atttttttttt TEACHING SPEAKING.doc

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The Language Teacher

Teaching Speaking:Suggestions for the Classroom

obert Sanborn !ro"n # Paul NationKyoto City University of Arts & Victoria University,Wellington

eturn to The Language Teacher Online

This article "ill assert that in speaking classes stu$ents mustbe e%pose$ to three ke& items: '() form*focuse$ instruction+

that is+ attention to $etails of pronunciation+ grammar+,ocabular&+ an$ so forth- '.) meaning*focuse$ instruction+ thatis+ opportunities to pro$uce meaningful spoken messages "ithreal communicati,e purposes- an$ '/) opportunities toimpro,e fluenc&0 1lements of all of the abo,e shoul$ bepresent throughout a speaking program+ "ith emphasis onform*focuse$ instruction at the elementar& le,els an$+ as thelearners progress+ on meaning*focuse$ instruction at thehigher le,els0 This paper "ill also $iscuss $ifferent t&pes oferrors an$ ho" to "ork "ith them to help learners0

Form-Focused Speaking

2hen learners first begin to speak in another language theirspeaking "ill nee$ to be base$ on some form*focuse$ learning0An effecti,e "a& to begin is to base speaking on some useful+simple memori3e$ phrases an$ sentences0 These ma& begreetings+ simple personal $escriptions+ an$ simple 4uestions

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an$ ans"ers0 These can be practice$ in Repetition drills0 Theteacher sa&s a phrase or sentence se,eral times an$ then asksthe learners to repeat0 Some learners can be calle$ on torepeat in$i,i$uall&+ an$ then the class ma& repeat together0!ecause it is helpful to gi,e learners 4uite a lot of repetition

practice in beginning le,el courses+ the teacher nee$s to fin$"a&s of ,ar&ing repetition acti,ities to keep the learnersintereste$0 5ere is a list of possible "a&s to ,ar& repetition0 Asan e%ample+ use the sentence 62here is the train station76

(0 The teacher ,aries the spee$0 The teacher sa&s thesentence slo"l& an$ the learners repeat0 Then the teacher sa&sthe phrase a little faster until the phrase is being sai$ atnormal speaking spee$0

.0 The teacher ,aries the "a& of choosing "ho is to repeat thesentence0 The teacher sa&s the sentence an$ points to the firstperson in the first ro" to repeat it0 The teacher sa&s it againan$ points to the secon$ person in the first ro"0 Then theteacher starts pointing at people at ran$om so that thelearners cannot pre$ict "ho "ill be the ne%t person calle$ on0This ,ariation can also inclu$e choosing in$i,i$uals or choosingthe "hole class to repeat the sentence0 Another ,ariation ofthis kin$ is to get the learner "ho 8ust repeate$ the sentenceto call the name of the ne%t person to repeat the sentence0

/0 The teacher can ,ar& the content of the sentence0 That is+the teacher can substitute a "or$ for one of the "or$s in asentence0 So instea$ of onl& sa&ing 62here is the trainstation76 the learners might also be calle$ on to repeat 62hereis the Post Office76 This is calle$ a u!stitution drill 0

90 The teacher ,aries the "a& the substitution is signale$ tothe learners+ for e%ample+ on the boar$ there ma& be asubstitution table like this:

2here is

the station7the post office7&our house7the bank7the hospital7



At first the teacher points to the "or$s 6the station6 on theboar$ an$ sa&s 62here is the station76 The learners repeat0The teacher points to the ne%t substitution+ 6the post office+6an$ sa&s that an$ the learners repeat0 After $oing this for a

"hile+ the teacher 8ust points to the substitution an$ $oes notsa& it+ but the learners ha,e to sa& the "hole sentence0 After$oing that for a "hile the teacher $oes not point but 8ust sa&sthe substitution0

0 The teacher ma& ,ar& the "a& of choosing the substitution0At first+ the teacher chooses the substitutions in the sameor$er as the& are "ritten on the boar$0 Then the teacher ma&choose them in ran$om or$er so that the learners cannotpre$ict "hat the ne%t substitution "ill be0

The Role of Drills

The skill of a teacher in carr&ing out a $rill lies in learning"hen to ,ar& the acti,it& so that the learners $o not becomebore$ b& it0 Skille$ teachers make continual+ small ,ariationsso that the acti,it& is al"a&s challenging+ smooth+ an$interesting0 The acti,it& can be taken a step to"ar$s a moremeaning*focuse$ acti,it& b& getting the learners to choosetheir o"n "or$s to substitute for "or$s in the mo$el sentence0

The (;<=s sa" the first steps a"a& from 'among otherteacher*centere$ approaches) au$iolingualism+ a metho$ ofteaching that sees the role of the teacher as 6central an$acti,e 0 0 0 >"ho? pro,i$es mo$els+ controls $irection an$ pace6'Nunan+ (;;.+ p0 (;)0 @n this metho$olog&+ teacher*centere$$rill acti,ities pla& a large role in the curriculum0 2ith the riserecentl& of more stu$ent*centere$ approaches ** "hich arecharacteri3e$ b& the in,ol,ement of the learner+ an$ theutili3ation of information about the learner in all aspects of thecurriculum6 'Nunan+ (;;.+ p0 (99) ** repetition an$substitution $rills ha,e come to be consi$ere$ ol$*fashione$an$ '"orse still) not useful for language learning0 2hileackno"le$ging the contribution that au$iolingualism has ma$e+Stern '(;;() essentiall& argues against its use: 6@tstheoretical base "as foun$ to be "eak0 !ut also in practicalterms its hopes ha$ not been fulfille$0 1mpirical research $i$not conclusi,el& establish its superiorit&+ an$ teachers usingau$iolingual materials 0 0 0 complaine$ about the lack of



effecti,eness of the techni4ues in the long run an$ thebore$om the& engen$ere$ among the stu$ents6 'p0 9B)0Moreo,er+ on the role of the teacher in the classroom+2i$$o"son '(;;.) "rites: 6@t is "i$el& accepte$ that is

un$esirable to force learning into conformit& "ith the teacherspreconcei,e$ i$eas+ an$ it is preferable for the teacher toa$apt to the learner rather than the re,erse6 'p0 .B()0

The use of $rills+ ho"e,er+ shoul$ be seen as merel& one kin$of form*focuse$ acti,it& that nee$s to be balance$ "ith othert&pes of form*focuse$ acti,ities+ as "ell as "ith meaning*focuse$ an$ fluenc& $e,elopment acti,ities0 rills pla& a usefulpart in a language course in helping learners to be formall&accurate in their speech an$ in helping them to 4uickl& learn a

useful collection of phrases an$ sentences that allo" them tostart using the language as soon as possible0 As theirproficienc& an$ e%perience in the language $e,elop+ most ofthese sentences an$ phrases ma& be re*anal&3e$ an$incorporate$ into the learners s&stem of kno"le$ge of thelanguage0 Language use base$ on memori3ation can be thestarting point for more creati,e use of the language0

Meaning-Focused Speaking

@n a$$ition to form*focuse$ speaking+ language learners shoul$

also be e%pose$ to an$ gi,en opportunities to practice an$ usemeaning*focuse$ communication+ in "hich the& must bothpro$uce an$ listen to meaningful oral communication0 Ane%ample of a meaning*focuse$ acti,it& for beginning stu$entsis pea"ing !y nu#!ers0 1ach learner is gi,en a number an$ atopic0 The topics coul$ inclu$e famil&+ mone&+ coming toschool+ a color+ future goals+ tra,el+ "ork+ an$ so forth0 Thelearners can think about their topics for a minute or t"o an$then the teacher calls a number0 The learner "ith that numberthen sa&s t"o or three sentences about his or her particulartopic0 The speaker then calls a number an$ the learner "iththat number has to ask the speaker a 4uestion or t"o relate$to the topic 8ust spoken about0 2hen the 4uestion is ans"ere$+the 4uestioner calls a number an$ the person "ith thatnumber asks another 4uestion0 This continues three or fourtimes an$ then the speaker calls the number of a ne" person"ho "ill speak about the topic that she or he "as gi,en0



This is a meaning*focuse$ speaking acti,it& because both thespeakers an$ the listeners attention is on the message beingcommunicate$0

Developing the Learner's Knowledge of Language tems

A problem in meaning*focuse$ speaking acti,ities is makingsure that the acti,it& is actuall& $e,eloping the learnerskno"le$ge of language items0 There are se,eral "a&s of usingspeaking to increase the speakers control of the languageitems0

(0 The meaning*focuse$ speaking acti,it& follo"s some form*focuse$ instruction0 That is+ the teacher presents some ne",ocabular& or grammatical features+ gi,es the learners somepractice+ an$ then uses a meaning*focuse$ acti,it& to help thelearners use an$ remember these items0

.0 !efore the learners speak on a topic or take part in anacti,it&+ the& "ork in pairs or groups of three of four toprepare0 This gi,es the learners the chance to learn ne" itemsfrom each other0 5ere is an e%ample using a a#e or different information gap acti,it&0 @n this kin$ of acti,it& the learners"ork in pairs0 Learner A has a set of small numbere$ pictures0Learner ! has a similar set e%cept that "hile some of !s are

e%actl& the same as As+ some are $ifferent0 The& shoul$ sitfacing each other so that the& cannot see each otherspicture's)0 Learner A $escribes the first picture an$ ! listensan$ then sa&s if her picture is the same or $ifferent0 @f it is thesame the& both "rite S ne%t to their picture- if it is $ifferentthe& both "rite 0 Then Learner ! $escribes picture number .an$ the& $eci$e if the pictures are the same or $ifferent0 Afterthe& ha,e $one fi,e or ten pictures+ the& can change partnersso that Learner A "orks "ith a ne" Learner !0 !efore theacti,it& begins+ all the Learner As can get together in groupsan$ help each other $escribe their pictures0 All the Learner !s$o the same0 2hen the& ha,e ha$ enough preparation an$practice the& form Learner A an$ ! pairs an$ $o the acti,it&0

/0 The learners are gi,en topics to talk about0 The& prepare athome+ using $ictionaries+ reference te%ts+ rea$ing sources+ an$so forth0 5ere is an e%ample calle$ $e%spaper tal"s0 1achlearner has to choose a short an$ interesting article from an



1nglish language ne"spaper to present to the class0 Thelearner must not rea$ the article alou$ to the class but must$escribe the main points of the article0 The class shoul$ thenask the presenter 4uestions0

90 Man& speaking acti,ities in,ol,e some kin$ of "ritten orpicture input in the form of a "orksheet0 @n the a#e or

different acti,it& this is t"o sheets of pictures0 @n a Ran"ingacti,it& or a ro!le# olving acti,it&+ the "orksheet contains"ritten $ata about the situation+ "hat to $o+ an$ possiblechoices0 @n a 62ho Dets the 5eart6 acti,it&+ for e%ample+ agroup of three or four stu$ents must $eci$e from a list ofse,eral possible can$i$ates "ho is to recei,e the onl& a,ailableheart for transplantation0 None of the patients "ill sur,i,e

"ithout the ne" heart0 The& are a Nobel Pri3e "inner inme$ical research 'a ; &ear ol$ male "ith no famil&)+ ahomemaker of three '/. &ear ol$ female)+ an Ol&mpic athlete'.9 &ear ol$ female+ marrie$ "ith no chil$ren)+ an Aca$em&a"ar$ "inning film $irector 'female+ /< &ears ol$+ t"ochil$ren)+ an$ a 9 &ear ol$ homeless male0 The stu$ents mustrank in or$er "hich of these people is most $eser,ing of theheart0 Then+ each stu$ent presents hisEher case to the group0!ase$ on these presentations+ an$ the ensuing $iscussion+ thegroup must choose one can$i$ate for the transplant0 Then+each group must present its conclusion to the class as a "hole0

The "orksheets contain ,ocabular& an$ phrases that ma& bene" to the learners an$ "hich "ill be necessar& or useful inthe speaking acti,it&0 For e%ample+ in the Ran"ing acti,it&+ the,ocabular& in the list of items to rank "ill nee$ to be use$ b&the learners0 Those items "hich generate the most$isagreement o,er the ranking "ill likel& result in the greatestamount of ,ocabular& learning0 Accor$ing to Joe+ Nation an$Ne"ton '(;;B): 6Negotiation of "or$ meaning in$icates thatan item is notice$ an$ that the learner has a gap in his or her

kno"le$ge0 @tems "hich >are? negotiate$ >ha,e? a muchgreater chance of being learne$ than items "hich "ere notnegotiate$6 'p0 /)0 @f the teacher gi,es careful thought to theplacement of ne" ,ocabular& in "orksheets for speakingacti,ities+ there is a ,er& goo$ chance that the ,ocabular& "illbe learne$ $uring the speaking acti,it&0 @f the "orksheet usespictures+ some of the pictures or parts of pictures can be gi,en



labels that can be use$ in $escribing the pictures0

0 Some speaking acti,ities encourage learners to ask eachother about the meaning of unfamiliar "or$s or constructions0

This seeking an$ gi,ing of e%planations is calle$ negotiation0There are similarities bet"een this t&pe of acti,it& an$ thea#e or 'ifferent acti,it& in that each learner in a pair orgroup has $ifferent pieces of information for completing theacti,it&0 These kin$s of acti,ities are gi,en lots of $ifferentnames inclu$ing 8igsa" tasks+ t"o*"a& tasks+ information gap+an$ so forth0

2e ha,e looke$ at fi,e $ifferent "a&s of making meaning*focuse$ speaking tasks contribute to a learners kno"le$ge oflanguage items0 Language can be learne$ through pro$uction'speaking an$ "riting) as "ell as through reception 'listeningan$ rea$ing)+ but this learning nee$s to be planne$0

Development of Speaking Fluenc!

Fluenc& in speaking is the aim of man& language learners0Signs of fluenc& inclu$e a reasonabl& fast spee$ of speakingan$ onl& a small number of pauses an$ 6ums6 an$ 6ers06 Thesesigns in$icate that the speaker $oes not ha,e to spen$ a lot oftime searching for the language items nee$e$ to e%press the

message0

()*)+ is a useful techni4ue for $e,eloping fluenc& an$ inclu$esthe features that are nee$e$ in fluenc& $e,elopment acti,ities0First the learners choose a topic or are gi,en a topic "ith "hichthe& are ,er& familiar0 The first time that learners use thistechni4ue it ma& be best if the topic in,ol,es recountingsomething that happene$ to them0 This is because thechronological or$er of the e,ents "ill make it easier to recallan$ repeat because the time se4uence pro,i$es a clearstructure for the talk0 The learners "ork in pairs0 Learner Atells a stor& to Learner ! an$ has a time limit of four minutesto $o this0 ! 8ust listens an$ $oes not interrupt or 4uestionLearner A0 2hen the four minutes are up+ the teacher sa&s+6Change partners6- learner A then mo,es to a ne" Learner !0The teacher sa&s 6!egin6 an$ Learner A tells e%actl& the samestor& to the ne" partner but this time has onl& three minutesto tell it0 2hen the three minutes are up+ the teacher sa&s



6Stop0 Change partners06 2ith a ne" partner+ Learner A no"has t"o minutes to tell the stor&0 uring the three $eli,eries of the same stor&+ the ! learners $o not talk an$ each listens tothree $ifferent people0 2hen the A learners ha,e gi,en their

talk three times+ the ! learners can no" go through the samese4uence+ this time as speakers0

esearch on this acti,it& sho"s that the learners spee$ ofspeaking increase$ $uring the talks 'as measure$ b& thenumber of "or$s per minute)+ the hesitations the& make$ecrease 'as measure$ b& hesitations per (== "or$s)+ an$surprisingl& their grammatical errors in the repeate$ parts ofthe talk $ecrease an$ the& ten$ to use se,eral+ more comple%grammatical constructions in the last of the three talks than

the& $i$ in the first talk 'Nation+ (;G;+ p0 /G()0The features in ()*)+ that help the $e,elopment of fluenc& arethe same features that occur in acti,ities to $e,elop listeningfluenc&0

(0 The acti,it& in,ol,es kno"n ,ocabular&+ grammar+ an$$iscourse0

.0 The learners ha,e a high chance of performingsuccessfull& at a higher than normal spee$0

/0 There are repeate$ opportunities to $o the same thing0

5ere are other techni4ues to $e,elop speaking fluenc& thatin,ol,e the same features0

@n the eadlines acti,it&+ stu$ents create ne"spaper6hea$lines6 that "ill ser,e as the basis for the speakingacti,it&0 The learners all think of an interesting or e%citingthing that has happene$ to them0 Hsing a felt*tippe$ pen ** sothat the "riting is easil& seen ** each learner "rites ane"spaper hea$line referring to that e,ent0 The teacher shoul$gi,e some e%amples to help the learners+ such as 6!urning !e$!rings Jo&6 an$ 6Forgotten Shoes Ne,er eturn06 5alf of thelearners hol$ their hea$lines up for the rest of the class to see0Those not hol$ing up a hea$line go to hear a stor& behin$ thehea$line that interests them0 1ach stor& can be tol$ to nomore than t"o people at a time0 2hen the stor& is $one+ thelisteners shoul$ circulate to a secon$ hea$line that intereststhem0 The tellers "ill thus ha,e to repeat their stor& se,eral



times0 After there has been plent& of opportunit& to tell thestories+ the other half of the class hol$ up their hea$lines an$+in similar fashion+ tell their stories0

()*)+ an$ eadlines rel& on repetition of the same stor& to$e,elop fluenc&0 This kin$ of fluenc& is useful for pre$ictabletopics that learners ma& nee$ to speak about0 For e%ample+"hen meeting other people learners ma& nee$ to talk aboutthemsel,es+ about their countr&+ about the kin$ of foo$ the&eat+ about their tra,els+ about their interests an$ hobbies+ an$about their e%periences0 Speaking fluenc& also nee$s to be$e,elope$ for less pre$ictable topics an$ the ay it- acti,it& isa useful "a& of $oing this0

@n ay it-+ learners "ork in groups of about four people0 Firstthe& rea$ a ay it- te%t carefull& until the& ha,e reache$ agoo$ un$erstan$ing of it0 The& $iscuss their un$erstan$ing ofthe te%t to make sure e,er&thing is fairl& clear0 Then the& $othe tasks in the ay it- gri$+ "hich is a collection of simple,erbal tasks relate$ to the rea$ing 'see the follo"inge%ample)0 One learner chooses a s4uare for the ne%t learner toperform+ for e%ample s4uare !.0 The learner $oes this task"hile the others obser,e an$+ "hen the stu$ent has finishe$+sEhe calls a s4uare+ for e%ample+ A/+ for the ne%t learner0 Thiscontinues "ith some learners $oing the same task se,eral

times an$ "ith some tasks being $one se,eral times b&$ifferent learners0 Often the tasks are like role pla&s an$re4uire the learners to use the ,ocabular& that "as in therea$ing te%t+ but to use it in a $ifferent "a&0 This helps the$e,elopment of fluenc& b& pro,i$ing lots of associations "iththe ,ocabular& use$ in the task+ that is the associations fromthe rea$ing te%t an$ its $iscussion+ an$ the associations fromthe ay it- role pla&0 Although the ay it- acti,it& $oes notin,ol,e large amounts of repetition+ it in,ol,es preparation b&the learners0 That is+ the learners prepare for the spoken task

b& stu$&ing the "ritten te%t0 This preparation shoul$ increasethe fluenc& "ith "hich learners $o the spoken task0

The follo"ing is an e%ample of a ay .t- acti,it& 'Joe+ Nation+ # Ne"ton+ (;;B+ p0 B)0 The stor& is calle$ 6Casta"a&s Sur,i,e$on Sharks !loo$06

Three fishermen who drifted on the Pacific for four months told how they



drank shark's blood to survive. The fishermen from Kiribati told their story

through an interpreter in the American Samoa capital of Pago Pago after being

rescued by the ship Sakaria. Kautea Teatoa, eaieta Toanuea, and TebwaiAretana drifted !"" kilometers from home after their outboard motor failed on

#ebruary $. They said four ships had refused to help during their ordeal. %hen

they were picked up on &une ! they had eaten the last of a one meter shark fourdays before and drunk all of its blood. ( have not prayed so much in all my

life, )r. Aretana said.

" # $

%&

Iou are autea0Sa& "hat helpe$&ou sur,i,e0

Iou are Teb"aiAretana0 5o" $i$&ou feel "hen theships refuse$ tohelp &ou7

Iou are a sailoron the a"aria02hat $i$ &ou $oto help thefishermen7

&

Iou are Teb"ai01%plain "h& &ou"ere in the boatan$ "hathappene$ after itbroke $o"n0

Iou are autea05o" $i$ &ou feel"hen &ou caughtthe shark7

Iou are thecaptain0 1%plain"h& &ou stoppe$0

(&

Iou are Keaieta01%plain "hatcause$ theproblem0

Iou are theinterpreter0escribe theappearance of the

three men0

The 8ourne& "ascalle$ an or$eal02h&7

)rror $orrection

Some learners ma& e%perience $ifficult& in pronouncing certainsoun$s an$ groups of soun$s in another language0 SomeChinese an$ Japanese speakers of 1nglish+ for e%ample+ ha,etrouble "ith ElE an$ ErE0 Some learners ha,e trouble "ith thebeginning soun$s in the "or$s 6three6 an$ 6the&06 Di,ing toomuch attention to the correction of pronunciation in the earl&stages of language learning can make learners "orrie$ an$reluctant to speak because of fear of making errors0

@t is "orth thinking about "h& errors occur+ because this canhelp teachers $eci$e "hat to $o about them0 The stu$& oferrors an$ their causes is calle$ error analysis0

For each cause liste$ belo"+ suggestions for the teacher are



gi,en in s4uare brackets0

(0 The learner makes an error because the learner has not ha$sufficient chance to obser,e the correct form or to $e,elop

sufficient kno"le$ge of the language s&stem0 >ont correctthe learner but gi,e more mo$els an$ opportunities toobser,e0?

.0 The learner makes an error because the learner has notobser,e$ the form correctl&0 >Di,e a little correction b&sho"ing the learner the $ifference bet"een the correct forman$ the learners error0?

/0 The learner makes an error because of ner,ousness0 >ontcorrect0 Hse less threatening acti,ities ** or+ if an$ "henappropriate+ 8oke "ith the personEclassE&ourself to lighten themoo$0?

90 The learner makes an error because the acti,it& is $ifficult+that is+ there are man& things the learner has to think about$uring the acti,it&0 This is sometimes calle$ cogniti,e o,erloa$0>ont correct0 Make the acti,it& easier or gi,e se,eral chancesto repeat the acti,it&0?

0 The learner makes an error because the acti,it& is

confusing0 Hse of tongue t"isters+ for instance+ forpronunciation can be confusing0 >ont correct0 @mpro,e theacti,it&0?

B0 The learner makes an error because the learner is usingpatterns from the first language instea$ of the patterns fromthe secon$ language0 >Di,e some correction0 @f there has beenplent& of opportunit& to $e,elop kno"le$ge of the secon$language+ then some time shoul$ be spent on correction tohelp the learner break out of making errors that are unlikel& tochange0 1rrors "hich are resistant to change are sometimescalle$ fossili/ed errors an$ imaginati,e correction is oftennee$e$ to break the fossili3ation0 @f there has not been a lot of opportunit& to $e,elop kno"le$ge of the secon$ language+correct b& telling the learner "hat to look for "hen obser,ingpeople using the secon$ language0 This is calle$ consciousness

raising0 @t $oes not actuall& teach the correct form but makes



the learner more a"are of "hat to look for to learn it0?

<0 The learner makes an error because the learner has beencop&ing incorrect mo$els0 >Correct the learner an$ pro,i$e

better mo$els0?

This range of causes sho"s that the teacher shoul$ not rushinto error correction+ but shoul$ consi$er "hether the error is"orth the interruption an$+ if it is+ the teacher shoul$ consi$erpossible causes an$ then think of appropriate "a&s of $ealing"ith the error0

*ronunciation $orrection

The teaching an$ correcting of pronunciation to learners "hoare past the age of pubert& is often a $ifficult task0 Theau$iolingualism metho$ argues that nati,e*like pronunciationis one of the most important aspects of language proficienc&05o"e,er+ as Heno reports: 6The research on this issue>"hether specific instruction can impro,e stu$entspronunciation? is inconclusi,e0 @n a recent sur,e& 0 0 0 almosthalf of the recent e%periments on this sub8ect sho" noimpro,ement in stu$ents pro$uction of target*languagesoun$s6 'Heno+ (;;9+ p0 ()0 There is some hope that specificpronunciation instruction ma& be effecti,e in impro,ing

stu$ents perception or o,erall comprehension of the target*language0 Moreo,er+ to use a sports metaphor+ a beginningtennis pla&er must 6$e,elop an$ automati3e basic muscle skillsnecessar& to perform the ne" ph&sical tasks0 Similarl&+ alanguage learner must practice the ne" motor skills in,ol,e$ inpro$ucing the soun$s of the target language6 'Heno+ (;;9+ p0.)0

The follo"ing are simple suggestions for correctingpronunciation0

(0 Sa& 62hat76 an$ see if the learner is capable of self*correction0

.0 Di,e the correct form for the learner to cop&0 @f the learnercannot cop& it after t"o or three attempts+ then somee%planation an$ gui$ance ma& be nee$e$0



/0 1%plain ho" to make the correct form an$+ if necessar&+"hat is "rong "ith the error0 For e%ample+ to make the EthEsoun$ as in 6then+6 sa& 6Put &our tongue bet"een &our teethan$ make a long soun$06 A ,ariation on this is to tell the

learner to look at "hat &ou are $oing an$ sa&+ 6Put &ourtongue like this06

$onclusion

@n this paper it has been asserte$ that in speaking classesthere must be '() some attention to the formal aspects ofspeaking such as pronunciation+ ,ocabular&+ grammar+ an$ theappropriate use of the spoken language- '.) opportunit& an$encouragement for learners to pro$uce meaningful spokenmessages "here the messages ha,e real communicati,egoals- '/) opportunit& for the learners to gain trul& fluent useof "hat is alrea$& kno"n0 There must be an appropriatebalance of these three elements in a speaking program0 Atelementar& le,els+ emphasis shoul$ be place$ on form*focuse$acti,ities- at higher le,els+ a correspon$ingl& greater emphasisshoul$ be place$ on fluenc& acti,ities0 All of these parts+ho"e,er+ shoul$ be present at each stage of an effecti,espeaking program0

References

Joe+ A0+ Nation+ P0+ # Ne"ton+ J0 '(;;B)0 Kocabular& learning an$ speakingacti,ities0 0nglish Teaching 1oru#+ *( '()+ .*<0

Nation+ P0 '(;G;)0 @mpro,ing speaking fluenc&0 yste#+ 23 '/)+ /<<*/G90

Nunan+ 0 '(;;.)0 'esigning tas"s for the co##unicative classroo#0Cambri$ge: Cambri$ge Hni,ersit& Press0

Stern+ 50 50 '(;;()0 1unda#ental concepts of language teaching0 O%for$:O%for$ Hni,ersit& Press0

Heno+ N0 '(;;9)0 Teaching 0nglish pronunciation to 4apanese 0nglish#a5ors6 A co#parison of supraseg#ental %ith seg#ental oriented teaching

approaches0 Hnpublishe$ $issertation+ Temple Hni,ersit&+ Japan0

2i$$o"son+ 50 D0 '(;;.)0 @nno,ation in teacher $e,elopment0 Annual

Revie% of Applied Linguistics+ 2*+ .B=*.<0



aul $ation can !e contacted at6 0nglish Language .nstitute,Victoria University of Wellington, 7 O7 8o9 :;;, Wellington,

$e% <ealand7

obert Sanborn !ro"n can be contacte$ at: .<*G Ja3uka+ H8i+H8i*shi+ &oto0 B((0 TelEFa%: 'h) =<<9*..*/GG=0

All articles at this site are cop&right (;;< b& their respecti,e authors0ocument HL: http:EE"""08alt*publications0orgEtltEfilesE;<E8anEspeaking0htmlLast mo$ifie$: Januar& ((+ (;;<Site maintaine$ b& TLT Online 1$itor | Main Page | The Language Teacher | JALT Journal | Other

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Teaching Speaking+ "ctivities

to *romote Speaking in aSecond Language

5a&ri&e a&ihttp:EEunr0e$uEhomepageEha&ri&ek

ka&ih>at?unr0ne,a$a0e$uHni,ersit& of Ne,a$a 'Ne,a$a+HSA)

Introduction

Speaking is 6the process of buil$ing an$ sharing meaning through theuse of ,erbal an$ non*,erbal s&mbols+ in a ,ariet& of conte%ts6'Chane&+ (;;G+ p0 (/)0 Speaking is a crucial part of secon$ languagelearning an$ teaching0 espite its importance+ for man& &ears+teaching speaking has been un$er,alue$ an$ 1nglish languageteachers ha,e continue$ to teach speaking 8ust as a repetition of $rillsor memori3ation of $ialogues0 5o"e,er+ to$a&s "orl$ re4uires that thegoal of teaching speaking shoul$ impro,e stu$ents communicati,eskills+ because+ onl& in that "a&+ stu$ents can e%press themsel,es an$

learn ho" to follo" the social an$ cultural rules appropriate in eachcommunicati,e circumstance0 @n or$er to teach secon$ languagelearners ho" to speak in the best "a& possible+ some speakingacti,ities are pro,i$e$ belo"+ that can be applie$ to 1SL an$ 1FLclassroom settings+ together "ith suggestions for teachers "ho teachoral language0

What Is "Teaching Speaking"?

