2.5-meter rope to the center grommet on each side of the poncho. Tie the other ends of these ropes at about knee height to two trees 2 to 3 meters apart and stretch the poncho tight. Draw one side of the poncho tight and secure it to the ground pushing sharpened sticks through the grommets. Follow the same procedure on the other side.

If you need a center support, use the same methods as for the poncho lean-to. Another center support is an A-frame set outside but over the center of the tent (Figure 5-3). Use two 90- to 120-centimeter-long sticks, one with a forked end, to form the A-frame. Tie the hood's drawstring to the A-frame to support the center of the tent.

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Three-Pole Parachute Tepee If you have a parachute and three poles and the tactical situation allows, make a parachute tepee. It is easy and takes very little time to make this tepee. It provides protection from the elements and can act as a signaling device by enhancing a small amount of light from a fire or candle. It is large enough to hold several people and their equipment and to allow sleeping, cooking, and storing firewood. You can make this tepee using parts of or a whole personnel main or reserve parachute canopy. If using a standard personnel parachute, you need three poles 3.5 to 4.5 meters long and about 5 centimeters in diameter. To make this tepee (Figure 5-4)-

Lay the poles on the ground and lash them together at one end. Stand the framework up and spread the poles to form a tripod. For more support, place additional poles against the tripod. Five or six additional poles work best, but do not lash them to the tripod. Determine the wind direction and locate the entrance 90 degrees or more from the mean wind direction. Lay out the parachute on the "backside" of the tripod and locate the bridle loop (nylon web loop) at the top (apex) of the canopy. Place the bridle loop over the top of a free-standing pole. Then place the pole back up against the tripod so that the canopy's apex is at the same height as the lashing on the three poles. Wrap the canopy around one side of the tripod. The canopy should be of double thickness, as you are wrapping an entire parachute. You need only wrap half of the tripod, as the remainder of the canopy will encircle the tripod in the opposite direction. Construct the entrance by wrapping the folded edges of the canopy around two free-standing poles. You can then place the poles side by side to close the tepee's entrance. Place all extra canopy underneath the tepee poles and inside to create a floor for the shelter. Leave a 30- to 50-centimeter opening at the top for ventilation if you intend to have a fire inside the tepee.

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One-Pole Parachute Tepee You need a 14-gore section (normally) of canopy, stakes, a stout center pole, and inner core and needle to construct this tepee. You cut the suspension lines except for 40- to 45-centimeter lengths at the canopy's lower lateral band. To make this tepee (Figure 5-5)-

Select a shelter site and scribe a circle about 4 meters in diameter on the ground. Stake the parachute material to the ground using the lines remaining at the lower lateral band. After deciding where to place the shelter door, emplace a stake and tie the first line (from the lower lateral band) securely to it. Stretch the parachute material taut to the next line, emplace a stake on the scribed line, and tie the line to it. Continue the staking process until you have tied all the lines. Loosely attach the top of the parachute material to the center pole with a suspension line you previously cut and, through trial and error, determine the point at which the parachute material will be pulled tight once the center pole is upright. Then securely attach the material to the pole. Using a suspension line (or inner core), sew the end gores together leaving 1 or 1.2 meters for a door.

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No-Pole Parachute Tepee You use the same materials, except for the center pole, as for the one-pole parachute tepee. To make this tepee (Figure 5-6)-

Tie a line to the top of parachute material with a previously cut suspension line. Throw the line over a tree limb, and tie it to the tree trunk. Starting at the opposite side from the door, emplace a stake on the scribed 3.5- to 4.3-meter circle. Tie the first line on the lower lateral band. Continue emplacing the stakes and tying the lines to them. After staking down the material, unfasten the line tied to the tree trunk, tighten the tepee material by pulling on this line, and tie it securely to the tree trunk.

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One-Man Shelter A one-man shelter you can easily make using a parachute requires a tree and three poles. One pole should be about 4.5 meters long and the other two about 3 meters long. To make this shelter (Figure 5-7)-

Secure the 4.5-meter pole to the tree at about waist height. Lay the two 3-meter poles on the ground on either side of and in the same direction as the 4.5-meter pole. Lay the folded canopy over the 4.5 meter pole so that about the same amount of material hangs on both sides. Tuck the excess material under the 3-meter poles, and spread it on the ground inside to serve as a floor. Stake down or put a spreader between the two 3-meter poles at the shelter's entrance so they will not slide inward. Use any excess material to cover the entrance.

