Augustus Notes

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1 Ancient History HSC Syllabus Option N: Rome: The Augustan Age 44 BC – AD 14 1.0 Establishment of the Principate 1.1 Impact of the death of Caesar, early career of Octavian, Second Triumvirate and Civil War 1.2 Consequences and significance of the Battle of Atrium 1.3 Development of the principate: settlements of 27 and 23 BC 1.4 Titles, honours and images of the princeps 2.0 The Augustan principate 2.1 Augustus and the Senate: role and responsibilities 2.2 Roles of magistrates and officials 2.3 Significance of equestrians and freedmen 2.4 Augustan reforms: political, social, legal, religious, administrative 2.5 Opposition to Augustus 2.6 Augustus’ building programs: the Forum Augustum, the Ara Pacis, Pantheon, Campus Martius 2.7 Literature and propaganda: Virgil, Horace and Livy; role of Maecenas 2.8 Imperial family and problems of the succession; role of imperial women: Livia, Julia 2.9 Role and contribution of Agrippa 2.10 Death of Augustus 3.0 Augustus and the empire 3.1 Augustus and the army 3.2 Provincial government: imperial and senatorial 3.3 Frontier policy

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Augustan Age

Transcript of Augustus Notes

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Ancient History HSC SyllabusOption N: Rome: The Augustan Age 44 BC – AD 14

1.0 Establishment of the Principate1.1 Impact of the death of Caesar, early career of Octavian, Second Triumvirate and Civil War1.2 Consequences and significance of the Battle of Atrium1.3 Development of the principate: settlements of 27 and 23 BC1.4 Titles, honours and images of the princeps

2.0 The Augustan principate2.1 Augustus and the Senate: role and responsibilities2.2 Roles of magistrates and officials2.3 Significance of equestrians and freedmen2.4 Augustan reforms: political, social, legal, religious, administrative2.5 Opposition to Augustus2.6 Augustus’ building programs: the Forum Augustum, the Ara Pacis, Pantheon, Campus Martius2.7 Literature and propaganda: Virgil, Horace and Livy; role of Maecenas2.8 Imperial family and problems of the succession; role of imperial women: Livia, Julia2.9 Role and contribution of Agrippa2.10 Death of Augustus

3.0 Augustus and the empire3.1 Augustus and the army3.2 Provincial government: imperial and senatorial3.3 Frontier policy

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Introduction

Timeline:

Date Events

23rd September 63 BC A born

46 BC A participated in C’s Triumphs

15th March 44 BC, the ‘Ides of March’

Caesar assassinated, Octavian adopted as son/heirA returned to I to secure claim to thronePhillipics launched by Cicero – Senate allies with A and awards him consulshipA defeats Antony’s army, feels betrayed by Senate who promote Brutus

43 BC Second Triumvirate established between L/A/Antony and Western E carved up

42 BC Battle of Philippi – C and B defeated, East regainedTriumvirate provinces reshuffled

40 BC Pact of BrundisiumAntony married to OctaviaSextus Pompey blockades I

39 BC Pact of Misenum – armistice with Sextus

36 BC Agrippa defeats Sextus PLepidus sidelined

35 BC Antony marries C

33 BC Antony divorces OctaviaA elected as consul – launches invective against A obtaining Antony’s will from the Vestral VirginsSenate declares war on C

31 BC Battle of Actium – Antony and C commit suicide

27 BC The First Settlement – consular and proconsular powers gained

23 BC The Second Settlement – proconsular maius imperium and tribunicia potestas gained

18 BC A’s imperium upgraded to consular (but without having to be consul)

12 BC A made pontifex maximus

2 BC A named pater patriae

AD 9 Varus disaster in which 17th/18th/19th legions massacred

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Terms and Concepts

proconsular maius imperium

Granted supreme power over entire Empire whilst allowing A to retain imperium upon entering RomeBestowed upon A in 2nd Settlement

tribunicia potestas Granted him civil authority in Rome with wide-ranging political powers2nd Settlement

cura annonae Administer of the grain supplyGained by A in 22 BC

pater patriae Supreme control over Empire affairs

auctoritas Prestige that provided A’s source of power

pontifex maximus Chief priest, Lepidus until his death when A superseded him

Res Gestae Divi Augusti Funerary inscription recording the achievements of A

Consilium principus Augustus’ committee of advisorsPraetors Imperial administrators

Consuls Constitutional heads of state, diminished in powers under A

Equites Equestrian class, landed gentry

Vigiles Roman fire brigadePax Romana Peace in Romespolia opima Ultimate military spoils which A monopolisedpaterfamilias Head of the household

Praetorian Guard A’s personal bodyguard

Main Historians/Evidence

Ancient ModernTacitus Jones ScullardCicero Shotter SalmonCassius Dio Wallace-Hadrill EckSuetonius Grant Shuckberg

SymesMommsen

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1. Establishment of the Principate

0.1 Non-examinable Background

o Near the end of the 2nd c BC the Republican system began to disintegrate and had become a corrupt body—termed the ‘Roman Revolution’.

o Rise of private armies and autocratic ambitions—disregard of tradition in the res publica.

o Civil war erupted in 49 BC between Pompey and Caesar. By 45 BC Caesar had emerged victorious.

o Caesar assumed the position of dictator for life.

1.1 Impact of death of Caesar, early career of Octavian, Second Triumvirate and Civil War

Early Career of Octaviano Born Gaius Octavius, in 63BC, to Atia, of Julian descent, and the elder Gaius

Octavius.o Mother, Atia, was Caesar’s niece, giving Augustus a connection to an old family of

patrician rank, and more importantly Caesar himself.o Enjoyed a good relationship with great-uncle Julius Caesar.o Took part in Caesar’s triumphs of 46 BC and was later elected into the patrician order

by Caesar—indication of Caesar’s favour.