2hat is meant b& 6teaching speaking6 is to teach 1SL learners to:• Pro$uce the 1nglish speech soun$s an$ soun$ patterns• Hse "or$ an$ sentence stress+ intonation patterns an$ therh&thm of the secon$ language0• Select appropriate "or$s an$ sentences accor$ing to the proper

social setting+ au$ience+ situation an$ sub8ect matter0• Organi3e their thoughts in a meaningful an$ logical se4uence0• Hse language as a means of e%pressing ,alues an$ 8u$gments0

http://unr.edu/homepage/hayriyek

http://unr.edu/homepage/hayriyek



• Hse the language 4uickl& an$ confi$entl& "ith fe" unnaturalpauses+ "hich is calle$ as fluenc&0 'Nunan+ .==/)

How To Teach Speaking

No" man& linguistics an$ 1SL teachers agree on that stu$ents learn tospeak in the secon$ language b& 6interacting60 Communicati,elanguage teaching an$ collaborati,e learning ser,e best for this aim0Communicati,e language teaching is base$ on real*life situations thatre4uire communication0 !& using this metho$ in 1SL classes+ stu$ents"ill ha,e the opportunit& of communicating "ith each other in thetarget language0 @n brief+ 1SL teachers shoul$ create a classroomen,ironment "here stu$ents ha,e real*life communication+ authenticacti,ities+ an$ meaningful tasks that promote oral language0 This canoccur "hen stu$ents collaborate in groups to achie,e a goal or tocomplete a task0

Activities To Promote Speaking

Discussions

After a content*base$ lesson+ a $iscussion can be hel$ for ,ariousreasons0 The stu$ents ma& aim to arri,e at a conclusion+ share i$easabout an e,ent+ or fin$ solutions in their $iscussion groups0 !efore the$iscussion+ it is essential that the purpose of the $iscussion acti,it& isset b& the teacher0 @n this "a&+ the $iscussion points are rele,ant tothis purpose+ so that stu$ents $o not spen$ their time chatting "itheach other about irrele,ant things0 For e%ample+ stu$ents can becomein,ol,e$ in agreeE$isagree $iscussions0 @n this t&pe of $iscussions+ theteacher can form groups of stu$ents+ preferabl& 9 or in each group+an$ pro,i$e contro,ersial sentences like people learn best "hen the&rea$ ,s0 people learn best "hen the& tra,el0 Then each group "orkson their topic for a gi,en time perio$+ an$ presents their opinions tothe class0 @t is essential that the speaking shoul$ be e4uall& $i,i$e$among group members0 At the en$+ the class $eci$es on the "inninggroup "ho $efen$e$ the i$ea in the best "a&0 This acti,it& fosterscritical thinking an$ 4uick $ecision making+ an$ stu$ents learn ho" toe%press an$ 8ustif& themsel,es in polite "a&s "hile $isagreeing "ith

the others0 For efficient group $iscussions+ it is al"a&s better not toform large groups+ because 4uiet stu$ents ma& a,oi$ contributing inlarge groups0 The group members can be either assigne$ b& theteacher or the stu$ents ma& $etermine it b& themsel,es+ but groupsshoul$ be rearrange$ in e,er& $iscussion acti,it& so that stu$ents can"ork "ith ,arious people an$ learn to be open to $ifferent i$eas0Lastl&+ in class or group $iscussions+ "hate,er the aim is+ the stu$ents



shoul$ al"a&s be encourage$ to ask 4uestions+ paraphrase i$eas+e%press support+ check for clarification+ an$ so on0

Role *la!

One other "a& of getting stu$ents to speak is role*pla&ing0 Stu$ents

preten$ the& are in ,arious social conte%ts an$ ha,e a ,ariet& of socialroles0 @n role*pla& acti,ities+ the teacher gi,es information to thelearners such as "ho the& are an$ "hat the& think or feel0 Thus+ theteacher can tell the stu$ent that 6Iou are a,i$+ &ou go to the $octoran$ tell him "hat happene$ last night+ an$6 '5armer+ (;G9)

Simulations

Simulations are ,er& similar to role*pla&s but "hat makes simulations$ifferent than role pla&s is that the& are more elaborate0 @nsimulations+ stu$ents can bring items to the class to create a realistic

en,ironment0 For instance+ if a stu$ent is acting as a singer+ she bringsa microphone to sing an$ so on0 ole pla&s an$ simulations ha,e man&a$,antages0 First+ since the& are entertaining+ the& moti,ate thestu$ents0 Secon$+ as 5armer '(;G9) suggests+ the& increase the self*confi$ence of hesitant stu$ents+ because in role pla& an$ simulationacti,ities+ the& "ill ha,e a $ifferent role an$ $o not ha,e to speak forthemsel,es+ "hich means the& $o not ha,e to take the sameresponsibilit&0

nformation ,ap

@n this acti,it&+ stu$ents are suppose$ to be "orking in pairs0 Onestu$ent "ill ha,e the information that other partner $oes not ha,e an$the partners "ill share their information0 @nformation gap acti,itiesser,e man& purposes such as sol,ing a problem or collectinginformation0 Also+ each partner pla&s an important role because thetask cannot be complete$ if the partners $o not pro,i$e theinformation the others nee$0 These acti,ities are effecti,e becausee,er&bo$& has the opportunit& to talk e%tensi,el& in the targetlanguage0

#rainstorming

On a gi,en topic+ stu$ents can pro$uce i$eas in a limite$ time0epen$ing on the conte%t+ either in$i,i$ual or group brainstorming iseffecti,e an$ learners generate i$eas 4uickl& an$ freel&0 The goo$characteristics of brainstorming is that the stu$ents are not critici3e$for their i$eas so stu$ents "ill be open to sharing ne" i$eas0



Stor!telling

Stu$ents can briefl& summari3e a tale or stor& the& hear$ fromsomebo$& beforehan$+ or the& ma& create their o"n stories to telltheir classmates0 Stor& telling fosters creati,e thinking0 @t also helpsstu$ents e%press i$eas in the format of beginning+ $e,elopment+ an$

en$ing+ inclu$ing the characters an$ setting a stor& has to ha,e0Stu$ents also can tell ri$$les or 8okes0 For instance+ at the ,er&beginning of each class session+ the teacher ma& call a fe" stu$ents totell short ri$$les or 8okes as an opening0 @n this "a&+ not onl& "ill theteacher a$$ress stu$ents speaking abilit&+ but also get the attention of the class0

nterviews

Stu$ents can con$uct inter,ie"s on selecte$ topics "ith ,ariouspeople0 @t is a goo$ i$ea that the teacher pro,i$es a rubric to stu$ents

so that the& kno" "hat t&pe of 4uestions the& can ask or "hat path tofollo"+ but stu$ents shoul$ prepare their o"n inter,ie" 4uestions0Con$ucting inter,ie"s "ith people gi,es stu$ents a chance to practicetheir speaking abilit& not onl& in class but also outsi$e an$ helps thembecoming sociali3e$0 After inter,ie"s+ each stu$ent can present his orher stu$& to the class0 Moreo,er+ stu$ents can inter,ie" each otheran$ 6intro$uce6 his or her partner to the class0

Stor! $ompletion

This is a ,er& en8o&able+ "hole*class+ free*speaking acti,it& for "hich

stu$ents sit in a circle0 For this acti,it&+ a teacher starts to tell a stor&+but after a fe" sentences he or she stops narrating0 Then+ eachstu$ent starts to narrate from the point "here the pre,ious onestoppe$0 1ach stu$ent is suppose$ to a$$ from four to ten sentences0Stu$ents can a$$ ne" characters+ e,ents+ $escriptions an$ so on0

Reporting

!efore coming to class+ stu$ents are aske$ to rea$ a ne"spaper ormaga3ine an$+ in class+ the& report to their frien$s "hat the& fin$ asthe most interesting ne"s0 Stu$ents can also talk about "hether the&ha,e e%perience$ an&thing "orth telling their frien$s in their $ail& li,es

before class0

*la!ing $ards

@n this game+ stu$ents shoul$ form groups of four0 1ach suit "illrepresent a topic0 For instance:

• Diamonds: 1arning mone&• earts: Lo,e an$ relationships



• Spades+ An unforgettable memor&• $lu.s+ !est teacher

1ach stu$ent in a group "ill choose a car$0 Then+ each stu$ent "ill"rite 9* 4uestions about that topic to ask the other people in the

group0 For e%ample:

@f the topic 6iamon$s: 1arning Mone&6 is selecte$+ here are somepossible 4uestions:

• @s mone& important in &our life7 2h&7• 2hat is the easiest "a& of earning mone&7• 2hat $o &ou think about lotter&7 1tc0

5o"e,er+ the teacher shoul$ state at the ,er& beginning of the acti,it&that stu$ents are not allo"e$ to prepare &es*no 4uestions+ because b&

sa&ing &es or no stu$ents get little practice in spoken languagepro$uction0 ather+ stu$ents ask open*en$e$ 4uestions to each otherso that the& repl& in complete sentences0

*icture /arrating

This acti,it& is base$ on se,eral se4uential pictures0 Stu$ents areaske$ to tell the stor& taking place in the se4uential pictures b& pa&ingattention to the criteria pro,i$e$ b& the teacher as a rubric0 ubricscan inclu$e the ,ocabular& or structures the& nee$ to use "hilenarrating0

*icture Descri.ingAnother "a& to make use of pictures in a speaking acti,it& is to gi,estu$ents 8ust one picture an$ ha,ing them $escribe "hat it is in thepicture0 For this acti,it& stu$ents can form groups an$ each group isgi,en a $ifferent picture0 Stu$ents $iscuss the picture "ith theirgroups+ then a spokesperson for each group $escribes the picture tothe "hole class0 This acti,it& fosters the creati,it& an$ imagination ofthe learners as "ell as their public speaking skills0

Find the Difference

For this acti,it& stu$ents can "ork in pairs an$ each couple is gi,ent"o $ifferent pictures+ for e%ample+ picture of bo&s pla&ing football an$another picture of girls pla&ing tennis0 Stu$ents in pairs $iscuss thesimilarities an$Eor $ifferences in the pictures0



Suggestions For Teachers in Teaching Speaking

5ere are some suggestions for 1nglish language teachers "hileteaching oral language:

• Pro,i$e ma%imum opportunit& to stu$ents to speak the targetlanguage b& pro,i$ing a rich en,ironment that containscollaborati,e "ork+ authentic materials an$ tasks+ an$ share$kno"le$ge0

• Tr& to in,ol,e each stu$ent in e,er& speaking acti,it&- for thisaim+ practice $ifferent "a&s of stu$ent participation0

• e$uce teacher speaking time in class "hile increasing stu$entspeaking time0 Step back an$ obser,e stu$ents0

• @n$icate positi,e signs "hen commenting on a stu$entsresponse0

• Ask eliciting 4uestions such as 62hat $o &ou mean7 5o" $i$ &oureach that conclusion76 in or$er to prompt stu$ents to speak

more0• Pro,i$e "ritten fee$back like 6Iour presentation "as reall& great0

@t "as a goo$ 8ob0 @ reall& appreciate$ &our efforts in preparingthe materials an$ efficient use of &our ,oice6

• o not correct stu$ents pronunciation mistakes ,er& often "hilethe& are speaking0 Correction shoul$ not $istract stu$ent fromhis or her speech0

• @n,ol,e speaking acti,ities not onl& in class but also out of class-contact parents an$ other people "ho can help0

• Circulate aroun$ classroom to ensure that stu$ents are on the

right track an$ see "hether the& nee$ &our help "hile the& "orkin groups or pairs0• Pro,i$e the ,ocabular& beforehan$ that stu$ents nee$ in

speaking acti,ities0• iagnose problems face$ b& stu$ents "ho ha,e $ifficult& in

e%pressing themsel,es in the target language an$ pro,i$e moreopportunities to practice the spoken language0

Conclusion

Teaching speaking is a ,er& important part of secon$ language

learning0 The abilit& to communicate in a secon$ language clearl& an$efficientl& contributes to the success of the learner in school an$success later in e,er& phase of life0 Therefore+ it is essential thatlanguage teachers pa& great attention to teaching speaking0 atherthan lea$ing stu$ents to pure memori3ation+ pro,i$ing a richen,ironment "here meaningful communication takes place is $esire$02ith this aim+ ,arious speaking acti,ities such as those liste$ abo,ecan contribute a great $eal to stu$ents in $e,eloping basic interacti,e



skills necessar& for life0 These acti,ities make stu$ents more acti,e inthe learning process an$ at the same time make their learning moremeaningful an$ fun for them0

e!erences

• Celce*Murcia0 M0 .==(0 Teaching 1nglish as a Secon$ or ForeignLanguage '/r$ e$)0 HSA: 5einle#5einle0

• Chane&+ A0L0+ an$ T0L0 !urk0 (;;G0 Teaching Oral Communicationin Dra$es *G0 !oston: All&n#!acon0

• !aruah+ T0C0 (;;(0 The 1nglish Teachers 5an$book0 elhi:Sterling Publishing 5ouse0

• !ro"n+ D0 an$ D0 Iule0 (;G/0 Teaching the Spoken Language0Cambri$ge: Cambri$ge Hni,ersit& Press0

• 5armer+ J0 (;G90 The Practice of 1nglish Language Teaching0Lon$on: Longman0

• Mconough+ J0 an$ C0 Sha"0 .==/0 Materials an$ Metho$s in1LT: a teachers gui$e0 Mal$en+ MA- O%for$: !lack"ell0• Nunan+ 0+ .==/0 Practical 1nglish Language Teaching0

NI:McDra"*5ill0• Staab+ C0 (;;.0 Oral language for to$a&s classroom0 Markham+

ON: Pippin Publishing0

The @nternet T1SL Journal+ Kol0 Q@@+ No0 ((+ No,ember .==Bhttp:EEitesl80orgE

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" Techni0ue for *ractising$onditional Sentences

Dalina a,aliauskieneukkRltu0lt

La" Hni,ersit& of Lithuania 'Kilnius+ Lithuania)This techni4ue aims at teaching learners to personali3e targetstructures an$ pro$uce short narrations or sentences "hich aremeaningful to them0

Introduction

Teachers are a"are that learners ha,e to be moti,ate$ an$ in,ol,e$ inor$er to be successful0 A ,er& effecti,e "a& of increasing learnersmoti,ation an$ in,ol,ement is b& making the learning personall&meaningful0 This can be achie,e$ b& integrating in$i,i$ual learnerspersonal attitu$es+ opinions+ e%periences+ likes an$ $islikes into theprocess of acti,ating target language+ or in other "or$s+ integratingpersonali3ation into the learning process0

@ ha,e use$ personali3ation to practise the usage of con$itionalSentences0 Acti,ities can be carrie$ out in $ifferent ,ariations0

@n pairs or small groups+ learners are aske$ to generate 4uestions+short narrations or $ialogues0 @f learners are reluctant to pro$uceinformation referring to themsel,es+ the& are "elcome to ,olunteerinformation on somebo$& the& kno" "ell enough to be intereste$ increating a stor& about+ e0g0+ a frien$+ a neighbor+ a classmate+ etc0



@n or$er to ma%imi3e classroom opportunities for interaction+ theacti,ities can be transforme$ into 4uestion*ans"er $ialogues bet"eenpairs or small groups0 Such acti,ities are successful onl& if all learnersare intereste$ an$ in,ol,e$0 So+ a 4uestion 2hat "oul$ &ou $o of &oumet a famous basketball pla&er7 "ill onl& be of interest to basketball

fans0 Once in a "hile such an acti,it& might be successful+ but ne%ttime &ou "ant learners to e%ercise con$itional sentences &ou ha$better choose A coherent acti,it&+ e0g0 theme*base$ acti,it&0

An& topical issues can be inclu$e$ into these acti,ities pro,i$e$ thatlearners are reall& in,ol,e$0 5ere are possible areas for practicingcon$itionals:

• leisure+• 8obs+• habits+• hobbies+• skills+• frien$s+• ne"s+• terrorism+• sports+ etc0

@t is al"a&s a$,isable to negotiate the topic "ith learners+ so let themchoose "hich one the& prefer to $o0 Di,e learners a $emonstrationbefore the& start creating their o"n $ialogues or short stories0 All

t&pes of con$itionals can be practice$ at the same time0 @t is essential+ho"e,er+ that learners kno" the $ifference in meaning an$ usage of,arious t&pes of con$itionals0

Short arrations

@n m& e%perience+ short narrations pro,e$ more beneficial to learnersthan separate sentences0 Iou "ill be surprise$ "ith the masterpiecesthat &our learners are likel& to pro$uce0

5ere are t"o e%amples0 The first one concerns a stu$ents hobb&0

@f @ ha$nt met m& frien$s last "eek+ "e "oul$nt ha,e gone to acasino0 @f "e ha$nt gone to a casino+ @ "oul$nt ha,e "on a lot ofmone&0 @f @ ha$nt "on a lot of mone&+ @ "oul$nt ha,e ha$ so much to$rink0 @f @ ha$nt ha$ so much to $rink+ @ "oul$nt ha,e starte$ a fight0@f @ ha$nt starte$ a fight+ @ "oul$nt ha,e been taken to the policestation0 @f @ ha$nt been arreste$ b& the police+ @ "oul$nt ha,e beenlate for "ork the ne%t $a&0 @f @ ha$nt been late for "ork+ @ "oul$nt



ha,e lost m& 8ob0 @f @ ha$nt lost m& 8ob+ @ "oul$ ha,e been able togamble from time to time0 @f @ ha$ been able to gamble+ @ might ha,e"on some mone&0The secon$ narration is about learners speculations about lifee%perience0

@f @ bu& a lotter& ticket+ @ might "in a 8ackpot0 @f @ "in a 8ackpot+ @"oul$ bu& a big car0 @f @ bu& a big car+ @ "oul$ $ri,e to the seasi$e 0 @f@ $ri,e to the seasi$e+ @ ma& might make a lot of frien$s0 @f @ ha$ a lotof frien$s+ @ "oul$ probabl& spen$ all m& mone& on $rinks an$ girls0 @f@ spen$ all m& mone&+ @ "oul$ lose all m& ne" frien$s0 @f @ lose all m&frien$s+ @ "oul$ be miserable an$ lonel&0 That is "h& @ ne,er bu&lotter& tickets0

A Whole Class Activit#

There is another ,ariation of the "hole class acti,it&0 i,i$e the class

into t"o e4ual groups0 Ask the first group to "rite onl& if clauses+ an$the secon$ group**onl& ma8or clauses0 Allocate a stu$ent*assessor ineach group "ho "ill gi,e points for accurac&+ appropriateness an$promptness0 @n the acti,it&+ each group takes turns b& rea$ing theirhalf of a sentence+ an$ the other group $oes their best to match itfrom their bank of clauses0 The assessors gi,e in$epen$ent ,er$ictson the performance of each group0 At the en$ of the acti,it& pri3esare a"ar$e$0 The teachers input is minimal an$ often unnecessar&0

The @nternet T1SL Journal+ Kol0 K@@@+ No0 /+ March .==.http:EEitesl80orgE

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,rammar $orrection in )SL1)FL

2riting $lasses Ma! /ot #e

)ffectiveonal$ Dra&

mnenomic.=== >at? &ahoo0com!ei8ing Language an$ Culture Hni,ersit& '!ei8ing+ China)

Introduction

Secon$ language "riting te%tbooks for teachers are t&picall& full ofa$,ice concerning techni4ues an$ acti,ities to use in class+ but the&rarel& tell teachers "hat things not to $o0 The purpose of this short

paper is to argue that a "i$el& use$ an$ ,er& popular form of "ritingclass correction fee$back shoul$ be a,oi$e$0

Most 1SLE1FL "riting teachers "oul$ strongl& agree "ith thestatement that teacher correction fee$back is a necessar& part of an&"riting course0 Most "oul$ also concur that grammar correction isessential0 This belief seems to be intuiti,el& ob,ious an$ 8ust plaincommon sense+ but soli$ research con$ucte$ in the last .= &ears hasre,eale$ it to be "rong0 This paper aims to e%plain "h&+ an$ alsoattempts to offer some practical recommen$ations on the t&pe offee$back "riting shoul$ be gi,ing their stu$ents in place of grammar

fee$back0

The case for grammar correction in "riting classes is base$ on the i$eathat if a teacher points out to a stu$ent a grammatical error the& ha,ema$e+ an$ pro,i$es+ in$irectl& or $irectl&+ the correct form+ thestu$ent "ill then un$erstan$ the mistake the& ha,e ma$e+ learn fromit+ an$ their abilit& to "rite accuratel& "ill impro,e0 @t is also "i$el& feltthat if teachers $o not correct their stu$ents grammatical mistakes+fossili3ation "ill occur+ an$ it "ill become ,er& $ifficult to latereliminate these errors0 Stu$ies ha,e sho"n these arguments to be

incorrect0,rammar $orrection in Second Language 2riting $ourses

Does /ot 2ork

The research that has been con$ucte$ on grammar correction in"riting classes has largel& consiste$ of comparati,e stu$ies measuringthe effecti,eness of $ifferent t&pes of fee$back on stu$ents "ritingabilities0 @n a famous stu$& b& obb+ oss+ an$ Shortree$ '(;GB)+ four



kin$s of grammar corrections use$ on the surface errors of Japanesestu$ents "ere compare$ to see if the& ha$ an influence on thestu$ents "ritings o,er time0 These t&pes "ere: 'a) e%plicit correction+"here errors "ere pointe$ out an$ correct forms offere$- 'b) markingmistakes "ith a &ello" pen+ "ithout e%planation- 'c) a tall& "as kept in

the margin of the number of errors per lines+ an$ stu$ents "ere tol$ toe%amine the line an$ fin$ an$ correct the mistakes- '$) the use of acorrection co$e "hich sho"e$ both the location an$ kin$ of errors0 @nall these cases+ the stu$ents "ere tol$ to "rite their essa&s again+making the necessar& corrections0 esults sho"e$ that at the en$ ofthe course+ no significant $ifferences e%iste$ bet"een all the groups interms of accurac&0 Conse4uentl&+ the authors conclu$e$ thatcomprehensi,e treatment an$ o,ert corrections of surface errors areprobabl& not "orth the trouble for teachers to make0

A$$itional stu$ies ha,e sho"n that neither the use of $irect or in$irecttechni4ues in correcting stu$ent errors has an influence on "ritingabilit& results0 Moreo,er+ making full 'e,er& error is correcte$ b& theteacher) or selecti,e 'onl& onCurrent @ssue * Acti,ities for 1SL Stu$ents * Things for 1SL Teachers * T1SLET1FL Links * Search * Cop&right


,rammar $orrection in )SL1)FL

2riting $lasses Ma! /ot #e

)ffectiveonal$ Dra&

mnenomic.=== >at? &ahoo0com!ei8ing Language an$ Culture Hni,ersit& '!ei8ing+ China)

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Introduction

Secon$ language "riting te%tbooks for teachers are t&picall& full ofa$,ice concerning techni4ues an$ acti,ities to use in class+ but the&rarel& tell teachers "hat things not to $o0 The purpose of this shortpaper is to argue that a "i$el& use$ an$ ,er& popular form of "ritingclass correction fee$back shoul$ be a,oi$e$0

Most 1SLE1FL "riting teachers "oul$ strongl& agree "ith thestatement that teacher correction fee$back is a necessar& part of an&"riting course0 Most "oul$ also concur that grammar correction isessential0 This belief seems to be intuiti,el& ob,ious an$ 8ust plaincommon sense+ but soli$ research con$ucte$ in the last .= &ears hasre,eale$ it to be "rong0 This paper aims to e%plain "h&+ an$ alsoattempts to offer some practical recommen$ations on the t&pe offee$back "riting shoul$ be gi,ing their stu$ents in place of grammar

fee$back0

The case for grammar correction in "riting classes is base$ on the i$eathat if a teacher points out to a stu$ent a grammatical error the& ha,ema$e+ an$ pro,i$es+ in$irectl& or $irectl&+ the correct form+ thestu$ent "ill then un$erstan$ the mistake the& ha,e ma$e+ learn fromit+ an$ their abilit& to "rite accuratel& "ill impro,e0 @t is also "i$el& feltthat if teachers $o not correct their stu$ents grammatical mistakes+fossili3ation "ill occur+ an$ it "ill become ,er& $ifficult to latereliminate these errors0 Stu$ies ha,e sho"n these arguments to beincorrect0

,rammar $orrection in Second Language 2riting $oursesDoes /ot 2ork

The research that has been con$ucte$ on grammar correction in"riting classes has largel& consiste$ of comparati,e stu$ies measuringthe effecti,eness of $ifferent t&pes of fee$back on stu$ents "ritingabilities0 @n a famous stu$& b& obb+ oss+ an$ Shortree$ '(;GB)+ fourkin$s of grammar corrections use$ on the surface errors of Japanesestu$ents "ere compare$ to see if the& ha$ an influence on thestu$ents "ritings o,er time0 These t&pes "ere: 'a) e%plicit correction+

"here errors "ere pointe$ out an$ correct forms offere$- 'b) markingmistakes "ith a &ello" pen+ "ithout e%planation- 'c) a tall& "as kept inthe margin of the number of errors per lines+ an$ stu$ents "ere tol$ toe%amine the line an$ fin$ an$ correct the mistakes- '$) the use of acorrection co$e "hich sho"e$ both the location an$ kin$ of errors0 @nall these cases+ the stu$ents "ere tol$ to "rite their essa&s again+making the necessar& corrections0 esults sho"e$ that at the en$ of



the course+ no significant $ifferences e%iste$ bet"een all the groups interms of accurac&0 Conse4uentl&+ the authors conclu$e$ thatcomprehensi,e treatment an$ o,ert corrections of surface errors areprobabl& not "orth the trouble for teachers to make0

A$$itional stu$ies ha,e sho"n that neither the use of $irect or in$irecttechni4ues in correcting stu$ent errors has an influence on "ritingabilit& results0 Moreo,er+ making full 'e,er& error is correcte$ b& theteacher) or selecti,e 'onl& one t&pe of error is marke$ at a time)grammatical corrections is also not effecti,e0 There is no e,i$ence of a$ela&e$ effect to grammatical corrections+ that is to sa&+ an effect"hich later sho"s up0 The kin$ of instruction use$ b& teachers in thestu$& $i$ not appear to ha,e an impact on the results0 Nor "as thelack of benefits of grammatical correction $epen$ent upon thestu$ents gen$er+ age+ proficienc& le,el+ or e$ucational backgroun$0'For a$$itional information on these stu$ies+ see Truscotts seminalarticle '(;;B)+ rashen '.==9a) an$ Loe"en '(;;G)0 @nterestingl&+man& of these results are also true of corrections ma$e in firstlanguage "riting classes)0

The results of these stu$ies shoul$ not be too surprising+ for as JohnTruscott has note$:

Keteran teachers kno" there is little connection bet"een correctionan$ learning: Often a stu$ent "ill repeat the same mistake o,er an$o,er again+ e,en after being correcte$ man& times0 2hen this occurs+

it is tempting for the teacher to sa& the stu$ent is not attenti,e orla3&- ho"e,er+ the per,asi,eness of the phenomenon+ e,en "ithsuccessful stu$ents+ argues against an& such e%planation0 ather theteacher shoul$ conclu$e that correction simpl& is not effecti,e0'Truscott (;;B+ p0/9()0

,rammatical $orrection in )SL1)FL 2riting $lasses $an"ctuall! #e armful To Students' *erformance andDevelopment

Numerous stu$ies ha,e re,eale$ that grammar correction to secon$language "riting stu$ents is actuall& $iscouraging to man& stu$ents+an$ e,en harmful to their "riting abilit& 'Semke (;G9- epner (;;(-Sheppar$ (;;.- an$ Truscott (;;B)0 Denerall& those "ho $o notrecei,e grammar corrections ha,e a more positi,e feeling about"riting than those "ho $i$+ "rote more+ an$ "ith more comple%it&+than those "ho $i$ recei,e grammar corrections0 Moreo,er+ the time



spent b& stu$ents an$ teachers on correcting grammatical errorscauses nee$e$ attention to be si$etracke$ from other importantelements of "riting+ like organi3ation an$ logical $e,elopment ofcontent0

Wh# $oesn%t &rammar Correction Work? The first reason "h& "riting class grammar fee$back $oesnt "ork isthat it treats onl& the surface appearance of grammar an$ not "ith the"a& language $e,elops 'see Truscott (;;B for $etails)0 Secon$l&+learning grammar in a secon$ language is a comple% an$ gra$ualprocess "hich occurs both $e,elopmentall& an$ hierarchicall& 'someitems are ac4uire$ before others)0 Compoun$ing this is the fact thatthe learning of linguistic items $oes not occur in a linear fashion+ thatthe learning cur,e for an item is full of ,alle&s an$ peaks+ progress an$regressions0 Therefore+ for grammatical correction to "ork+ the

correction must be precisel& tie$ into the correct le,els of this process0@f a stu$ent is gi,en a correction for a stage he has not &et reache$+ it"oul$ not be effecti,e0 @n or$er to offer useful corrections+ a teacher"oul$ nee$ to precisel& kno" "here the stu$ent is $e,elopmentall&an$ hierarchicall& in terms of their grammar le,el0 Iet because of thecomple%it& in,ol,e$ in learning grammar+ this "oul$ be a ,irtualimpossibilit&0