The parachute cloth makes this shelter wind resistant, and the shelter is small enough that it is easily warmed. A candle, used carefully, can keep the inside temperature comfortable. This shelter is unsatisfactory, however, when snow is falling as even a light snowfall will cave it in.

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Parachute Hammock You can make a hammock using 6 to 8 gores of parachute canopy and two trees about 4.5 meters apart (Figure 5-8).

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Field-Expedient Lean-To If you are in a wooded area and have enough natural materials, you can make a field-expedient lean-to (Figure 5-9) without the aid of tools or with only a knife. It takes longer to make this type of shelter than it does to make other types, but it will protect you from the elements.

You will need two trees (or upright poles) about 2 meters apart; one pole about 2 meters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter; five to eight poles about 3 meters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter for beams; cord or vines for securing the horizontal support to the trees; and other poles, saplings, or vines to crisscross the beams. To make this lean-to-

Tie the 2-meter pole to the two trees at waist to chest height. This is the horizontal support. If a standing tree is not available, construct a biped using Y-shaped sticks or two tripods. Place one end of the beams (3-meter poles) on one side of the horizontal support. As with all lean-to type shelters, be sure to place the lean-to's backside into the wind. Crisscross saplings or vines on the beams. Cover the framework with brush, leaves, pine needles, or grass, starting at the bottom and working your way up like shingling. Place straw, leaves, pine needles, or grass inside the shelter for bedding.

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In cold weather, add to your lean-to's comfort by building a fire reflector wall (Figure 5-9). Drive four 1.5-meter-long stakes into the ground to support the wall. Stack green logs on top of one another between the support stakes. Form two rows of stacked logs to create an inner space within the wall that you can fill with dirt. This action not only strengthens the wall but makes it more heat reflective. Bind the top of the support stakes so that the green logs and dirt will stay in place. With just a little more effort you can have a drying rack. Cut a few 2-centimeterdiameter poles (length depends on the distance between the lean-to's horizontal support and the top of the fire reflector wall). Lay one end of the poles on the lean-to support and the other end on top of the reflector wall. Place and tie into place smaller sticks across these poles. You now have a place to dry clothes, meat, or fish. Swamp Bed In a marsh or swamp, or any area with standing water or continually wet ground, the swamp bed (Figure 5-10) keeps you out of the water. When selecting such a site, consider the weather, wind, tides, and available materials.

To make a swamp bed-

Look for four trees clustered in a rectangle, or cut four poles (bamboo is ideal) and drive them firmly into the ground so they form a rectangle. They should be far enough apart and strong enough to support your height and weight, to include equipment. Cut two poles that span the width of the rectangle. They, too, must be strong enough to support your weight.

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Secure these two poles to the trees (or poles). Be sure they are high enough above the ground or water to allow for tides and high water. Cut additional poles that span the rectangle's length. Lay them across the two side poles, and secure them. Cover the top of the bed frame with broad leaves or grass to form a soft sleeping surface. Build a fire pad by laying clay, silt, or mud on one comer of the swamp bed and allow it to dry.

Another shelter designed to get you above and out of the water or wet ground uses the same rectangular configuration as the swamp bed. You very simply lay sticks and branches lengthwise on the inside of the trees (or poles) until there is enough material to raise the sleeping surface above the water level. Natural Shelters Do not overlook natural formations that provide shelter. Examples are caves, rocky crevices, clumps of bushes, small depressions, large rocks on leeward sides of hills, large trees with low-hanging limbs, and fallen trees with thick branches. However, when selecting a natural formation-

Stay away from low ground such as ravines, narrow valleys, or creek beds. Low areas collect the heavy cold air at night and are therefore colder than the surrounding high ground. Thick, brushy, low ground also harbors more insects. Check for poisonous snakes, ticks, mites, scorpions, and stinging ants. Look for loose rocks, dead limbs, coconuts, or other natural growth than could fall on your shelter.

Debris Hut For warmth and ease of construction, this shelter is one of the best. When shelter is essential to survival, build this shelter. To make a debris hut (Figure 5-11)-

Build it by making a tripod with two short stakes and a long ridgepole or by placing one end of a long ridgepole on top of a sturdy base. Secure the ridgepole (pole running the length of the shelter) using the tripod method or by anchoring it to a tree at about waist height. Prop large sticks along both sides of the ridgepole to create a wedgeshaped ribbing effect. Ensure the ribbing is wide enough to accommodate your body and steep enough to shed moisture.