Impact of Caesar’s deatho Caesar assassinated on 15th March 44BC.o Upon Caesar’s assassination (orchestrated by Brutus and Cassius), Mark Antony

assumed leadership of Rome.o Brutus and Cassius flee.o Caesar’s death throws Rome into a struggle for power.o Cicero wanted to return power to the Senate and ‘save the republic’.o Lepidus was another contender for power.o Octavian, Caesar’s great-nephew, however, was named as his principle heir and

intended to be his successor; he promptly returned to Italy upon Caesar’s death.o Octavian wanted to avenge his adopted father and also prove himself as a worthy heir.o He also takes the opportunity to adopt the powerful name ‘Caesar’.o Cicero quotes Mark Antony: “You, boy, who owe everything to a name”.

Early Politicso Octavian and Antony quarrelled immediately.o Antony’s position was unstable in Rome, while Octavian gained popularity.o Antony had the Plebeian assembly grant him Cisalpine Gaul and left to there with his

loyal troops.o Octavian manipulates the will of the senate:

obtains senatorial troops to march on Antony. They meet at Mutina in 43BC and Octavian emerges victorious as Antony flees back to Gaul.

o Senate declares Antony an enemy of the state.o Antony and Lepidus form an alliance.

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o While away at war, the Senate appoint Brutus supreme commander in the war against Brutus. Octavian felt betrayed, realised best interests lay in allying himself with Antony.

o Octavian returned to Rome with his 8 legions and demanded consulship. o He was declared consul in 43BC at age of 20.o He removed the decree outlawing Antony, and immediately declared Caesar’s

assasins B & C enemies of the state.

Second Triumvirateo Octavian set off with 11 legions to seek reconciliation with Antony and at Bononia,

Octavian, Antony and Lepidus formed an alliance; the ‘Second Triumvirate’ (43BC).

o The three gained powers of imperium(absolute power) for 5 years. o Divided the western provinces amongst themselves:

Antony: North Italy, parts of GaulLepidus: Spain and parts of GaulOctavian: Sicily, Sardinia and Africa.

o Octavian takes the opportunity to deify Caesar, giving him the unique position of a son of a god.

o To consolidate their powers, they created proscription lists to raise funds and eliminate influential men of Rome. Cicero is amongst those murdered.

o Shotter: “Its real aim was the service of personal and factional ambitions.”

Civil Waro In the meantime, Brutus and Cassius had been raising an army in the East and

promised the senate they would restore the republic.o In two battles at Philippi, Macedonia in 42BC, Brutus and Cassius were defeated

and eliminated.o Holland: “The defeat of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi is traditionally regarded as marking the

end of the Roman empire”.o Sextus Pompeius, another Roman general who had taken Sicily and Sardinia from

Octavian, remained the triumvirs last point of opposition.

o In 40BC, the triumvirate is renegotiated; the ‘Treaty of Brundisium’.Antony: the EastOctavian: the West. Lepidus: Spain and Africa; however he becomes subordinate

o Octavia marries Antony in a statement of unity.o Sextus Pompey and his navy seize Sicily and cut off grain supply to Italy.o 39BC: ‘Pact of Misenum’ negotiated with Sextus Pompey and he is officially given

control of Sicily.o 37BC: Triumvirate renewed with Lepidus excluded.o Lepidus makes a desperate bid for power but is deserted by his troops; he is stripped

of his political powers and instead granted the position of pontifex maximus.o Marcus Agrippa, Octavian’s lieutenant, defeats Sextus Pompey at Naulochus in

36BC.o Octavian now has unchallenged control of the West, but his relationship with Antony

begins to break down.

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1.2 The Battle of Actium

Origins—Political Unresto Antony and Octavian never intended for duel leadership and were on an inevitable

collision course.o During his sojourn in the East, Antony met the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra.o Antony marries, and hence aligned himself, with Cleopatra at Antioch in 35 BC. They

produce children.o Antony began to be ‘orientalised’, wearing Oriental dress and practicing Egyptian customs. Thus,

he began to lose the support of the xenophobic Roman populace.o In 34 BC Antony’s ‘Donations of Alexandria’ declared Cleopatra ‘Queen of Kings’ and her

son by Caesar ‘Caesarion’ as ‘King of Kings’ giving further evidence of where his sentiments now lay.

o Antony divorced Octavia, further exacerbating tensions between Octavian and Antony.o In 33BC Octavian became consul again and in his first session of the Senated he launched an

attack on Antony—Antony’s orientalism, grants of territory and titles in the East, and betraying the interests of Rome.

o Both men realised the inevitable and were preparing their armies for battle.o The lead up to Actium was characterised by a war of propaganda in a bid to win

the hearts of the Roman populace.o David Shotter: “The Battle of Actium was both a physical battle and a propaganda

battle for hearts and minds.”

Battleo Cleopatra, the ‘eastern sourceress’, was Antony’s most vulnerable point at which Roman

sentiment most easily exploited and swayed. Realising this, Augustus continually vilified the Egyptian ruler in propaganda.

o He declared war on the ‘Foreign Queen’ in 32BC.o The two armies/navies now came together in Greeceo On the 2nd September 31BC, Augustus outnumbered and defeated Antony’s navy

on the west coast of Greece at Actium largely thanks to the tactics of Agrippa.o 30BC: Antony was later pursued and defeated at Alexandria in Egypt.o 30BC: Antony then fled from his men and committed suicide, believing Cleopatra to have been

captured.o 30BC: Her cause lost, Cleopatra committed suicide.o Octavian has ‘Caesarion’ hunted down and murdered leaving no apparent opposition to his rule.