The thir$ reason for the ineffecti,eness of grammar correction in,ol,esthe practicalities associate$ "ith teachers comments an$ stu$entsun$erstan$ing of these comments0 esearch has sho"n that

corrections ma$e b& secon$ language "riting teachers are fre4uentl&arbitrar&+ not consistent+ an$ greatl& $epen$ent upon the age an$amount of time the teacher has "ith L. stu$ents0 Accor$ing to amel'(;;)+ teachers also commonl& misrea$ stu$ent te%ts an$ e,okeabstract rules an$ principles in their comments0 Moreo,er+ stu$entsoften fin$ teachers remarks ,ague+ confusing+ an$ contra$ictor&+ an$feel that teachers $o not pro,i$e sufficient grammatical e%planationsabout their "riting mistakes 'Cohen (;G<)0 Finall&+ stu$ents generall&onl& make a mental note of the corrections the& ha,e un$erstoo$+ an$if the& ha,e to re"rite their papers+ regularl& $o

not incorporate these corrections into their "ork 'Cohen (;G<)0Practical Implications For 'S()'F( Teachers

So "hat shoul$ a L. "riting teacher $o7 The 4uickest an$ mosteffecti,e solution "oul$ be for "riting instructors to simpl& stopmaking grammar corrections0 This "oul$ of course be $ifficult forteachers to $o because it has been sho"n most stu$ents strongl&



e%pect teachers to notice their "riting errors an$ comment on them+an$ the& become 4uite resentful if this $oes not occur0 A$$ing to thispressure to gi,e grammar fee$back is the fact that establishe$curriculum of man& language school an$ uni,ersit& "riting programs'especiall& o,erseas) is base$ on the ,alue of grammar correction an$

if a teacher $i$ not emplo& it+ the& "oul$ ha,e a goo$ chance of beingconsi$ere$ unprofessional0

One possible solution to this problem "hich @ ha,e foun$ to be usefulis to gi,e perio$ic short grammatical lessons at the beginning of class'the "eek after a big home"ork assignment)+ an$ @ $iscuss one or t"o"i$esprea$ grammatical problem 'e0g0 articles+ prepositions) that @encountere$ in the stu$ents home"ork0 This usuall& has gone o,er"ell an$ generall& satisfie$ the stu$ents nee$ for grammaticalcorrection fee$back0 rashen '.==9b) recommen$s teachers simpl&inform their stu$ents of the limitations of grammar correction but @ha,e $oubts "hether stu$ents "oul$ be satisfie$ "ith such ane%planation0

!ut 8ust because grammar fee$back is problematic $oes not mean allfee$back is ineffecti,e0 The general problem "ith is "ith the focus ofS. teachers fee$back0 Stu$ies in$icate that "riting teachers spen$most of their bus& time offering grammatical or surface le,elcorrections in their comments0 @n other "or$s+ the& commonl& ,ie"their stu$ents "ork as language instea$ of "riting teachers+concentrating primaril& on form o,er content0 As a conse4uence+ the&

a$$ress onl& one part of the "riting process0 2hat "riting teachersnee$ to $o is gi,e priorit& to M1AN@ND an$ M1AN@ND 1LAT1problems+ to make remarks about stu$ents te%ts instea$ of 8ust form0Semke '(;G9) has $emonstrate$ that stu$ents "ho recei,e$comments from teachers onl& on content $i$ much better an$ spentmore time "orking on their essa&s than those "ho recei,e$ criticismonl& on grammar0

Specificall&+ this means that teachers shoul$ $e,ote their time to areaslike:

3rgani4ation

• Logical $e,elopment of i$eas an$ arguments• 1ffecti,eness of intro$uction an$ conclusion

$ontent

• Hse of $escription



• Thesis statement• Focus• Hse of facts an$ e%perience• Cogenc& an$ consistenc& of ho" an$ "h& e%planations

@n short+ teachers nee$ to train themsel,es to set asi$e their re$ pensan$ e%amine i$eas an$ see "hat stu$ents are tr&ing to sa& instea$ ofsimpl& looking for grammatical errors0

@f 1SLE1FL "riting teachers are reall& concerne$ "ith impro,ing theirstu$ents grammatical competenc&+ the& shoul$+ in lieu of offeringgrammar correction fee$back+ constantl& stress in their classes theimportance of outsi$e rea$ing0 Stu$ies ha,e sho"n that ,oluntar&+light+ authentic rea$ing 'graphic no,els+ comics+ the eas& section ofne"spapers+ popular literature) in the target language greatl& helps

the o,erall "riting an$ grammatical skills of secon$ language stu$ents'rashen .==9a)0

Teaching "riting can be a ,er& ta%ing an$ time*consuming process0Minimi3ing grammatical error fee$back has the a$,antage of greatl&simplif&ing teachers 8obs+ gi,ing them nee$e$ time to spen$ onconcentrating on other important elements of the "riting process+"hile also remo,ing a significant impe$iment to their stu$ents learningho" to effecti,el& "rite0

e!erences

• Cohen+ A00 '(;G<)0 Stu$ent processing of fee$back on theircompositions0 @n A0 2en$en # J0 ubin '1$s0)+ Learner strategiesin language learning 'pp0 *B;)0 Ne" Iork: Prentice 5all0

• epner+ C0 D0 '(;;()0 An e%periment in the relationship of t&pesof "ritten fee$back to the $e,elopment of secon$ language"riting skills0 Mo$ern Language Journal+ <+ /=*/(/0

• rashen+ Stephen0 '.==9a)0 Appl&ing the Comprehension5&pothesis: Some Suggestions0 etrie,e$ August + .==9 fromStephen 0 rashen "ebsite:http:EE"""0s$krashen0comEarticlesEetapaperEin$e%0html

• rashen+ Stephen0 '.==9b)0 2h& support a $ela&e$ gratificationapproach to language e$ucation7 The Language Teacher+ .G:<+/*<0

• Loe"en+ S0 '(;;G)0 Drammar correction in 1SL stu$ent "riting:5o" effecti,e is it7 etrie,e$ August /+ .==9 from TempleHni,ersit&+ Schu&lkill "ebsite: http:EE"""0temple0e$uEgra$magEfall;GEloe"en

http://www.sdkrashen.com/articles/eta_paper/index.html

http://www.temple.edu/gradmag/fall98/loewen


http://www.sdkrashen.com/articles/eta_paper/index.html





• obb+ T0+ oss+ S0 # Shortree$+ @0 '(;GB)0 Salience of fee$backon error an$ its effect on 1FL "riting 4ualit&0 T1SOL Uuarterl&+.=+ G/*;0

• Semke+ 500 '(;G9)0 1ffects of the re$ pen0 Foreign LanguageAnnuals+ (<+ (;*.=.0

• Sheppar$+ 0 '(;;.)0 T"o fee$back t&pes: o the& make a$ifference7 1LC Journal+ ./+ (=/*((=0

• Truscott+ John0 '(;;B)0 The case against grammar correction inL. "riting classes0 Language Learning+ 9B:.+ /.<*/B;0

• amel+ K0 '(;G)0 espon$ing to stu$ent "riting0 T1SOLUuarterl&+ (;+ <;*(=(0

The @nternet T1SL Journal+ Kol0 Q+ No0 ((+ No,ember .==9http:EEitesl80orgE

http:EEitesl80orgETechni4ueEDra&*2ritingCorrection0htmlCurrent @ssue * Acti,ities for 1SL Stu$ents * Things for 1SL Teachers * T1SLET1FL Links * Search * Cop&right


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5sing *icture Dictation

)6ercises for *ractising "ll

Four Skills

S&l,ia Sao Leng @eongslieong >at? umac0mo

Hni,ersit& of Macau 'Macao SA+ P China)

This e%ercise focuses on choosing or preparing a te%t in clear ,isualterms so that it can be use$ for picture $ictation+ "hich in,ol,eslearners in all four skills of listening "ith attention+ fun an$ interest+speaking "ith confi$ence+ rea$ing "ith care an$ purpose an$ "riting"ith accurac&0

ationale

ictation has ne,er been popular "ith learners of 1nglish as a foreignlanguage0 5o"e,er+ the picture $ictation $esigne$ here+ "hichsufficientl& prepares learners for the acti,it&+ in,ol,es stu$ents in allfour skills of listening+ speaking+ rea$ing an$ "riting0 @t has beene%tremel& popular "ith pre*interme$iate le,el learners an$ has pro,e$,er& successful0 Success is al"a&s a goo$ moti,ator for learners0

Steps

Normall& the e%ercise takes about .=*/= minutes+ $epen$ing on thelength of the $ictation+ in the follo"ing si% steps:

(0 Prior to the $ictation e%ercise+ the teacher chooses or prepares ate%t that is appropriate to the le,el of the learners an$ is "rittenin simple ,isual terms+ like the one 4uote$ from John 5a&craft:

Theres an islan$ in the mi$$le of a lake0 @n the mi$$le of theislan$ theres a house "ith a big $oor an$ four "in$o"s on thegroun$ floor+ an$ si% "in$o"s on the first floor0 Therere a lot of

http://www.umac.mo/

http://www.umac.mo/



big trees to the left of the house0 On the lake+ to the right of theislan$+ theres a boat "ith t"o men in it0 One of them is fishing0

To the left of the lake theres a hill "ith a church on the top0 @tsmi$$a& an$ the sun is in the sk&0

.0 Listening with an immediate purpose7 interest and fun+

The teacher asks t"o stu$ents 'gra$uall& more an$ morestu$ents "ill be eager to ,olunteer) to come up to theblackE"hite boar$+ each using half of the boar$+ an$ $ra" "hatthe& hear "hile the teacher rea$s alou$ the te%t to the class+e%plaining contractions+ prepositions+ ne" or $ifficult "or$s+plural nouns+ etc0+ an$ e,en "rites them on the boar$ ifnecessar&0 As these "ill be $ictate$ later on+ stu$ents "ill listen"ith attention an$ interest an$ tr& their best to remember them0The teacher can speak faster or more slo"l& $epen$ing on thestu$ents response an$ performance to ensure that learners can"ork an$ progress smoothl&0

/0 Speaking with confidence and pride+

After the teacher finishes rea$ing alou$ an$ the t"o stu$entsha,e complete$ their pictures+ the teacher asks the class if thepictures are correct0 After corrections are ma$e+ the teacherasks the t"o stu$ent artists to e%plain an$ talk about theirpictures0 The& are rea$& an$ prou$ to talk about their "ork infront of the class0

90 Listening again with understanding and writing with

accurac!+No" the teacher $ictates the te%t in the tra$itional "a& "hile thestu$ents "rite on sheets of paper or in their notebooks0

0 Reading with special care in order to locate mistakes+

No" the teacher $ispla&s the correct te%t using an o,erhea$pro8ector+ Po"erPoint or the blackboar$ an$ asks the stu$ents toe%change their sheets or books to check an$ correct each others"ork0

B0 The teacher ma& onl& nee$ to $o a sample check of stu$ents"ork if the teacher can trust their stu$ents to correctl& makecorrections0

Conclusion

!oth pre*ser,ice stu$ent teachers an$ in*ser,ice teachers ha,e trie$this metho$ "ith beginners+ pre*interme$iate* an$ interme$iate*le,ellearners0 Their response is ,er& encouraging0 Learners like picture$ictation because it is positi,e an$ interesting0 2hen the& $o theactual $ictation the& are alrea$& "ell prepare$ an$ fin$ the "ork



pleasant an$ re"ar$ing0 Some teachers report that there are no morefailures in this kin$ of $ictation0 5o"e,er+ these teachers coul$ not fin$enough appropriate te%ts or passages a,ailable for picture $ictationan$ the& ha,e $ifficult& in creating such te%ts suitable for picture$ictation0

e!erence

• 5a&craft+ John+ An @ntro$uction to 1nglish Language Teaching+Longman+ (;<G+ p0G=0

The @nternet T1SL Journal+ Kol0 @Q+ No0 .+ Februar& .==/http:EEitesl80orgE

http:EEitesl80orgETechni4uesE@eong*ictation0htmlCurrent @ssue * Acti,ities for 1SL Stu$ents * Things for 1SL Teachers * T1SLET1FL Links * Search * Cop&right


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Teaching )SL Students to

8/otice8 ,rammar

Francis J0 Noonan @@@chipperchina >at? hotmail0com1aston Area School istrict '1aston+ PA+ HSA)

This article e%plains ho" to teach 1SLE1FL stu$ents to notice grammar0There is also a suggeste$ lesson plan0

Introduction

Man& teachers are confuse$ on ho" to teach grammar0 The form*focuse$ instruction of the au$io*lingual metho$ pro$uce$ stu$ents thatkne" a lot about a language but coul$ not appl& "hat the& kne" to

spontaneous speech0 Con,ersel&+ the lack of grammar instruction inthe Communicati,e Approach has often pro$uce$ stu$ents "hocommunicate "ell but lack grammatical competenc&0 @s it possible toteach grammar in a "a& that "ill help stu$ents $e,elop grammaticalcompetenc&+ e,en in spontaneous speech7 This article e%plores apossible ans"er to this $ilemma+ the theor& of noticing+ an$ itsapplication to the classroom0

Wh# oticing?

The theoretical basis for noticing centers aroun$ the relationshipbet"een e%plicit an$ implicit kno"le$ge0 1%plicit kno"le$ge isconscious kno"le$ge of grammar rules learne$ through formalclassroom instruction0 For e%ample+ Li kno"s e,er& rule about sub8ect*,erb agreement but makes fre4uent mistakes in natural speech0 Thiskno"le$ge is onl& a,ailable to him "hen he has time to think aboutthe rules an$ then appl& them 'i0e0 a grammar e%ercise or a "ritingassignment)0 @n contrast+ implicit kno"le$ge is unconscious+internali3e$ kno"le$ge of a language that is a,ailable for spontaneousspeech0 For e%ample+ Jim speaks 1nglish "ith near perfect use of thebasic rules of sub8ect*,erb agreement0 This is $espite the fact that hema& ha,e no i$ea "hat sub8ect*,erb agreement is or "hat the rules

are0

The 4uestion is can e%plicit grammar kno"le$ge 'Lis kno"le$ge)become implicit kno"le$ge 'Jims kno"le$ge)7 There are t"o basicans"ers to the 4uestion0 The first is the non*interface positionpropose$ b& rashen0 @n his ,ie"+ e%plicit kno"le$ge can ne,erbecome implicit kno"le$ge because these t"o t&pes of kno"le$ge arelocate$ in $ifferent parts of the brain0 Li coul$ keep stu$&ing



grammatical rules for the rest of his life an$ ne,er speak like Jim0 Onthe other han$+ the interface position claims that e%plicit kno"le$gecan ha,e some impact on implicit kno"le$ge0 The interface position is$i,i$e$ into t"o ,ie"s+ the strong an$ the "eak position0 The stronginterface position hol$s e%plicit kno"le$ge becomes internali3e$

through practice+ like the ac4uisition of other skills0 The "eak interfaceposition+ ho"e,er+ agrees "ith rashen that e%plicit learning $oes notbecome implicit kno"le$ge+ but that it can ai$ or foster the ac4uisitionof implicit kno"le$ge '!rook)0 Proponents of this position ackno"le$gethat there are simpl& too man& linguistic rules for an& learner+ nati,espeaker or not+ to learn them all consciousl&0 Thus+ a strong interfaceis unlikel&0 Ne,ertheless+ recent $ata suggests that stu$ents "ho ha,ee%plicit grammar instruction as part of their stu$& achie,e a higherle,el of grammatical accurac& than those "ho $o not '1llis+ .==.+p(;)0 This suggests a "eak*interface bet"een e%plicit an$ implicitkno"le$ge0 Noticing is base$ on this position0

What is oticing?

Noticing is basicall& the i$ea that if learners pa& attention to the forman$ meaning of certain language structures in input+ this "illcontribute to the internali3ation of the rule '!atstone+ (;;B)0 1llise%poun$s on this i$ea:

60 0 0 "e $ont actuall& tr& to influence the construction of the comple%net"ork >implicit kno"le$ge? 0 0 0 because reall& learners can onl& $o itthemsel,es0 2e cannot implant rules into that net"ork0 Learners

e%tract from the a,ailable information aroun$ them the regularitiesthat form into their kno"le$ge s&stem0 @f this is the case+ all that "ecan $o is make them a"are of some of these patterns 0 0 0 un$er theassumption that if &ou ha,e an a"areness of them+ then ultimatel&&our pattern $etector might function a bit more efficientl&6 '&an+.==(+ p.)0

@n a$$ition+ learners ac4uiring language through a natural approachoften e%perience fossili3ation+ certain errors $o not get better $espite asignificant amount of e%perience "ith the target language0 Perhaps

once learners $e,elop communicati,e sufficienc& the& $o not makeprogress in accurac&0 Noticing helps rectif& this b& helping learners6notice the gap06 The& recogni3e that the language features notice$are $ifferent from their current language0

emember+ accor$ing to this theor&+ the primar& nature of e%plicitkno"le$ge is to $e,elop a"areness of rather than pro$uction of targetforms0 5ence+ teachers ought not to gra$e stu$ents on accurate use of



these forms in spontaneous speech0 5opefull&+ this a"areness "ill helplearners notice target forms in future input an$ facilitate the e,entualac4uisition of these forms as implicit kno"le$ge '1llis+ .==.+ p .;)0

How $o Teachers Help Students otice?

5o" can "e as teachers help stu$ents notice target forms7 Cross'.==.) summari3es factors that $ra" attention to certain features ininput:

• 1%plicit instruction ** instruction e%plaining an$ $ra"ingattention to a particular form0

• Fre4uenc& ** the regular occurrence of a certain structure ininput0

• Perceptual Salience ** highlighting or un$erlining to $ra"attention to a certain structure0

• Task eman$s ** constructing a task that re4uires learners to

notice a structure in or$er to complete it0

Also+ o$ 1llis outlines fi,e teaching acti,ities to $e,elop grammaticalkno"le$ge of a problematic feature '1llis .==.+ pp0 /=*/():

• (0 Listening to Comprehen$: Stu$ents listen to comprehen$ ate%t that has been structure$ to contain se,eral e%amples of thetarget form0

• .0 Listening to notice: Stu$ents listen to the same te%t again+but are gi,en a gap*fill e%ercise0 The target form is missing an$the stu$ents simpl& fill it in e%actl& as the& hear it to help themnotice the form0

• /0 Hn$erstan$ing the grammar point: 2ith help from theteacher+ the stu$ents anal&3e the $ata an$ 6$isco,er6 the rule0

• 90 Checking: Stu$ents are gi,en a "ritten te%t containing errorsan$ are aske$ to correct them0

• 0 Tr&ing it: Stu$ents appl& their kno"le$ge in a pro$uctionacti,it&0

1llis "arns that this is not $esigne$ to $e,elop implicit kno"le$ge+ butsimpl& to $e,elop a"areness of grammar+ "hich ** "hen supplemente$"ith other forms of input an$ communicati,e tasks ** ma& ai$ in the

e,entual ac4uisition of implicit kno"le$ge0

Conclusion

@n conclusion+ e%plicit grammar kno"le$ge can foster the ac4uisition of implicit kno"le$ge through noticing0 Teachers can $ra" stu$entsattention to certain language features of input through e%plicitinstruction+ increasing the fre4uenc& an$ perceptual salience of the



structure+ an$Eor $esigning tasks that re4uire the stu$ents to notice astructure to complete it0

(esson Plan

The follo"ing lesson plan is a $irect application of the fi,e step

approach b& o$ 1llis 'abo,e)+ $esigne$ to teach the problematicfeatures of tense an$ sub8uncti,e use of 6"ere6 in imaginati,econ$itionals to a$ult stu$ents0

Standards • T1SOL (0( * To use 1nglish to communicate in social settings:

Stu$ents "ill use 1nglish to participate in social interactions+engaging in con,ersation0

3.9ectives

•

Stu$ents "ill anal&3e the sub8uncti,e moo$ in sampleimaginati,e con$itional sentences an$ s&nthesi3e a 6rule6go,erning the beha,ior of these sentences0

• Stu$ents "ill correct grammar mistakes in con$itional sentences0• Stu$ents "ill create con$itional sentences to engage in

con,ersation0

Materials :ncluded at .ottom;

• ialogue ** for teacher• 5an$outs: $ialogue ** clo3e+ anal&3e sheet+ e%ercises

*rocedure+• (0 ea$ $ialogue orall& to stu$ents one or more times0• .0 Ask comprehension 4uestions0 () 2here are these people7 .)

2hat $o the& $o for a li,ing7 /) o the& think the& coul$ $o theother persons 8ob7

• /0 Clo3e e%ercise ** 5an$ out $ialogue*clo3e0 ea$ again tostu$ents0 Stu$ents fill in blanks as the& hear them0

• 90 Anal&sis ** Pass out 6anal&3e6 han$out0 @n groups+ stu$entsanal&3e the sample sentences an$ "rite a rule that $escribes thepattern the& see0

• 0 Teacher le$ large group $iscussion of the rule0• B0 Stu$ents "rite the real rule an$ compare it "ith their rule0• <0 Application: @n pairs+ stu$ents complete e%ercises ( # .0 @n

e%ercise ( stu$ents correct errors in con$itional sentences0 @ne%ercise .+ stu$ents use prompts to create con$itional sentencesfor paire$ con,ersation0



)valuation

• Teacher obser,es stu$ent ans"ers an$ con,ersations in e%ercise( an$ .0

$ialogue * (isten to Comprehend

<ohn+ ello& M! name is <ohn& 2hat's !our name=

Sue: M& name is Sue0 2hat brings &ou to this part&7

<ohn+ work with Tom&

Sue: Oh+ so "hat $o &ou $o7

<ohn+ am a teacher&

Sue: Oh reall&+ "ell+ @ cant stan$ ki$s0 @f @ "ere a teacher+ @ think @"oul$ go cra3&0

<ohn+ Reall!= 2ell7 what do !ou do=

Sue: @ am a politician0

<ohn+ 3h wow> 2ell7 if were a politician7 the world would .e

in even worse shape than it alread! is& "nd m! wife & & & if shewere a politician's wife7 she would definitel! .e even unhappier

than she alread! is& She is a woman that needs time to herwork in her garden& 2ell & & & what does !our hus.and do=

Sue: Presentl&+ he is a la"&er0 !ut if he "ere a teacher+ @m sure he"oul$ go cra3& too0

<ohn+ ?ou are .eing too hard on !ourselves& ?ou see that

couple over there= The! are teachers& f the! can do it7 so can!ou&

Sue: @ suppose so+ but if the& "ere ballerinas+ @m sure the& "oul$ be

great too0 @ think an&bo$& can be an&thing the& "ant to if the& tr&har$ enough0

<ohn+ suppose& #ut if we were .allerinas7 don't think we

would .e great ones& 2e are professionals who work in anoffice all da!& dou.t we would have much success with

professional athletics or arts&



$ialogue ** Clo+e * (isten to otice

<ohn+ ello& M! name is <ohn& 2hat's !our name=

Sue: M& name is Sue0 2hat brings &ou to this part&7

<ohn+ work with Tom&

Sue: Oh+ so "hat $o &ou $o7

<ohn+ @@@@@@ a teacher&

Sue: Oh reall&+ "ell+ @ cant stan$ ki$s0 @f @ a teacher+ @think @ go cra3&0

<ohn+ Reall!= 2ell7 what do !ou do=

Sue: @ a politician0

<ohn+ 3h wow> 2ell7 @@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@ a politician7 the

world @@@@@@@@@@@@ .e an even worse shape than it alread!is& "nd m! wife & & & @@@@@@@@ she @@@@@@@@@@@@@ a

politician's wife7 she @@@@@@@@@@@@ definitel! .e unhappierthan she alread! is& She @@@@@@@@@@@@ a woman that needs

time to her work in her garden& 2ell & & & what does !our

hus.and do=

Sue: Presentl&+ he a la"&er0 !ut he a teacher+ @m sure he go cra3& too0

<ohn+ ?ou are .eing too hard on !ourselves& ?ou see thatcouple over there= The! are teachers& f the! can do it7 so can

!ou&

Sue: @ suppose so+ but the& ballerinas+ @msure the& be great too0 @ think an&bo$& can bean&thing the& "ant to if the& tr& har$ enough0

<ohn+ suppose& #ut @@@@@@ we @@@@@@@@@@@ .allerinas7

don't think we @@@@@@@@@@@ .e great ones& 2e are

professionals who work in an office all da!& dou.t we wouldhave much success with professional athletics or arts&



5sing Simple *oems to Teach

,rammar

5a"anum 5usseinha"anum >at? uniten0e$u0m&

Hni,ersiti Tenaga Nasional HN@T1N 'a8ang+ Mala&sia)Teachers ha,e been $ebating on "hat metho$ is the best for teachinggrammar for generations0 A fe" prefer the ol$ st&le $iscrete an$e%plicit e%planations of the 1nglish s&nta% "hile man& prefer theCommunication s&llabus an$ the implicit teaching of grammar0 Thispaper "ill $iscuss a blen$e$ approach an$ the use of simple poems toteach an$ reinforce grammar points as "ell as language structure

Introduction

Not man& Mala&sian 1nglish teachers relish the thought of teachinggrammar $ue to the comple%it& an$ irregularities in the s&nta% of the1nglish language0 Teachers often ask "hat e%actl& is the best "a& toteach grammar7 @n the earl& $a&s of grammar teaching+ the grammartranslation metho$ re4uire$ stu$ents to $o the te$ious tasks oftranslating sentences into 1nglish base$ on grammar rules0 5o"e,er+man& critics foun$ fault "ith this metho$ as it "as too metho$ical an$arithmetic0 Thus+ stu$ents ma& en$ up constructing sentences that are

grammaticall& correct but "oul$ be percei,e$ as unacceptable b&most nati,e speakers0 '5o"att (;G9)

@n the (;9=s an$ =s the au$io*lingual metho$ "as populari3e$ b&beha,ioural ps&chologists such as Skinner an$ 2atson0 Teachinggrammar "as simpl& making stu$ents learn language habits throughnumerous $rills an$ pattern practices0'!ro"n+ (;;9)0 !ut again+ there"ere problems "ith this metho$ as there "as no focus or emphasis on



6the intentions+ thinking+ conscious planning an$ internal processes ofthe learner6 'Stern+ (;G9+ p0/=)0

@n the (;<=s an$ G=s the Communicati,e Approach propelle$ b&sociolinguists an$ the collecti,e "orks of rashen+ 5alli$a& an$ 5&mes+

replace$ the au$iolingual metho$0 This approach focuses on meaningrather than form 'grammar rules) as it "as belie,e$ that it is meaning"hich $ri,es language ac4uisition an$ $e,elopment0 1llis '(;;9) note$in his re,ie" of research in the (;<=s that much of the Communicati,eL. teaching focusse$ on meaning onl&0 @n the (;G=s Mala&sian schoolsembrace$ this communicati,e approach an$ Mala&sian e$ucators o"nconun$rum began0 2hile the Communicati,e Approach simplifie$ theteachers task+ schools began seeing hor$es of stu$ents "ho coul$pro,i$e meaningful sentences but "hich "ere often ri$$le$ "ithgrammatical mistakes0 The 4uestion teachers no" often ask is "hethera return to grammar teaching is necessar&0 @f so+ shoul$ grammar betaught implicitl& or e%plicitl&7 esearch in$icates that a combination ofform an$ meaning ma& be the best teaching approach0 A research b&Prabhu 'cite$ b& !eretta # a,is+ (;G) sho"e$ that stu$ents "horecei,e$ meaning*base$ instruction $i$ "ell on the meaning*base$test but poorl& on a $iscrete*point grammar test0 Spa$a # Lightbro"n'(;;/) postulate$ that 6form focusse$ instruction an$ correcti,efee$back "ithin the conte%t of communicati,e interaction cancontribute positi,el& to secon$ language $e,elopment in both the shortan$ long term6 'p0.=)0 This is supporte$ b& Celce*Murcia+ orn&eian$ Thurrell '(;;<) "ho suggest that the integration of form an$

meaning is gaining importance in "hat the& refer to as the principle$communicati,e approach0 Musumeci '(;;<) "ent on further to sa&that stu$ents shoul$ learn grammar e%plicitl& but shoul$ also be gi,enthe opportunit& to practise them in communicati,e an$ authentic Esimulate$ tasks0

For Mala&sian stu$ents for "hich 1nglish is a secon$ language+ foreffecti,e communication+ a kno"le$ge of the rules is sorel& nee$e$0Pa,el K0 S&so&e, '.==/) stresses this nee$ for L. stu$ents to recei,eboth form an$ meaning+ "hich he labelle$ as @ntegrati,e DrammarTeaching0 !oth fluenc& an$ accurac& are $esirable an$ cannot betaught in isolation0 This paper "ill $iscuss an integrate$ or blen$e$approach to teaching an$ reinforcing grammar0 For each kin$ of poem+specific teaching points "ill be highlighte$0 Classroom e%perience an$management such as imme$iate fee$back an$ correction "ill also be$iscusse$0



T#pes o! Poems ,sed in the Writing Class

The @ntensi,e 1nglish Program at HN@T1N is a preparator&+ proficienc&course $esigne$ for school lea,ers "ho "ish to enroll in HN@T1N0 @nthe "riting class+ a series of poems "ere use$ to re,ie" an$ reinforcegrammar rules the stu$ents shoul$ ha,e learnt "hile in school0 This"as $eeme$ necessar& as most of the stu$ents ha,e limite$ toa,erage 1nglish proficienc&0 The ma8orit& "ere Mala&sians but there"ere three Arab speaking stu$ents from Su$an an$ Iemen0

