This article was downloaded by: [University of Roehampton], [Dave Lochtie]On: 02 September 2015, At: 01:14Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: 5 HowickPlace, London, SW1P 1WG

Click for updates

Perspectives: Policy and Practice in Higher EducationPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tpsp20

A ‘special relationship’ in higher education? Whatinfluence might the US higher education sector havein terms of support for international students in theUK?David John Lochtiea

a Department of Media, Culture and Language, The University of Roehampton, LondonSW15 5SL, UKPublished online: 01 Sep 2015.

To cite this article: David John Lochtie (2015): A ‘special relationship’ in higher education? What influence might the UShigher education sector have in terms of support for international students in the UK?, Perspectives: Policy and Practice inHigher Education, DOI: 10.1080/13603108.2015.1074627

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13603108.2015.1074627

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) containedin the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make norepresentations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose ofthe Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be reliedupon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shallnot be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and otherliabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to orarising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematicreproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in anyform to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

perspective

A ‘special relationship’ in highereducation? What influence might theUS higher education sector have interms of support for internationalstudents in the UK?David John Lochtie

Department of Media, Culture and Language, The University of Roehampton, London SW15 5SL, UK

As international student migration and comparative education research have increased worldwide,

greater interdependency between national Higher Education (HE) systems has developed with policy

and practice frequently being shared internationally. As a key player in the international student market

the United States of America is especially influential over its peers and competitors, including the UK.

The market of HE with rising, and variable, tuition fees which has existed in the USA for some time

bears a resemblance to recent developments and proposals in the UK. Furthermore there are clear par-

allels between long standing federal funded access initiatives in the USA and recent UK governments’

widening participation policies. This paper examines whether international student support in institutions

across the globe may be influenced similarly by activities in the USA, specifically looking at academic

advising and the potential of utilising professional academic advisors to support personal tutoring in

the UK.

Keywords: international students; personal tutor; academic advising; student support; training; comparative

education

The importance of internationalstudents and influence of the USAThe UK Higher Education (HE) sector now sources

around an eighth of its income from international

student tuition fees (Universities UK [UUK] 2014)

and these students make up 19% of the total student

population – a figure which looks set to grow

(Higher Education Statistics Agency [HESA] 2015).

They bring diversity to campus life, enhance the

experience of ‘home’ students, support the provision

of certain subjects and provide a valuable source of

income to universities and local economies (Univer-

sities UK 2014, 3). Only the USA has a higher share

of the increasingly competitive international student

market than the UK (Universities UK 2014) and

seven of the top ten universities worldwide are based

there (with the three remaining coming from the UK

[Times Higher Education World University Rankings

2014–15]). According to the media, significantly

Dave Lochtie is a Department Business Manager for

Media, Culture and Language

and elected Council member

at the University of

Roehampton with fourteen

years’ experience in various

roles in education. He is a

Deputy Coordinator of the

International Higher

Education Network of the

Association of University

Administrators (AUA) and an Executive Committee

member of UK Advising and Tutoring (UKAT). His Masters

in Leadership and Management in Education was

completed at the University of Roehampton and he has

presented on issues relating to international students,

academic advising and personal tutoring at conferences

for the AUA and UKAT. He has been involved with and led

many comparative education study trips to locations

in Europe, North America and Asia. Address for

correspondence: The University of Roehampton, London,

SW15 5SL. Email: d.lochtie@roehampton.ac.uk

# 2015 Taylor & Francis

PERSPECTIVES: POLICY AND PRACTICE IN HIGHER EDUCATION, 2015

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13603108.2015.1074627 1

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f R

oeha

mpt

on],

[D

ave

Loc

htie

] at

01:

14 0

2 Se

ptem

ber

2015

more British high schoolers are studying in the USA

(The Independent Online 2006; BBC News 2010;

The Telegraph 2011; BBC News 2014) and more US

students are travelling to the UK in return (Times

Higher Education 2014; HESA 2015).

The extremely diverse US system has a very different

offering to prospective international students from that

of the UK. This may include four-year courses, an

upper/lower division structure and a ‘general edu-

cation’ curriculum that covers a wider range of sub-

jects. The extra year generally gives more time for

students, including international ones, to explore

their options while the UK has an ‘intrinsic inflexi-

bility’ (Times Higher Education 2014) in comparison.

On the website of the Fulbright Commission they state

that UK students may be ‘attracted to the flexibility to

explore their academic interests before specialising’ in

the USA (2015). One such student seemed to agree,

stating that an advantage is ‘that you don’t declare

your major until the end of the second year and even

then you can take additional subjects’ (The Indepen-

dent Online 2006). However a US student studying

in the UK felt ‘a UK university would be the best fit

for me, since I would be able to focus from the begin-

ning on the subjects I am passionate about’ (Times

Higher Education 2014).