Consequences & Significanceo Octavian emerged the sole victor and was now hailed as imperator.o Egypt annexed to Rome and made a Roman province, resulting in a huge influx of wealth and

became the largest supplier of grain for Roman market.o Spent generously with this newfound wealth—increased his popularity with the people with

games, handing out grain and providing employment through a new building program.o Upon his return in 29BC, Augustus publicly indicated that ‘peace was restored’ for the first

time in 200 years of civil war and political upheaval. o Octavian had Agrippa settle army veterans.o He returned financial stability to Rome.o He ended all proscriptions and declared an amnesty.

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o David Shotter : “The victory at Actium marked a turning point in the history of Rome – the end of the Republic and the beginning of a new monarchy.”

o Augustus had unprecedented individual power as he had eliminated all opponents; he had also secured his auctoritas.

1.3 Development of the principate: settlements of 27 and 23 BC

o The old system had failed and was in need of reform.o The control of an individual was needed to retain political stability.o Tacitus : “The rule of a single man was the only possibly remedy for a country in

turmoil.”o Octavian needed to:

Avoid the mistakes of Caesar in disrespecting tradition and appearing as an autocrat and dictator.Establish a position simultaneously within and above established convention.

o He developed the principate gradually between 28 BC and 19 BC.o Augustus’ political genius allowed him to at every step claim that he was the

passive participant; it was the Senate and the people of Rome who pressured him to accept his posts.

o He was never elected for life but for fixed terms, giving the illusion of choice.o Syme: “…it was a cleverly concealed autocracy.”o Shotter: “Not only did Augustus institute his own form of permanent supervision of

government but he lived to develop it over a reign of 45 years”.

The First Settlement, 27BCo Shotter: “The first settlement represented a fairly direct way of exercising control”.o To the shock of Rome, in 27BC Octavian announced that the Republic was ‘restored’

and renounced all his constitutional powers and provinces to the senate and Roman people. However, this was merely a symbolic “calculated gesture” (Eck).

o Eck: “Nothing was left to chance or accident in preparing these exemplary manifestations. The ruler had taken counsel with his friends and allies – and perhaps with neutral politicians.”

o Octavian’s announcement was received by plebeian riots and public outcry demanding his leadership.

o Subsequently, the Senate bestowed a series of legal honours upon Augustus: Proconsular imperium: Power over all the provinces that required military defence, came into control of 70% of the Roman legions.Held consulship each year giving him control over Rome and Italy, the heart of the Empire.The senate conferred upon him the title ‘Augustus’ (revered one) adding to his auctoritas and dignity.

o Shotter: “These powers gave Octavian most of the control that he needed, since Rome could be governed through consulships, whilst the Empire would be protected by the armed forces which were stationed in his extended provinces.”

The Second Settlement, 23BCo Several factors meant First Settlement needed to be revised:

Augustus’ ill health.Conspiracy of Caepio and Murena.Without consulship he had no power outside his provinces.

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Senate was beginning to resent Augustus’ overbearing political influence due to his yearly consulship. Roman population demanded a tighter formula of government in order to guarantee security and stability for the empire.

o In 23BC he relinquished all his powers to satisfy the people and the senate.o Subsequently, the Senate gave him a set of new powers recorded by Cassius Dio:

Proconsular maius imperium: To be renewed every 5 years, more or less gave him supreme power anywhere in the Empire. Included control over the military, civil affairs, treasury and foreign. Tribunicia Potestas: The second half of his supreme power—legal power; power to veto legislation; power of tribune—convened the plebeian assembly(thus the symbolic leader of the people), convened the senate, presented legislation and through his ‘right of commendatio’ he designated whom he wanted elected to magistracies.

o These two powers allowed him to remain princeps without having to be elected consul annually.

o Scullard : “Thus the authority of Augustus was re-established on two foundations: tribunicia potestas which gave him civil authority in Rome itself, and proconsular maius imperium which gave him control of the armies and provinces.”

Later Developmentso 22 BC—Plebians demanded Augustus be made Dictator for Life. Augustus refused

and instead gained control over grain supply through cura annonae.o 18 BC—Augustus’ imperium was upgraded to consular (for life without having to

be Consul).

o Extent of Augustus’ auctoritas allowed his powers to transcend any legal restrictions. Thus his rule was based on personal influence and legally granted powers.

o Res Gestae: “I excelled all in auctoritas, although I possessed no more official power than others.”

1.4 Titles, honours and images of the princeps

Titles and Honourso Although Augustus had power, titles and honours, he knew it was his auctoritas in the state that

gave him his power.o The power and prestige held in the title of ‘Augustus’—sacred word shared with the god Jupiter,

superhuman connotations.o He was princeps (‘first man in Rome’).o He further was bestowed with the titles of:o Pontifex Maxiumus (chief priest) in 12BC after the position was vacated by Lepidus’ death.

Conferred dignity greater than power and was useful in restoring state religion.o Pater Patriciae (father of the country) in 2BC, perhaps his proudest honour made him analogous

to the position of paterfamilias over his subjects.

Titles & Honours DetailsPrincepsAugustus (27BC)Imperator (hailed as imperator after Battle of Actium)Consul (held 13 times)Proconsular Maius Imperium (23BC) Renewed every 5yrs.