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Place finer sticks and brush crosswise on the ribbing. These form a latticework that will keep the insulating material (grass, pine needles and leaves) from falling through the ribbing into the sleeping area. Add light, dry, if possible, soft debris over the ribbing until the insulating material is at least 1 meter thick--the thicker the better. Place a 30-centimeter layer of insulating material inside the shelter. At the entrance, pile insulating material that you can drag to you once inside the shelter to close the entrance or build a door. As a final step in constructing this shelter, add shingling material or branches on top of the debris layer to prevent the insulating material from blowing away in a storm.

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Tree-Pit Snow Shelter If you are in a cold, snow-covered area where evergreen trees grow and you have a digging tool, you can make a tree-pit shelter (Figure 5-12).

To make this shelter-

Find a tree with bushy branches that provides overhead cover. Dig out the snow around the tree trunk until you reach the depth and diameter you desire, or until you reach the ground. Pack the snow around the top and the inside of the hole to provide support. Find and cut other evergreen boughs. Place them over the top of the pit to give you additional overhead cover. Place evergreen boughs in the bottom of the pit for insulation.

See Chapter 15 for other arctic or cold weather shelters. Beach Shade Shelter This shelter protects you from the sun, wind, rain, and heat. It is easy to make using natural materials. To make this shelter (Figure 5-13)-

Find and collect driftwood or other natural material to use as support beams and as a digging tool.

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Select a site that is above the high water mark. Scrape or dig out a trench running north to south so that it receives the least amount of sunlight. Make the trench long and wide enough for you to lie down comfortably. Mound soil on three sides of the trench. The higher the mound, the more space inside the shelter. Lay support beams (driftwood or other natural material) that span the trench on top of the mound to form the framework for a roof. Enlarge the shelter's entrance by digging out more sand in front of it. Use natural materials such as grass or leaves to form a bed inside the shelter.

Desert Shelters In an arid environment, consider the time, effort, and material needed to make a shelter. If you have material such as a poncho, canvas, or a parachute, use it along with such terrain features as rock outcropping, mounds of sand, or a depression between dunes or rocks to make your shelter. Using rock outcroppings-

Anchor one end of your poncho (canvas, parachute, or other material) on the edge of the outcrop using rocks or other weights. Extend and anchor the other end of the poncho so it provides the best possible shade.

In a sandy area--

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Build a mound of sand or use the side of a sand dune for one side of the shelter. Anchor one end of the material on top of the mound using sand or other weights. Extend and anchor the other end of the material so it provides the best possible shade.

Note: If you have enough material, fold it in half and form a 30-centimeter to 45centimeter airspace between the two halves. This airspace will reduce the temperature under the shelter. A belowground shelter (Figure 5-14) can reduce the midday heat as much as 16 to 22 degrees C (30 to 40 degrees F). Building it, however, requires more time and effort than for other shelters. Since your physical effort will make you sweat more and increase dehydration, construct it before the heat of the day.

To make this shelter-

Find a low spot or depression between dunes or rocks. If necessary, dig a trench 45 to 60 centimeters deep and long and wide enough for you to lie in comfortably. Pile the sand you take from the trench to form a mound around three sides.

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On the open end of the trench, dig out more sand so you can get in and out of your shelter easily. Cover the trench with your material. Secure the material in place using sand, rocks, or other weights.

If you have extra material, you can further decrease the midday temperature in the trench by securing the material 30 to 45 centimeters above the other cover. This layering of the material will reduce the inside temperature 11 to 22 degrees C (20 to 40 degrees F). Another type of belowground shade shelter is of similar construction, except all sides are open to air currents and circulation. For maximum protection, you need a minimum of two layers of parachute material (Figure 5-15). White is the best color to reflect heat; the innermost layer should be of darker material.

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Building a Fire Clear the area where you are going to build the fire of twigs and leaves etc. at least 1 meter in diameter (to prevent the fire from spreading). You will need 3 types of fuel: 1) tinder - dry material that easily ignites with a spark, 2) kindling small combustible material that will increase the temperature of the fire, and 3) fuel - bigger, harder wood, preferably hard dry logs. The Bow Drill Fire Kit The easiest way to make fire by friction (that is, by "rubbing two sticks together") is the bow drill fire. Another method is the hand drill fire, which is harder to learn, but has the advantage of not requiring cordage, and therefore being easier if you had to start completely from scratch using only naturally occurring materials. Fire making without using modern equipment is a two-step process. The first step is to make a glowing hot ember, or "coal". The second step is to place the coal into a tinder bundle and blow it until you get an actual flame. The bow drill fire requires four basic parts: The bow, the drill, the fireboard (also called the hearth or base board), and the handpiece. It is also very useful to have a fifth part, some kind of flat board (cardboard or wood work fine) to place under the fireboard to catch the wood dust as it forms into a coal. An overview of the assembled bow drill is shown below. Note that the pointed end of the drill goes upward, with the blunt end at the bottom doing the drilling. You also need a tinder bundle.