The number of international students arriving in the

UK fell for the first time in 2013, while international

students in the USA continued to grow (Universities

UK 2014). This was attributed in the media to

changes in student immigration regulations (The Guar-

dian 2012; Huffington Post 2013) beyond individual

institutions’ influence. However intensified compe-

tition in international student recruitment has ‘put

pressure on institutions to improve their product’

which may be more within their control (Brown and

Jones 2013, 1004). Their ‘product’ is more than

simply programme content and includes the support

available. As students are becoming better informed

about what support is available in different systems

(Bohm et al. 2004), the assurance of its quality

becomes an important marketing tool.

If universities aim to enhance their competitiveness

in the international education market (Li 2012) they

must focus on international student needs and successes

(Lacina 2002).

Given the economic dependence of universities

on the fees from international students, it is

important that there is a clear understanding of

the issues facing them if an optimum service is

to be delivered, so that student retention is

improved and positive word-of mouth helps to

increase recruitment. (Brown and Jones 2013,

1004)

I sought to learn whether academic support for

international students in the USA could, or should,

influence future practice in student support elsewhere,

particularly including the UK where I am based. From

small-scale surveys of senior staff in colleges from each

system it has previously been observed that those in the

USA seem ‘able to offer a greater range of support and

easier access to guidance specialists for students of all

ages’ (King, Widdowson, and Brown 2008, 16) includ-

ing advising centres which appear lavish in comparison

to the UK (Johnstone 2009). This was my impression

when I first visited US institutions and it inspired me

to return to visit New Orleans to find out first-hand

what support may be available for international

students.

Collecting student and staff viewsI visited seven colleges/universities, including public/

private, 2/4 year and religious/secular, etc. institutions.

I conducted semi-structured interviews (recommended

by Teichler 1996) with fifteen members of staff in

various international/study-abroad offices, academic

advising centres and academic departments. I met

with ten potential study-abroad students for a focus

group discussing their expectations and one student

who had recently returned from UK study abroad. I

observed five academic advisors in one–one inter-

actions with students and a further five in group work

activities. In the UK I interviewed two study-abroad

students visiting from the USA and eight members of

academic staff from my UK institution in London

with various experience of personal tutoring for inter-

national students in their current and previous roles

(both in the UK and USA). I obtained further input

from academics and staff at universities across the UK

via various jiscmail and network groups as well as

attending the first conference of UK Advising and

Tutoring (UKAT) where I discussed these issues with

colleagues from institutions across the UK. In these

interactions I used the literature to prompt and ques-

tion participants to see if it reflected their experience

and opinions. In this paper I present my findings

based upon these interactions often backed up by the

literature specifically referenced by (very well-

informed) colleagues in my meetings with them.

The term international students will be used to

encompass all students (including those travelling

from within the EU) who venture abroad for their

studies (Grimshaw 2011). As the USA is the

market leader in attracting international students,

an evaluation of the support they offer is of clear

benefit to their competitors and in the present

paper I approach this from a UK perspective. Obser-

vations are based primarily on academic challenges

international students may face, with an awareness

of the wider context of cultural and social adjust-

ment issues also. They are made with an understand-

ing of the distinct differences of both systems

including the fact that, as interviewees stated, the

DAVID JOHN LOCHTIE2

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f R

oeha

mpt

on],

[D

ave

Loc

htie

] at

01:

14 0

2 Se

ptem

ber

2015

general emphasis of HE in the USA is breadth and

variety while the UK focuses on depth and thorough

understanding of a certain subject (Internationalstu-

dent.com 2015).

Academic support and advising forinternational students in the USAColleagues in international, study-abroad or advising

offices in New Orleans detailed many of the challenges

international students face which are prevalent in the

literature (often referring me to such sources them-

selves). These included culture clashes, financial

worries, homesickness (Gordon et al. 2000), language

learning (Andrade 2006) and linguistic differences

(Flannery Quinn, Morton, and Brindley 2009). They

also noted stress from a wide range of specific academic

difficulties (Yeh and Inose 2003), which may be more

unexpected to them (Zhai 2002). They agreed that

the different grading system (Sturzl-Forrest 2012),

unfamiliar expectations of in-class participation and

the need to formulate their own ideas rather than just

report others’ were challenges (Sarkodie-Mensah

1998). Students who had studied in both systems

suggested different question formats in assessment

were an issue along with level of choice in the curricu-

lum and less formal relationships with tutors (as

suggested by Cadieux and Wehrly 1986). Zhai stated

that where available specialist international advisors

‘are the most trusted university staff for international

students’ (Zhai 2002, 13). At the universities I visited

some advisors did focus on international students

specifically but they were rarely based in an inter-

national office.

In speaking to colleagues it was clear that in the US

academic advising has long been regarded as a critical

activity (Morgan and Pratt 2011) for international stu-

dents in overcoming such ‘unique concerns’ (Cadieux

and Wehrly 1986, 52). Priest and McPhee’s suggestion

that the academic advisors help make graduation a

reality (2000) was very much reflective of interviewee

responses and what I saw in practice. Respondents

suggested, seemingly agreeing with Habley (1994),

that academic advising was the only service which

ensured all students had the opportunity for ongoing

individual contact with a staff member and that this

support is particularly relevant to international stu-

dents, as Lamont suggests (2005).