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Tribunicia Potestas (23BC) Held for 37years.Pontifex Maximus (12BC)Pater Patriciae (2BC)

Imageso Depicted in three ways:

In traditional dress (toga), presented him as an exemplar of Roman tradition.In military uniform as the protector of the state and people.As the Pontifex Maximus highlighting his religious role and respect for tradition.

o Wanted to be seen as benefactor to all.o He was given the corona civica (civic crown of oak leaves) presenting him as Rome’s saviour.o The golden shield (placed in the Senate house), proclaimed his Roman virtues—associated with

bravery, clemency, justice and piety.o He produced the ‘Res Gestae’ to proclaim and preserve his illustrious image and achievements.

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2. The Augustan Principate

2.1 Augustus and the Senate: roles and responsibilities

o The Senatorial order was the most prestigious rank in the Roman social hierarchy.

Roles/Responsibilitieso Traditionally the Senate was intended to act as a high court, to elect magistrates, conduct public

business and legislate.o Under Augustus the Senate was gradually turned into a legislative body, but retained most of

its traditional roles.o Thus it became less influential. According to Jones it was reduced to no more than a “rubber

stamp” for Augustan political agenda.o Maintained control over ‘senatorial provinces’.o Continued to present legislation, debate it and pass it on to the Assembly.o Senators continued to hold illustrious positions in the military and politics eg. army officers,

proconsuls in senatorial provinces.o Le Glay: “His political genius lay in his grasp of the fact that, the better to establish his personal

power, he had to preserve the Republic, even to consolidate the outward appearance of its institution in order to empty them of their content.”

Augustus’ Reforms to the Senateo After the Battle of Actium the Senate was in disarray, Augustus needed to address the Senate’s

respectability and dignity while also preventing clashes between it and himself.o He introduced several reforms to its roles and responsibilities:

Reduced the number of senators from 1,000 to 600, purging members of dubious standing, intending to eliminate corruption and inefficiency whilst restoring exclusive nature and dignity of the Senate.Senatorial court for cases of treason and cases involving senators. Controlled the public treasury and controlled the minting of all bronze and copper coinage.Introduced fines for senators for not attending meetings, prohibiting senators from leaving Italy without permission. Introduced requirement for senators to possess property worth one million sesterces.Disallowed them from marrying freedwomen.Banned them from attending public spectacles. Consulship was reduced to 6 months, allowing for greater rotation and responsibility while also preventing any senator from rivalling Augustus in influence.Established consilium principis, a small committee of advisors to Augustus.Senate sessions lowered to meeting just twice a month.Speakers in debates now chosen at random to encourage participation and argument.

o Essentially Senate was transformed from the chief organ of the State to a subordinate entity.

2.2 Roles of magistrates and officials

o Mostly remained the same but Augustus more clearly defined and limited the powers of each position.

o Thus eliminated the likeliness of an individual accumulating great power.

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Consulso Two elected members of the Senate; traditionally the constitutional heads of state, but their

position diminished as the princeps was now above them.o Terms were reduced to six months to increase the number of consuls available for public

service.o Had civil duties in Rome, commanded the military. o Augustus often allowed talented consuls to govern imperial provinces or direct boards of senators

in specific areas of administration such as grain and water supply.o Ex-consuls became curators of the water supply, highways and public works and heard appeals

from the provinces.o There were 4 after 5 BC.

Praetorso 12 elected.o Increased importance/responsibility under Augustus.o Presided over courts, managed public/military treasury, organised games and festivals,

assisted consuls and Augustus, some military posts.o Ex-praetors were appointed governors of senatorial provinces and administered the military

treasury.

Quaestorso 20 elected.o Lost all traditional functions. o Acted as financial officers in senatorial provinces, officials of the public treasury, and

assistants to consuls. o One had to be a quaestor to enter the Senate.

Aedileso 6 elected.o Repaired streets, jurisdiction over limited number of commercial cases. o They lost many of their traditional functions and prestige—lost position as overseers of the

corn supply and games in 22 BC, the water supply in 11 BC and fire control in AD 6.

Tribunateo Lost all its powers and became a ‘dead-end’ office which no one of any talent wished to hold.

2.3 Significance of equestrians and freedmen

Equestrian Class (‘equites’)o Traditionally viewed as class of businessmen and financiers.o Benefited greatly under Augustus, brought into greater prominence.o Increased from 1,800 to 5,000.o In creating the principate, Augustus created something of an imperial bureaucracy requiring

the aid of various lower posts in administering the Empire. o There were not enough magistrates and ex-magistrates to fill these positions, which led to the

equestrian class being promoted to higher posts as minor officials and clerks.o Traditionally relations between senate and equestrian class were hostile.

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Princeps---------------------

Consuls---------------------------------

Senatorial Class--------------------------------------------------

Equestrian Class-------------------------------------------------------------------

Plebeians—Freeborn

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Plebeians—Freedmen

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o Auguestus attempted to eradicate tensions by finding positions for them where they would not compete with the Senatorial class.

o Introduced monetary requirements = 400,000 sesterces.o Roles:

Military: Acted as prefects of fleets and of Egyptian legions, cohort commanders. Allowed to enter the Praetorian Guard and Vigiles.Administration: Appointed in judicial and financial posts in Egypt as well as prefectures of minor provinces. Also prefecture over Egypt (most important position). Could become officials of the fire brigade and grain supply and procurators (imperial officials).Judicial – served on juries

Freedmeno Former slaves manumitted by their masters.o Could become extremely wealthy and successful, but restricted from certain positions.o Roles:

Could serve in the Vigiles (fire brigade in Rome).Permitted to inter-marry with free-born but not senatorial class.Were often admitted into guilds as artisans and shopkeepers.Played influential role in religion – monopolised priesthoods of non-Roman deities and could be promoted as the Augustales – priests for the worship of the Imperial cult.Augustus possessed his own personal freedmen who managed his personal household affairs and finances.