The follo"ing are "riting acti,ities a$apte$ from 5olmes an$ Moultons62riting Simple Poems 06

Ad-ective Poems

Teaching *oints

• A$8ecti,es• A$8ecti,es after linking ,erbs• !asic sentence structure• ictionar& usage

The first fe" classes focuse$ on parts of speech+ an$ "or$ class0 Thelesson began "ith a re,ision of the basic structure of an 1nglishsentence0 To help them stu$ents use the structure+ the a$8ecti,e poempattern "as sho"n to them0

*atternLine ( : NounLine . : Same noun V is or are V a$8ecti,eLine / : Same noun V is or are V a$8ecti,e(+ a$8ecti,e .Line 9 : @s or are V a$8ecti,e (+ a$8ecti,e .+ a$8ecti,e /Line : A$8ecti,e (+ a$8ecti,e .+ a$8ecti,e /+ a$8ecti,e 9Line B : Ne" relate$ nounE

The follo"ing is an e%ample of an a$8ecti,e poem "ritten an$ re,ise$b& a stu$ent :

$offee

Coffee is bitterCoffee is bitter+ mar,elous@s bitter+ mar,elous+ satisf&ing+!itter+ mar,elous+ satisf&ing+ splen$i$0Coffee !ean



'Nur Asma 5ussain+ (G)

As the stu$ents "rote their poems+ the teacher monitore$ their "orkan$ pointe$ out problems "ith the structure an$ sub8ect ,erb

agreement0 @t "as also obser,e$ that man& ha$ problems "itha$8ecti,es an$ use$ nouns to mo$if& the sub8ect0A t&pical mistake "oul$ be : he is success0

Ad-ective Placement Poem

Teaching *oints

• A$8ecti,es• Placement of A$8ecti,es• Sub8ect Kerb Agreement0•

Present Progressi,e Tense

To help stu$ents learn the placement of a$8ecti,es+ an a$8ecti,eplacement poem "as use$0 The lesson began "ith the e%plorationstage in the @ntegrati,e L. grammar lesson0 The teacher ga,e eachgroup of stu$ents three sets of car$s consisting of a$8ecti,es an$ anoun0 The& "ere then gi,en time to sort the a$8ecti,es out in thecorrect or$er an$ to e%plain "hat grammar rule "as use$0 After some$iscussion+ the& "ere sho"n the correct "a& to or$er a$8ecti,es:

3rder of "d9ectives

(0 $eterminers.0 possessi,e "or$s/0 or$inal numbers90 car$inal numbers0 general $escriptionB0 si3e+ height+ length<0 shapeG0 age+ temperature;0 colour(=0 origin

((0 nouns as a$8ecti,es(.0 hea$ noun

'5olmes # Moulton+ .==/)

To "rite the poem+ stu$ents "ere tol$ that the& "ere going on a longtrip an$ must $eci$e "hat to bring to keep them happ&0 After the"riting stage+ the& "ere aske$ to e%change papers an$ check the



correct or$er of a$8ecti,es0 This "as $one to intro$uce to them theconcept of peer e$iting "hich is an integral part of an& process "ritingclass0 As this "as happening+ the teacher "ent aroun$ to monitor theacti,it& an$ aske$ stu$ents to correct grammar mistakes in theirpoems as necessar&0 The follo"ing is an e%ample of an a$8ecti,e

placement poem :

awaii

@m taking a trip to 5a"aiiAn$ @m taking along m& fa,ourite things :M& sporty, ne%, !ro%n Ca#el Active shoes+A !ig, plas#a TK+One pac" of o"e#on car$s+ A co#forta!le, !lac", =er#an s"eater+ A pair of se9y, old s%i##ing trunks+

An$ most important+ m& !eautiful gran$mother0

'Muh$0 arif amr$in+ (G)

Alpha.et Poem

Teaching *oints

• Kerbs• Past Tense• ictionar& Hsage0• Cooperati,e Learning through group "ork

An alphabet poem can be use$ to teach parts of speech or sentencestructure "hile reinforcing $ictionar& skills0 Since this kin$ of poem israther long+ stu$ents "ere put into groups to "rite t"o kin$s ofalphabet poems0 This group poem re4uire$ the stu$ents to use their$ictionar& e%tensi,el& an$ to "ork together to collate group i$eas intoone group poem As a "arm up + each group "as aske$ to list on theboar$ all the things that coul$ be foun$ in a teenagers closetalphabeticall&0 To "rite the secon$ poem+ stu$ents ha$ to start eachletter "ith a ,erb in the past tense0 This enable$ the class to re,ise

their ,erbs in the simple past tense "hile "riting some "ack& an$often hilarious group poems :

2hat Did The Last School olida!s :Aer.s;

Accesse$ information from the internet!abble$ "ith m& frien$Con,erse$ "ith m& principal



onate$ some clothes to the orphanage1scorte$ m& best frien$ to see her bo&frien$Fought often "ith m& sisterDa,e m& football car$s to m& frien$s5acke$ into the computer s&stem

@nsiste$ on colouring m& room pinkJoine$ the arm& for a "eekicke$ m& neighbours $ogLearne$ ho" to cookMur$ere$ m& brothers girlfrien$Nagge$ m& neighbours $aughterOppose$ m& parents plans to go to Langka"iPu33le$ "h& m& parents "ent to Langka"i "ithout meUualifie$ to 8oin the Ne"bo&3 groupebuilt m& tree house after m& brother thre" stones at itSol$ m& han$ phone because it "as brokenTook m& &oung brother to his frien$s houseHnfertili3e$ the soil behin$ m& back&ar$Kan$ali3e$ a bus stop "ith m& frien$2aite$ for m& girlfrien$ at the bus stop "hich @ ha$ ,an$ali3e$Q*ra&e$ m& bo$&Ielle$ at the fiel$appe$ m& $iscipline teachers car0

'Moh$ arif+ Moh$ hair&+ Nur alila+ Moh$ hairul+ Nur S&ahi$a)

Adver. Poem

Teaching *oints

• Kerbs• A$,erbs• Articles E eterminers• Phrases• Clauses• ictionar& usage

Logicall&+ the ne%t class focusse$ on a$,erbs an$ ho" the& are use$ tomo$if& ,erbs0 The stu$ents "ere sho"n that a$,erbs often en$ "ith /

l# but ma& also take other forms such as o!ten0 !ast0 and high1 Afterthe class $iscussion+ the& "ere sho"n the poem pattern "hich "as,er& similar to the a$8ecti,e poem0 To restrict topics an$ to helpstu$ents o,ercome that 6 5a,e no i$ea+ teacher 6 phenomenon+stu$ents "ere aske$ to gi,e some nouns "hich "ere "ritten on theboar$0 As the& "rote their poem+ the teacher assume$ the regular role



of monitoring their "riting an$ helping them correct their o"nmistakes as necessar&0 Common mistakes notice$ an$ correcte$ "eresu.9ect-ver.-agreement an$ the omission of articles before thenoun0 Stu$ents also aske$ the $ifference bet"een a frog an$ the frog0 The follo"ing is an e%ample of an a$,erb poem follo"ing the

pattern sho"n belo" :

*attern

Line ( : NounLine . : Same noun V ,erb V a$,erb (Line/ : Same noun V ,erb V a$,erb (+ a$,erb .Line 9 : Kerb V a$,erb (+ a$,erb .+ a$,erb /Line : A$,erb (+ a$,erb .+ a$,erb /+ a$,erb 9Line B : Phrase or clause sho"ing con$ition+ time or place0

1%ample :The ,oat

The goat bleats happily +The goat bleats happily, distur!ingly +!leats happily, distur!ingly, %eirdly,

appily, distur!ingly, %eirdly, cal#ly +2hen it sees a female goat0

'Moh$ hair& 1ffen$&+ (G)

"I am" or "We Are" Poems

Teaching *oints

• Sentences• Sub8ect Kerb Agreement• 'Subor$inate Clauses)

After the numerous lessons on parts of speech an$ "or$ class+ the lastlesson $iscusse$ in this paper is a longer poem "hich stu$ents "rite inpairs or threes0 This poem re4uire$ stu$ents to use complete

sentences an$ "rite three stan3as0 To begin "riting+ the stu$ents "eregi,en an interest "eb aime$ at generating i$eas+ "or$s or phrasesthat $escribe$ them01%amples "ere also sho"n as a mo$el to help the stu$ents "rite theirpoem0This poem pro,e$ more challenging as it re4uire$ creati,it& as "ell as



grammar accurac& 0 The most amusing of the lot is the one belo""ritten b& three bo&s : a Mala&+ a Su$anese an$ a Iemeni0

2e "re

2e are lo,ing gu&s2e "on$er about the girls an$ our families2e hear ,oices of la$ies2e see beautiful girls2e "ant to get marrie$2e are lo,ing gu&s

2e preten$ to be fathers2e feel important about getting marrie$2e touch the rings of our "i,es2e "orr& if our "i,es "ill fin$ another husban$2e cr& if our chil$ren $ie2e are lo,ing gu&s

2e un$erstan$ that marriage is a ne" life2e sa& that our plans "ill be true2e $ream that "e are ha,ing chil$ren2e tr& to make our "i,es happ&2e hope to ha,e a nice life "ith our famil&2e are lo,ing gu&s0

'5a3imin Moh$0+ Ab$ul A3i3 abea Omar Lashram+ # Ahme$1lfa$ilfathal + Taha)

Conclusion

The teaching of grammar is b& far+ the most challenging task an&Mala&sian teacher ma& face in hisEher $ail& classroom0 Man& $o not"ish to teach grammar e%plicitl& but are keenl& a"are that stu$entsnee$ an un$erstan$ing of the rules to achie,e fluenc& as "ell asaccurac&0 The Communicati,e S&llabus in place in Mala&sian schoolsfro"ns upon the teaching of grammar per se an$ emphasi3es meaning

through communicati,e acti,ities0 Hnfortunatel&+ man& stu$entslea,ing schools an$ entering uni,ersities $o not ha,e a$e4uate 1nglishproficienc& to e%cel in their stu$ies0 This is e,en more crucial in pri,ateuni,ersities "here 1nglish is the me$ium of instruction0 One possiblesolution is thus+ the blen$e$ or @ntegrate$ approach to grammarteaching "here there is a focus on the form but the acti,it& is meaningbase$0 @t can be sai$ that the first mo$ule of the "riting class "aspartiall& successful as there "ere some marke$ impro,ement in some



of the stu$ents "ritings0 This "as more apparent in the "eakeststu$ents an$ the foreign stu$ents0 Those "ith a,erage proficienc& $i$not impro,e much0 @t "as note$ that the& "ere able to i$entif& theirgrammar mistakes "hen these mistakes "ere pointe$ out b& theteacher0 5o"e,er+ the stu$ents continue to pro$uce the same

grammatical mistakes in their "riting0 This "oul$ suggest a lack ofconcern for accurac&+ perhaps an in$irect effect of the Communicati,eapproach0 @n an& case+ the stu$ents foun$ the class challenging an$interesting as e,i$ent from their poems0 An$ that is in itself+ a ma8orsuccess to breaking the tra$itional ,ie" of grammar classes as $ull an$immensel& boring0

e!erences

• !eretta+ A0 # a,ies0 '(;G)0 1,aluation of the !angalorePro8ect7 0LT 4ournal /;: (.(* <0

•

!ro"n+ 500 '(;;9)0 rinciples of Language Learning andTeaching+ /r$ e$0 1ngle"oo$ Cliffs+ NJ : Prentice 5all0

• Celce*Murcia+NM0 irn&ei+ # Thurell+ S0 '(;;<)0 irectApproaches in L.

• @nstruction : A Turning Point in Communicati,e LanguageTeaching 7 T0OL >uarterly + /( : (9(*(.0

• 1llis+ 0 '(;;9)0 The tudy of econd Language Ac?uisition0O%for$ : OHP Hni,ersit& Press0

• 5olmes+ K0 # Moulton+ M00 '.==()0 Writing i#ple oe#s0O%for$: OHP

• 5o"att+ A0P00 '(;G9)0 A istory of 0nglish Language Teaching0O%for$ : OHP

• Musumeci+ 0 '(;;<)0 8rea"ing the Tradition 6 An 09ploration of

the istorical

• Relationship 8et%een Theory and ractice in econd Language

Teaching7 NI : Mcgra" 5ill0• Spa$a+N0 # Lightbro"n '(;;/)+ @nstruction an$ the e,elopment

of Uuestions in• The L. Classroom0 tudies in econd Language Ac?uisition+ (:

.=*..90• Stern+ 5050'(;G9)0 1unda#ental rinciples of Language

Teaching0 O%for$ : OHP0• S&so&e,+ P0K0 '.==/)0 .ntegrative L+ =ra##ar Teaching 6

09ploration, 09planation and 09pression0http:EEitesl80orgEArticlesES&si&e,integrati,e0html0



The @nternet T1SL Journal+ Kol0 Q+ No0 + Ma& .==9http:EEitesl80orgE

http:EEitesl80orgETechni4uesE5ussein*Poems0htmlCurrent @ssue * Acti,ities for 1SL Stu$ents * Things for 1SL Teachers * T1SLET1FL Links * Search * Cop&right


elping Students with Modals

Michael Thompsonmthompital& >at? &ahoo0com

Hni,ersitW $egli Stu$i $i Milano*!icocca '@tal&) 2hen asking stu$ents to learn mo$al au%iliaries an$ mo$ale4ui,alents+ 1SLE1FL teachers are asking them to learn ho" to formthese mo$als correctl&+ recogni3e categories of mo$alit&+ an$ choose

the appropriate mo$al for e%pressing mo$alit&0 These acti,ities are$esgine$ to help stu$ents learn to master the intricacies of 1nglishmo$als0 These acti,ities are $esgine$ to help stu$ents learn to masterthe intricacies of 1nglish mo$als in three areas: forming mo$als+recogni3ing categories of mo$alit&+ an$ using mo$als to e%pressmo$alit&0

Introduction

2e ask our stu$ents to learn a lot "hen "e ask them to learn mo$alau%iliaries an$ mo$al e4ui,alents >(? 0 There are+ first of all+ the

m&ria$ forms taken b& the ,arious mo$als+ some of "hich ha,e subtle$istinctions0 Stu$ents nee$ to become comfortable "ith the fact thatcan $oes not take the au%iliar& do in a 4uestion 'no Xdo you can spea"

panish7) "hile have to $oes 'no Xave you to go to Ro#e7)0

More important is that mo$als are $istinguishe$ from other au%iliariesb& the fact that the& ha,e meaning0 Stu$ents+ therefore+ nee$ tobecome comfortable not onl& "ith the grammatical properties of

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mailto:mthomp_italy%20%5Bat%5D%20yahoo.com

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mailto:mthomp_italy%20%5Bat%5D%20yahoo.com

http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Thompson-Modals.html#_edn1



mo$als+ but their semantic properties as "ell0 This is complicate$ b&the fact that there is more than one categor& of meaning an$ thesame mo$als are often use$ in more than one0

The first categor& ** calle$ 6$eontic mo$alit&6 ** is use$ to perform

speech acts+ such as offering+ re4uesting+ granting permission+comman$ing+ etc00 2hen @ tell m& son+ 6Iou must be home b& (=oclock06 @ am using $eontic mo$alit&0

The secon$ categor& ** epistemic mo$alit& ** is use$ to e%press thespeakers opinion about the truth of a proposition0 2hen @ sa&+ 6Ioumust be achel Thorne0 Iou look 8ust like &our sister06 @ am sa&ing that@ am certain that the proposition 6you are Rachel Thorne@ is true0

A thir$ categor& of mo$alit& is a bit more elusi,e0 One characteristic of both $eontic an$ epistemic mo$alit& is that the mo$als are connecte$"ith the speaker+ not 8ust the sub8ect0 2ith $eontic mo$alit&+ themo$al refers to "hat the speaker is $oing "ith the sentence0 2ithepistemic mo$alit&+ the mo$al refers to ho" the speaker sees theproposition0 The thir$ categor& ** sometimes calle$ 6$&namicmo$alit&6 ** is more sub8ect*oriente$0 6osa can run a mile in un$erfi,e minutes06 refers to one of osas abilities- it $oes not gi,einformation about the speaker0

A thir$ hur$le for 1nglish*language stu$ents is that not all languagesprefer to use mo$als to e%press these i$eas0 Mo$alit& is often

e%presse$ "ith other forms of speech0 6Iou are oblige$ to be home b&(= oclock6+ 6@ am certain that &ou are achel Thorne0 Iou look 8ustlike &our sister06+ an$ 6osa is capable of running a mile in un$er fi,eminutes06 all e%press the i$eas e%plore$+ an$ if the& soun$ stilte$ it isonl& because 1nglish has a preference for mo$al ,erbs rather thanmo$al a$8ecti,es0

e*phrasing

One of the most $irect metho$s for pro,i$ing e%perience "ith mo$alsis to ask to stu$ents to re*phrase sentences0 This can be $one either

as a speaking or "riting e%ercise+ an$ offers an a$,antage o,er moretra$itional clo3e e%ercises in that the conte%t is not open tointerpretation0 Such interpretations of conte%t are common '@ think thesentence refers to an obligation+ but the stu$ent thinks it refers to asuggestion)+ an$ make it $ifficult to e,aluate "hether the stu$ent isusing the mo$al correctl& 'i0e0+ is he using should because he thinksthat the sentence refers to a suggestion or because he thinks should isuse$ to e%press obligation7)0



Denerall& "ith re*phrasing+ stu$ents are gi,en a sentence "hiche%presses mo$alit& "ithout using a mo$al0 The& are then aske$ to re*phrase this sentence+ using the appropriate mo$al0 One e%ample "oul$be:

@ am reasonabl& certain that Francesca is home0Francesca 0 'should .e home)

5o"e,er+ there is no reason the presentation cannot be re,erse$+ "ithstu$ents being aske$ to re*phrase a sentence that contains a mo$al0

A ,ariation "hich might be helpful for lo"er*le,el classes "oul$ be togi,e stu$ents a choice of three possible re*phrases0

@ am reasonabl& certain that Francesca is home0a0 Francesca shoul$ be home0b0 Francesca $oesnt ha,e to be home0c0 Francesca must be home0

ole Pla#s

@n this acti,it&+ stu$ents are $i,i$e$ into pairs+ an$ each pair is gi,en asituation0

The situation might be:

6Stu$ent A+ &ou "ant to go to a concert "ith &our frien$s0 Please askStu$ent ! for permission0 Stu$ent !+ &ou are "orrie$ about Stu$ent Agoing to the concert0 Negotiate "ith Stu$ent A an$ comman$ him behome at a specific time06Another situation might be:6Stu$ent A+ &ou are going to a business meeting in Tok&o "ith Stu$ent!0 Please $iscuss &our trip "ith him an$ sa& "hen &ou e%pect themeeting to start an$ finish+ an$ "hen &ou e%pect to return home0

Stu$ent !+ $iscuss the trip "ith Stu$ent A+ an$ sa& that it is necessar&for &ou to be back at a certain time because &ou ha,e anothermeeting06The situations chosen shoul$+ of course+ be meaningful to thestu$ents0 Mo$als shoul$ be a,oi$e$ in the $escription of the situation+but use$ $uring the role pla& itself0 The stu$ents shoul$ be gi,en acouple of minutes to prepare the role pla&+ "hich is then presente$ infront of the class0 1%amples of mo$als are then taken from the role



pla&+ an$ the stu$ents "ho $i$ not participate are aske$ to i$entif&"hat the mo$als referre$ to0 'For e%ample+ 6Stu$ent A sai$ 62e ha,eto be back b& tomorro" e,ening06 2as she making a suggestion7 2asshe talking about being certain that something "as true7 2hat $o &outhink7)

Footnote

>(? mo$al au%iliaries are those au%iliaries such as can an$ should that() ha,e no non*finite form- .) no s inflection for the /r$ personsingular- /) cannot be use$ "ith other mo$als in a sentence- an$ 9)are in,erte$ for 4uestions0 Mo$al e4ui,alents are au%iliaries such ashave to an$ used to "hich function like mo$als but ha,e $ifferentstructures0 @n the interest of bre,it& @ "ill use the term 6mo$als6 tomean both groups0

The @nternet T1SL Journal+ Kol0 K@@@+ No0 ;+ September .==.http:EEitesl80orgE

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$ommunicative ,rammar -- t's

Time to Talk&

Noriko NishiguchiNoriko.9gucci >at? aol0comNara IMCA an$ oshisha 2omens Hni,ersit& 'Japan)

Aim

• To reinforce pre,iousl& stu$ie$ grammatical an$ ,ocabular&areas an$ to acti,ate them through communicati,e acti,ities'inter,ie"s)0

• To enable stu$ents to get to kno" one another more b&communicating in 1nglish0

•

To get stu$ents to practice summari3ing information in "riting0

(evel ) Class Si+e

• Can be a$8uste$ to meet almost an& class le,el an$ si3e0 2orks"ell in large si3e classes0

Time ecessar# !or the Activit#

• From /= to 9= minutes

Preparation

• eci$e on a theme or topic that is appropriate for the stu$entsconsi$ering their areas of interests an$ le,els0

o lo"er le,el stu$ents: topics that are connecte$ to theire,er&$a& li,es+ hobbies+ school+ frien$s+ memories+ likesan$ $islikes+ etc

o more a$,ance$ le,el stu$ents: topics that go be&on$e,er&$a& matters such as social issues+ ,alues+ ne"s+ etc

• eci$e the grammatical area's) to be focuse$ on+ to bereinforce$ or to be intro$uce$0

• Prepare si% to eight 4uestions relate$ to the particular topic area

chosen in Y(+ the themeEtopic+ an$ the grammatical area in Y.0o lo"er le,el stu$ents: Start "ith &es or no 4uestions0o more a$,ance$ le,el stu$ents: Start "ith 25 4uestions

'"here+ "ho+ "hen+ "h&+ an$ "hat) an$ 4uestions askingfor opinions0

• Hse the 4uestions to make a gap filling or matching e%ercise0• A$$ space for stu$ents to pro$uce their o"n 4uestions0



• On the backsi$e+ "rite a number 'letter) on each han$out * t"ohan$outs "ith the same number 'letter)+ so that in classstu$ents can look for their partners to pair up "ith 'someone"ith the same number) to $o the inter,ie"s0

:Sample %; ,rammar focus+ reviewing 2 0uestions andresponses a.out travel

L)T'S F/D 35T> -- Travel

M& inter,ie"ee:

2here2ho2hen2h&2hat

"as &our "orst trip7$o &ou "ant to $o most "hen &ou tra,el7"as the last time &ou "ent on a trip7$o &ou usuall& tra,el "ith7$o &ou "ant to tra,el to ne%t7$o &ou like to E$ont like to tra,el7"as &our best trip7

Lets match an$ make four or fi,e 4uestions0 '2rite an original4uestion for number fi,e0)

(0 7.0 7/0 790 70 7

:Sample ; ,rammar focus+ ow 0uestions

L)T'S F/D 35T> -- Summer Aacation

M& inter,ie"ee:

5o"

man&muchlatefaroften

$i$ &ou go tra,eling7booksEmo,ies $i$ &ou rea$Esee7$i$ &ou cook &our meals7

$a&s $i$ &ou $o part*time "ork7$i$ &ou go out "ith &our frien$s7times $i$ &ou go s"imming7"ere &ou up until e,er& night7mone& $i$ &ou sa,e7



Lets complete the 4uestions an$ choose four0 '2rite an original4uestion for number fi,e0)

(0 7.0 7

/0 790 70 7

Procedure

• 5a,e the stu$ents match an$ complete the 4uestions in the bo%0This can be $one in groups or on their o"n0 Ask for ,olunteers orassign stu$ents to "rite their 4uestions on the boar$ fore,er&one to see0 Do aroun$ an$ help stu$ents make theiroriginal 4uestions0

• Start the inter,ie" acti,it&0 Stu$ents+ "ith a pen an$ theirhan$out+ go aroun$ looking for their partners asking+ 62hats&our number7 E 2hat number are &ou76 The& sit $o"n "ith theirpartners an$ inter,ie" each other "ith their 4uestions in 1nglish0

• After the& finish the inter,ie"+ ha,e them "rite a short report'summar&) to the teacher of their inter,ie" results0 Smallclasses can report the results orall&0

Suggestions

• This acti,it& can be use$ not onl& as a re,ie" but also to

intro$uce ne" grammatical areas or ,ocabular&0 2ith a little bitof creati,it& an$ fle%ibilit& on the teachers si$e it can bee%pan$e$ or ma$e more challenging0

• For more a$,ance le,el classes+ the inter,ie" 4uestions can bema$e totall& b& the stu$ents themsel,es0 @n such cases+ theteacher can pro,i$e topics "hich stu$ents can choose from tocreate their o"n 4uestions for the inter,ie" part0 For e%ample+the teacher brings in the topic- 6Things in Fashion6 an$ sub**topics- karaoke+ shops+ $esigner bran$ goo$s an$ inter*netshopping0 Stu$ents then choose a topic an$ prepare their4uestions in$i,i$uall& or "ith their group members0

• 1ncouraging stu$ents to sta& in 1nglish+ to use as much 1nglishas possible can also be the teachers challenge0 5a,ing stu$entsset their goals as to ho" much 1nglish the& are going to use inthe acti,it& helps them sta& moti,ate$0 @n this case+ it issuggeste$ that stu$ents also e,aluate themsel,es after theacti,it&0



• espon$ing to the reports the stu$ents ha,e "ritten is one "a&to ha,e some kin$ of contact "ith in$i,i$ual stu$ents+ especiall&effecti,e "ith large classes0

Final Thoughts

Stu$ents ha,e commente$ that this acti,it& helpe$ them get to kno"an$ talk to members in the class the& usuall& $ont talk to0 'This "as acollege class of first &ear stu$ents0) The& "ere also able to get ne"information+ hear $ifferent thoughts an$ opinions from ,ariousmembers0 Setting their goals as to ho" much 1nglish the& "ere goingto use in the acti,it& helpe$ them take more responsibilit& in theirlearning0 Man& sai$ the& reali3e$ that the& ha$ to pla& a more positi,erole in their language stu$ies: to ask 4uestions "hen the& $i$ntun$erstan$+ to set their o"n goals an$ "ork to"ar$s them an$ tomake efforts to use the language an$ not 8ust sit an$ listen to the

teacher0 Some "ere simpl& happ& "hen the& "ere able to ha,e asuccessful inter,ie" "ith their partners0

As a teacher @ felt+ at first+ this acti,it& re4uire$ more "ork on theteachers si$e0 5o"e,er+ seeing stu$ents tr&ing to use the language tocommunicate "ith one another an$ asking me 4uestions "hen the&got stuck+ encourage$ me to continue this acti,it& at the beginning ofeach class as a "arm*up acti,it&0 Progress coul$ be seen in thestu$ents reports as "ell0 !& respon$ing to their "ritings+ @ "as able tocommunicate "ith them an$ at the same time+ stu$ents "ere able tosee that "riting "as another "a& the& coul$ communicate in 1nglish0

The @nternet T1SL Journal+ Kol0 @Q+ No0 9+ April .==/http:EEitesl80orgE

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5sing umour in the Second

Language $lassroomPaul*1mile Chiasson

pchiasso >at? unbs80caHni,ersit& of Ne" !runs"ick 'Saint John+ N!+ Cana$a)

Introduction

This article e%amines ho" humour can be an effecti,e tool in teachingan$ in creating the affecti,e secon$ language classroom0 @t "ill alsoe%amine the reasons "h& humour is sometimes a,oi$e$+ an$ "ill$ispel the m&th that one must be a come$ian to use humour in a

language classroom0 The focus is on the use of cartoons "ith practicale%amples of ho" to use an$ a$apt this particular resource0 One$oesnt ha,e to be a gifte$ humorist to reap the benefits of usinghumour in the classroom0@Classroo#s in %hich laughter is %elco#e help !ring learning to

life7@ >(?

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Much has been "ritten in recent &ears about the importance of theaffecti,e en,ironment in the secon$ language classroom0 Suchclassrooms are ones in "hich learners are not afrai$ to take risks an$use their secon$ language0 Stu$ents are encourage$ an$ praise$ fortheir efforts to al"a&s use their secon$ language in class0 Stu$ents

$ont face ri$icule+ nor negati,e criticism0 1rror correction isappropriate+ timel&+ constructi,e an$ seeks to instill confi$ence in eachstu$ent0

5o"e,er+ at times "e o,erlook humour as an important element inteaching+ in teacher training an$ ho" humour can contribute to apositi,e en,ironment for learning0 Stu$ents of e$ucation are notal"a&s gi,en the opportunit& to e%amine the impact of their o"npreferences of teaching st&le or their o"n "illingness to use certainstrategies+ such as humour in the language teaching0 !ecause of thelack of time to e%plore such personal ,ie"s "e ma& be missing anopportunit& to enhance learning in our classrooms0

ristmanson '.===) emphasi3es this nee$ to create a "elcomingclassroom for language learning-

@.n order to ta"e ris"s, you need a learning environ#ent in %hich youdo not feel threatened or inti#idated7 .n order to spea", you need to

feel you %ill !e heard and that %hat youBre saying is %orth hearing7 .n

order to continue your language learning, you need to feel #otivated7.n order to succeed, you need an at#osphere in %hich an9iety levels

are lo% and co#fort levels are high7 .ssues of #otivation and languagean9iety are "ey to this topic of affect in the second language

classroo#7@ >.?