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Bow drill fire making kit assembled and ready to go. Note the correct body position, as shown in the picture above. There is a proper body position for the bow drill, and you will find it much easier if you adopt it. For a right-handed position, kneel on your right knee, with your left foot supporting the unused end of the fireboard and holding it firmly in position. Your right hand holds the bow and your left hand holds the handpiece at the top of the drill spindle, with your left forearm braced on your left thigh close to your knee. A left-handed position is all that with left and right sides exchanged. Note also the correct orientation for the bowstring. It is wrapped around the drill spindle so that the drill is on the outside of the string. That is, if you drew a straight line along the bowstring (not including the bit that wraps around the drill itself), the string is between the bow and the drill. This prevents the string from cutting into itself while you are drilling. Also note that the string is wrapped around the drill so that the upper part of the string comes off the bow towards the end you are holding. This makes it easier to control the bow.

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This is the bow that was shipped with the kit. It has had some use, and before long the cord will need replacing. If you want to make your own, construction of the bow is not difficult. The wood type is not important, as long as it has a bit of spring in it.

The upper drill is the one shipped with the kit, after use. Note that the blunt end (on the right of the photo) is the lower end, that does the drilling.

This is a close-up of the fireboard, showing the end with holes where I have made fires. The original fireboard as shipped with the kit had one hole burned in, with the notch already cut. I have been able to get about three fires from each hole before drilling almost all the way through the board.

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This is the handpiece. It is a good idea to smear some Vaseline (or animal fat if in a real survival situation) into the hole and onto the pointed end of the drill, to reduce friction. You want plenty of friction (which is what causes the heat) at the lower end of the drill, and as little as possible at the top.

This is oakum tinder, also purchased from Thomas J. Elpel's website. One pound is enough for hundreds of fires if you are stingy with how much you use.

This is a small tinder bundle, made from oakum tinder. Some people call this a "bird's nest" as it looks a lot like a small bird's nest. I like to see how small I can make the tinder bundles and still get a fire. Normally you would make it a lot bigger than this (more like an actual bird's

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nest).

For today's fire I made a new hole in the fireboard, as the old holes are almost worn through. Start with a knife or other sharp object to make a pilot hole. Then you start drilling (with the bow drill set up as if you were trying to make fire), until you get some smoke and the hole is a bit charred. You are not trying to get fire at this stage, just to burn in the hole.

The hole after it has been burned in (on the right of the picture). The Swiss Army Knife saw as used to cut the notch is also shown.

Cut the notch almost to the centre of the hole. After the notch is cut, you are ready to go.

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I had some wood powder left over from a previous attempt (where the hole was too old, almost going right through the board, so I had to stop). I put that in the notch because the coal forms faster if there is already some powder there. The proper term for the wood powder is "punk". Now it is time to start drilling. You begin slowly, perhaps one second per complete stroke back and forth with the bow. Press down with the handpiece, but not too hard at first. As you drill, wood dust (punk) will fall into the notch, and you will start to see smoke. You need to heat it all up to something like 800 degrees before it will ignite, so take your time here. I like to count as it all seems to happen faster when I count. After counting to about 30, maybe 50, there should be a fair bit of smoke. At this point, go really hard and fast for a bit longer, maybe another 20 or 30 counts, although you may need more. When there has been a lot of smoke, for a while, stop drilling and take the drill away. Blow gently on the pile of wood dust. If it keeps smoking after you have stopped drilling, you have a coal! If it goes out, you need to keep drilling. It is easier in hot, dry weather than in cold, damp weather. Once you get a coal, there is no hurry, it will smoulder away for quite a while before it goes out, so you can take your time. (When I was taking this photo series the camera batteries ran out just as I got the coal. I had time to go back into the house and change the batteries before placing the coal into the tinder bundle).

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Here is the smouldering ember, or "coal", which has formed from wood powder and got hot enough to stay lit. Blow gently on the coal to make it spread, then let it rest for a few-several seconds. Do that a few times until the coal has spread almost right through the pile of dust.

Then you carefully lift the fireboard away, and transfer the coal (a small stick is helpful) into the tinder bundle. Here you can see the glowing coal in the tinder bundle. I was gently blowing on the coal to make it glow more as I took the photo.