Plebso Augustus was extremely popular with the lower classes due to substantial cash and grain

payments he made to them and the many games, festivals and spectacles he financed.o His rigorous public building program lowered unemployment levels.o Better policing under the Vigiles and the urban cohorts

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2.4 Augustan reforms: political, social, legal, religious and administrative

o Consolidated his reign through a range of reforms.o Maintained the newly acquired pax romana.

Politicalo Extended administration of Rome and the provinces.o Made a series of reforms to the senate (see 2.1 ) .o Made a series of reforms to the various magistracies (see 2.2).

Socialo Controlled grain supply, provided relief in form of free grain to the poor.o Improved water supply.o Increase in public games and festivals.o Addressed unemployment problem through his building program, which provided ample jobs.o Increased the distinctions between social classes of the Roman social hierarchy.o He made sure senatorial and equestrian blood was kept untainted by the ban of marriage

with freedwomen and the like. Encouraged marriage within these classes.o Limited slave manumissions to a gradual flow into the citizen body.o Suetonius: Augustus “thought it important to keep the people pure and uncontaminated by all

corruption of foreign and servile blood.”Moral Reforms

o Augustus made a number of moral reforms aimed at restoring dignity and tradition to a Rome in moral decline.

o In 18 B.C, he made a ‘sumptuary law’ (limited expenditure on personal items) to deal with the issue of ‘extravagance’ in Roman society.

o He passed the lex Iulia adulteries coercendis—prosecuted adultery, protected marriage.o He passed the lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus, which was also extensively modified by the lex

Papia Poppea of A.D 9, to encourage marriage and the procreation of children. o Hence, population increased considerably under Augustus.o However, Tacitus wrote that his strict social policies were largely unsuccessful.o Nor did the Roman public appreciate the State attempting to intervene in public life. o As an example he failed, hypocritically engaging in adultery himself.

Legalo Established the rule of law within the Roman Empire.o Reduced jury service age from 35 to 30 years.o Created several new courts:

Senatorial high court for treason and cases involving senators.Imperial court of criminal justice, dealt with a broader range of crimes.New court for cases of adultery.

Religiouso Deified Caesar.o Restored over 80 temples (Res Gestae).o Shifted focus onto cults favoured by Augustus while some such as Jupiter lost popularity. o Revived the priestly colleges.o Allowed development of the Imperial Cult, which worshipped his ‘genius’, served propaganda

purposes.

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o Discouraged development of foreign cults due to their potentially alienating effect. Administrativeo Divided Italy into 11 districts and Rome itself into 265 wards with 4 magistrates policing the

city.o Established Vigiles (fire brigade) in AD 6.o Built and repaired roads improving transport and movement throughout the Empire.o Established police force under city prefect.o Established permanent water board made up of water curators taken from the senatorial class.o Took over control of grain from the aediles.

Financialo Established ‘aerarium militaire’ (military treasury—controlled by A) and public treasury

(controlled by Senate). o Divided issuing of coinage between himself (gold and silver) and the Senate (copper and

bronze).o Set up an imperial mint in Gaul.o Introduced new indirect taxes to tap new sources of revenue apart from tributes from the

provinces.o Implemented a fairer tax system through having taxes collected by officials independent of the

governor of each province and accountable to Augustus.o Took periodic censuses of the people and property throughout the Empire.

2.5 Opposition to Augustus

o Augustus promoted his ‘pax romana’ through propaganda; hence forming the traditional view his reign was stable with minimal opposition.

o Augustus did command widespread popularity. o Accordingly Tacitus argues “Opposition did not exist.”o Opposition must, however, have existed, and there is evidence in both Cassius Dio and

Suetonius of discontent in the Senate at times as well as hatred of his ruthless acts in establishing power.

o The fact there is so little evidence of opposition is most probably due to censorship and repression of such literature (eg. Cassius Severus’ books burnt), coupled with Augustan propaganda, which covered it up.

o Augustus also dealt swiftly and ruthlessly in suppressing all hints of opposition.o Suetonius: “He suppressed a series of sporadic riots and revolts; besides certain conspiracies, all

of them detected before they become dangerous.”

Ideological Plots & Conspiracies

Name Plan OutcomeAemilius Lepidus Plotted assassination of Augustus to avenge

his father Lepidus..Maecenas detected plot.

Caepio and Murena (co-consul to Augustus)

Conspired against Augustus.Jones: The only serious conspiracy.

Executed

Crassus, Proconsul of Macedonia

Declared war against a tribe and claimed spoils of battle.

Augustus denied Crassus his spoils and political ambitions, dropped out of limelight.

Primus, Proconsul of Macedonia

Attacked Thracians without approval

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Rufus Praetor who wanted consulship in 19 BC.Immensely popular, providing direct challenge to Augustus.