The international students I spoke to agreed that

they require advisors who are willing to go the extra

mile for them, help overcome culture shock and

adapt to the new teaching/learning environment and

educational system (as suggested by Slowinski 2003).

The advisors I observed provided lots of in-depth indi-

vidualised and personalised information which

appeared to help students prepare, make decisions and

reach educational goals (as stated by Morgan and

Pratt 2011). Colleagues suggested that they can

reduce the effects of stress (agreeing with Lee,

Koeske, and Sales 2004), while celebrating their cul-

tures and successes, and using proactive advising tech-

niques to follow up with students (endorsing Sturzl-

Forrest 2012). One colleague agreed with Byrd

(1991) when suggesting that advisors can help students

participate more fully in their university’s social and

cultural life while students suggested that they may be

the most important individual influence on their

studies, seemingly confirming Cadieux and Wehrly’s

(1986) assertion.

Faculty and professional advisingAt each university I visited it was clear that academic

faculty play a major role in supporting all students,

including international ones (Self 2013). However col-

leagues raised concerns that the pursuit of higher insti-

tutional rankings and greater student applications had

led to research being given a greater weight than

teaching (Stromquist 2007) with advising a poor

third. The academic faculty members I spoke to

seemed to confirm Pardee’s assertion that ‘when advis-

ing is not a formal part of the tenure and promotion

process’ there is ‘no incentive for faculty to participate

in training or to devote a specific time to advising’

(Pardee 2000, 195). The advising specialists I inter-

viewed suggested that training on advising concepts

and relationship skills for faculty is rare (normally

focusing instead on the communication of factual

information) and if their performance is rarely evalu-

ated, recognised or rewarded (as can be the case)

they can be seen as ‘the weakest link in academic

advising’ (Gordon et al. 2000, 42).

Several colleagues suggested that international stu-

dents may rely more on student–faculty interaction

(agreeing with Zhao, Kuh, and Carini 2005), may

seek out their academic advisor ‘just to talk’ (citing

Gordon et al. 2000), have greater adjustment difficulties

and display behaviours which are challenging to inter-

pret (confirming Andrade 2006). Robertson et al.’s

(2000) study suggested that faculty members, though

experts in other fields, may struggle to recognise

specific psychological and emotional problems inter-

national students may suffer from and a number of

the advising specialists I spoke to agreed. They

suggested that, perhaps for these reasons, the trend

among institutions has been the increasing use of pro-

fessional advisors to support students (as suggested by

Self 2013), housed in a ‘more visible and centralized

location’ (referring me to Gordon et al. 2000, xi) as I

observed in several of the larger institutions I visited

(including the University of New Orleans and

Tulane). In most of the universities I observed the

responsibility for academic advising was generally

shared between faculty and professional advisors, as

was suggested in Habley (2000) and in a 2011 national

survey (Carlstrom and Miller).

PERSPECTIVE 3

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f R

oeha

mpt

on],

[D

ave

Loc

htie

] at

01:

14 0

2 Se

ptem

ber

2015

The Council for the Advancement of Standards in

Higher Education (CAS) suggests that professional

advisors are increasingly likely to hold graduate or pro-

fessional degrees in a related field (Miller 2012) and this

was true of the vast majority I encountered. Many were

responsible for certain subsets of students (as suggested

by Carlstrom and Miller 2011) such as international

students and often coordinated intervention pro-

grammes (confirming Poyrazli and Lopez 2007)

aimed at supporting those reluctant to seek help them-

selves (endorsing Yeh and Inose 2003). Andrade (2006,

148) states that ‘learning communities, support courses,

comprehensive programming and peer study partner-

ships have been successful in providing international

students with academic support’ and colleagues

reported similar successes. Oliver (1999, 29) suggests

that some international students ‘find the flexibility

and numerous choices offered in the US system of

higher education extremely confusing’ and, at least at

first, I did also. It appeared complex and clearly in

need of advisor support, particularly for international

students, but led to advising interactions which I felt

UK-based students (both international and home)

would also benefit from.

Support for international studentsin the UKInterviewees in the UK were generally aware, as Li

(2012) and Grimshaw (2011) state, that international

student support is complex and can vary greatly

depending on factors such as location, mode and

length of study. However, the literature suggests that

international students in the UK suffer similar issues

of academic and personal acclimatisation as their US

counterparts (Luzio-Lockett 1998; Ryan and Carroll

2005; Li 2012; Brown and Jones 2013; McDonald

2014) and in the main the UK colleagues I interviewed

agreed. International student support has changed at

my institution whereby our international office now

primarily focuses on recruitment referring students

on, after initial orientation, to the same support ser-

vices as domestic students. This was echoed by some

colleagues who work at other institutions and also by

a member of a local volunteer group, aimed to

support international students at a UK university, inter-

viewed in Li’s (2012, 247) research;

. . . when the new students come at the begin-

ning of the Autumn Term, there is a big

welcome . . . That’s it, finished, and nothing else

happens. Because the Overseas Students Depart-

ment [International Office] just wants to recruit

more students for the next year, so they forget

about where they would go. This is one big

deficiency of the university welcoming

program, it doesn’t continue.