Wrap the coal up inside the tinder bundle. Hold the tinder bundle between your fingers, alternately blowing air through it and then letting it rest for a

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few-several seconds.

The tinder bundle should suddenly burst into flame (be careful of your fingers), and now you have fire! If you are new to making fire by friction (that is, by rubbing two sticks together), the easiest way to do it is the bow drill fire. For beginners to friction fire, I would recommend starting with the bow drill fire. The hand drill fire is harder to learn than the bow drill, but has the advantage of not requiring cordage, and therefore being easier if you had to start completely from scratch using only naturally occurring materials. Fire making without using modern equipment is a two-step process. The first step is to make a glowing hot ember, or "coal". The second step is to place the coal into a tinder bundle and blow it until you get an actual flame. The hand drill fire requires only two basic parts, the drill, and the fireboard (also called the hearth or base board). It is also very useful to have some kind of flat board (cardboard or wood work fine) to place under the fireboard to catch the wood dust as it forms into a coal. The two pieces in the hand drill fire making kit are shown below. Note that the thinner end of the drill goes upward, with the fatter, blunter end at the bottom doing the drilling. This will give you more grip as you drill, and more friction. You also need a tinder bundle (see below).

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The hand drill fire making kit is very simple, just two pieces. As far as I know, the body position for the hand drill is fairly arbitrary. Most people sit on the ground, cross-legged, with one foot sticking out slightly holding the fireboard down. The hand drill can be hard to learn, so it is best to make it as easy for yourself as possible when you are starting out with it. The first couple of times I made fire with the hand drill kit, I used locking pliers (also known as "vice-grips") to hold the fireboard firmly to the cardboard base board. This way everything was held together firmly, so I did not have to concern myself with the boards slipping around and scattering the wood dust.

You can use locking pliers to hold the boards together. Today was the first time I did not use these; I used my foot to hold the boards down.

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Another aid for beginners (I am still a beginner at hand drill fire making) is to use thumb loops. Hook your thumbs into the loops to pull down on the drill, as you drill. This makes it a lot easier. The top piece was made from a curtain rod end with a hold drilled in each side to attach the cord. You can see all the parts I used for this fire in the picture below. There is a bit of wood dust left over from an earlier attempt at making fireit's good to keep this so you can place it in the notch next time, and get a fire quicker (as I do further down this page).

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This is oakum tinder, also purchased from Thomas J. Elpel's website. One pound is enough for hundreds of fires if you are stingy with how much you use.

This is a small tinder bundle, made from oakum tinder. Some people call this a "bird's nest" as it looks a lot like a small bird's nest.

For today's fire I made a new hole in the fireboard. Start with a knife or other sharp object to make a pilot hole. Rub the drill back and forth using your palms until you get some smoke and the hole is a bit charred. You are not trying to get fire at this stage, just to burn in the hole.

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The hole after it has been burned in (the leftmost hole in the picture).

Cut the notch almost to the centre of the hole (again, the leftmost hole). After the notch is cut, you are ready to go.

I had some wood powder left over from a previous attempt. I put that in the notch because the coal forms faster if there is already some powder there. The proper term for the wood powder is "punk". Now it is time to start drilling. I haven't got a photo of this yet because there was no-one else at home to take one while I was drilling. You begin slowly, perhaps half a second per complete stroke back and forth with your hands. Pull down with your thumbs hooked through the thumb loops, but not too hard at first. As you drill, wood dust (punk) will fall into the notch,

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and you will start to see smoke. You need to heat it all up to something like 800 degrees before it will ignite, so take your time here. Keep going until you are getting a consistent stream of smoke at the bottom of the drill. Then go really hard and fast for a bit longer, maybe another 50 strokes up and down, although you may need more. When there has been a lot of smoke, for a while, stop drilling and take the drill away. Blow gently on the pile of wood dust. If it keeps smoking after you have stopped drilling, you have a coal! If it goes out, you need to keep drilling. It is easier in hot, dry weather than in cold, damp weather. Once you get a coal, there is no hurry; it will smoulder away for quite a while before it goes out, and so you can take your time.

Here is the smouldering ember, or "coal", which has formed from wood powder and got hot enough to stay lit. Blow gently on the coal to make it spread, then let it rest for a few-several seconds. Do that a few times until the coal has spread almost right through the pile of wood dust.

The glowing coal in the notch. I was gently blowing on the coal to make it glow more as I took the photo, and I turned off the camera's flash. Then you carefully lift the fireboard away, and transfer the coal (a small stick is helpful) into the tinder bundle.