Wh# Haven%t We 2een ,sing Humour in 3urClassrooms?

For man& the simple mention of humour con$ors up notions an$protests of+ 6@m not funn&+ @ $ont use humour06 6 @ cant tell a 8oke-let alone use one in class06 For others it is something to be feare$+s&non&mous "ith classroom $isor$er an$ chaos0 6@m not about to

start telling 8okes+ it "ill mean complete loss of control06

For some this resistance to using humour ma& simpl& be a lack ofkno"le$ge as to ho" one ma& use it effecti,el& in class0 6 @ en8o&humour+ but @ $ont kno" ho" to go about using it+ so @ $ont0 @ $ont"ant to look foolish06 Others associate humour an$ its use "ith non*pro$ucti,it&0 Stu$ents cant be learning if the& are laughing0 Iet





humour is as authentic an$ as communicati,e a human reaction an$social skill as is greeting an$ con,ersing "ith frien$s0

Commercial language teaching metho$ologies ha,e ten$e$ in the pastto a,oi$ the use of humour0 @t is one thing to train or e%plain to

teachers ho" to teach the future or passe compose+ ho"e,er+ it is amore e,asi,e concept to train teachers to ha,e a sense of humour ore,en $e,elop such a human characteristic0 >/?

The humour $iscusse$ in this article ho"e,er re4uires no form ofhumour training+ nor re4uires that a teacher ha,e the humouristicskills that "oul$ match the obin 2illiams of the "orl$0 @t "ill$emonstrate a simple &et ,er& beneficial use of humour+ the use ofcartoons in the communicati,e teaching of a secon$ language0

Wh# Should We ,se Humour in 3ur Classrooms? 5umour an$ laughter are areas that ha,e not been closel& stu$ie$0Their role in e$ucation an$ me$icine has been briefl& e%amine$ as farback as 2ells '(;<9) to as recentl& as Pro,ine 'ec0 .===) in+ 6TheScience of Laughter6+ sychology Today &

Looma% an$ Moosa,i '(;;G) in an article on the use of humour in auni,ersit& statistics class point out that anec$otal e,i$ence in paststu$ies consistentl& suggests that humour is an e%tremel& effecti,etool in e$ucation0 These same stu$ies suggest that the use of humourin the classroom re$uces tension+ impro,es classroom climate+

increases en8o&ment+ increases stu$ent*teacher rapport an$ e,enfacilitates learning0

egar$less of "hat e,i$ence there ma& be+ "e all ha,e personal ,ie"son the ,alue of humour+ as $epicte$ in the film 6Patch A$ams6 an$ for&ears in ea$ers igest+ 6Laughter is the !est Me$icine06 Iet+ there islittle in literature that speaks of its pe$agogical ,alue an$ in particularin secon$ language teaching an$ in secon$ language teacher training0

Accor$ing to Pro,ine '.===) laughter is generall& sub$ue$ $uring

con,ersation0 Speech "ill $ominate an$ laughter ser,es as a phrasebreak creating a punctuation effect in language0 Laughter thereforehas a specific role in con,ersations an$ is not ran$om0 Therefore+ as inauthentic communication+ humour in the classroom shoul$nt beran$om0 @t shoul$nt be use$ "ithout preparation an$ a clearob8ecti,e0 @t ma& be simple or comple% in nature0 @t is &our $ecision asto ho"+ "hen an$ "h& &ou "ill use it0





One reason for using humour is that as a human trait it is a self*effacing beha,ior 'Pro,ine+ .===)0 @t can allo" the sh& or timi$ stu$entin &our class to participate "ith the group0 @f it is use$ properl&humour allo"s the stu$ent to feel a part of the class an$ possibl&contribute "ithout loosing face+ feeling e%pose$ or ,ulnerable0 This is

of particular importance in a communicati,e classroom "here theaccent is on ,erbal authentic communication+ participation an$interaction0 @ts a "a& of reaching out to those stu$ents "ho are tooafrai$ or ner,ous to attempt e%pressing themsel,es in their secon$language0 5umour is as human an$ as authentic as the nee$ tocommunicate0 As "ith other facets of our li,es it pla&s a ma8or role inour e,er& $a& social interaction0 2e shoul$ therefore not ignore it butinstea$ make it part of our e,er&$a& classroom learning0

Laughter helps us forget about oursel,es+ our problems+ our fears an$allo"s us to lose oursel,es momentaril&0 This momentar& loss ma& beinterprete$ b& some teachers as a loss of control+ poor classroommanagement an$ therefore something to be a,oi$e$0 5o"e,er+humour as "ith all acti,ities in the communicati,e language classroom+must be "ell prepare$ an$ ha,e a specific ob8ecti,e0

@nterestingl& enough+ Pro,ine '.===) also $isco,ere$ that e,en thoughboth se%es laugh a lot+ females laugh more0 @t might e%plain "h& thefemales in our classes seem to en8o& more the humour use$ in theclassroom0 Although+ as Pro,ine points out+ males appear to be theinitiators of humour in an& culture+ beginning in earl& chil$hoo$0

As "as state$ earlier+ ristmanson '.===) stresse$ the importance ofthe affecti,e en,ironment in secon$ language teaching0 @t cant beemphasi3e$ enough that stu$ents are more "illing to participate an$take risks in using their secon$ language in a classroom that allo"sthem to $o so "ithout fear of criticism an$ ri$icule0 @ts important forthe teacher to create a 6positi,e atmosphere6 for learning0 5umour+ b&$ecreasing an%iet& an$ stress can+ contribute to this positi,eclassroom+ to class unit& an$ learning0

@.ndeed, the presu#ed health !enefits of laughter #ay !e coincidental

conse?uences of its pri#ary goal6 !ringing people together7@ >9?

&uidelines !or ,sing Humour

@The 5o! of the teacher is to get students laughing, and %hen their

#ouths are open, to give the# so#ething on %hich to che%7 6 >?







Although the abo,e 4uote is an interesting an$ humorous "a& to$escribe the use of humour+ it is not our role as teachers to be stan$*up come$ians0 Nor "ill "e all use humour in the same "a&+ or use thesame humour0 2ith this in min$ there are certain points to consi$erbefore using humour in &our classroom0 Proper preparation is ke& as in

all language teaching preparation0 @n so $oing "e reall& "ill ha,esomething for the stu$ents to 6che" on06

(0 ont tr& too har$0 Let humour arise naturall&+ encourage it+ $ontforce it0 ont be $iscourage$ if the first time it $oesnt meet &oure%pectations0 As Pro,ine '.===) states+ &our reaction to their non*reaction 'to a cartoon for e%ample) ma& be the most amusing part0Like all things+ proper preparation is nee$e$ for proper $eli,er&0

.0 o "hat fits &our personalit&0 Ne,er force it+ it "ont "ork0 Ioumight "ant to ,enture outsi$e &our comfort 3one an$ tr& a $ifferentgenre+ cartoonist+ or st&le of humour0 emember &ou class is ma$e upof in$i,i$uals "ith $ifferent tastes0

/0 ont use pri,ate humour or humour that lea,es people out0 Iourgoal is not to become a come$ian0 The humour $escribe$ here isthrough cartoons0 @t $oesnt make fun of an& particular group+nationalit&+ etc 000 Pri,ate humour+ if &ou use it+ shoul$ be for affecti,ereasons as "ell+ use$ carefull&+ ne,er $emeaning or sarcastic0

90 Make humour an integral part of &our class+ rather then something

special0 5umour "orks best as a natural on*going part of classroomlearning0 !e careful not to o,er use it+ it coul$ loose its ,alue an$effect0 2ith practice &ou "ill $e,elop a st&le an$ comfort 3one "ithhumour0

The use of humour "ill $epen$ on the content &ou are teaching an$the a,ailabilit& of appropriate humorous material0 5a,e specific goalsor ob8ecti,es in min$0 Hsing humour+ like teaching+ has to be "ellprepare$0 2ith time &ou "ill become more an$ more at ease+ or selfassure$ "ith its use0 Allo" &ourself time to e%periment an$ see "hat"orks "ell0

@When hu#our is planned as part of the teaching strategy, a caringenviron#ent is esta!lished, there is an attitude of fle9i!ility, and

co##unication !et%een student and teacher is that of freedo# andopenness7 The tone is set allo%ing for hu#an error %ith freedo# to

e9plore alternatives in the learning situation7 This reduces the

authoritarian position of the teacher, allo%ing the teacher to !e a



facilitator of the learning process7 1ear and an9iety, only natural in ane% and un"no%n situation, !eco#es less of a threat, as a partnership

!et%een student and instructor develops7@ >B?0 5umour an$ cartoons shoul$ be relate$ to "hat &our are $oing inthe classroom0 5umour ma& be use$ to solicit $ialogue+ con,ersations

an$ $e,elop ,ocabular&0 At times &ou ma& "ant to use it as a breakbefore going on to something else0 5o"e,er+ the cartoon shoul$al"a&s be of an appropriate nature an$ interest to &our stu$ents0

@t is useful+ on occasion+ to present a cartoon on an o,erhea$ pro8ectoras stu$ents come into class0 The humour can rela% an$ re*energi3e thestu$ents for class0 @t can also prepare them to con,erse in their secon$language0 The cartoon can become the signal that the& are no" inFrench or 1SL class0 To help the stu$ents shift from their first languageto their secon$ language the& coul$ en8o& a lighthearte$ moment of$iscussion or interpretation of the cartoon0 This interaction is authentican$ can stimulate real $iscussion an$ or $ebate+ so much so that attimes &ou ma& ha,e to bring the $iscussion to a close to procee$ "iththe class0

B0 The e%tent to "hich &ou use humour "ill ,ar& on &our class0@nterpretation+ $iscussion an$ anal&sis "ill ,ar& on the proficienc& of&our class0 The humour must be comprehensible+ "ith themes that&our stu$ents can relate to0

As "ith all communicati,e learning acti,ities+ prepare &our stu$ents0

!egin b& $iscussing cartoons- "hat are their fa,orites+ "hat are &ours0Tell them &ou are going to use cartoons to illustrate "hat the& arelearning an$ to ha,e fun0 The pe$agogical reasons for their use can bekno"n b& &ou0 2hat the stu$ents "ill kno" is that the cartoon "illhelp them better un$erstan$ an$ learn the language0

emember+ it is important to keep it simple+ "ith a specific ob8ecti,e0ont attempt to use+ for e%ample+ the future+ passe compose+ ,erbagreement an$ the use of i$iomatic e%pressions all at once0 Iou ma&"ant to use a specific cartoon again to illustrate another point0Although @ recommen$ that &ou use a $ifferent cartoon an$ en8o& thehumour more0

A Practical '4ample

@n the past @ ha,e generall& use$ cartoons "ith multi panels0 The&pro,i$e more material for communicati,e 4uestioning an$ $iscussion05o"e,er+ the choice of carton that &ou choose to $emonstrate orpractice a particular point "ill naturall& $epen$ on the theme+





grammatical or cultural component &ou are teaching or e%amining0 @tis important to $eci$e beforehan$ "h& &ou "ant to use it an$ ho" &ou"ant to use it0 Ask &ourself the 4uestion+ 62hat kno"le$ge $o @ "antthe stu$ents to $emonstrate b& interpreting this cartoon76 Asmentione$ pre,iousl& tr& not to $eal "ith multiple aspects at one time0

Perhaps &ou simpl& "ant to illustrate or ha,e the stu$ents$emonstrate their kno"le$ge of ,ocabular& or e%pressions relate$ toemotions0 5o"e,er+ nothing is stopping &ou from returning to thecartoon at a later $ate to talk about intonation an$ stress in thelanguage an$ ho" it can change the meaning of "hat is sai$0 Asbefore+ $ont o,eruse the cartoon0 @ suggest &ou keep it simple an$use other e%amples to illustrate supplementar& points0

The absence of a title or an& "ritten $ialogue allo"s &our stu$ents touse their imagination an$ e%press themsel,es orall& or in "ritten form'@ ha,e primaril& use$ cartoons to stimulate oral e%pression0 @ ha,euse$ "riting as a possible e%tension+ a re*in,estment of the acti,it&)0Such an e%ercise allo"s stu$ents to $efen$ their point of ,ie" an$ alsoto e%plore their interpretations of possible $ialogue an$ scenarios0

@t is moti,ating an$ interesting to ha,e stu$ents suggest a before an$after se4uence to the situation illustrate$ b& the cartoon0 Stu$ents"illingl& offer possible 6before6 an$ 6after6 segments an$ $elight incoming up "ith the most original0 This particular aspect of the lessoncan take place after each in$i,i$ual panel or once all panels ha,e beensho"n0

To a$$ ,ariet& to the use of such cartoons &ou ma& "ant to presentthe first se,eral panels together an$ solicit an en$ing to the stor& oran interpretation of the stor&0 Presenting the panels one at a timemakes the acti,it& more communicati,e an$ intriguing as stu$entsconfirm or $ont confirm their interpretations of "hat "ill happen ne%t0More $iscussion an$ fun is ha$ as the stor& unfol$s "ith eachsegment0 Anticipation buil$s as &ou approach the final panel0 Theen$ing takes on a greater ,alue as e,er&one "aits for the true en$ingZ

Another approach is to ask &our stu$ents to actuall& create+ or imaginethe $ialogue for each panel0 @t coul$ be an opportunit& to intro$uce orre,ie" e%pressions of emotion+ in this case+ anger an$ $espair0 Fore%ample one coul$ use a cartoon that $epicts+ "hat one "oul$assume+ is a mother scol$ing her chil$0 5o"e,er+ in the final panel "e$isco,er that it is the house pet0 @f the class "as an 1SL class stu$entscoul$ possibl& come up "ith the follo"ing e%amples of "a&s toe%pression $ispleasure an$ $isappointment:



• 6@m not ,er& happ& "ith &ou06• 6@m ,er& upset "ith &our beha,iour06• 6@m ,er& sa$$ene$+ unhapp&+ $isappointe$+ bitterl&

$isappointe$0006• 6@m ,er& anno&e$06• 6@m ,er& $isillusione$+ $iscontente$+ hea,&*hearte$0006• 6@m so ashame$+ paine$+ 0006• 62e 'speaking for both parents) are so "ear&+ tire$+

$isguste$0006• 62e are furious+ incense$+ infuriate$+ enrage$ b& this beha,ior000

6• 62e feel blighte$+ $e8ecte$ b& this "hole affair06

Iou ma& "ant to e%amine the role of intonation+ stress an$s&llabication relate$ to such a situation+ on another occasion or at

another point in &our lesson0Kocabular& "ork begins imme$iatel& "ith the presentation of the firstpanel+ "hen the class begins to $escribe the scene an$ brainstorm"hat the& see an$ un$erstan$ to be happening0 1%amples of open*en$e$ communicati,e 4uestions that force stu$ents to go be&on$ asimple 6&es6 or 6no6 coul$ be:

(0 6escribe "hat &ou see in the first panel06 62here $oes the stor&take place76

.0 6To "hom is the "oman speaking76 6@magine "hat she is

sa&ing06/0 62hat $o &ou think happene$ before this stor& began7690 65o" "ill the stor& en$76

As "ith the multi$imensional approach "e seek to ha,e stu$entsrein,est "hat the& ha,e learne$ b& completing an e%tension acti,it& orenrichment acti,it&0 A possible e%ample suggeste$ b& La,enne '(;GG)an$ en8o&e$ b& stu$ents is to "rite the stor& as if reporting the ne"sfor a ne"spaper+ if the cartoon can be a$apte$ for such arein,estment0 @f stu$ents arent a"are of the structure of a ne"spaper

article it "oul$ be goo$ to re,ie" it an$ pro,i$e authentic e%amples0Stu$ents can then mo$el the st&le correctl& in "riting his or her o"nne"s report0 Another option is to ha,e stu$ents "rite out the $ialogue0As in the case of this cartoon+ researching an$ "riting the $ialogue toshare "ith the class coul$ be fun an$ entertaining0 Such an e%ercise ismoti,ating an$ enables &ou to see if stu$ents ha,e mastere$+ in"ritten form+ the point of grammar+ structure+ ,ocabular& or



e%pressions of emotions &ou ha,e taught an$ ha,e e%amine$ "iththem0

Conclusion

5umour can contribute a great $eal to the secon$ language classroom0

@t enables &ou not onl& to create an affecti,e or positi,e en,ironment+but is a source of en8o&ment for &ou an$ &our stu$ents0 Language isseen in authentic an$ real life situations0 5umorous situations allo"&our stu$ents to e%press themsel,es "ithout fear of ri$icule an$criticism0 An%iet& an$ stress is re$uce$ an$ &our stu$ents areencourage$ to take more risks in using their secon$ language0

As "ith all language acti,ities care must be taken to prepare stu$entsbefore the acti,it& an$ gui$e them along the "a&0 Although theteachers ma& percei,e the e%ercise as a lighthearte$ moment in the

course of their lesson plan+ humour shoul$ be an integral part of apositi,e learning classroom en,ironment0 Specific goals an$ ob8ecti,esmust be pre*establishe$ an$ clear in the min$ of the teacher0 5umour+along "ith encouragement an$ praise shoul$ be one of the man&useful tools use$ b& language teachers to make their classrooms morein,iting an$ con$uci,e to learning0

e!erences

• ickinson+ 0 '(;;G)0 The 5umor Lounge- 5umor an$ theMultiple @ntelligences0

http:EE"""0ne"hori3ons0orgErechmi0html • Fleke+ C0L0+ uhs+ T0+ onnell&+ A0 1bert+ C0 '(;;)0 ein,entingthe ole of Teacher: Teacher as esearcher7 hi 'elta Kappan +3: + ')+ 9=*9=<0

• Dillilan$+ 50+ Mauritsen+ 50 '(;<()0 5umor in the Classroom& The

Reading Teacher 0 +(, 3*D3:7 • ristmanson+ P0 '.===)0 AffectX: in the Secon$ Language

Classroom: 5o" to create an emotional climate0 Refle9ions + 2E +'.)+ (*0

• Looma%+ 0 D0+ Moosa,i+ S0 A0 '(;;G)0 Hsing 5umor to TeachStatistics- Must the& be Orthogonal7+ Paper presente$ at the

annual meeting of the American 1$ucational esearchAssociation+ San iego+ April (<th+ (;;G0http:EE"""0bamae$0ua0e$uE[rloma%ELOMAQE5HMO05TM

• La,enne+ C0 '(;GG)0 Le essin humoristi4ue $ans la salle $eclasse7 Fiche prati4uesEimages+ K0+ Le 1rancais dans le #onde, '.()+ mars0

http://www.newhorizons.org/rech_mi.html

http://www.bamaed.ua.edu/~rlomax/LOMAX/HUMOR.HTM

http://www.newhorizons.org/rech_mi.html

http://www.bamaed.ua.edu/~rlomax/LOMAX/HUMOR.HTM



• Mollica+ Anthon& '(;<B)0 Cartoons in the Language Classroom7

Canadian Fodern Language Revie%, *+ + '9)+ 9.9*9990• Pro,ine+ 0 Ph0$ '.===)0 The Science of laughter7 sychology

Today, No,emberEecember .==.+ ** + 'B)+ G*B.0• hem+ J0 '(;;G)0 5umor in the Classroom0 The National Teaching

# Learning Forum 'online)+ Kol0 <+ No0 B0http:EEcstl0s&r0e$uEcsltENTLFE,<nBEresearch0htm

• Sa$o"ski+ C0J0+ Dulgo3+ S0 et all '(;;9 G7 An 1,aluation of the useof Content*ele,ant Cartoons as a Teaching e,ice 7 4ournal of

.nstructional sychology + +2 + '9)+ /BG0• Hn$erhill+ A0 '.===)0 The Ps&chological Atmosphere 2e Create in

Our Classrooms0 The Language Teacher Online0http:EElangue0h&per0chubu0ac08pE8altEpubEtltE;<EsepEun$erhill0html

• Ki3muller+ J0 '(;G= G7 Ps&chological easons for Hsing 5umor in a

Pe$agogical Setting 7 Canadian Fodern Language Revie%, *: +'.)+ .BB*<(0• 2atson+ M0J0 1merson+ S0 '(;GG)0 Facilitate Learning "ith

5umor7 4ournal of $ursing 0ducation, + + '.)+ G;*;=0• The 2il*!urn T&pe 5umour Test0

http:EE"""0cheerspro8ect0comE"ilEburn0htm • Dui$eline for Hsing 5umor in the Classroom7

http:EE,enus0cotton"oo$press0comEe%trasEi$easEhumor0htm • 1nglish as Secon$ Language- !eing Creati,e0 T1L1*Learning #

Secon$ar& 1nglish Language 'online)0http:EE"""0to0ut"ente0nlEismEonline;BEpro8ectEkioskEteam(=Ebc(=0htm

Footnotes

• >(? ickinson+ 0+ 65umor an$ the Multiple @ntelligence6+ Ne"5ori3ons for Learning+ Seattle+ 2A+htp:EE"""0ne"hori3ons0orgErech*mi0html+ '.==()0

• >.? ristmanson+ P0+ 6AffectX: in the Secon$ LanguageClassroom: 5o" to create an emotional climate6+ efle%ions+ (;+'.===): (

• >/? Iou ma& be intereste$ in $etermining &our 65umour T&pe60

The 62il*!urn t&pe 5umour Test is a,ailable on line'http:EE"""0cheerspro8ect0comE"il*burn0htm)0 Tr& itZ @t "illmake &ou laugh an$ gi,e &ou a possible insight into 6&our6 senseof humour0

• >9? Pro,ine+ 00+ Ph00 '.===): 6 The Science of Laughter6+sychology Today + // '.===): B(0

http://cstl.syr.edu/cslt/NTLF/v7n6/research.htm

http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/97/sep/underhill.html


http://www.cheersproject.com/wil/burn.htm

http://venus.cottonwoodpress.com/extras/ideas/humor.htm

http://www.to.utwente.nl/ism/online96/project/kiosk/team10/bc10.htm


http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Chiasson-Humour.html#_ftnref1



http://www.cheersproject.com/wil-burn.htm)


http://cstl.syr.edu/cslt/NTLF/v7n6/research.htm



http://www.cheersproject.com/wil/burn.htm

http://venus.cottonwoodpress.com/extras/ideas/humor.htm






http://www.cheersproject.com/wil-burn.htm)




• >? A 4uote b& Tom a,is+ in 1laine Lun$berg # Cher&l MillerThurston '(;;<): 6@f The&re Laughing 0006+ Cotton"oo$ Press+@nc0+ etrie,e$ on the 2orl$ 2i$e 2eb: 6Dui$elines for Hsing5umor in the Classroom6+http:EE,enus0cotton"oo$press0comEe%traEi$easEhumor0htm

• >B? 2atson+ M0J+ 1merson+ S0+ 6 Facilitate Learning "ith5umour@, 4ournal of $ursing 0ducation .< '(;GG): G;0

The @nternet T1SL Journal+ Kol0 K@@@+ No0 /+ March .==.http:EEitesl80orgE

http:EEitesl80orgETechni4uesEChiasson*5umour0htmlCurrent @ssue * Acti,ities for 1SL Stu$ents * Things for 1SL Teachers * T1SLET1FL Links * Search * Cop&right


BC )SL Teaching deas



http://iteslj.org/

http://iteslj.org/

http://a4esl.org/

http://a4esl.org/

http://a4esl.org/








http://www.aitech.ac.jp/~iteslj/



http://iteslj.org/

http://iteslj.org/

http://a4esl.org/








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http:EE"""0geocities0comEtok&oEflatsE<;9<E

Introduction

These are the i$eas inclu$e$ in 5all 5oustons an$om 1SL @$eaDenerator0 @f &ou ha,e a Ja,aScript*enable$ bro"ser+ &ou can use thegenerator to get a ran$oml&*selecte$ i$ea from this list0 Perhaps &ou"ill fin$ it useful to print out this list an$ refer to it from time to time0

The Ideas

(0 Alter the pacing of &our class0 @f &ou rush through &our class atfull spee$+ slo" things $o"n an$ take time to ask &our stu$entspersonal 4uestions base$ on the materials &ou are using0 @f &outen$ to procee$ at a snails pace+ prepare some a$$itional

acti,ities an$ push &ourself to accomplish more than &ou usuall&$o0.0 Ask a stu$ent to $emonstrate a $ance+ an$ assist the stu$ent in

e%plaining the mo,ements in 1nglish0/0 Ask stu$ents to name as man& ob8ects in the classroom as the&

can "hile &ou "rite them on the boar$090 Ask stu$ents to present to the class a gesture that is uni4ue to

their o"n culture00 Ask stu$ents to "rite one 4uestion the& "oul$ feel comfortable

ans"ering '"ithout "riting their name) on an in$e% car$0 Collectall of the in$e% car$s+ put them in a bag+ ha,e stu$ents $ra"car$s+ an$ then ask another stu$ent the 4uestion on that car$0

B0 Ask &our stu$ents if there are an& songs running through theirhea$s to$a&0 @f an&one sa&s &es+ encourage the stu$ent to singor hum a little bit+ an$ ask the others if the& can i$entif& it0

<0 Assign stu$ents to take a con,ersation from their coursebookthat the& are familiar "ith an$ re$uce each line to onl& one"or$0

G0 At the en$ of class+ erase the boar$ an$ challenge stu$ents torecall e,er&thing &ou "rote on the boar$ $uring the class perio$02rite the e%pressions on the boar$ once again as &our stu$ents

call them out0;0 !egin b& telling &our stu$ents about an internal strugglebet"een t"o si$es of &our personalit& 'bol$ si$e ,s0 timi$ si$eO har$"orking si$e ,s0 la3& si$e)+ pro,i$ing a brief e%ample of"hat each si$e sa&s to &ou0 After a fe" minutes of preparation inpairs+ ha,e stu$ents present their struggles to the class0

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(=0 !ring a cellular phone 'real or to&) to class+ an$ preten$ torecei,e calls throughout the class0 As the stu$ents can onl& hearone si$e of the con,ersation+ the& must guess "ho is calling &ouan$ "h&0 Make the initial con,ersation ,er& brief+ an$ gra$uall&a$$ clues "ith each con,ersation0 The stu$ent "ho guesses

correctl& "ins a pri3e0((0 !ring a fork+ knife+ spoon+ bo"l+ plate an$ chopsticks 'if&ou ha,e them) to class+ an$ mime eating some $ifferent $ishes+letting stu$ents guess "hat the& are0 Then let &our stu$entstake a turn0

(.0 !ring an artifact from the stu$ents culture to class+ an$ask them 4uestions about it0

(/0 !ring in some snacks that &ou think &our stu$ents ha,enttrie$ before+ an$ in,ite the stu$ents to sample them an$ gi,etheir comments0

(90 Call on a stu$ent to $ra" his or her countr&s flag on theboar$+ then teach him or her ho" to $escribe the flag to theclass '@t has three stripes000)0

(0 Choose one topic 'foo$+ sports) an$ elicit a list of e%amples'foo$ * chicken+ pu$$ing+ rice)0 Then ha,e &our stu$ent come up"ith the most unusual combinations of items from thatlist'chocolate*beef or "restling*golf)0

(B0 Collaborate "ith &our stu$ents on a list of famous people+inclu$ing mo,ie stars+ politicians+ athletes+ an$ artists0 5a,ee,er& stu$ent choose a famous person+ an$ put them in pairs tointer,ie" each other0

(<0 Come to class $resse$ $ifferentl& than usual an$ ha,estu$ents comment on "hats $ifferent0

(G0 Cop& a page from a comic book+ "hite out the $ialogue+make copies for &our class+ an$ ha,e them suppl& utterances forthe characters0

(;0 Cop& pages from ,arious 1SL te%tbooks 'at an appropriatele,el for &our stu$ents)+ put them on the "alls+ an$ ha,estu$ents "an$er aroun$ the classroom an$ learn a ne" phrase0Then ha,e them teach each other "hat the& learne$0

.=0 Cop& some interesting pictures of people from maga3ine

a$s0 Di,e a picture to each stu$ent+ ha,e the stu$ent fol$ up thebottom of the picture about half an inch+ an$ "rite somethingthe person might be thinking or sa&ing0 Put all the pictures up onthe boar$+ an$ let e,er&one come up an$ take a look0

.(0 escribe something obser,able in the classroom '"hilelooking $o"n)+ an$ tell stu$ents to look in the $irection of "hat&ou $escribe$0



..0 ra" a map of &our countr& or another countr& that &ourstu$ents kno" "ell0 !& $ra"ing lines+ sho" stu$ents "here &ou"ent on a trip+ an$ tell them about it0 Then call on se,eralstu$ents to $o the same0 The trips can be truthful or fictional0

./0 ra" a pancake*shape on the boar$+ an$ announce that

the school "ill soon be mo,ing to a $esert islan$0 @n,ite stu$entsone b& one to go to the boar$ an$ $ra" one thing the& "oul$like to ha,e on the islan$0

.90 ra" a part& scene on the boar$+ an$ in,ite stu$ents tocome up an$ $ra" someone the& "oul$ like to ha,e at the part&0

.0 1mpt& a bag of coupons onto a table+ an$ ha,e stu$entsfin$ a coupon for a pro$uct that the& ha,e no nee$ for0

.B0 1%periment "ith ho" &ou "rite on the boar$+ altering &our"riting st&le+ the si3e of the letters+ the $irection &ou "rite+ an$the color of the chalkEpens0