In that study the volunteer group believed ‘they had

identified a clear gap in the normal services provided by

the University (e.g. The International Office, The

Counselling Service, The Health Centre, and The Stu-

dents’ Union)’ (Li 2012, 247) and many colleagues I

spoke to felt similarly. Some felt that international stu-

dents may feel negatively about and therefore underuse

individual counselling support (as suggested by

Cadieux and Wehrly 1986; Luzio-Lockett 1998; Yeh

and Inose 2003). Perhaps to combat these issues

McDonald suggested an ‘expansion of orientation pro-

grammes for international students to include topics

such as current educational culture in the UK’ (2014,

62) and this idea was welcomed particularly by one of

the interviewees in this research. They agreed with

Andrade (2006, citing Lee and Wesche 2000; Schutz

and Richards 2003) that the process of adjustment

appears to be gradual, with Lin and Yi (1997) that

multi-phase approach orientation is needed and with

Coates and Dickinson (2012, 304) that ‘appropriate

interventions at critical points in the year’ are required.

UK colleagues stated that their institutions do not

distinguish between ‘international’ and ‘home’, as

they may often both be away from home and experi-

ence similar challenges. This rationale appears to be

rooted in sound logic but also perhaps in a British

interpretation of equal opportunity which differs

from that of the USA. In New Orleans I noticed a

markedly different approach to ‘advising specific

populations’ (National Academic Advising Association

[NACADA] 2015) via programmes solely targeted at

such groups as student athletes, first-

generation students, high-achieving (or ‘honours’)

students, veterans and international students. As

Lamont states, ‘clearly, students with diverse cultural

backgrounds benefit from advising initiatives tailored

specifically to their needs’ as part of a system that

‘embraces individuality’ (2005). Priest and McPhee

suggest ‘the extent to which advisors are able to under-

stand advisees rather than attempt to force them into an

over-generalized advising paradigm’ (2000, 112) is

important to their support and colleagues in New

Orleans echoed this.

McDonald (2014) suggests that increased support for

international students could help build ‘better repu-

tation in key countries’ which may ‘attract more stu-

dents and partnership opportunities’. However,

Bartram (2009, 312) raises a concern over casting the

international student as a victim in need of help, coun-

tering calls for further support for them by citing

Walker’s suggestion that they come primarily from a

bleeding hearts welfare lobby with ‘an overdeveloped

sense of welfare concerns’. They describe a potentially

‘inappropriate over-emphasis on student support in

some institutions’ which does not aid the development

of independent learners (Bartram 2009). The mixed

response I received from US colleagues on this

subject suggests that there is a balance that must be

DAVID JOHN LOCHTIE4

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f R

oeha

mpt

on],

[D

ave

Loc

htie

] at

01:

14 0

2 Se

ptem

ber

2015

found. When I visited the USA I attempted to imagine

myself as an international student facing all the chal-

lenges to study listed here. Personally I would not

want to be forced to engage in support activities

unnecessarily but would expect my (substantial) fees

to fund support which was tailored to my needs in a

clear fashion, should I require it.

Personal tutoring for internationalstudentsSeveral authors from either country have equated aca-

demic advising in the USA directly with personal tutor-

ing in the UK (McCauley 2007; Robbins 2010;

Robinson 2012; Scott 2013) and the direct link

UKAT has with the National Academic Advising

Association (NACADA) in the USA suggests this also.

The UK colleagues I interviewed confirmed the belief

that ‘personal tutors can improve student retention and

success’ (Thomas 2012, 43) as theyoffer the opportunity

to help international students overcome cultural barriers

(Blythman et al. 2006). As Bowden (2008) stated, stu-

dents I interviewed listed personal tutoring as one of

the main reasons they stay on their course. UK col-

leagues at the UKAT conference raised concerns as to

whether personal tutoring is sufficiently supported (in

terms of workloads, training and links to promotion)

to ensure a quality, thorough and consistent service to

all (Owen 2002; Dobinson-Harrington 2006; Blyth-

man et al. 2006; Gubby and McNab 2013; Times

Higher Education 2015) and whether tutors are com-

fortable taking on the counselling aspects of the role

(Hart 1996; Stephen O’Connell and Hall 2008).

Several of the UK colleagues I interviewed suggested

that international students often need more advisor

time than regular students (Cadieux and Wehrly 1986)

so these issues seem particularly relevant to them.

They raised similar concerns to Luzio-Lockett (1998)

that if many support activities are parcelled up as part

of a task which is on the periphery of their role these

students may not receive the support they require.

International student participants in McDonald’s

(2014) survey ‘expressed reluctance at the idea of speak-

ing to an academic, even a named personal tutor or

supervisor, regarding personal issues’ meaning ‘that

some international students are potentially missing

out on important support which is available to them’

(2014, 64)–the students I interviewed felt similarly.