Plot uncovered, executed

2.6 Augustus’ building programs: the Forum Augustum, the Ara Pacis, Pantheon, Campus Martius

o Augustus launched an impressive building program in Rome, intending to reflect his new age of peace and prosperity while also leaving a legacy to the ancient world.

o Cassius Dio quotes the famous words of Augustus: “I found Rome in bricks and left it clothed in marble.”

o Shotter describes it as the “Golden Age” of Roman architecture.o Peace had allowed funds to be pumped into public works rather than the military.o Buildings were generally lavish.o Functioned as propaganda, promoted view of Augustus as the saviour of Rome as well as a

traditionalist.o He gained the support of the plebs through:

Rebuilding domestic houses and public buildings.Repairing dilapidated areas of Rome.Providing employment for lower classes.

o Over 80 temples were reconstructed or built, including the temple to Apollo on the Palatineo Aqueducts and sewer system refurbished.o Roads and highways built and repaired to improve transport and trade throughout the Empire.o He delegated the building program to Marcus Agrippa while he was ‘aedile’ in 33 BC; he was

responsible for a large portion of works.o A number of public buildings including basilicas, libraries, granaries, amphitheatres, theatres

and warehouses were constructed.

Notable Constructions

Construction Purposes and Features

Forum Augustum (AD 2)

o Served propaganda purposes, depicting Augustus as the victorious conqueror, bringer of peace and reviver of ancient traditions.

o Included the Temple of Mars the Avenger—built to commemorate battle won at Philippi.

o Included a statue of Augustus, portrayed as a semi-divine, with the etching ‘Father of his country.

o Luxurious and ostentatious, the prime building intended to be left as a legacy.

Ara Pacis (9 BC) o In the Campus Martius.o Depicted Augustus as a continuer of Roman tradition.o Showed renewed interests in the family and morality, highlighted values of piety

and productivity.o Hadrill notes it lacked triumphal imagery, reflecting era of peace.

Pantheon (27 BC) o In the Campus Martius.o Constructed by Agrippa.o Dedicated to traditional pantheon of gods, thus kept in line with tradition.o Commemorated Actium.

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o Luxurious reliefs and works of art.

Campus Martius o The ‘field of Mars’, an open space outside the city boundary to the North of Rome.o Constituted collection of public buildings—Porticoes, a library, mausoleum for

Augustus and his family, Theatre of Marcellus, the Ara Pacis, Agrippa’s thermae (public baths), the Pantheon and several temples.

o Promoted image, eg. at Mausoleum there was a colossal bronze statue of Augustus.

2.7 Literature and propaganda: Virgil, Horace and Livy; role of Maecenas

Propagandao Augustus utilised a wide range of propaganda means in order to promote and justify his regime.o Included: literature, buildings, statues, Imperial cult, coinage, public games and the Res

Gestae. o Grant believes it was the basis of his power acting as “an iron fist inside a velvet glove”.o ‘Golden Age’ of Roman literature. o Censorship of critical works.o Augustus took an active interest in several poets and historians realising their potential for

propaganda. o Suetonius : He “fostered the talent of his age in every way”.

Writer Works

Virgil Poet, best known for three major works—the ‘Eclogues’ (or Bucolics), the ‘Georgics’ and the ‘Aeneid’.The Aeneid particular alludes to Augustus in depicting an ideal Roman exhibiting virtues of duty, loyalty and piety.

Horace Lyrical poet and satirist.His ‘Odes’ expressed support for Augustan reform.He praised and glorified the Empire and Augustus throughout his works.“While Augustus stands guard, peace is assured, the peace no power can break…”

Ovid PoetHis ‘Metamorphoses’ predicts a divine future for Augustus.Proclaims Augustus as Caesar and God.Banished to Tomis in AD 8 for political reasons.

Livy Historian who shared a great relationship with Augustus.Draws parallels in ‘Histories’ between the great aspects of ancient Rome and the Augustan Age, also covering the Augustan Age.

All praised Augustus and promoted the ‘Golden Age’ focusing primarily on themes of peace, luxury and prosperity.

Role of Maecenaso A wealthy equestrian and close friend of Augustus.

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o Political advisor to Augustus and possessed a highly influential diplomatic role, particularly negotiating early treaties with Antony such as the Treaty of Brundisium.

o He also acted as patron of literature and the arts.o Shuckberg : “Maecenas was in effect the emperor’s minister for propaganda.”o Created an inner circled of talented writers for Augustus, personally introducing both Horace

and Virgil to the princeps.o He personally sponsored both, supplying Horace with a property and allowing Virgil to write

the Georgics.

2.8 Imperial family and problems of the succession; role of imperial women: Livia, Julia

Problems of Successiono Rogerson: His “attempts to foster a successor had been hampered throughout by death,

recalcitrance and individual members of his family…Tiberius was by no means his first choice heir.”

o Problems of succession stemmed from a wide range of factors:Unprecedented nature of position.

o There was no protocol in place to determine how succession would take place. o Due to Roman law he could not simply choose a successor to his titles.oThus he had to instead aid a potential successor in accumulating the necessary experience, power and auctoritas in order to take over from him as princeps. oHe did this through granting constitutional powers and establishing family links with his potential successors.

Lack of sons. o Dealt with this through marriage, Livia gave him two sons, and adoption, through marrying

his daughter Julia to potential successors.

Deaths. He outlived most of his potential heirs.

Scandals and individual ambition.

Name Relationship ResultMarcellus Nephew (son of

Octavia) and son-in law

- Participated in Augustus’ triple triumph of 29 BC.- Initiated into military life in 26 BC accompanying Augustus to Spain.- Married to Julia. - Admitted into Senate in 24 BC.- When Augustus fell ill he was surprisingly not marked out for succession upon his death – most likely due to his lack of experience.- Died in 23 BC.