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Wrap the coal up inside the tinder bundle. Hold the tinder bundle between your fingers, alternately blowing air through it and then letting it rest for a few-several seconds.

The tinder bundle should suddenly burst into flame (be careful of your fingers), and now you have fire!

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Western Red cedar The kit demonstrated in my bow drill fire page is made from Western Red Cedar (Western Red cedar), scientific name Thuja plicata, which is a North American wood. It is mentioned on page 296 of Reader's Digest North American Wildlife, which is the book recommended by Jon Young for his Kamana One course. It is a type of Thuja, which is closely related to the Cypress Pines (Cypresses), scientific name Cupressus. Both the base board and the drill are made of this wood. If you try using commercially sold pine wood, make sure that it has not been treated with fire retardant chemicals.

The upper drill is the Western Red cedar one shipped with the kit I bought from Thomas J. Elpel. The lower drill is made from a grass tree (Xanthorrhoea) flower stalk, as described below. The best known Australian wood for friction fire making is the Grass Tree, scientific name Xanthorrhoea species.

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Xanthorrhoea: Grass Tree. Photo: Mitchell Park, Cattai NSW The flower stalk as seen in the photo above can be used for both the baseboard (for the bow drill and hand drill fires) and the drill itself for the

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bow drill fire. I used the fattest stalk I could find and split in two down the middle for the base board, and the thinnest stalk I could find for the drill. These plants are usually found on ridges (that is, high up) rather than down in valleys. The flower stalks fall away after the plant has finished flowering, so you can find them lying on the ground without having to damage any living plants by taking the stalk from the plant itself.

Xanthorrhoea: Grass Tree fireboard On the picture of the fireboard above the larger holes were used for the bow drill fire making method and the smaller holes for the hand drill fire making method. The smaller hand drill holes are fresh and have not been used to make a fire, while the larger bow drill holes have been used to make several fires. I have found that I could get about three fires per hole with the bow drill before the hole was drilled all the way through the fireboard.

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Xanthorrhoea: Grass Tree fireboard (view from the side/underneath) The fireboard (base board) in the pictures above was made from a really fat Grass Tree stalk split in half. To split the wood in half I used a large thick knife and hammered the back of the knife blade with another piece of wood.

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Always light your fire from the upwind side. Make sure to lay your tinder, kindling, and fuel so that your fire will burn as long as you need it. Igniters provide the initial heat required to start the tinder burning. They fall into two categories: modern methods and primitive methods. Modern Methods Modem ignites use modem devices--items we normally think of to start a fire. Matches Make sure these matches are waterproof. Also, store them in a waterproof container along with a dependable striker pad. Convex Lens Use this method (Figure 7-6) only on bright, sunny days. The lens can come from binoculars, camera, telescopic sights, or magnifying glasses. Angle the lens to concentrate the sun's rays on the tinder. Hold the lens over the same spot until the tinder begins to smoulder. Gently blow or fan the tinder into flame, and apply it to the fire lay.

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Metal Match Place a flat, dry leaf under your tinder with a portion exposed. Place the tip of the metal match on the dry leaf, holding the metal match in one hand and a knife in the other. Scrape your knife against the metal match to produce sparks. The sparks will hit the tinder. When the tinder starts to smolder, proceed as above. Battery Use a battery to generate a spark. Use of this method depends on the type of battery available. Attach a wire to each terminal. Touch the ends of the bare wires together next to the tinder so the sparks will ignite it. Gunpowder Often, you will have ammunition with your equipment. If so, carefully extract the bullet from the shell casing, and use the gunpowder as tinder. A spark will ignite the powder. Be extremely careful when extracting the bullet from the case. Primitive Methods Primitive ignites are those attributed to our early ancestors. Flint and Steel The direct spark method is the easiest of the primitive methods to use. The flint and steel method is the most reliable of the direct spark methods. Strike a flint or other hard, sharp-edged rock edge with a piece of carbon steel (stainless steel will not produce a good spark). This method requires a loose-jointed wrist and practice. When a spark has caught in the tinder, blow on it. The spark will spread and burst into flames. Fire-Plow The fire-plow (Figure 7-7) is a friction method of ignition. You rub a hardwood shaft against a softer wood base. To use this method, cut a straight groove in the base and plow the blunt tip of the shaft up and down the groove. The plowing action of the shaft pushes out small particles of wood fibers. Then, as you apply more pressure on each stroke, the friction ignites the wood particles.