A proactive profession ofinternational student academicadvising in the UK?McDonald (2014) suggests that ‘employing experts

who could advise staff on cultural issues which may

affect international students’ could be seen by insti-

tutions as ‘an investment in their staff and international

students’. Such specialists can be a primary contact for

international students and important sign post to each

of the various support functions on campus (Coates

and Dickinson 2012, 304). They can use ‘surveys,

interviews, and focus groups’ to find out what inter-

national students really think (Andrade 2006, 150)

and serve as ‘international champions’ educating col-

leagues about the specific challenges these students

face (Cadieux and Wehrly 1986). As in the USA,

funding for international specialists may be limited

but where they do not exist support services such as

Welfare or Careers Advisors are usually well trained

in supporting international students. However ‘the

provision of non-academic student advisors’ (a dis-

tinctly different role) ‘is a recent development’ which

‘has not yet been widely taken up across the sector’

(McCary et al. 2011, 3) in the way it has in the USA.

Similar positions and departments have, though,

begun to appear at Hull University (2015), The Uni-

versity of Edinburgh (2015) and The University of

East London (2015) which may yet be able to

provide some specialism in international student

support, as they do in the USA. The UK colleagues I

spoke to had limited or no experience of professional

academic advisors but were very positive about these

developments and welcomed further information

about (and potentially further research into) them.

Lessons learnedAs the US and UK education systems are individually

diverse and comparatively different any observations

are made with an awareness of the potential limits of

comparative education (Teichler 1996). Additionally,

‘international students show within-group differences’

(Poyrazli and Lopez 2007, 276) so the ‘cultural back-

ground of the student is significant’ (Coates and Dick-

inson 2012, 296). We cannot ‘assume that a student

will necessarily think or behave in a particular way

simply because he or she is from a particular country

or region’ so must remain ‘careful in generalising

regarding support systems that aim to fit for all’

(Grimshaw 2011, 706). Furthermore, there may be

variations according to the subject and level (i.e.

undergraduate, postgraduate or research) at which

they study.

The research I have conducted and the literature I

have reviewed suggest that the USA has great influence

over its competitors, so there may be a benefit in observ-

ing their student support as I have done. The main focus

of this paper has been from a UK perspective – lessons

may be learnt for the benefit of the wider international

community but this would require further research.

From speaking to academic colleagues in both countries

they seem to face similar issues of being overburdened

with multiple tasks meaning support for students,

including international ones, from faculty advisors/per-

sonal tutors may be limited. I observed how in the USA

professional academic advisors play an important role in

PERSPECTIVE 5

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f R

oeha

mpt

on],

[D

ave

Loc

htie

] at

01:

14 0

2 Se

ptem

ber

2015

plugging this potential gap. While professional advisors

were sometimes critical of faculty advisors the same

was true in reverse so the balance, management and

optimal utilisation of both important sources of

support appear paramount. There are signs that a

version of the professional advising role may be

popular and successful in the UK as a possiblewayof sup-

porting students here though it may not be the only one

(particularly where an international office with a remit

for student support still exists).

Self suggests that ‘regardless of the persons who

provide academic advising at any institution, the

success or failure of efforts depends upon a strong train-

ing and professional development program’ (Self, 2013)

and this was a clear theme among interviewees. It may

include ‘multicultural training about discrimination’

(Poyrazli and Lopez 2007, 276) to ensure that interpret-

ations of student behaviour (Andrade 2006) are not

influenced by cultural conditioning (Wisker et al.

2008). While there may be issues of training and

support in the USA the level of qualification in related

fields among staff and theory in practice I observed

was impressive. As McDonald’s UK study suggested

(2014), I would suggest that further support for inter-

national student support staff is the key in ensuring stu-

dents receive the support they need. For professional

staff this may be new roles, qualifications and advising

centres or for academic personal tutors this may be

release time or links to the promotion process. As Blyth-

man et al. (2006) suggest, the support of university

leaders will be required to achieve this but I would

argue that this is justified in supporting the students

the sector is now so reliant upon.

AcknowledgementsThe author thanks Lukasz Daniluk for support in sour-

cing and referencing.

Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the

author.

ReferencesAndrade, M. S. 2006. “International Students in English-Speaking Universities

Adjustment Factors.” Journal of Research in International Education 5 (2):

131–154.

Bartram, B. 2009. “Student Support in Higher Education: Understandings,

Implications and Challenges.” Higher Education Quarterly 63 (3): 308–314.

BBC News. 2010. “Does it Pay to be a Student in the US?” BBC News, last

modified November, 25. Accessed May 30, 2015. http://www.bbc.co.

uk/news/magazine-11832373.

BBC News. 2014. “More UK Students Choosing Universities in the US.”

BBC News, last modified October, 17. Accessed May 30, 2015. http://

www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-30080657.

Blythman, M., S. Orr, D. Hampton, M. McLaughlin, and H. Waterworth.

2006. Strategic Approaches to the Development and Management of Personal

Tutorial Systems in UK Higher Education. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books.

Bohm, A., M. Follari, A. Hewett, S. Jones, N. Kemp, D. Meares, D. Pearce,

and K. Van Cauter. 2004. “Forecasting International Student Mobility - a

UK Perspective.” Accessed May 30, 2015. https://www.academia.edu/

7559683/Forecasting_international_student_mobility_a_UK_perspective_

Vision_2020.