Agrippa Close adviser, accomplished general.Son-in-law from 21 BC

- Intended successor when Augustus fell ill.- Granted proconsular imperium over Eastern provinces.- Gradually he accumulated a great number of powers, posing a potential threat.- Solved this by marrying off to Julia in 21 BC.- Proconsular imperium renewed and granted tribunicia potestas for five years in 18 BC. - Died in 12 BC.

Gaius Caesar Grandson (son of - Elected consul in 6 BC.

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Julia and Agrippa) and adopted son

- Died in AD 4.

Lucius CaesarGrandson (son of Julia and Agrippa) and adopted son

- Died in AD 2.

Agrippa Postumus

Grandson (youngest son of Agrippa and Julia)

- Denied advancement whilst Tiberius was accumulating powers.- Disowned by Augustus and exiled for unknown reasons.

Tiberius Stepson (son of Livia) and son-in-law

- Accompanied him in his triple triumph of 29 BC.- Initiated into military life in 26 BC accompanying Augustus to Spain.- Remained in a subordinate position to Marcellus.- Married off to Julia after Agrippa’s death, 12 BC.- Held second consulship in 7 BC and celebrated his first triumph for victories in Germany.- Received tribunician powers for five years.- Retired to Rhodes in 6 BC (either in outrage according to Dio Cassius at the public preference shown for the young boys Gaius and Lucius or in an attempt to prove he was indispensable).- Returned to Rome in AD 2.- Adopted as Augustus’ son in AD 4.- Received proconsular maius imperium and tribunicia potestas for ten years in AD 13 as well as extensive administration of volatile Germany.-Tiberius’ control was now co-extensive with that of Augustus.- Finally succeeded Augustus in AD 14 as emperor.

- Not A’s first choice, and would have preferred Julian heir rather than Claudian.

Drusus Stepson (son of Livia)

- Died on campaign in Germany in 9 BC.

Role of imperial womeno Imperial women played an extremely important role in strengthening political connections with

Augustus’ allies.o Literature of the period reflects increasing recognition of women’s potential.

Octaviao Augustus’ sister.o Promoted as the embodiment of the ideal Roman woman.o In 40 BC she is married to Antony in a statement of political unity.o Provided Marcellus, original intended successor.

Livia o Was married to Tiberius Claudius Nero, produced sons Drusus and Tiberius.o Divorced him and re-married Augustus in 38 BC.o Well educated, intelligent and had strong influence on Augustus.o Involved in the repairing of temples and public buildings, several buildings such as the portico of

Livia even beared her name.

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o Played public role in society – toured provinces with Augustus, accompanied him for religious celebration and on public occasions.

o Schemed for her son Tiberius’ succession, ultimately successful.o Outlived Augustus, died at age 87 in AD 29.o Suetonius : Wealth, good looks, intelligence, combined with status of husband made her role

possible”. o Two statues of her in Rome, attested to her respectability.

Julia

o Born to Augustus’ first wife Scribonia.o Was successively married off to potential successors to Augstus.

Marcellus in 23 BC.Agrippa in 21 BC (with whom she produced five children).Tiberius in 11 BC.

o According to Jones Augustus used her as a political pawn in showing preference for future successors.

o Exiled for adultery in 2 BC.

2.9 Role and contribution of Agrippa

Marcus Agrippao Agrippa was a member of the equestrian class and a close friend and advisor of Augustus.o When Augustus fell ill in 23 BC he showed clear signs that Agrippa was intended to be his

successor.o Married off to Julia in 21 BC with whom he had five children.o Died in 12 BC.

Titleso Successively held consulship, first in 37 BC, then in 31 and 28 BC with Augustus.o Aedile in 33 BC—able to implement Augustan building regime.o Appointed inspector-general of the Eastern provinces.o Granted proconsular imperium over all imperial provinces.o Given maius imperium over senatorial provinces and tribunicia potesta in 18 BC for five

years – thus, virtually co-regent with Augustus (and depicted as such on coins from this period).

Military and Naval Achievementso He was an accomplished naval and military tactician.o Pivotal role in defeating Sextus Pompey, Battle of Naulochus. o Pivotal role at the Battle of Actium.o Successful against trans-Rhine and Aquitanian tribes.

Administrative Achievementso Responsible for supervising the extensive building program in Rome.o Constructed new aqueduct and first public baths.o Built Pantheon.o Completed many buildings commenced under Caesar.

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2.10 Death of Augustus

Death & Willo After ruling for almost 45 years he died of old age at Nola on 19 August AD 14, aged 77.o Ancient sources give varying accounts – Tacitus and Dio record that Livia was suspected of

being involved in his death after Augustus had visited his grandson Agrippa Postumus, possibly thinking of making him his successor.

o Upon Augustus’ death Tiberius was declared master of the state.o His will left 2/3rds of his estate to Tiberius and the remaining third to Livia.o He gave generously to the Roman people—40,000,000 for the people, and substantial sums for

members of the military.

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3. Augustus and the Empire

3.0 Assessment of Career

o Brought a period of unity, peace and prosperity to Western Europe, the Middle East and North Africa.

o Established political stability and was so successful in centralising power that the system of the Principate endured for almost 200 years.

o Shuckberg: “Augustus was the most successful ruler known to us.” o Shotter: “Augustus provided the firm and stable basis from which sprang the expansion and

prosperity of the next two centuries, and which enabled Rome and the Empire to withstand the waywardness of many emperors who came after Augustus.”

o Cicero: “the young man should be praised, honoured, and immortalised.”