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Bow and Drill The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill (Figure 7-8) is simple, but you must exert much effort and be persistent to produce a fire. You need the following items to use this method:

Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or piece of hardwood or bone with a slight depression in one side. Use it to hold the drill in place and to apply downward pressure. Drill. The drill should be a straight, seasoned hardwood stick about 2 centimetres in diameter and 25 centimetres long. The top end is round and the low end blunt (to produce more friction). Fire board. Its size is up to you. A seasoned softwood board about 2.5 centimetres thick and 10 centimetres wide is preferable. Cut a depression about 2 centimetres from the edge on one side of the board. On the underside, make a V-shaped cut from the edge of the board to the depression. Bow. The bow is a resilient, green stick about 2.5 centimetres in diameter and a string. The type of wood is not important. The bowstring can be any type of cordage. You tie the bowstring from one end of the bow to the other, without any slack.

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To use the bow and drill, first prepare the fire lay. Then place a bundle of tinder under the V-shaped cut in the fire board. Place one foot on the fire board. Loop the bowstring over the drill and place the drill in the pre-cut depression on the fire board. Place the socket, held in one hand, on the top of the drill to hold it in position. Press down on the drill and saw the bow back and forth to twirl the drill. Once you have established a smooth motion, apply more downward pressure and work the bow faster. This action will grind hot black powder into the tinder, causing a spark to catch. Blow on the tinder until it ignites.

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Satisfying Hunger The highest energy foods are animals, seeds, tubers and inner shoots. Seeds are the most energy-rich plant foods but they are not practical survival foods (take a long time to harvest and usually contain toxins) (Brand et. al. 1985). Tubers along with animal foods should be the focus of survival. Water courses should always be searched first, most are home to a least on kind of tuber bearing plant. All rushes and sedges have tubers that can be eaten raw. Water courses are also rich in animal foods and fruits and often lead to rescue. Bracken, orchids and lilies also have edible tubers. The inner hearts of tree ferns, palms and grasstrees are very useful survival foods, although in large amounts may cause digestive upset. Many kinds of sedges have inner white leaf bases that can be eaten raw. Fruits that are eaten by bats are more likely to be edible than the fruits that are eaten by birds. Pale coloured gums from wattles and other trees (if palatable), can be eaten in small amounts but may cause diarrhoea or constipation. Animals are ideal survival foods; they contain more energy, fat and protein than plant foods. Fish such as Barramundi, Black bream, Herring, Bass, Mullet, Catfish and Eels are often found in freshwater systems and are very filling if they can be caught. Kangaroos, Wallabys, Bettong, Potoroos, Wombat, Platypus, Koala, Echidnas, Bats, Possums, Gliders, Rats and Bandicoots are all found in the Mitchell park Region and are very suitable provided you can catch them. Ideal staple foods are earthworms, Moths, Stick insects, Cicadas, Lizards, Snakes (avoid venom glands), Tortoises, Turtles and Shellfish. Look under rocks and logs for termites (very nutritious), centipedes and grubs, and swat mosquitoes and March flies, which taste sweet. Avoid Cane toads, Green frogs, Puffer fish, Colourful caterpillars, Stink bugs and Wasps. Wild foods should be cooked where possible, but remember that heat does not destroy the more dangerous toxins. Leaves, fungi, large seeds, wild beans and peas should be avoided because they are not worth the risk of poisoning. These exceptions aside, learn to trust your sense of taste.

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Figure Four TrapThere are three straight pieces of wood, and seven cuts, to make the standard version of the figure four trap. The three pieces are referred to here as the vertical, the diagonal, and the trigger (which is horizontal). See the final picture at the end of this page. Use the thickest piece as the diagonal. In my version each piece is about one foot (30cm) long (actually the trigger piece, the thinnest, is longer than that, more like 45cm). The wood was from a dead gum tree branch I found in the backyard. The particular advantage of the figure four traps is that it does not need cordage.

This is the first cut, a two-sided flat edge on the vertical piece.

This is cut two, the notch at the top of the diagonal. I made mine too close to the end of the piece (that is, too close to the top of the trap, when it is assembled). That means that my trap could fail, because the rock or log used as the weight might land on the vertical, and not fall any further. Yours should be made a bit further along the piece. To cut a notch quickly, I used the saw of the Swiss army knife to cut the short edge of the notch. That is, the cut that goes straight into the wood, not at an angle. Then I used the chisel to make the angled cut, cutting towards the first cut.

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This is cut three, a flat edge at the tail of the diagonal. The flat edge and the notch at the top (the previous cut) should be in the same plane, that is, both will be aligned horizontally when the trap is assembled.

Cut four is a notch at the end of the trigger piece.