Bowden, J. 2008. “Why do Nursing Students Who Consider Leaving Stay on

their Courses.” Nurse Researcher 15 (3): 45–58.

Brown, L., and I. Jones. 2013. “Encounters with Racism and the International

Student Experience.” Studies in Higher Education 38 (7): 1004–1019.

doi:10.1080/03075079.2011.614940.

Byrd, C. 1991. “Issues in the Recruitment and Retention of International Stu-

dents by Academic Programs in the United States.” Washington, DC:

ERIC Clearinghouse.

Cadieux, R. A. J., and B. Wehrly. 1986. “Advising and Counseling the

International Student.” New Directions for Student Services 1986:

51–63.

Carlstrom, A., and M. A. Miller. 2011. “National Survey of Academic Advis-

ing.” National Academic Advising Association. Accessed 6 August 2015.

http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Resources/Clearinghouse/View-Articles/

2011-NACADA-National-Survey.aspx

Coates, N., and J. Dickinson. 2012. “Meeting International Postgraduate

Student Needs, A Programme-Based Model for Learning and Teaching

Support.” Innovations in Education & Teaching International 49 (3): 295–

308. doi:10.1080/14703297.2012.703018.

Dobinson-Harrington, A. 2006. “Personal Tutor Encounters, Understanding

the Experience.” Nursing Standard 20 (50): 35–42.

Flannery Quinn, S., M. Morton, and R. Brindley. 2009. “Outsider Views on

the Customs and Practices of English Primary Schools, The Perspectives of

Training Teachers from the US Completing a Teaching Internship in

England.” British Educational Research Association Annual Conference,

Manchester, UK.

Fulbright Comission. 2015. “Undergraduate Study in the USA.” Accessed

May 30, 2015. http://www.fulbright.org.uk/study-in-the-usa/

undergraduate-study.

Gordon, V. N., W. R. Habley, and associates. 2000. Academic Advising, A Com-

prehensive Handbook. 2nd ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Grimshaw, Trevor. 2011. “Concluding Editorial, ‘The Needs of International

Students Rethought – Implications for the Policy and Practice of Higher

Education’.” Teachers and Teaching 17 (6): 703–712. doi:10.1080/

13540602.2011.625147.

Gubby, L., and N. McNab. 2013. “Personal Tutoring from the Perspective of

the Tutor.” Capture 4 (1): 7–18.

Habley, W. R. 1994. Key Concepts in Academic Advising. In Summer Institute on

Academic Advising Session Guide, 10. Manhattan, KS: NACADA The

Global Community for Academic Advising.

Habley, Wesley R. 2000. “Current Practices in Academic Advising.” In

Academic Advising, A Comprehensive Handbook, edited by V. N.

Gordon, W. R. Habley, and Associates, 35–43. San Francisco, CA:

Jossey-Bass.

Hart, N. 1996. “The Role of the Personal Tutor in a College of Further Edu-

cation: A Comparison of Skills Used by Personal Tutors and by Student

Counsellors When Working with Students in Distress.” British Journal of

Guidance and Counselling 24 (1): 83–96.

Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA). 2015. “Statistical First Release

210 - Student Enrolments and Qualifications.” Higher Education Statistics

Agency, last modified January 15. Accessed May 30, 2015. https://www.

hesa.ac.uk/pr/3349-statistical-first-release-210.

Hull University. 2015. “Student Success Team.” Hull University, last modified

January 13. http://www2.hull.ac.uk/lli/studentsuccessteam.aspx.

InternationalStudent.com. 2015. “UK vs. USA Education System.” Accessed

May 28, 2015. http://www.internationalstudent.com/study-abroad/

guide/uk-usa-education-system/.

Johnstone, D. B. 2009. “An International Perspective on the Financial Fragi-

lity of Higher Education Institutions and Systems.” In Turnaround,

Leading Stressed Colleges and Universities to Excellence, edited by M.

James, J. E. Samuels, and Associates, 31–48. Baltimore, MD: Johns

Hopkins University Press.

King, M., J. Widdowson, and R. Brown. 2008 Higher Education and Colleges:

A Comparison between England and the USA. London: The Council for

Industry and Higher Education.

Lacina, J. G. 2002. “Preparing International Students for a Successful Social

Experience in Higher Education.” New Directions for Higher Education

2002 (117): 21–28.

Lamont, Barbara J. 2005. “East Meets West - Bridging the Academic Advising

Divide.” Accessed May 29, 2015. http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/

DAVID JOHN LOCHTIE6

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f R

oeha

mpt

on],

[D

ave

Loc

htie

] at

01:

14 0

2 Se

ptem

ber

2015

Resources/Clearinghouse/View-Articles/East-meets-West–Bridging-

the-advising-divide.aspx.

Lee, K., and M. Wesche. 2000. “Korean Students’ Adaptation to Post-second-

ary Studies in Canada: A Case Study.” Canadian Modern Language Review 56

(4): 637–689.

Lee, J-S, G. F. Koeske, and E. Sales. 2004. “Social Support Buffering of Accul-

turative Stress: A Study of Mental Health Symptoms Among Korean

International Students.” International Journal of Intercultural Relations 28

(5): 399–414.