3.1 Augustus and the army

o Ultimately allowed him to initially establish power and later maintain control.o Salmon: “The real basis of the Principate was the Emperor’s military power.”o Soldier’s loyalty was ensured through propaganda, bribes and war booty as well

as through making them swear an oath to him. o His proconsular maius imperium gave him supreme power over the Empire

including control of the military, the military treasury as well as Rome’s foreign policy.

o A rigorous training regime ensured the army was of a high calibre.o He ensured army was busy regularly sending legions out on campaigns rather than

stationing them along the frontier as a defensive garrison force, which increased stability within Empire.

o Key role in uniting and Romanising the Empire, spreading the Latin language and Roman culture.

o Also enacted important political role in suppressing his opposition.

Military Reformso Disbanded half his legions, from 60 to 28, and professionalised the army aiming to

emphasise upon quality rather than quantity.o Made the soldiers swear personal oaths of allegiance.o Fixed terms of service were introduced, initially 16 years but increased to 20 years in

AD 6.o Standardised legions granting them titles and numbers.o Established the ‘aerarium militaire’ (military treasury), which funded soldier’s

wages (fixed as 225 denarii/year) and offered a pension.o Created veteran’s colonies.o Established Praetorian Guard, personal guard of most talented troops to

accompany himself on campaigns.o Augustus personally appointed commanders of legions, often they were members

of his own family to ensure allegiance.

Composition of the Armyo The military was recruited from Roman citizens and freeborn inhabitants of the

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provinces.o He established a force of the Praetorian Guard and 28 legions, which were

supplemented by auxiliary units.

Force Divisions Roles & Responsibilities

Praetorian Guard 9 cohorts of 1000 men each

-Service: 16 years -Consisted of talented and upstanding citizen soldiers selected exclusively from Italy.-Served as Augustus’ personal bodyguard, stationed in Rome and accompanied the princeps when he left Rome.-When not fighting they were involved in public works such as roadwork.-Paid generous salary in order to ensure support = 375 denarii according to Cassius Dio.

Legions 28 Legions(25 by AD 9 after the ‘Varus Disaster’)

-Service: 20 years-Swore oath of allegiance.-Paid 225 denarii and assured of pension and future settlement in a colony.-Maintained provincial order and defended frontiers.-Took part in public works when not fighting.

Auxiliary Units Organised into cohorts of 500

-Service: 25 years-Non-citizen wing of the army recruited from the areas in which they served, generally raised when needed and subsequently disbanded.-Received citizenship upon retiremen

3.2 Provincial government: imperial and senatorial

o Empire was divided into a number of senatorial and imperial provinces.o Augustus regularly went on tours of inspection to ensure provinces were being

properly managed.

Imperial Provinceso Under the control of Augustus.o 2/3 of the Empire.o Mostly volatile, unstable areas or those recently annexed.o Contained the majority of the legions.o Administered by legates and financial administrators (procurators) chosen by

Augustus himself. These were ex-consuls or ex-praetors or in Egypt a member of the equestrian class.

o Legati were granted long terms of service (three years) in order to implement far-reaching reforms and stabilise administration within each province.

o They were also paid a substantial salary by the State rather than relying on plundering the provinces’ coffers which had systemised corruption.

Senatorial Provinceso Under the control of the Senate. o However, proconsular imperium allowed Augustus to interfere in these provinces

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when necessary.o Mostly provinces that had been under Roman control for a prolonged period of time,

17 in total.o Did not contain legions except in Africa.o Under control of a proconsular senator, selected by lot.

3.3 Frontier policy

o Role of army in later years turned to protecting Empire’s frontier and pacifying annexed lands and provinces to maintain peace.

o Throughout Augustus’ reign the situation in several provinces remained volatile.o Expansionist policy was adopted marking the largest expansion of the provinces of the

Roman Empire—territory expanded in Germany as well as to a limited extent in the East.o However, after the Varus disaster of AD 9 Augustus mostly concentrated on fortifying

Empire’s borders. o Salmon: “The Pannonic revolt and the Varian Disaster revealed that the Empire had reached the

limits of its military resources and therefore of its territorial expansion. In Augustus’ judgement it was time to call a halt.”

o Jones views guarding of borders as ultimately successful under Augustus and establishing set borders which would remain unchanged for centuries to come.

o Natural boundaries were utilised.o Large fortified camps were built at strategic points along the border.o Road networks throughout the Empire allowed for the rapid movement of troops.

Frontier History

Spain Agrippa eventually pacified Spain by 19 BC and divided it into three provinces.

Gaul Divided into four provinces in 26 BC.

Egypt and the East Mostly followed a policy of non-aggression and non-expansion. Rome relied on its natural resources and it was strategically important in acting as gateway to Eastern regions. Frontier was, however, extended to First Cataract by Augustus in 22 BC.

Parthia Roman control re-affirmed in 20 BC by Tiberius

Judaea Annexed in AD 6 by Augustus

Rhine o Most problematic area of the frontier.o Germanic tribes made raids into the province of Gaul during years 29, 17-17

and 12 BC.o Augustus moved boundary back to the Elbe River, from 12-9 BC Drusus

conquered this area but died in 9 BC.o Tiberius continued consolidating territory in Western Germanica.o Rhine Frontier was relatively peaceful until AD 9 when Varus was appointed

commander of the Rhine.o Varus Disaster (AD 9): 17th, 18th and 19th legions massacred in the ‘Battle of

Teutoberg Forest’ and Varus committed suicide.o The Varus Disaster is often seen as Augustus’ biggest failure.o Salmon: “The Pannonic revolt and the Varian Disaster revealed that the

Empire had reached the limits of its military resources and therefore of its territorial expansion.”

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o Tiberius successfully re-established the Rhine Frontier.

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HSC ESSAY PLANS