Cuts five and six are two flat faces cut into the bottom of the vertical piece, going all the way to the bottom. This creates a square edge (i.e. a 90 degree angle), that the notch on the trigger (cut seven) will fit into. These cuts need to be made in the correct orientationsee the picture below.

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Here is the completed vertical.

Cut seven is a long shallow notch cut into the trigger. This is the point that will hold the whole trap together when it is assembled. When the trap is set up, and then disturbed (hopefully by the animal you are intending to trap), this notch will be pushed away from the square edge of cuts 5 and 6, and the whole thing will fall down. This cut also needs to be made in the correct orientation. If you look at the picture below, cut seven is located on the faraway face of the trigger/horizontal piece, where it mates with the square edge on the vertical. The orientation of this notch (cut 7) is therefore vertical. That is, 90 degrees rotated as compared to the notch on the end of the trigger (shown at the right of the picture below).

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This is the complete figure four traps. Where my hand is, you would place a large rock (e.g. a 35 kilogram rock) big enough so that part of the rock rests on the ground, and part on the top of the trap. When triggered (by an animal disturbing the trigger piece), the whole thing will fall down, the rock crushing the animal. You could also use a fallen tree log, placing one end on the top of the trap. The whole set of cuts can be memorised in this way: The first cut is a flat edge, and then the notch that that edge will fit into. Then another flat edge, then its respective notch. Then the square edge (cuts 5 and 6) and then finally its notch (cut 7). So it goes edge, notch, edge, notch, edges, and notch. To make the figure four trap more sensitive, you could make a further cut (that would be cut 8), which would be to cut away the square edge (on the vertical piece) below where the trigger notch will fit, going all the way down to the bottom of the vertical. Then the trigger notch will only be able to mate with the vertical square edge in one placeand any downward disturbance of the trigger will trigger the trap, whereas it might not have without this extra cut. This cut has not been made in my photographs of the trap.

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The Paiute TrapThere are three straight pieces of wood, plus a smaller piece, to make the Paiute trap. There are only two cuts required, one flat edge and one notch, compared to seven for the figure four traps. The four pieces are referred to here as the vertical, the diagonal, the bait stick, and the trigger (which is the smaller piece). You also need a short piece of cordage; about a foot (30 cm) should suffice unless you are making a very large trap. I used homemade cordage, that I made from Lomandra (Mat-rush) leaves, although almost any kind of string, cord of rope will work. It does not need to be very strong. You also need a weight. The "rock" I have used here is a piece of broken up concrete slab that I found in the garden.

The parts of the Paiute trap (not including the rock), from top to bottom: the vertical, the diagonal (tied to the trigger with a piece of cordage) and the bait stick. Although the lengths are not critical, in the trap shown here the sizes are 38 cm (15 inches), 35 cm (14 inches), 28 cm (11 inches) and 9 cm (3.5 inches). Gregory Davenport says to make the diagonal about 2/3 the length of the vertical. The wood was from dead gum tree (Eucalyptus pipertia) branches I found in the backyard. I used a large heavy knife with a saw back for most of this work. You could use many kinds of tools. Be sure always to cut away from yourself! Below is the assembled and set Paiute deadfall trap. This trap is very sensitive, as the bait stick is balanced precariously between the rock and the trigger (the small stick). Weight from the rock is bearing downwards on the top of the diagonal. Since the diagonal is notched into the top of the

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vertical piece, the weight makes the diagonal want to swing outwards (to the left in this picture). The diagonal is prevented from swinging outwards by the cord, that is, it is pulling on the cord (pulling to the left in this picture). The cord wraps (half a complete circle) around the vertical piece, and is held at this end by the short trigger piece, which it is tied to. This makes this end (the front most end in the picture) of the trigger piece want to move to the right. The trigger piece is itself held by the end of the bait stick pushing on it (also to the left in the picture). If the bait stick or trigger piece is disturbed even slightly, the entire assembly falls to the ground, and the heavy rock falls on top of anything underneath. This is all much easier to see in action than to describe.

Assembled Paiute deadfall trap. Bait would go on the lower, horizontal stick.

This is the first cut, a two-sided flat edge at the top of the vertical piece.

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This is cut two, the notch at the top of the diagonal. To cut a notch quickly, you can use the saw of a Swiss army knife to cut the short edge of the notch. That is, the edge that goes straight into the wood, not at an angle. You can also use a knife, by placing the knife, with the sharp edge facing downward, across the stick, and then strike the back of the knife blade with a piece of wood. Do not use a steel (such as a hammer) or a rock to strike the knife blade or you may damage your knife. After mak