Li, Daguo. 2012. “Out of the Ivory Tower, The Impact of Wider Social

Contact on the Values, Religious Beliefs and Identities of Chinese

Postgraduate Students in the UK.” Race Ethnicity and Education 15 (2):

241–258.

Lin, J. G., and K. Y. Yi. 1997. “Asian International Students’ Adjustment,

Issues and Program Suggestions.” College Student Journal 31 (4): 473–479.

Luzio-Lockett, A. 1998. “The Squeezing Effect, The Cross-Cultural Experi-

ence of International Students.” British Journal of Guidance and Counselling

26 (2): 209–223.

McCauley, M. 2007. “Deja Vu in the United Kingdom.” Academic Advising

Today 30 (3). http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Resources/Academic-Advising-

Today/View-Articles/D%C3%A9j%C3%A0-Vu-in-the-United-Kingdom.

aspx.

McCary, J., D. B. Johnstone, H. Valentine, and A. Berry. 2011. “A Comparative

Evaluation of the Roles of Student Advisor and Personal Tutor in Relation

to Undergraduate Student Retention.” Final Report, Anglia Ruskin Uni-

versity, Cambridge, UK.

McDonald, I. 2014. “Supporting International Students in UK Higher Edu-

cation Institutions.” Perspectives, Policy and Practice in Higher Education 18

(2): 62–65.

Miller, M. 2012. “Interpreting the CAS Standards for Academic Advising.”

NACADA Clearinghouse of Academic Advising Resources Web site.

Accessed May 31, 2015. http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/tabid/3318/

articleType/ArticleView/articleId/1249/article.aspx.

Morgan, V., and T. Pratt. 2011. “Advisors on Location, Expanding Advisors’

Role in International Education.” Academic Advising Today 34 (2).

http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Resources/Academic-Advising-Today/View-

Articles/Advisors-on-Location-Expanding-Advisors-Role-in-International-

Education.aspx.

National Academic Advising Association (NACADA). 2015. Accessed 6

August 2015. http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Community/Commission-

Interest-Groups/Advising-Specific-Populations-I/C12.aspx

Oliver, D. E. 1999. “Improving Services for International Students by Under-

standing Differences between Japanese and United States Culture and

Educational Systems.” National Academic Advising (NACADA) Journal 18

(1): 22–27.

Owen, M. 2002. “‘Sometimes You Feel You’re in Niche Time’: The Personal

Tutor System, a Case Study.” Active Learning in Higher Education 3 (1):

7–23.

Pardee, C. F. 2000. “Organizational Models for Academic Advising.” In Aca-

demic Advising, A Comprehensive Handbook, edited by V. N. Gordon,

W. R. Habley, and Associates, 192–209. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Poyrazli, Senel, and Marcos Damian Lopez. 2007. “An Exploratory Study of

Perceived Discrimination and Homesickness, A Comparison of Inter-

national Students and American Students.” The Journal of Psychology 141

(3): 263–280.

Priest, R., and S. A. McPhee. 2000. “Advising Multicultural Students, the

Reality of Diversity.” In Academic Advising, A Comprehensive Handbook,

edited by V.N. Gordon, W. R. Habley, and associates, 105–115.

San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Robbins, S. 2010. “The Importance of Face-to-Face Contact between Faculty

and Students, UP Example of Pro-Active Personal Tutoring.” Academic

Advising Today 33 (3). http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Resources/

Academic-Advising-Today/View-Articles/The-Importance-of-Face-to-

Face-Contact-Between-Faculty-and-Students-UK-Example-of-Pro-

active-Personal-Tutoring.aspx.

Robinson, P. 2012. “Leeds for Life, Preparing our Students for their Future.”

Academic Advising Today 35 (2). http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Resources/

Academic-Advising-Today/View-Articles/Leeds-for-Life-Preparing-

Our-Students-for-Their-Future.aspx.

Robertson, M., M. Line, S. Jones, and S. Thomas. 2000. “International Stu-

dents, Learning Environments and perceptions, A Case Study using the

Delphi Technique.” Higher Education Research and Development 19 (1):

89–102.

Ryan, J., and J. Carroll. 2005. “Canaries in the Coalmine’, International Stu-

dents in Western Universities.” In Teaching International Students, Improving

Learning for All, edited by J. Carroll, and J. Ryan, 3–10. Abingdon:

Routledge.

Sarkodie-Mensah, K. 1998. “International Students in the U.S.: Trends, Cul-

tural Adjustments, and Solutions for a Better Experience.” Journal of Edu-

cation for Library and Information Science 10 (3): 214–222.

Schutz, A., and M. Richards. 2003. “International Students’ Experience of

Graduate Study in Canada.” Journal of the International Society for Teacher

Education 7 (1): 10–26.

Scott, P. 2013. “NACADA Director Outlines Plan for Strategic

Growth.” NACADA, last modified December. Accessed May 30,

2015. http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Resources/Academic-Advising-

Today/View-Articles/NACADA-director-outlines-plan-for-strategic-

growth.aspx.