.<0 1%plain to &our stu$ents "hat it means to call someone acertain animal '$og+ pig+ fo%) in 1nglish+ an$ then ask them "hatthese mean in their languages0

.G0 Fill the boar$ "ith ,ocabular& &our stu$ents ha,eencountere$ in pre,ious classes 'make sure to inclu$e all partsof speech)+ an$ get them to make some sentences out of the"or$s0

.;0 Fin$ out "hat famous people &our stu$ents a$mire+ an$"ork together "ith the class to "rite a letter to one of them0

/=0 Fin$ out "hat &our stu$ents are intereste$ in earl& on inthe semester0 Do to the @nternet from time to time to collect

articles on these sub8ects for stu$ents to rea$ $uring the classperio$0

/(0 First+ instruct &our stu$ents to "rite on a slip of paper thename of one book+ C+ or mo,ie that change$ them in some"a&0 Collect the papers+ call out the titles+ an$ ask the class ifthe& can guess "ho "rote it0 Finall&+ let the "riter i$entif& him orherself+ e%plaining his or her choice0

/.0 Di,e each stu$ent a piece of chalkEpen an$ tell them to fillthe boar$ "ith pop song l&rics0 Then put them in pairs+ an$ getthem to use the "or$s on the boar$ to create a ne" $ialogue0

//0 Di,e stu$ents a re"ar$ 'such as a can$& or a sticker) eachtime the& take the artificial language in &our te%tbook an$ turn itinto an authentic 4uestion or comment about someone in theclass0

/90 5an$ a stu$ent a ball of &ello" &arn0 5a,e him toss it toanother stu$ent+ "hile sa&ing something positi,e about thatstu$ent an$ hol$ing onto the en$ of the &arn0 Continue in thismanner until there is a "eb bet"een all the stu$ents0



/0 5an$ each stu$ent an in$e% car$+ an$ tell them to "rite$o"n a sentence that inclu$es an error the& ha,e ma$e this"eek+ along "ith the correct ,ersion of the sentence0 Ne%t+ tapeall of the in$e% car$s on the boar$ for stu$ents to look o,er0

/B0 5ang up four $ifferent posters 'e%ample * one of a "orl$

map+ one of a famous singer+ one of a flo"er+ an$ one of1instein) in the four corners of &our room0 Tell stu$ents tochoose one corner to stan$ in+ an$ talk about "h& the& chosethat poster0

/<0 5a,e each stu$ent make a list of the fi,e most usefulphrases for tourists ,isiting an 1nglish speaking countr&0

/G0 5a,e stu$ents come to the boar$ one b& one+ $ra" aposter for an 1nglish language mo,ie '"ithout the title) the&think the other stu$ents ha,e seen+ an$ let the other stu$entsguess "hich mo,ie it is0

/;0 5ire a musician 'flute7 harmonica7 ban8o7) to pla& for afe" minutes of &our class perio$0

9=0 @n small groups+ ha,e &our stu$ents $esign a billboar$ forsomething other than a pro$uct '"is$om+ humilit&+ frien$ship+etc0)0

9(0 @n4uire to see if &our stu$ents ha,e an& unusual talents'can "iggle their ears+ can bark like a $og)+ an$ encourage themto $emonstrate0

9.0 @nstea$ of sa&ing 6Ker& goo$Z6 all the time+ ,ar& the "a&s&ou praise 'an$ correct) stu$ents as much as possible0

9/0 @nstruct &our stu$ents to fin$ something in their

"alletsEpursesEpencil bo%es+ an$ tell the stor& behin$ it0990 @n,ite &our stu$ents to stan$ up an$ e%plore the classroom

from ne" angles 'look in $ra"ers+ un$er $esks+ behin$ posters+on top of cabinets)0 Then ha,e stu$ents report their fin$ings0

90 Just a fe" minutes before the bell rings+ call on &ourstu$ents to choose the ten most useful "or$s the& came incontact "ith $uring this class perio$+ then ha,e them narro" it$o"n to the three most useful "or$s0

9B0 Pass aroun$ some maga3ines+ an$ ha,e each stu$entchoose an a$ that he or she likes0 Di,e stu$ents an opportunit&

to e%plain their choices09<0 Pla& a listening acti,it& from &our book an a$$itional time"ith the lights turne$ off0

9G0 Pla& a recor$ing of instrumental music an$ ha,e somestu$ents $ra" on the boar$ "hat the music makes them thinkof0



9;0 Pla& fi,e ,er& $ifferent soun$s from a soun$ effects tape orC+ an$ assign stu$ents in pairs to create a stor& base$ on threeof the soun$s0

=0 Pla& music that enhances certain acti,ities '4uiet music fora rea$ing acti,it&+ $ance music for an energetic TP acti,it&)0

Ask &our stu$ents for their reactions0(0 Prepare colore$ letters of the alphabet on car$boar$s4uares an$ put them in a bag0 Stu$ents must $ra" a letterfrom the bag+ an$ "ork together to create a sentence on theboar$0 1ach stu$ent must raise his or her han$ to make acontribution+ but the "or$ the stu$ent calls out must begin "iththe letter he or she chose0 Put the e%pan$ing sentence on theboar$+ a$$ing "or$s onl& "hen the& the grammar is correct0

.0 Prepare se,eral paper bags+ each "ith a $ifferent scentinsi$e 'perfume+ cinnamon+ cheese)+ pass the bags aroun$ theclass+ an$ let stu$ents $escribe "hat the& smell0

/0 Print phrases such as 6in the librar&6 6at an elegant $inner"ith the o&al Famil&6 6in a nois& bar6 6in a $angerousneigborhoo$6 on separate strips of paper+ put them in en,elopes+an$ tape them to the un$ersi$e of a fe" stu$ents $esksEtablesbefore the& arri,e0 2rite on the boar$ a useful e%pression like61%cuse me0 Coul$ @ borro" a $ollar76 2hen stu$ents arri,e+ tellthem to look for an en,elope un$er the $esksEtables0 The ones"ho fin$ en,elopes must sa& the sentence on the boar$ as if inthe conte%t "ritten on the page0 Other stu$ents must guess theconte%t from the stu$ents tone of ,oice an$ bo$& language0

90 Pro$uce a list of commonl& use$ sentence*mo$if&inga$,erbs on the boar$+ such as su$$enl&+ actuall&+ unfortunatel&+an$ happil&0 Then launch into a stor&+ "hich each stu$ent mustcontribute to+ "ith the rule that e,er&one must begin the firstsentence of his or her contribution "ith a sentence*mo$if&inga$,erb0

0 Pro,i$e each stu$ent "ith a list of the current top tenpopular songs0 Pla& e%cerpts from some or all of the songs+ an$choose some 4uestions to ask &our stu$ents+ such as: i$ &oulike the song7 5a,e &ou hear$ this song before7 5o" $i$ the

song make &ou feel7 2hat instruments $i$ &ou hear7B0 Purchase a postcar$ for each member of &our class+ "ritinghis or her name in the name an$ a$$ress space0 Turn thempicture si$e up on a table+ ha,e each stu$ent choose one'"ithout looking at the name)+ then he or she "ill "rite amessage to the person "hose name is on the other si$e0 @f astu$ent chooses the postcar$ that has his or her o"n name on it+the stu$ent must choose again0



<0 Put stu$ents in pairs an$ ask them to guess three items intheir partners "alletEpurseEpencil bo%0

G0 Put stu$ents in pairs0 Tell them to con,erse+ but to$eliberatel& make one grammatical error o,er an$ o,er+ stoppingonl& "hen one stu$ent can spot the others intentional error0

;0 Put stu$ents into small groups to create an applicationform for ne" stu$ents to the school0B=0 Put the stu$ents in small groups+ an$ ask each group to

plan a ,acation for &ou0 The& must plan "here &ou "ill go+ "hat&ou "ill $o+ "ho &ou "ill go "ith+ an$ "hat &ou "ill bu&0 2henthe& are finishe$+ ha,e each group present their plans0

B(0 e,ie" a phrase or sentence that &ou "ant stu$ents toremember+ b& hol$ing a competition to see 62ho can sa& it thelou$estEthe 4uietestEthe 4uickestEthe slo"estEin the $eepest,oiceEin the highest pitche$ ,oice760

B.0 Set up a boar$ in &our classroom "here stu$ents can bu&an$ sell use$ items from each other b& "riting notes in 1nglish0

B/0 Suppl& each stu$ent "ith a cop& of the entertainmentsection of the local ne"spaper+ an$ tell them to choosesome"here to go ne%t "eeken$0

B90 Take a particularl& uninteresting page from &ourcoursebook+ an$ put stu$ents in groups to re$esign it0

B0 Teach on a $ifferent si$e of the room than &ou usuall& $o0BB0 Tell each stu$ent to report the latest ne"s in their countr&

or cit& to the class0B<0 Tell &our stu$ents to practice a con,ersation from their

coursebook that the& are familiar "ith+ but this time the& canonl& use gestures+ no "or$s0

BG0 2hen the& are practicing a $ialogue+ ha,e stu$ents pla&aroun$ "ith the ,olume+ intonation+ pitch+ or spee$ of their,oices0

B;0 2rite 6Tell me something @ $ont kno"06 on the boar$+ thenask stu$ents 4uestions about things the& kno" about an$ &ou$ont+ such as their li,es+ cultural backgroun$+ interests+ an$"ork0

<=0 2rite a common a$8acenc& pair 'Thank &ou0EIoure

"elcome O @m sorr&0EThats alright) on the boar$0 Ask stu$entsif the& kno" of an& e%pressions that coul$ replace one of theones &ou 8ust "rote0 2rite an& acceptable ans"ers on the boar$0

<(0 2rite a number of a$8ecti,es+ such as m&sterious+ happ&+peaceful+ sa$+ angr&+ an$ frustrate$ on the boar$0 Call out acolor+ an$ ask &our stu$ents to tell &ou "hich a$8ecti,e the&associate "ith that color0



<.0 2rite a "or$ on a slip of paper an$ sho" it to a stu$ent0This stu$ent must "hisper it to the secon$ stu$ent0 Then thesecon$ stu$ent must $ra" a picture of "hat he or she hear$+an$ sho" it to the thir$ stu$ent0 The thir$ stu$ent+ then+ "ritesthe "or$ that represents the picture an$ sho"s it to the fourth

stu$ent0 Then the fourth stu$ent "hispers it to the fifthstu$ent0000 an$ so on0 This continues until &ou get to the laststu$ent+ "ho must sa& the "or$ to the class0

</0 2rite an i$iomatic e%pression 'such as 6@t beats me06 or6@m fe$ up06) in big letters on the boar$0 Call on a fe" stu$entsto guess "hat it means before &ou tell them0

<90 2rite $o"n the names of about fi,e ,er& $ifferent peopleon the boar$ 'a small bab&+ a ru$e "aiter in a restaurant+ afashion mo$el+ a stranger in a cro"$+ an$ a gran$father)0 Di,estu$ents a common e%pression+ such as 6Doo$ morningZ6 or6Sorr&Z6+ an$ ask stu$ents ho" the& might sa& it $ifferentl&"hen talking to a $ifferent person0

<0 2rite &our name on the boar$ ,erticall&+ an$ a$$ a suitablea$8ecti,e that begins "ith each letter of &our name0 The ne%tstep is to in,ite stu$ents to $o the same0

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Teaching *hrasal Aer.s 5sing

Songs

Subrahmanian Hpen$ranut"o >at? tatano,a0com

Central @nstitute of 1nglish an$ Foreign Languages '5&$eraba$+ @n$ia)

Introduction

Man& songs can be successfull& emplo&e$ to pro,i$e meaningfulconte%ts for learning phrasal ,erbs0 This "ill be illustrate$ through theuse of the first four lines of the song 6Another a& in Para$ise6 b& PhilCollins0

Procedure

Students were provided with incomplete l!rics&The stu$ents "ere gi,en incomplete l&rics of the song 6Another a& inPara$ise6 b& Phil Collins an$ "ere instructe$ to familiari3e themsel,es"ith it b& going through it silentl&0 1ach line containe$ a blank+ "hichthe& "oul$ be re4uire$ to fill in as the& listene$ to the song0

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Students were asked to fill in the .lanks&

After the& ha$ familiari3e$ themsel,es "ith the l&rics+ the ne%t stepin,ol,e$ "as to e%pose the stu$ents to the song in small chunks offour lines each0 1,er& segment "as repla&e$ se,eral times+ till moststu$ents "ere confi$ent that the& ha$ "ritten in the appropriate

"or$s0 @t "as onl& "hen the stu$ents complete$ filling in all the blankscontaine$ in the first stan3a that an& attempt "as ma$e to $etermineho" correct or incorrect their ans"ers "ere0

Students were asked to volunteer information&

1ach of the blanks "as taken up one b& one an$ e,er& stu$ent in thegroup "as aske$ "hat "or$ heEshe ha$ use$ in a particular blank0'Since m& focus here is on the teaching of phrasal ,erbs+ @ll confinem&self to the first blank in the song+ "hich completes the phrasal ,erb6calls out60) The $ifferent ans"ers pro,i$e$ b& the stu$ents "ere put

up on the blackboar$0 No attempt "as ma$e to "ee$ out the incorrectans"ers at this stage0 As all ans"ers "ere being accepte$+ stu$entsenthusiasticall& re,eale$ "hat the& ha$ put $o"n0 Some of theans"ers gi,en for the first blank "as 'calls) 6out6+ 6on6+ 6off6+ an$6up60

Students were asked the meaning of phrasal ver.s&

2hen all the stu$ents ha$ ,olunteere$ information about the "or$the& ha$ inserte$ in the first blank+ the& "ere aske$ the meaning ofeach phrasal ,erb0

•

2hat is the meaning of 6call out67• 2hat $oes 6call on6 mean7

The meaning of each phrasal ,erb "as $iscusse$ in$i,i$uall& an$ "hena stu$ent pro,i$e$ a $efinition+ "hich e,er&one agree$ on+ it "as putup on the blackboar$0 The participants "ere aske$ to use the phrasal,erb in a sentence0 1%amples pro,i$e$ b& the stu$ents "ere put upalongsi$e the meaning0

Students were provided with conte6tual clues&

2hen the stu$ents "ere unable to $efine a phrasal ,erb+ there "as no

attempt to pro,i$e them "ith one0 @nstea$+ the phrasal ,erb "as use$in a conte%t an$ all stu$ents "ere e%pecte$ to guess the meaning0 Fore%ample+ "hen the stu$ents "ere unable to $efine 6call off6+ thefollo"ing conte%t "as pro,i$e$06The class is o,er0 Ioure rea$& to begin looking through &our notes inthe short break before the ne%t class0 Iou ha,e a test on that class0Su$$enl& a stu$ent runs into the classroom an$ shouts that the test is



calle$ off as the teacher has left to $eal "ith a famil& emergenc&0 Iouare o,er8o&e$+ an$ &ou thro" &our books back into &our bag an$ rushto the pla&groun$ to 8oin the cricket game06The stu$ents "ere aske$ to $etermine the meaning from the conte%tpro,i$e$0 Once the meaning ha$ been arri,e$ at+ further e%amples of

ho" the phrasal ,erb "as use$ "ere pro,i$e$0• Johns appointment "ith the $octor "as calle$ off0• The teacher calle$ off the meeting0

Students were asked to stud! the l!rics again&

2hen the meanings of all the phrasal ,erbs ha$ been figure$ out+ thestu$ents "ere then aske$ to stu$& the l&rics again an$ $etermine"hich phrasal ,erb "as $eman$e$ b& the conte%t0 @f+ for e%ample+ allstu$ents agree$ on 6calls out6+ the& "ere aske$ to pro,i$e cogentarguments "h& it coul$nt be an& of the other phrasal ,erbs that the&

ha$ initiall& come up "ith0 Some of the arguments put for"ar$ b& thestu$ents "ere: people $ont ,isit someone on the street+ the& canmeet them acci$entall&+ but not ,isit0 The grammar $oes not permitcall on0 One can call on someone+ but not call on to someone0DettingEpro,i$ing such ans"ers fromEto stu$ents ensure$ that the&not onl& remembere$ the meaning of the phrasal ,erb but also "herean$ ho" it shoul$ be use$0

Conclusion

Hsing songs pro,i$es an i$eal conte%t for stu$ents to learn ne"

phrasal ,erbs0 The enthusiasm generate$ b& songs "ill enable theteacher to $iscuss those phrasal ,erbs+ "hich ha,e been brought up b&the stu$ents+ an$ not those ran$oml& selecte$ b& the teacher or thete%tbook "riter0 Making stu$ents learn the songs "ill ensure that the&"ill remember not onl& the meaning an$ also ho" to use the phrasal,erb0

A teacher can buil$ up a collection of songs to use for $ifferentpurposes+ an$ prepare simple fill*in*the*blank e%ercises base$ on thel&rics of the songs0 Not onl& $o the stu$ents en8o& listening+ but the&also learn to listen for meaning0

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elping *rospective )FL

Teachers Learn ow to 5se

Songs in Teaching

$onversation $lasses

Natalia F0 Orlo,aorlo,a >at? pf0u8ep0c3

Hni,ersit& of Jan 1,angelist Purk&ne 'Hsti na$ Labem+ C3ech epublic)

Introduction

For the last t"o $eca$es+ 1FL '1nglish as a Foreign Language)metho$olog& has been acti,el& consi$ering the possibilit& of using

music an$ songs in class The anal&ses of the recent 1FL literature onthe problem in 4uestion 'Draham+ Murphe&+ Saricoban+ 1ken+ Je$&nak+etc0) makes it possible to suggest that among the metho$ologicalpurposes "ith "hich music+ songs an$ chants are use$ in class+ it ispossible to rank the follo"ing:

• Practicing the rh!thm7 stress and the intonation patterns ofthe 1nglish language0 'For this+ see the e%cellent "orks b&Carol&n Draham)0

• Teaching voca.ular!+ especiall& in the ,ocabular& reinforcementstage0

•

Teaching grammar0 @n this respect songs are especiall& fa,ore$b& teachers "hile in,estigating the use of the tenses0• Teaching speaking0 For this purpose+ songs an$ mainl& their

l&rics are emplo&e$ as a stimulus for class $iscussions0• Teaching listening comprehension0• e,eloping writing skills0 For this purpose a song can be use$

in a ,ariet& of "a&s**for e%ample+ speculating "hat coul$



happen to the characters in the future+ "riting a letter to themain character+ etc0

Theoretical 2ackground

Though the list of publications $e,ote$ to the topic in 4uestioncontinues to gro" &earl&+ an$ though no one "oul$ $oubt the potentialof the songs an$ music as a springboar$ to stu$ents creati,it&+ @ thinkthere are still se,eral aspects in "hich music is o,erlooke$ in theclassroom0 First+ songs+ especiall& chants+ are ,er& popular "ithteachers "hose target au$ience are &oung learners+ "hile a$ultlearners are less often e%pose$ to songs0 Secon$l&+ though a song isan inseparable unit& of the music an$ its l&rics+ it is the musical partthat is constantl& o,erlooke$ an$ ignore$0

M& o"n teaching sho"s that songs can be effecti,el& use$ in an

interme$iate class for the purpose of teaching speaking to prospecti,e1FL teachers0 The main reasons for this are as follo"s:

• As a cultural phenomenon+ songs can intro$uce stu$ents to themusical an$ cultural patterns t&pical for the target languagecommunit&0

• Songs belong to a s&nthetic genre+ "hich inclu$es both l&rics+an$ music an$ these t"o constituents ma& be use$ as a goo$incenti,e for speaking 1nglish in class0

• Songs can effecti,el& contribute to the stu$ents $e,elopment ofesthetic appreciation since the& ma& help them shape theirartistic tastes in formulating a critical e,aluation of the songsthe& listen to an$ $iscuss0

• Prospecti,e teachers of 1nglish+ in or$er to be able to useeffecti,el& songs in their o"n teaching in future+ shoul$themsel,es be e%pose$ to them in the conte%t of a teachertraining program0

The 4uestion that an& teacher "ho is "illing to use music in classhas to "restle "ith is "hat kin$ of music an$ "hat particularsongs shoul$ "e choose from the 6ocean6 of to$a&s music7 A

4uick glance at the musical picture of mo$ern societ& sho"s ho"pictures4ue an$ colorful it is0 2hen @ use musical material inclass for the first time+ @ al"a&s choose the songs @ kno" an$lo,e m&self0 This enables me to be more emotionall& persuasi,eas @ e%pose m& stu$ents to the songs an$ their interpretation ofthem0 Later+ "hile encouraging stu$ents to choose the songs for$iscussions+ @ ask them to follo" the follo"ing criteria 'thoughthe& are not free from being sub8ecti,e):



o The song must be an e%ample of a particular musicaltren$0

o There shoul$nt be an& form of ,iolence in it0o The song shoul$ contain a certain artistic image0

@ ha,e been incorporating songs into teaching 1FL to prospecti,eteachers of 1nglish for more than (= &ears an$ @ ha,e to a$mit "ith acertain $egree of surprise an$ content+ that the songs b& the6!eatles+6 though compose$ more than thirt& &ears ago+ generall&appeal to the tastes of (;*. &ear*ol$s since the& $eal "ith sucheternal problems as lo,e+ commitment an$ parentsEchil$renrelationships0 One must also not forget to mention that the "or$s are,er& intelligible an$ eas& to $istinguish0 The& are $eser,e$l&consi$ere$ to be classics of pop music+ from "hich $ifferent musicaltren$s sprang up0

@n m& ,ie"+ the main purpose of using songs in an a$,ance$ classshoul$ be for the $e,elopment of the stu$ents speaking skills an$ thepromotion of their cultural competence0 The mo$el of speech$e,elopment through songs "as "orke$ out "ith the tasks mentione$abo,e in min$0 This mo$el shoul$ be comprise$ of three stages *preparator&+ forming an$ $e,eloping * each of them ha,ing its o"nlogistics0

The 5odel o! Speech $evelopment through Songs

• Preparator&o @ntro$uctor& talk: Micro*te%ts about $ifferent musical

tren$s an$ histor& of the !eatleso Acti,ities aime$ at ,ocabular& $e,elopment

• Formingo Listening an$ $iscussing songs- <*step se4uence:

(0 Pre*listening tasks0.0 Listening to the song0/0 Ans"ers to the pre*listening tasks090 Post*listening tasks00 Presentation of the te%t of the song0 'Optional)

B0 Secon$ listening0<0 Song $iscussion0

• e,elopingo iscussing $ifferent problematic issues an$ music genreso Tasks for using songs in 1nglish language teaching0



rh&thm section usuall& in absence of,ocals0

(/0 To mouth l&rics in s&nc "ithrecor$ing $uring performance0

• Music is an e%tremel& po"erful art0 @t ma& e,oke a strongemotional response0 Listen to the song 'choose an& song &oulike ) an$ $etermine the moo$ the song e,okes as "ell as thefeelings it arouses0 Hseful ,ocabular&: 4uiet+ peaceful+ acti,e+buo&ant+ calm+ restful+ happ&+ $ream&+ m&sterious+ self*pit&ing+intimate+ sa$+ somber+ festi,e+ 8o&ful+ etc0)

• Music gi,es rise to our imagination an$ feelings0 !ring to classse,eral instrumental pieces of $ifferent genres of &ourpreference0 Pla& them an$ compare the associations cause$ b&them among &our fello" stu$ents0 Iou ma& use the follo"ing

phrases:o @t remin$s me of 000o @t $epicts the picture of 000o 2hile listening @ can easil& imagine 000

• Iou ma& often hear somebo$& sa&ing @ like the ,oice of thissinger06 escribe the ,oices of the singers &ou kno"+ using the"or$s gi,en belo"0

o eep+ gentle+ soft+ fresh+ clear+ l&rical+ e%pressi,e+ nasal+guttural+ hollo"+ resonant+ gruff+ harsh+ raucous+ husk&+mello"+ metallic properl&Enot properl& place$0

•

@t is possible to $efine the rh&thm of a song in $ifferent "or$s0Stu$& the list of a$8ecti,es belo" an$ use them in the sentencesof &our o"n "hile speaking about the songs &ou prefer to listento0

o Assure$+ $istinct+ crisp+ regular+ irregular+ $ense+ scattere$+impatient+ regular $ance+ abrupt+ 8aunt&0

o Mo$els: The song attracts me b& its regular an$ assure$

rh&thm0 @ like the regular $ance rh&thm of this song+ etc0

• !ring in class se,eral songs &ou like an$ $escribe their ,ocal part"ith the help of the useful ,ocabular& gi,en belo"0

o Hseful ,ocabular&: to sing lea$- to be on lea$- to $o lea$-to sing backup- to be on backup- to $o backup- to $obackup ,ocals- to sing harmon&0

• Fill in the gri$ "ith the phrases that follo"0



Manner of singingan$ pla&ing

Stagepresentation

1stablishing rapport "iththe au$ience0

•

• @ntro$uce a fresh st&le of melo$&+ of harmon&+ of rh&thm- retainoriginalit&- ha,e an outburst of ne" soun$s- present anentertaining stage act- satisf& au$ience tastes- ten$ to be$etache$ "hile singing- meet the tastes of the au$ience- putemphasis on ,ocal e%pression- shift emphasis from $rums tobass- establish contact "ith the au$ience- be backe$ b& $rums-

achie,e ,ariet& of soun$s- suppl& accompaniment- borro" ol$tunes- use familiar ,erses in ne" conte%ts- present an unusualinterpla& bet"een ,ocal an$ guitar- echo one another- sing "ithhigh*pitche$ "hoops0

The second stage is aime$ at formation of speaking skills "hileinterpreting an$ $iscussing the songs un$er consi$eration+ "ith the <*step se4uence being use$0 'See the mo$el abo,e0)As an e%ample+ let us consi$er the tasks fulfille$ "hile "orking "iththe song 6Iester$a&06

Pre*listening 4uestions: 2ho is on lea$ ,ocal an$ "hat instrumentsaccompan& him7

Post*listening 4uestions:

• 2hat moo$ $o the melo$& an$ l&rics e,oke7• 2hat is it about the song that makes it soun$ like it comes from

another time7• 2hat instruments contribute to this effect7• Can &ou $escribe the person speaking7•

2hat kin$ of lo,e is $epicte$ in the song7• @s the lo,e stor& tol$ emotionall& or "ith a tinge of $etachment7• 5o" can &ou $escribe McCartne&s manner of singing7

Listen to the song again0 5o" "oul$ &ou $escribe the interactionbet"een the singers ,oice an$ instruments in the song7

• The song 6Iester$a&6 is the most co,ere$ rock n roll song of alltime0 More than .0== artisits 'Frank Sinatra+ a& Charles



among them) co,ere$ it0 Listen to the recor$e$ ,ersion of thesong 6Iester$a&6 b& a& Charles0 2hat $ifferences in themanner of singing an$ in the song o,er all can &ou point out72hich singer is more $ramatic7

• Choose a song &ou like most of all0 esign &our o"n acti,ities for

the <*step se4uence 'see abo,e)0 !ring the song in class an$encourage &our fello" stu$ents to interpret an$ $iscuss its l&rics+musical part an$ the artistic image create$ in the song0

The aim of the third stage of the presente$ mo$el is to further$e,elop speaking skills on the topic Music6 an$ to prepare stu$ents forusing songs in the 1FL classroom0 At this stage stu$ents are in,ol,e$in less teacher controlle$ acti,ities+ such as: $iscussions+ simulationsan$ role*pla&s0 The e%amples of the 4uestions for $iscussion as "ell assimulations might ser,e the follo"ing:

• @s it $ifficult to be an attenti,e an$ appreciati,e listener7• 2hat shoul$ a person nee$ to kno"7• 2h& $o &oung people gra,itate to"ar$s ne" rh&thms7• Shoul$ a teacher kno" an$ un$erstan$ pop music in or$er to be

able to $iscuss it "ith the pupils- helping them to $ifferentiatebet"een original an$ "ell*"ritten music from secon$*rate$ onesof ne"l& forme$ groups7

The task 6Support or challenge the follo"ing statements6 also ser,esthe purpose of preparing stu$ents for $iscussion about the mo$ernperspecti,es of $e,elopment in music:

• No"a$a&s+ &oung people prefer onl& that kin$ of music to "hichthe& can $ance or 8ust talk to frien$s0 @t shoul$ be simple+cheerful an$ up*to*$ate0

• The pop music rh&thms ma& be ne" an$ ,igorous+ but the& lack,ariet&: its the same monotonous beat again an$ again0 Thetunes are mostl& primiti,e an$ as easil& forgotten as picke$ up0

• To$a&s pop music is at a crossroa$s0 Ne" an$ interestingcomposers an$ soloists ha,e appeare$0 1stablishe$ st&les ha,ebeen replace$ b& ne" ones0 Some groups are tr&ing to achie,eallo&s of $ifferent st&les0

The conclu$ing lesson on the topic ma& go in the form of a panel talk"here stu$ents present their points of ,ie" on tren$s in mo$ernmusic+ supporting their presentation b& musical pieces relate$ to the$iscussion0

Since the abilit& of using the songs an$ music in class is an importantconstituent of the "oul$*be teachers preparation+ the thir$ phase



shoul$ also inclu$e training+ so that prospecti,e teachers of 1nglishcoul$ ha,e the kno"le$ge an$ skill to $o the follo"ing:

• !e able to select interesting te%ts on the topic music0• !e able to anal&3e the $i$actic potential of a particular song0• no" ho" to teach a song to the pupils0• Criticall& e,aluate songs "ith the purpose of inclu$ing them in

class acti,ities0

To $e,elop the skills mentione$ abo,e+ it is possible to encourage thestu$ents to fulfill the follo"ing tasks:

• Stu$& the song l&rics b& &our fa,orite group0 Select those ones&ou belie,e "oul$ be effecti,e for language teaching "hile$iscussing the topics Frien$ship+ Parents an$ Chil$ren+ Lo,ein Song l&rics an$ Poetr&0

•

Collect interesting stories about music an$ musicians0 1%plain"h& these te%ts ma& be effecti,e tools for language instruction-"ork out pre*rea$ing an$ post*rea$ing acti,ities0

• Select fi,e pieces of music that belong to $ifferent musicalgenres- etc0

• Listen to the song an$ think of the 4uestions &ou coul$ ask &ourpupils to help them un$erstan$ the song0

• Di,e a t"o*minute intro$uctor& talk on the importance of being acareful listener0

Conclusion

Conclu$ing+ @ "oul$ like to mention that the s&stem of acti,itiespresente$ abo,e has the character of a training mo$el+ "hich ma& becreati,el& e%trapolate$ to $ifferent musical genres * be that 8a33+classic music+ countr& music or an& other0

e!erences

• 1ken+ 0 0 (;;B @$eas for using pop songs in the 1nglishlanguage classroom0 @n 1nglish Teaching Forum+ /9+ (+ 9B*9<0

• Draham+ C0 (;;/ Drammar chants: More Ja33 Chants0 OHP• Draham+ C (;;9 Mother Doose Ja33 Chants0 OHP• Je$&nak+ M0 .=== Hsing Music in the Classroom0 @n 1nglish

Teaching Forum+ /G+ 9+ pp0/=*/.• Murph&+ T0 (;;. Music an$ Song0 O%for$ Hni,ersit& Press0• Saricoban+ A0 # Metin+ 10 'October .===)0 Songs+ Kerse an$

Dames for Teaching Drammar+ The @nternet T1SL Journal+ Kol0K@+ No0 (=+ October .===http:EEitesl80orgETechni4uesESaricoban*Songs0html

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Some Techni0ues for Teaching*ronunciation

a,i$ F0 alton$$alton >at? aca$em=(0chs0itesm0m%

Chiapas+ Me%ico

2ackground

2hen @ $i$ m& initial training as an 10F0L0 teacher+ one of the course

tutors al"a&s $escribe$ pronunciation as 6the Cin$erella of languageteaching6+ i0e0 she ne,er got to go to the ball0 !& this he "as referringto the often lo" le,el of emphasis place$ on this ,er& importantlanguage skill0 2e are comfortable teaching rea$ing+ "riting + listeningan$ to a $egree+ general oral skills+ but "hen it comes topronunciation "e often lack the basic kno"le$ge of articulator&phonetics 'not $ifficult to a4uire) to offer our stu$ents an&thing more

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than ru$imentar& 'an$ often unhelpful) a$,ice such as+ 6it soun$s likethis - uuuh60

There is also a ten$enc& for us to focus on pro$uction as the mainproblem affecting our learners0 Most research ho"e,er+ sho"s clearl&

that the problem is more likel& to be reception * "hat &ou $ont hear+&ou cant sa&0 Moreo,er+ if the 61nglish6 soun$ is not clearl& recei,e$+the brain of the learner con,erts it into the closest soun$ in their o"nlanguage 0 Thus the $ental 1nglish fricati,e E th E 'sorr&+ phonetics&mbols cant easil& be $ispla&e$) in 6those6 +becomes con,erte$ b&Spanish speakers into the $enatlise$ Spanish E$E + pro$ucing 6$ose6 asthis is "hat the speaker hears0 Di,en this realit& + it "oul$ seemlogical to place a hea,& emphasis on listening 'reception) as a "a&into releasing appropriate pronunciation 'pro$uction)0

Apart from using kno"le$ge of our stu$ents an$ our ears in or$er tobe a"are of their pronunciation problems+ it is also useful to ha,esome prior kno"le$ge of "hat elements of 1nglish phonetics an$phonolog& are likel& to cause problems0 This is one area of languagelearning "here fe" people "oul$ 4uestion the use of contrasti,eanal&sis0 For instance+ to gi,e some simple e%amples+ "e can pre$ictthat Arabic speakers "ill ha,e $ifficult& $istinguishing bet"een E p Ean$ E b E + Japanese speakers "ill not percei,e the $ifferencebet"een E l E an$ E r E an$ Spanish speakers "ill ha,a a problemrealising consonant clusters like > sts ?0 5a,ing informe$ him or herself of some of the main areas of contrast bet"een nati,e language an$

target language an$ "hat $ifficulties stu$ents ha,e+ it then remains forthe teacher to buil$ this information into some meaningful classroome%ercises0

Techni6ues 7

1%ercise shoul$ be simple+ accessible + fun an$ combine reception an$pro$uction0 Some stu$ents 'usuall& a$ults) $o feel embarasse$ to pullri$iculuous faces "hen practising ,o"el soun$s 'this ma& be personalor cultural or both) but @ ha,e generall& foun$ that this soon passesan$ stu$ents en8o& the pronunciation "ork0 2here possible+ e%ercises

shoul$ be communicati,e in that the& shoul$ 'an$ $o generate$ifferences of opinion an$ $isagreement about "hat "as sai$Ehear$0!elo" are t"o e%amples0

)6ercise " +

After ha,ing taught or e%pose$ the stu$ents to long an$ short ,o"elsthrough listening an$ oral "ork+ the teacher can check recognition+



retention an$ abilit& to $iscriminate in the follo"ing "a&0 This coul$also be use$ simpl& for teaching0

Stage % +

The teacher "rites a ,ariet& of "or$s containing the target soun$s'long an$ short ,o"els) on the boar$0 The follo"ing is 8ust onepossible set0POT P@T PAT P1T P1T POT PHTT PHT PAT P1AT= ( . / 9 B < G ;5ere+ the onl& $ifference in soun$ is that of the ,o"el * familiar toan&one "ho has $one minimal pair "ork0 As in these e%amples+ the"or$ shoul$ begin an$ en$ "ith the same consonant0 =+ /+ G+ an$ ;+are long ,o"els an$ the rest are short0

Stage +

The teacher then mo$els each "or$ an$ in$i,i$al repetition follo"s0The ,o"el soun$ can be isolate$ an$ the proce$ure repeate$ until theteacher is reasonabl& sure that there are no ma8or problems0 5e orshe then tells the stu$ents that the& are going to hear one of the"or$s an$ must "rite the number "hich correspon$s to the "or$ the&hear0 2hat the stu$ents ha,e "ritten is then checke$ an$ compare$0

This automaticall& lea$s into a $iscussion of "hat the& hear$ an$ "hatsoun$s the& are confusing0 @f stu$ent Q hear$( "hen the teacher sai$;+ the& are confusing the short ,o"el E @ E "ith the long ,o"el E i: E 0The teacher gi,es fee$back an$ the soun$s ma& then be mo$elle$again an$ practise$0

Stage (+

T"o or three "or$s are then presente$ together an$ the proce$urerepeate$0 The teacher then tells the class the& are going to hear si%"or$s an$ that the numbers correspon$ to an important telephonenumber0 The teacher $eli,ers the "or$s an$ asks + 62hats m&number760 Again there "ill be $ifferences in "hat "as hear$0 This

allo"s a focus on "hich soun$s are not being $iscriminate$ effecti,el&b& "hich stu$ents an$ "here their problems lie0 Later $iscussion ma&re,ol,e arou$ "hat strategies stu$ents ma& emplo& to impro,e their$iscrimination skills * songs+ minimal pair games "ith frien$s+ mo,ies+ra$io+ etc0

Stage +



Learners are then in,ite$ to mo$el the telephone number0 This stageusuall& generates much $iscussion an$ $isagreement along the lines of * 6Iou sai$ 000000 6+ 6No @ $i$nt 6+ 6Sa& it again6 an$ so on an$ isusuall& ,er& li,el&0 The teacher is+ of course+ the final arbiter of "hat"as reall& sai$0 The important thing is that the learners are thinking

acti,el& about their pronunciation an$ ho" to repair it if necessar&0The& also begin to hear themsel,es 'often for the first time) an$ this isof immeasurable importance in the retention of soun$s0

)6ercise #+

This e%ercise "as $esigne$ for a multi*lingual class+ but is e4uall&effecti,e "ith monolingual groups0 @t is more communicti,e in naturethan 1%cercise A as it in,ol,es gi,ing an$ carr&ing out instructions0

Stage %+

5a,ing i$entifie$ some problem areas for the class+ the teacher makesa list of instructions containing these0 !elo" is such a list0

(0 ra" a sheep on the boar$0 'Spanish speakers often $ra" aship)0

.0 2rite the letter 6P6 abo,e the sheep0 'Arabic speakers often"rite 6 !6)0

/0 Hse the 6P6 as the start of the "or$ 6pleasant6 an$ "rite the"or$ 'Japanese speakers often "rite 6present 6)0

90 2rite 6light6 ne%t to pleasant0 'Japanese speakers often "rite6right6)0

0 ra" a mouse ne%t to the "or$ 6light60 'Spanish an$ Japenesespeakers often $ra" a mouth)

B0 ra" a pear ne%t to the mouse0 'Arabic speakers often $ra" abear)

Other e%amples can be a$$e$0

Stage +

After presentation an$ practice of the problem areas+ each stu$ent isgi,en a piece of paper "ith an instruction containing such soun$s0 Thepapers are gi,en so that a stu$ent "ill hear an instruction containing asoun$ "hich the& ha,e a problem hearing0 The instruction is then"hispere$ in the ear of the recei,ing stu$ent an$ the& carr& out "hatthe& hear0 The& sit $o"n an$ rea$ their instruction to the ne%t stu$ent0This continues until all the instructions ha,e been carrie$ out an$ thereis something resembling a picture on the boar$0 No comments shoul$be ma$e as the "ork is in process0



Stage (+ Feed.ack

There "ill be reactions from laughter to $isma& as the stu$ents seeho" ther instructions "ere carrie$ out0 The teacher nee$s to focus thestu$ents on "hat "ent "rong0 2as the problem pro$uction or

reception7 2hat $i$ Miko sa& an$ "hat $i$ Joel hear7 The $ilemapushes the stu$ents to correct themsel,es an$ hear "hat the& aresa&ing0 The $iscussions are often ,er& animate$ an$ again the teachermust abitrate0 The learners also see the real*life conse4uences of notpro$ucing or not hearing appropriate 1nglish soun$s as "ell as gettingpersonal an$ class fee$back on their problem areas0 As in e%ercise A+$iscussion can take place on strategies for pronunciation0

Some Conclusions

(0 The e%ercise allo"s clear practice in pro$uction an$ reception

an$ gi,es concise fee$back to in$i,i$ual learners as to "heretheir problms lie in these areas an$ ho" to repair them0 Oftenthese are ,er& simple ph&sical 4uestions such as not roun$ig thelips as in E u: E in fool + "hich the teacher can help them focuson0

.0 This+ in turn+ allo"s $iscussion on learning strategies forpronunciation "hich can be $ra"n up it the classroom0

/0 @t is a communicati,e e%ercise as it in,ol,es $isagreement+repair an$ ' hopefull& Z) agreement among other things0

90 Man& language learners feel self concious an$ negati,e abouttheir pronunciation 0 To effecti,el& $eal "ith this 4uestion in the

class an$ enable learners to see an impro,ement+ is in,ariabl& agreat ps&chological boost0

0 @ ha,e use$ these acti,ities "ith learners from man& $ifferentcultural an$ language backgroun$s an$ the& ha,e in,ariabl&been seen as both ,er& useful an$ fun0

B0 As teachers+ "e are often not the best 8u$ges of the accurac& ofour stu$ents pronunciation 0 2e are accustome$ to it an$usuall& ,er& tolerant "hen in general+ nati,e speakers are not0Such e%ercises help us to be more a"are of real problemslearners ha,e in their oral pro$uction an$ to help to correct

them0<0 Such acti,ities shoul$ be an integral part of an& languageteaching programme as the& make pronunciation an acti,eelement of the learning process an$ focus learners on thelanguage the& are pro$ucing0

Thanks to a& Parker of Sheffiel$ 5allam Hni,ersit&- 1nglan$ for thegelephone Dame0 Some useful an$ ,er& accessible constrasti,e



anal&sis can be seen in the 6 Ship or Sheep6 an$ 6Three or Tree6series0

The @nternet T1SL Journal+ Kol0 @@@+ No0 (+ Januar& (;;<

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" ,enre "pproach to 3ral

*resentations

Fiona 2ebster"ebster >at? lang0nago&a*u0ac08phttp:EElang0nago&a*u0ac08pE["ebsterE

Nago&a Hni,ersit& 'Nago&a+ Japan)

Introduction

Stan$ing in front of a group an$ presenting a talk can be a $auntingtask for e,en the most confi$ent of us+ an$ e,en more so for languagelearners0 2hat is the best "a& to approach oral presentations "ithJapanese uni,ersit& stu$ents7 2hen sifting through m& classs nee$sanal&sis results+ it became ob,ious that man& of m& stu$ents ma&e,entuall& be calle$ on to gi,e oral presentations0 The target conte%tsinclu$e international research forums+ conferences an$ post*gra$uatestu$& abroa$ in 1nglish*me$ium institutions0

Theoretical Framework

@n an article b& ing on stu$ents at a Tai"anese Hni,ersit& thereappear to be se,eral similar features0 @n particularl&+ 6oralpresentations are a face*threatening acti,it&6 'p()+ an$ 6speechan%iet& an$ limite$ presentation skills are the ma8or problems thatlea$ to learners oral presentation failures6 'ing:.)0 Certainl& ha,ing

learners share their "orries an$ concerns before tackling their oralpresentations has pro,e$ a useful step+ as has eliciting from thelearners prior e%perience of presenting to a group0

2hen "e use language+ "e emplo& particular genre+ "hich are likepre*$etermine$ linguistic formulae for achie,ing an outcome0Therefore+ learners nee$ to be e4uippe$ "ith these formulae in or$er

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to communicate effecti,el&+ in this case in the conte%t of an oralpresentation0 Taking the cue from 5alli$a&s genre approach+ anal&3inggeneric staging of ,arious te%ts 'in this case the oral presentationgenre) is an essential step in the so*calle$ teaching*learning c&cle'5ammon$ et al:(<)+ consisting of four stages:

• Stage (: !uil$ing kno"le$ge of the fiel$ 'learners $iscuss fiel$+tenor an$ mo$e features of oral presentations)

• Stage .: Mo$elling of the te%t 'teacher gi,es mo$el oralpresentation to class)+ learners then anal&se staging

• Stage /: Joint construction of the te%t 'learners "ork togetheron $e,eloping their talks)

• Stage 9: @n$epen$ent construction of the te%t 'learners gi,etheir presentation to the class)

2hilst not follo"ing this c&cle to the letter+ it certainl& un$erpins mostclassroom acti,ities @ $o "ith learners+ an$ an un$erstan$ing of Stage. 'Mo$elling of the Te%t) is absolutel& imperati,e0

Procedure

ather than $e,oting an entire semester to this genre+ @ instea$inclu$e se,eral steps throughout the semester to gra$uall& $e,elopskills for oral presentations+ as a component of our negotiate$s&llabus0 Follo"ing is an outline of the process an$ pro$uct of the oralpresentations component of the A$,ance$ 1nglish communicationclasses0 @ am in$ebte$ to m& former "orkplace colleagues at the

Hni,ersit& of 2estern S&$ne&s language centre 'S2@C) for the o,eralli$ea for the assessment gri$ an$ proce$ure for preparing stu$ents fororal presentations0

Fluenc! *ractice

uring the semester+ learners are gi,en three minutes+ then t"ominutes+ then one minute to speak on an& topic of their choosing0 Thelearners are instructe$ to focus on fluenc& rather than grammaticalaccurac&0 This re4uires o,ert e%planation+ as learners are generall& notfamiliar "ith the $ifferences bet"een these t"o skills0 After the initial

three minutes "ith a partner+ the pairs are rearrange$ an$ learnersaske$ to speak about the same topic in t"o minutes+ then "ith a ne"partner in one minute0 The fee$back from this preparator& acti,it& isimme$iatel& positi,e 7 all feel the& reall& nee$ an$ en8o& theopportunit& to speak uninterrupte$ for a set perio$ of time0



Class Handout

The ne%t focus is the staging of a t&pical oral presentation0 This isachie,e$ b& gi,ing learners a cop& of the actual assessment han$out'Appen$i% A) to be use$ for final gra$es0 The length of thepresentation $epen$s on the le,el of the learners0 The space to theright of the table is left blank on purpose for learners to 8ot $o"nuseful "or$s an$ phrases to use in their talks+ in line "ith the ,ariousstages in the oral presentation genre0 This section of the proce$urenee$s 4uite a $eal of e%planation an$ elicitation+ so "e spen$ most ofone lesson going o,er the assessment sheet0 !elo" are commentspertaining to each section as presente$ on the han$out0

Field7 Tenor and Mode

Fiel$ 'area of ,ocabular& to be use$)+ tenor 'register) an$ mo$e 'oral,ersus "ritten language) of oral presentations are i$entifie$0 Some or

all of the follo"ing acti,ities can be $one in class0• Learners are aske$ to share e%periences of prior oral

presentations+ ho" the& felt+ "hat the& talke$ about an$ so on0This can be $one as pair "ork+ or if numbers permit as a generalgroup $iscussion0

• Attention nee$s to be $ra"n to the $ifferences bet"een spokenan$ "ritten language+ an$ mention ma$e of the habit somestu$ents ha,e of pulling chunks of te%t from the internet or frombooks\c0 5o" interesting is that for the au$ience7 Morea$,ance$ learners can ha,e a mini*lesson on nominali3ation 7

the fact that "ritten te%t contains sentences "ith ,er& long an$comple% nominal phrases acting as the sub8ect+ "hereas spokente%t $oes not0 Learners are presente$ "ith a short task tocon,ert a sentence such as the one belo" into a more 6"ritten6t&pe of sentence:

Prime Minister oi3umi ANNOHNC1 to$a& that there "ill be ane" ta% on compan& "aste0 5e 5OP1S it "ill encourage largercorporations to pla& a more responsible role in re$ucing "astepro$ucts in this countr&0The ,erbs announce$ an$ hopes are capitali3e$ in or$er to sho"

their position in the sentence+ near the front+ as is common "ithspoken te%t0 Learners are then aske$ to use passi,es an$ also tomake a larger noun phrase as sub8ect of the sentence+ an$ tofinall& combine the sentences into one0 Their results shoul$ besomething like this '"ith a little teacher help0):@n or$er to encourage larger corporations to pla& a moreresponsible role in re$ucing "aste pro$ucts in this countr&+ a



ne" ta% on compan& "aste "as to$a& ANNOHNC1 b& PrimeMinister oi3umi0

• @n or$er to illustrate ho" most spoken te%t is ratherungrammatical+ learners can transcribe a simple transcription ofsomeone speaking on the ra$io 'or &ourself if all else fails)0

Laborious+ but "orth it for making a point0

The remain$er of the 6language6 an$ 6ph&sical features6 sections ofthe han$out can then be $iscusse$+ "ith e%amples an$ e%planations"here necessar&0

• Learners shoul$ be ma$e a"are of the ,arious features ofpronunciation0 !& allo"ing learners to focus on smaller+ moremanageable segments of language+ the& feel there is more roomfor impro,ement rather than focusing on soun$ articulationalone+ as is often their e%perience0

• Learners can also share their i$eas about some memorablespeeches 7 because the& "ere goo$ or because the& "ere ba$ZThis often ties in "ith the 6ph&sical features6 section of thehan$out0

Modelling of the Te6t

The teacher can then present a mo$el talk to the class0 After askingthe learners for gist an$ main i$eas+ the staging of the presentation isanal&3e$ using the han$out 'see 6genre6 section)0

• 1ach stage is $iscusse$ in pairs or as a "hole group+ an$appropriate "or$s an$ phrases "ritten on the boar$0

• Lo"er le,el learners are gi,en sample phrases to match eachstage+ for e%ample:

o State topic clearl&**The topic of m& presentation to$a&is 000

o 1numerate or signal each point** Furthermore+ in a$$ition+in contrast

<oint $onstruction

• @n pairs learners can "ork on their oral presentations an$ peercheck each others outlines0 @ generall& suggest learners choosea topic from their area of research+ an$ the& ha,e to email metheir propose$ topics so @ can check "hether there is enough6meat6 in them0



• Learners are $iscourage$ from gi,ing a narrati,e or report st&lepresentation+ but rather $e,eloping a talk "ith a fe" issues 7points for an$ against0

• The teacher can also be a participant in the 8oint constructionstage+ gi,ing help an$ a$,ice "ith e$its an$ $rafts "here

re4uire$0

ndividual $onstruction

• Presentations are gi,en $uring class+ time$+ an$ points lost if tooshort or too long+ so learners kno" to practice se,eral times athome 'in front of the mirror i$eall&)0

• uring the presentations+ each stu$ent is aske$ to "rite a fe"comments on paper+ an$ these are gi,en to the speaker oncetheir presentation is finishe$0 Stu$ents seem to appreciate thispeer fee$back an$ rea$ their comments ,oraciousl&0

• @ also complete assessment sheets for each speaker an$ han$them all back to the class once e,er&one has presente$0

Conclusion

!& anal&3ing oral presentations from a genre perspecti,e+ learners cangrasp the basic scaffol$ing of this particular te%t t&pe+ an$ tailor it totheir particular conte%t0 The acti,ities mentione$ in this $iscussion ma&of course be $e,elope$ an$ e%pan$e$ further+ especiall& in the area ofpresentation tools+ such as Po"erPoint+ o,erhea$s+ or han$outs0 Thosestu$ents aiming at longer talks shoul$ also practice 4uestion elicitation

techni4ues for $iscussion time+ an$ strategies to ha,e 4uestionsrephrase$ shoul$ the& not un$erstan$ them0

2ith the e%perience of at least one oral presentation in 1nglish+learners can forge ahea$ in their 1nglish stu$ies "ith more confi$ence+an$ the skills an$ strategies re4uire$ to $e,elop other similarpresentations0 @n this era of increasing internationali3ation+opportunities for stu$ents to stu$& or "ork abroa$ are gro"ingstea$il&+ an$ being able to speak to a group "ith confi$ence an$ easeis an essential skill0

Appendi4 A

B-min& speeches+ results and comments

NAM1: TOP@C: 1SHLT: E.

,enre :%E *oints;

@ntro$uction



• State topic clearl&• Outline talk• efine an& $ifficult ,ocabular&

!o$&• 1numerate or signal each point• eiterate &our topic• Di,e e%amples an$Eor anec$otes• Di,e statistical information if rele,ant

Conclusion• estate &our topic• Summarise &our talk

• Di,e suggestions for future+ recommen$ations for more research

Language : *oints;

• Drammatical accurac&• Kocabular&• Fluenc&• Appropriate spoken language 'ie: not "ritten language)

• Pronunciation 'rh&thm+ intonation+ "or$ stress+ sentence stress+linking+ soun$ articulation)

*h!sical Features :G *oints;

•

1&e contact• Au$ience interaction• Destures• Notes

• Stance

2i.liograph#

• 5ammon$ J0+ !urns A0+ Jo&ce 50+ !rosnan 0 # Derot L0 0nglish

for social purposes0 NC1LT: Australia0• ing J0 '.==.) March0 Preparing 1FL Learners for OralPresentations0 The .nternet T0L 4ournal + K@@@:/

http:EEitesl80orgELessonsEing*Public Speaking0html

The @nternet T1SL Journal+ Kol0 K@@@+ No0 <+ Jul& .==.http:EEitesl80orgE

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Making <igsaw "ctivities 5sing

/ewspaper "rticlesa,i$ &cus

epartment of the Stu$& of Contemporar& Societ&Aichi Shukutoku Hni,ersit&

; atahira+ NagakuteNagakute*ho+ Aichi*gunAichi*ken+ Japan 9G=*((

'@nfre4uentl& Hse$) 1*mail A$$ress: $c$&cus >at? asune"s.0aasa0ac08p

IntroductionNe"spaper articles ha,e long been a staple item in both rea$ing an$con,ersation classes because the& are generall& short+ pre$ictable inst&le+ timel& in content+ an$ eas& to fin$ an$ use0 5o"e,er+ thetra$itional metho$ of ha,ing stu$ents rea$ silentl&+ ans"er compreh&+ans"er comprehension 4uestions+ an$ then $iscuss an article canbecome boring to both stu$ents an$ teachers0 An alternati,e to this

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mailto:dcdycus%20%5Bat%5D%20asunews2.aasa.ac.jp

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tra$itional approach is turning articles into 8igsa" acti,ities+ in "hichan& one stu$ent onl& has a portion of the information nee$e$ tocomplete a task0

The a$,antage of 8igsa" acti,ities is that stu$ents must $epen$ on

each other for their information+ so the& must interact to accomplish agi,en task0 The techni4ue $escribe$ belo" for making 8igsa" acti,itiesfrom ne"spaper articles structures acti,ities so that stu$ents read thete%t+ hear the te%t+ master new voca.ular!+ paraphrase+ an$interact at all stages of the acti,it& 'not at 8ust the $iscussion stage+as in the tra$itional approach)0 @n m& e%perience+ pre*interme$iate toa$,ance$ stu$ents ha,e almost all preferre$ using 8igsa" ne"spaperarticles to the tra$itional approach0 The general proce$ure $escribe$belo" can be use$ "ith other t&pes of te%ts as "ell as "ith ne"spaperarticles0 The $escription belo" is for a $iscussion class+ but @ ha,e alsouse$ it "ith intro$uctor& sections of chapters in books as a "arm*upacti,it& for long te%ts0 'For an informati,e $iscussion of the makingan$ using of 8igsa" acti,ities+ see the chapter $e,ote$ to it in C0esslers '(;;.) Cooperative Language Learning6 A TeacherBsResource 8oo" + publishe$ b& Prentice 5all egents)0

Preparation

'Materials: a ne"spaper article+ scissors+ pasteEglueEtape+ prepare$han$outs "ith enough space to paste on sections of the article 'seeFig0 ()+ an$ a complete cop& of the article)

Select a ne"spaper article to suit &our teaching purpose an$ stu$entle,el0 eci$e ho" man& sections into "hich &ou "ill $i,i$e all or part of it0 '@ recommen$ three+ an$ no more than 9 sections+ or the secon$group acti,it& 'see Proce$ure belo") becomes time consuming0) @fpossible+ enlarge it on a photocop&ing machine to make it easier forstu$ents to rea$ an$ for &ou to cut an$ paste0 Denerall& &ou "ill "antto omit the first paragraph of an a,erage article because it contains allthe ke& information0 Also omit an& other sections "hich gi,e a"a& toomuch information0 The goal is to select sections that () ha,e 5ust enough information to arouse the stu$ents interest in the rest of the

stor&+ .) contain so#e information that o,erlaps "ith other sections .ut also /) contain important information not foun$ in other sections0i,i$ing the article up accor$ing to these criteria presents informationin a "a& that forces stu$ents to $e,elop an$ share h&potheses an$ to$epen$ on others for information0 Thus+ the task of rea$ing becomesan interacti,e problem*sol,ing acti,it&0

Ne%t+ prepare a han$out sheet "ith instructions for $oing the acti,it&



'see Figure ()0 The sheet shoul$ ha,e enough blank space for thesection of the article to be attache$0 Label each sheet $ifferentl& as a"a& of making sure stu$ents in the first group acti,it& 'see Proce$urebelo") ha,e the same han$out0 @ recommen$ using colors 'e0g0 blue+re$ an$ green) as labels instea$ of numbers or letters0 2hen numbers

'(+ . an$ /) or letters 'A+ ! an$ C) are use$+ stu$ents often assumethat the& in$icate the or$er in "hich the sections appear in the originalarticle0 Hsing colors a,oi$s this problem0 Tr& to keep the han$out asgeneral as possible so &ou can use it for a ,ariet& of articles+ an$ keepmaster copies , sans article+ for future use0

Procedure

'Total Time: /*B= minutes+ $epen$ing on stu$ent le,el an$ the

$ifficult& of the article)First Droup Acti,it& 'Time: (=*.= minutes)

(0 i,i$e the class into / or four groups+ $epen$ing on ho" man&sections &ou ha,e selecte$ from the ne"spaper article0 'More than foursections usuall& takes too much time0) Di,e the same section of thearticle to each member of a particular group0

.0 5a,e the stu$ents rea$ the instructions carefull&+ noting the rules0Stress that for them to benefit most from the acti,it&+ the& shoul$ go

through their section of the article together until the& are all satisfie$that the& un$erstan$ it an$ can e%plain it to others0 @nsisting that the&practice paraphrasing it lets them 'an$ &ou) check their un$erstan$ingof the section0 Also+ make sure the& can e%plain all the ,ocabular& 0

/0 As a group+ ha,e the stu$ents "rite out t"o 4uestions the& "oul$like to ask others to gain a better un$erstan$ing of the entire article0Some groups ma& be slo"er at this than others0 @f time is short+ berea$& to either accept onl& one 4uestion or to suggest a fe"02arning: @n their 4uestions stu$ents often refer to things like this

problem or the man "hich ha,e conte%t onl& in reference to theirsection of te%t0 Other stu$ents "ill not un$erstan$ "hat the& arereferring to0 Iou ma& nee$ to correct ,ague 4uestions an$ ha,e themclarif& "hat the pronouns refer to in their 4uestions0