Self, C. 2013. “Implications of Advising Personnel of Undergraduates 2011

National Survey.” National Academic Advising Association. Accessed

6 August 2015. http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Resources/Clearinghouse/

View-Articles/Implications-of-advising-personnel-of-undergraduates-

2011-National-Survey.aspx

Slowinski, P. 2003. “Some Current Issues Facing International Students,

How can Advisors Help?” Academic Advising Today 26 (3). http://www.

nacada.ksu.edu/Resources/Academic-Advising-Today/View-Articles/

Some-Current-Issues-Facing-International-Students-How-Can-Advisors-

Help.aspx.

Stephen, D. E., P. O’Connell, and M. Hall. 2008. “‘Going the Extra Mile’,

‘Fire-fighting’, or Laissez-faire? Re-evaluating Personal Tutoring

Relationships within Mass Higher Education.” Teaching in Higher

Education 13 (4): 449–460.

Stromquist, N. P. 2007. “‘Internationalization as a Response to Globalization,

Radical Shifts in University Environments.” Higher Education 53 (1):

81–105.

Sturzl-Forrest, S. 2012. “Helping First Semester International Undergraduates Taxi

to Academic Success.” NACADA Clearinghouse of Academic Advising

Resources. Accessed May 30, 2015. http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/

Resources/Clearinghouse/View-Articles/Advising-first-year-international-

students.aspx.

Teichler, U. 1996. “The State of Comparative Research in Higher Education.”

Higher Education 32 (4): 431–465.

Thomas, L. 2012. “What Works – Students Retention and Success.” London:

Paul Hamlyn Foundation.

Times Higher Education. 2014. “Record Numbers of US Students Choose UK.”

Times Higher Education. Accessed May 30, 2015. http://www.

timeshighereducation.co.uk/news/record-numbers-of-us-students-choose-

uk/2010825.article#.

Times Higher Education. 2015. “Is ‘academic Citizenship’ Under Strain?” Times

Higher Education, January 29, 1–3. Accessed May 30, 2015. https://www.

timeshighereducation.co.uk/features/is-academic-citizenship-under-strain/

2018134.article.

Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2014–2015. 2015. “The

Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2014–2015.”

Accessed May 30, 2015. http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/

world-university-rankings/2014–15/world-ranking.

The Guardian. 2012. “International Student Numbers Will Fall Unless UK

Loosens Visa Restrictions.” The Guardian Higher-Education, March 13.

Accessed May 30, 2015. http://www.theguardian.com/higher-

education-network/blog/2012/mar/13/international-student-numbers-

visa-restrictions.

The Huffington Post. 2013. “International Student Numbers Fall as Foreigners Snub

UK Universities.” Huffington Post, Updated January 11. Accessed May 30,

2015. http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2013/01/11/international-student-

numbers-fall-uk-universities_n_2454437.html.

The Independent Online. 2006. “Why British Students are opting for Amer-

ican Universities.” The Independent. Accessed May 30, 2015. http://www.

independent.co.uk/news/education/higher/why-british-students-are-

opting-for-american-universities-426324.html#.

The Telegraph. 2011. “Go West, Why British Students are heading to

America.” The Telegraph, June 18. Accessed May 30, 2015. http://www.

telegraph.co.uk/education/universityeducation/8582332/Go-west-why-

British-students-are-heading-to-America.html.

University of East London. 2015. “Professional Support Services, Responsibil-

ities for Personal Tutoring.” http://uel.ac.uk/aple/personaltutoring/

#support.

University of Edinburgh. 2015. “Personal Tutoring Information about Per-

sonal Tutoring and the Support our Student Support Team Provides.”

http://www.ed.ac.uk/schools-departments/education/current-students-

staff/info-for-students/personal-tutoring.

PERSPECTIVE 7

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f R

oeha

mpt

on],

[D

ave

Loc

htie

] at

01:

14 0

2 Se

ptem

ber

2015

Universities UK (UUK) 2014. “Universities UK, The Funding Environment

for Universities 2014, International Students in Higher Education, The

UK and its Competition.”Accessed May 30, 2015. http://www.

universitiesuk.ac.uk/highereducation/Pages/InternationalStudentsIn

UKHE.aspx.

Yeh, C. J., and M. Inose. 2003. “International Students’ Reported English

Fluency, Social Support Satisfaction, and Social Connectedness as Predic-

tors of Acculturative Stress.” Counselling Psychology Quarterly 16 (1): 15–28.

Wisker, G., K. Exley, M. Antoniou, and P. Ridley. 2008. Working One-to-

One with Students. Abingdon: Routledge.

Zhai, L. 2002. “Studying International Students, Adjustment Issues and Social

Support.” San Diego Community College District. Accessed May 30,

2015. http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED474481.

Zhao, C. M., G. D. Kuh, and R. M. Carini. 2005. “A Comparison of Inter-

national Student and American Student Engagement in Effective Edu-

cational Practices.” The Journal of Higher Education 76 (2): 209–231.

DAVID JOHN LOCHTIE8

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f R

oeha

mpt

on],

[D

ave

Loc

htie

] at

01:

14 0

2 Se

ptem

ber

2015