Com.ined &roup Activit# 8Time7 9:*;: minutes<

(0 2hen &ou feel the stu$ents are rea$&+ ha,e them form ne" groups"ith at least one member of each of the other groups0 'For e%ample+combine a member from the re$+ blue an$ green groups0 epen$ing

on class si3e+ &ou ma& nee$ to ha,e more than three stu$ents to agroup+ an$ ma& ha,e t"o members of the same first group 'e0g0 t"oblues ) together0) 2arn them not to show their papers to the

mem.ers of the new group0 1%plain that the& are e%pecte$ tonegotiate e,er&thing orall&0

.0 5a,e the stu$ents take turns rea$ing+ paraphrasing+ e%plaining+ an$ans"ering 4uestions about their sections+ as "ell as asking the4uestions the& "rote $o"n in their pre,ious groups0

1ncourage them to stop each other+ ask 4uestions+ an$ $o "hate,er isnee$e$ to come to a conclusion about "hat the entire article is about+an$ to $iscuss an& interpretations an$ h&potheses that come to min$0

/0 2hen the stu$ents feel the& un$erstan$ the article as "ell as the&can+ ha,e them "rite $o"n a brief $escription of "hat the article isabout0 This nee$nt 'an$ shoul$nt) take too much time0 @f &ou arerunning out of time+ &ou ma& "ant to skip it0

Full Class $iscussion and Wrap*up

'Time: (=*( minutes)

(0 2ith stu$ents remaining in the combine$ $iscussion group+ asksomeone from each group to e%plain "hat the& think the article isabout an$ an& other important points or 4uestions that came up asthe& trie$ to piece the article back together again0 Sometimes groups"ill ha,e ,er& $ifferent i$eas about certain points+ an$ this can bee%ploite$ for $iscussion purposes 'or to point out "herecomprehension broke $o"n)0

.0 istribute copies of the complete article0 Iou ma& "ant to rea$ it

alou$0

/0 At this point &ou can ha,e a full class $iscussion of the article05opefull&+ the one &ou choose "ill len$ itself to spinoff $iscussions ofrelate$ topics0



Conclusion

2hile @ ha,e ha$ a fe" stu$ents "ho $i$ not care for this techni4ue+the general response to it from both lo"er*le,el an$ higher*le,elstu$ents has been o,er"helmingl& positi,e0 Stu$ents sa& the&appreciate the time spent negotiating the te%t because it helps preparethem better to $iscuss it+ an$ because it is more interesting than 8ustrea$ing an$ $iscussing articles0 As a teacher+ @ like using such articlesbecause stu$ents generall& en8o& them+ an$ because the& are eas& toprepare once the initial han$outs are ma$e0

Some final a$,ice0 ont gi,e up if things go a little rough the first time&ou tr& this techni4ue0 As "ith an&thing ne"+ stu$ents ma& notun$erstan$ at first "hat the& are $oing an$ "h& the& are $oing it0 @nthe en$+ most en8o& it0 Doo$ luckZ

Figure %&

Sample han$out page0

!lue Droup

*"RT %+ Single ,roup Reading and Discussion

Part of a ne"spaper article is presente$ belo"0 Iou must understand

it completel! because later &ou "ill share the information "ith peoplein other groups0 Iou shoul$

() rea$ it through an$ $iscuss it+ being sure &ou un$erstan$ thecontent an$ all ,ocabular&+ .) practice paraphrasing it an$+ /) "riteout t"o 4uestions &ou "ant to ask members of the other groups to geta fuller un$erstan$ing of the entire article0

:"ttach a section of the newspaper article here;

Uuestions: 2hat "oul$ &ou like to kno" from other groups to help &ou

un$erstan$ this article better7 As a group+ think of t"o 4uestions toask the others0

(0

.0



*art + $om.ined ,roup Discussion

Lea,e &our original group an$ form a new group "ith a memberfrom each of the other groups0 Iou shoul$ () rea$ &our section tothem once or t"ice so the& can hear the original+ .) ans"er an&

4uestions the& ha,e an$ e%plain an& ,ocabular& the& $ont kno" an$+/) paraphrase &our section so the& can check their un$erstan$ing0Continue like this until e,er&bo$& has share$ their information0 Finall&+as a group+ $eci$e "hat &ou think the "hole article is about an$ "rite&our i$eas $o"n belo"0 emember+ D3/HT S32 ?35R S)$T3/

T3 ?35R /)2 *"RT/)RS>

2e think this article

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Teaching ntegrated 2riting

Skills

r0 Cecilia !*@keguchi""9s*ikgc >at? asahi*net0or08p

http:EE"""0kasei0ac08pEstaffEceciliaEin$e%0html Tok&o asei Dakuin: Tsukuba 2omens Hni,ersit& 'Japan)

This article "as publishe$ in the @nternational Journal for Teachers of 2riting Skills0 'Januar&+ (;;<)

This paper presents a techni4ue in the A$,ance 2riting Class that hasbeen pro,en successful in teaching the skills of summari3ing+ outlining+e%pressing opinion through the me$ium of "riting0 @n integrating2riting Lessons "ith rea$ing+ speaking an$ of course listening+stu$ents are able to pro$uce $&namic "riting output0

A 2rie! Theoretical 2ackground and the 2ackground o! the Students

This paper rests on the assumption that there is a stage$ $e,elopmentof language ac4uisition+ an$ that 1SL learners go through $ifferentstages of $e,elopment to"ar$s the target language0 More specificall&this implies that stu$ents learn $ifferent grammatical structures at$ifferent le,els of $e,elopment in each of the four skills of listening+speaking+ rea$ing an$ "riting0 At each stage+ some grammaticalstructures buil$ on other structures an$ can not be ac4uire$ before

other structure0 2ith focus on 2riting skills+ this paper reports on asuccessful an$ effecti,e teaching an$ learning techni4ue use$ "ithJapanese uni,ersit& stu$ents in the A$,ance 2riting Classes0

Japanese stu$ents come from a mono*language en,ironment+ "hereJapanese is the pre$ominant language at home an$ in the communit&+not"ithstan$ing the school0 1nglish e$ucation in Japan is spelle$ out insuch a "a& that stu$ents start to learn the language formall& in Junior

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5igh School "here hea,& emphasis is place$ on translations an$grammar stu$ies in preparation for Hni,ersit& 1ntrance 1%amination0This being the case+ uni,ersit& stu$ents are place$ into three le,els:the !eginning+ @nterme$iate an$ A$,ance in their 2riting classes0

Japanese stu$ents in the a$,ance le,el usuall& are a goo$ mi%ture ofthose "ho ha,e at least a &ear of o,erseas stu$& an$ those "ho ha,enot0 !ase$ on the e,elopmental Language Ac4uisition Theor&mentione$ abo,e+ learners at this stage+ "ith influences from L(2riting+ are no" sai$ to be able to "rite in paragraph forms+ "ith aparagraph being $efine$ as a coherent presentation of a number ofutterance tie$ together b& an o,erall message or intent0 2hat$istinguishes a paragraph from a set of sentences is primaril& te%tualcohesion "hich refers to elements that refer for"ar$ an$ back"ar$among across sentence boun$aries that tie sentences together0 !& thistime+ Japanese uni,ersit& stu$ents are able to narrate+ $escribe+ an$manipulate sentence structures to a certain e%tent that the& e%press"hat the& reall& are eager to communicate0 Conse4uentl&+ the& arealso able to use correctl& $iscourse connectors+ subor$ination an$coor$ination0 After ha,ing mastere$ the structural elements an$ st&leof paragraph "riting+ the& can an$ shoul$ tbe allo"e$ to "rite longerforms of "riting0

The Teaching o! Writing0 Integrated with 3ther Skills

The most common problem that confronts teachers of a 2riting Class$oes not lie so much on "hat to ask stu$ents to "rite about- the$ifficult& is more on ho" to moti,ate the stu$ents to "rite interestingan$ effecti,e materials0 2riting for "riting sake is a $rag+ an$pro$uces boring output0 The lesson plan presente$ here+ b& combiningthe teaching of "riting "ith other skills+ allo"s stu$ents free$om toe%press themsel,es meaningfull&0

The first phase of the lesson begins one "eek before "ith the gi,ing of the ASS@DNM1NT0 @ rea$ 'or "rite on the boar$+ or make copies of) alist of as man& topics "hich @ think to be of interest to the group0 @allo" the stu$ents to choose an& one topic that the& are most

intereste$ in+ an$ something that the& "oul$ like to kno" more about0Then @ tell them to look for a short 'the shortest is one paragraph+ thelongest is one page) maga3ine or ne"spaper article+ rea$ thoroughl&until the& un$erstoo$ the content+ an$ make a cop& to bring to class0No "riting is $one &et- stu$ents are re4uire$ onl& to completel&comprehen$ the te%t the& ha$ chosen0



The secon$ phase of the lesson is the @NT1ACT@K1 P5AS1 "hichbegins on the $a& of the ne%t class0 Stu$ents "ho ha$ chosen thesame topic are calle$ to sit together an$ form a group0 The are thentol$ to take turns in rea$ing* or reporting* each of their articles to thegroup members+ "hile e,er&bo$& else listens an$ then ask 4uestions

to clarif& points that are unclear+ or make comments 0 @ allo" as muchtime as the stu$ents are "illing to talk+ or half of the "hole class time0At this point+ @ make sure that stu$ents "ithin the same grouprecogni3e common or $i,erse aspects relating to the same topic0 Forinstance+ on the topic on 1n,ironmental Problems+ the& "oul$ ha,echosen articles on: eforestration+ Darbage Problems+ Noise Pollution+etc0

The thir$ phase of the lesson is the 2@T@ND stage0 @ ask the stu$entsto get back to their seats an$ "rite about t"o things: '() the topicthe& ha$ chosen to rea$ an$ bring to class+ an$ '.) the other relate$aspects of the same topic that the& foun$ out from the groupinteraction0 @ usuall& am surprise$ to fin$ out that the& "rite en$lessl&an$ use up until the last minute of the lesson time0

The length of the "ritten material re4uire$ "ill $epen$ on the skills tobe teste$+ the purpose of the lesson+ an$ on the rea$iness of the class0The shortest can be a one*paragraph "riting of either a summar& orreaction to the articles the& chose0 The stu$ents are re4uire$ to han$in the finishe$ material at the close of the perio$0

For a lesson on teaching skills on summari3ing+ @ usuall& ask stu$entto fin$ /* sentences in$icating the main points in the article+ an$ re*"rite these in their o"n /* sentences0

For a lesson an$ at the same time an e%ercise on outlining+ @ ask themto i$entif& .*/ main i$eas in the article* or as man& as the& can fin$+re*"rite these main i$eas in their o"n "or$s0 At the same time the&are tol$ to inclu$e a sentence supporting each of these main i$eas0

For a lesson on e%pressing personal opinions E beliefs+ stu$ents aretol$ to i$entif&+ again+ .*/ main i$eas 'or as man& as the& think thereare) an$ gi,e their personal reaction to each of these i$eas0

At the en$ of the term+ or the school &ear+ @ re4uire them to $o asummati,e "riting "hich tests the application of some or all theseskills in a set of paragraphs forming a coherent set of i$eas to form anessa& or a full composition0 The final pro$uct "oul$ be an essa&+ fore%ample+ "hich consists of: the (st paragraph as a summar&+ the .n$



paragraph as the outline '"ith main i$eas an$ supporting i$easin$icate$)+ the thir$ paragraph containing their personal reaction tothe article+ an$ so on0

The onl& hang*up "ith this techni4ue is that it entails a lot of "ork on

the teacher0 To be able to check stu$ents skill in summari3ing oroutlining+ the teacher has to rea$ e,er& stu$ents article+ thereb&increasing "ork t"ice as much0

Teaching the set of skills of summari3ing+ outlining+ reacting to aposte$ article using "riting as a me$ium helps Japanese collegestu$ents organi3e$ i$eas "hile allo"ing them to e%press these i$eas incomplete sentences0 The& are traine$ to put i$eas logicall& an$organi3e thought patterns an$ makes "riting more interesting for boththemsel,es an$ the teacher0 This techni4ue allo"s the stu$ents to"rite freel&+ an$ gi,es them a feeling that the& ha,e an in,estment onthe topic to be able to pro$uce reall& $&namic "riting e%pecte$ at theirle,el0

The @nternet T1SL Journal+ Kol0 @@@+ No0 /+ March (;;<http:EEitesl80orgE


"pproaching 2riting Skills

through Fair! Tales

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Sil,ia !rutibrutis >at? ital"a&0it

Hni,ersit& of Pisa+ @tal&

Wh# Fair# Tales?

2hen @ "as aske$ to choose a topic for a seminar for secon$ &earstu$ents of 1nglish @ thought of a "a& of combining linguistics "ith theteaching of "riting skills0 At that stage m& i$eas "ere still unclear an$all @ kne" "as that @ ha$ to select a te%t t&pe "hich coul$ be anal&se$an$ $iscusse$ at first an$ then ser,e as a mo$el0

The aim of the "hole secon$ &ear course is to un$erstan$ thatlanguage is a communicati,e instrument that can be a$apte$ to$ifferent interactional an$ transactional situations0 Conse4uentl&+learning something about the nature of the language as a semiotics&stem in,ol,es conscious reflection an$ un$erstan$ing+ but it isthrough reflection an$ the $e,elopment of more specific kno"le$geabout the language that the skills an$ competence to use it moreproficientl& can be generate$ 'McCarth& # Carter (;;=)0 This is ofcourse a long*term aim+ but our imme$iate+ short*term goal "as to$e,elop the stu$ents sensiti,it& to te%tual appropriateness an$communicati,e efficienc&0 Communication takes on so man& $ifferentforms+ each of "hich has its o"n $istincti,e 4ualities+ "hich $epen$ onthe people "ith "hom "e talk an$ on the $ifferent purposes for "hich"e talk0

Susan Deorge+ professor of 1nglish language an$ linguistics an$responsible for the secon$ &ear+ propose$ @ took up fair& tales thanksto her o"n positi,e e%perience both in Pisa an$ in Camerino0 @ "asenthusiastic at the i$ea+ although still looking for a connection bet"eenthem an$ linguistics0

On the one han$ fair& tales are a "ell establishe$+ t&pical te%t+ "ith$istincti,e thematic an$ formal features 'Pisant& (;;/: .<- La,inio(;;/: (*.()0 5o"e,er+ $espite their tipicalit&+ fair& tales allo" morescope for creati,it& than other te%t*t&pes+ an$+ "hat is e,en moreimportant+ the& can touch a place $eep "ithin our subconscious0 The&are much more than 8ust stories: the& are teachings that ha,e beenhan$e$ $o"n from generation to generation+ from "hich people learnabout both the $ark an$ bright si$es of life0 An$ @ nurse$ the hope thatthe& "oul$ $elight us+ stimulate our imagination an$ call up memoriesfrom our o"n chil$hoo$0

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Which Fair# Tales?

@ ha$ to pick a mo$el "hich "oul$ be our reference te%t+ something "ecoul$ anal&se+ $issect+ tear into pieces an$ still lo,e as something"hich has an$ "ill sta& "ith us fore,er0 So @ opene$ m& book of

memor& an$000 out came Little e$ i$ing 5oo$0

@ chose it because it is a tale that is hear$ aroun$ the "orl$0 Perhaps itis the protot&pical fair& tale e,er&one has in min$0

2hen @ began to collect some material for the seminar @ "as scarcel&a"are of the number of $ifferent ,ersions that sprea$ out after thefirst me$ie,al legen$s0 @ "as of course ac4uainte$ "ith both Perraultstale an$ the ,ersion b& the Drimm !rothers+ but @ ha$ no i$ea"hatsoe,er that the basic plot elements of L5 can also be foun$ in

tales from Japan+ China an$ orea0Jack ipes '(;G.) has collecte$ man& ,ersions of the tale+ from thefirst literar& ,ersions to the present*$a& politicall& correct a$aptations05e has also commente$ on the histor& of L5s te%tual $e,elopmentthrough centuries+ b& comparing te%ts "ith their illustrations0 5e hassho"n that their referential s&stems are strongl& interlinke$ an$ infact+ in most cases+ signs "hich belong to t"o $ifferent co$es reinforceeach other to the point that images become signifiers of the signifie$te%t0 @ ha,e hea,il& relie$ on ipess antholog&+ first of all because itpro,i$e$ me "ith a reference mo$el of a ,iable teaching path0

Secon$aril&+ it "as from this collection that @ selecte$ the tra$itional,ersions b& Perrault an$ the Drimms+ Anneliese Meinerts Little RedCap B: + Anne Se%tons poem Red Riding ood + o$aris Little =reen

Riding ood 0 @ also inclu$e$ Angela Carters t"o tales about L5+ TheCo#pany of Wolves an$ The Were%olves0 !ut apart from the $ebt @o"e to ipes+ @ $re" most of m& material from the 2eb0 @t "as surfinghere an$ there that @ came across man& interesting+ e%citing sites$e,ote$ to fair& tales0 Some of them $ispla& research pro8ects that aregoing on at $ifferent uni,ersities aroun$ the "orl$: 6Little e$ i$ing5oo$6'http:EE"""0south"estern0e$uEle"is,Efair&taleEre$ri$inghoo$0ht

ml) an$ 6Little e$ i$ing 5oo$ Pro8ect6'http:EE"""*$ept0usm0e$uE[eng$eptElrrhElrrhhome0htm)0 !oth of them are aboutL5+ but "hereas the former collects the tra$itional ,ersions b&Perrault an$ the Drimms an$ t"o me$ie,al @talian ,ersions 'The 1alse=rand#other an$ The Wolf and the Three =irls)+ the latter gathersman& te%ts an$ a$aptations+ as "ell as comments+ references toimportant criticism an$ a selection of other ma8or links in the @nternet0This generous+ free corpus of resources pro,i$e$ me "ith some other

http://www.southwestern.edu/lewisv/fairytale/redridinghood.html


http://www-dept.usm.edu/~engdept/lrrh/lrrhhome.htm








interesting te%ts+ such as oal$ ahls poem Little Red Riding ood And The Wolf + the politicall& correct ,ersion of L5 'from olitically

Correct 8edti#e tories b& James Finn Darner)+ an$ an @talian oral,ersion entitle$ The 1alse =rand#other '"ith a parallel 1nglishE@talian,ersion)0

espite significant $ifferences in language an$ tone+ all the ,ersionsshare some $ominant themes0 This ma& e%plain "h& L5 is so"i$esprea$ aroun$ the "orl$: it is about man& basic human themes+such as initiation to in$epen$ence+ famil& ties+ obe$ience or$isobe$ience to parents+ female pubescence+ se%ualit& an$Eor rape+social or$er ,ersus nature+ female or male heroism+ $eath an$re8u,enation+ glutton& an$ e,en cannibalism0 On i$entif&ing suchthemes one might ask a 4uestion: are fair& tales like this for chil$renor for a$ults7 Some associations in the H0S0 ha,e foun$ some of theclassical fair& tales too o,ertl& se%ual or e,en sub,ersi,e an$ ha,etherefore propose$ blacklisting them0 As Fromm '(;<) an$!ettelheim '(;<B) ha,e pointe$ out+ erotic material has been presentin folk an$ fair& tales from the ,er& beginning0 The Drimm brothersthemsel,es consciousl& a$apte$ the tales the& ha$ collecte$ to makethem more innocent an$ less erotic than the popular ,ersions0 The&also restore$ a happ& en$ing to L5+ "hich both the folktales an$Perraults ,ersion $o not ha,e0

@n an& case+ Little e$ i$ing 5oo$ li,es on+ because it can talk toan&bo$&+ especiall& on account of the fact that fair& tales ma& be rea$

at man& $ifferent le,els+ an$ so it opens man& stimulating topics to$iscussion0

uring the seminar @ also $istribute$ copies of other popular tales b&Perrault+ the Drimms an$ An$ersen0 @ "ante$ m& stu$ents to ha,e asmall corpus of fair& tales to rea$ an$ anal&se for themsel,es+ "herethe& coul$ go an$ check the appropriateness of their o"n creations0espite the $ifferences in st&le+ these te%ts are all tra$itional+ literar&tales0 So+ since @ $i$ not "ant to pre,ent the stu$ents from "ritingmo$ern stories+ at the risk of infringing the limits of the genre '"hichsometimes happene$)+ @ also ga,e them e%amples of mo$ernnarrati,e0 The& "ere some of the stories "ritten b& oal$ ahl+ "hich$ispla& $ifferent strategies an$ techni4ue $e,ise$ to appeal to apresent $a& au$ience0



Which Approach?

As @ ha,e briefl& touche$ upon abo,e+ m& aim "as to fin$ a metho$ ofte%t criticism that coul$ bear some s&stematic relation to the$e,elopment of linguistic an$+ more in particular+ "riting skills in

stu$ents+ an$ "hich might also be re*applie$ "hene,er anal&sing ate%t+ be it spoken+ "ritten+ literar& or non literar&0

@n spite of "hat is rather commonl& state$+ @ think that the stu$& of alanguage an$ its functioning mechanisms 'linguistics)+ an$ literar&te%ts 'in this case fair& tales+ as a literar& genre) are not mutuall&inimical+ but can an$ shoul$ rather supplement each other as integralstages in the $e,elopment of both language an$ te%tual a"areness0 Sothe emplo&ment of a linguistic frame"ork in the rea$ing of fair& tales"as meant to pro$uce an in,entor& of the recursi,e linguistic forms

a,ailable in that t&pe of te%t but also to isolate the rele,ant features of the genre+ such as the situation+ i0e0 the "riter*au$ience relationship+the informati,e structure+ the le,el of formalit&+ the ratio bet"eennarrati,e an$ $ialogic te%t chunks+ etc0 Iet+ this t&pe of categorisationusuall& runs the risk of o,ersimplif&ing te%ts in or$er to make them fitinto some preor$aine$ frame"ork0 So @ $i$ not start b& gi,ing an&theoretical frame"ork to m& stu$ents0 On the contrar&+ "e trie$ toelaborate regularities from the te%ts "e rea$ together+ an$ e,entuall&interpret $e,iations as instances in "hich the author ha$ broken therule for creati,e purposes0 The reasons "ere the follo"ing:

(0 @ $i$ not "ant to impose a fi%e$ mo$el "hich coul$ later on curbthe stu$ents creati,it& an$ in,enti,eness-

.0 te%t*internal features are not important in themsel,es but inrelation to other conte%tual parameters such as the au$ience an$the aim of the genre 'cf0 the notion of genres as processes in!enison (;;G)-

/0 genres are themsel,es $&namic ob8ects that ,ar& accor$ing tothe nee$s of social s&stems0 Therefore ne" genres arise an$others take on $ifferent features o,er time0 So it "oul$ be moreprecise to concei,e genres as points along a continuum+ "ith

some of them so near to one another that it becomes $ifficult toi$entif& "hich is "hich0

The selection of one te%t t&pe onl& "as constraine$ b& the fact that @"ante$ m& stu$ents to $e,elop a goo$ a"areness of at least onete%tual "orl$0 Therefore+ e%posure to man& $ifferent te%t t&pes "oul$ha,e probabl& resulte$ in less competence+ less sensiti,it&+ or "oul$ha,e re4uire$ more time0 The main criteria for choosing fair&*tales



"ere usefulness an$ the feasibilit& of application+ for m& stu$ents arestu$ents of languages an$ literature+ an$ are e%pecte$ to pro$uce"ell*"ritten te%ts an$ critical essa&s0 Through m& choice+ @ hope$ tocontribute to their general curriculum+ so that the& might re*use "hatthe& learne$ in other courses+ especiall& in "ritten e%ams 'e0g0 the

criticalEliterar& essa& in thir$Efourth &ear e%ams)0 Our "orkshop "asmeant to anal&se+ anatomise te%ts to $isco,er their inner mechanism+an$ to un$erstan$ "hich elements one has to emplo& to achie,ecertain communicati,e functions0 Apart from the imme$iate goal ofincreasing proficienc& in the "ritten language+ the pe$agogical ,alue of the secon$ &ear pro8ect "as to 6sensiti3e stu$ents to rhetorical effects+an$ to the rhetorical structures that ten$ to recur in genre*specificte%ts6 'S"ales (;;=: .(/)0 Once the& ha$ $e,elope$ such aninterpretati,e mo$el+ the& coul$ easil& transfer it to other fiel$s0uring the seminar stu$ents "rote both narrati,es an$ commentaries+"hich ,arie$ from critical e,aluations to linguistic anal&ses of te%ts0 @nthis "a& their competence in both these contrasting genres "asregularl& e%ercise$0

Which arrative Features?

Fair& tales belong to the "i$er categor& of the narrati,e genre+ "hichhas been e%tensi,el& anal&se$ from man& $ifferent ,ie"points '1co(;<;- Marchese (;G/- Pugliatti (;G- Labo, (;<.- Le,orato (;GG)0Iet+ the& $istinguish themsel,es especiall& for the relationship bet"een"riter an$ au$ience0 @n fair& tales communication is as&mmetrical+

consisting in an a$ult author or teller "ho tells his tale to an au$ienceor rea$ership ma$e up of one or more chil$ren0 The aim of the genre+of sub*genre+ is to teach b& $elighting the chil$+ "hich often+ if notal"a&s+ implies transporting him into the "orl$ of the tale0 Thereforethe author arranges his rea$ers te%tual 8ourne& before it actuall&starts0

Like an& other kin$ of narrati,e an$ also like an& form of formalorganisation+ fair& tales are able to e%ploit the features of the me$iumthe& use0 @n particular+ all ,erbal narrati,es e%ploit the characteristics

of language b& "a& of enco$ing narrati,e form in linguistic form0 Oneof the clearest cases of enco$ing of narrati,e form in linguistic form isthe use of initialEfinal fi%e$ phrases0 Tra$itional folk tales+ "hich belongto the oral tra$ition+ count on some outstan$ing characteristics+ that isto sa& all the possibilities of speech+ such as proso$ic phonolog&+intonation+ the use of pauses+ rh&thm+ the $ifferent 4ualities of ,oice+as "ell as on paralinguistic co$es+ among "hich gestures+ mimicr&+ e&econtact an$ so on0 2ritten narrati,es cannot e%ploit all the $e,ices of



oral stor& telling+ but ha,e $e,elope$ an in$epen$ent tra$ition ofnarrating "ith its o"n techni4ues0 This is one of the first aspect onemust be a"are of "hen $ealing "ith narrati,es+ an$ for this reason "estarte$ b& comparing the strategies of oral an$ "ritten tale*telling'La,inio (;;=+ (;;/)0

As for the content+ it "as essential to grasp the basic nucleus of theplot+ "hich correspon$s to the macro*structure ',an i8k (;<<)0 Themacro structure of a narrati,e constitutes its line of $e,elopment fromthe beginning to the en$ an$ $oes not $epen$ on the "a& in "hiche,ents are narrate$+ but must be reconstructe$ after rea$ing the te%t0Macro*structures an$ stor&*lines 'a subt&pe of the more generalcategor& of macro*structures) are often elaborate$ a priori b& theauthor+ "ho has the "hole narrati,e in min$ before "riting+ an$ a posteriori b& the a$$ressee+ "ho on the contrar& processesinformation $uring the act of rea$ing an$ retains onl& the most basicpieces0 The act of narration $oes not necessaril& follo" a strictchronological or$er: 4uite the contrar&+ authors strategicall& e%ploitthe $imension of time an$ often call their rea$ers to co*operate in theconstruction of meaning0

The basic characteristic of a stor&*line is that it usuall& in,ol,es someinitial $ifficult& an$ a final resolution0 1ach narrati,e consists of anumber of episo$es an$ sub*episo$es that make up the stor& line0Labo, '(;<.) i$entifie$ ,arious components of the stor& line+ among"hich the co#plication an$ the resolution0 5e also $istinguishe$ other

stages: the a!stract + "hich announces the topic of the stor&- theorientation+ "hich intro$uces the setting of the narrati,e- an$ thecoda+ "hich is place$ at the en$ an$ can therefore perform $ifferentfunctions0 @t can in fact comment on the e,ents an$ pro,i$e theau$ience "ith a moral lesson+ or signal that the narrati,e has come toan en$ an$ it is time to mo,e back to realit&0 Clearl&+ not all storiesha,e all these ingre$ients+ but co#plication an$ resolution areessential0 esolution in particular+ $espite its ,ariable significance in$ifferent stories+ al"a&s brings forth a ne" state of affairs "here or$erhas been re*establishe$+ 6b& the righting of the >initial? "rong6 'Fabb(;;<:(B)0 @n L5 co#plication correspon$s to the meeting "ith the"olf an$ resolution to the killing of the "olf in the Drimms ,ersion an$to the moral teaching in Perraults one+ "hich is not a properresolution+ since the girl $ies an$ the moral ma& onl& "arn otherchil$ren0 The i$entification of the main stages is an important help"hen stu$ents begin to "rite their o"n stories0 @n this "a& the& canrel& on a schematic frame"ork an$ mo,e from simple to morecomplicate$ narrati,es0



2hen "e anal&se$ L5 "e agree$ on a macro*structural plot+ ma$eup of the main stages in the narrati,e+ an$ then checke$ if this plotcoul$ be successfull& applie$ to the a$aptations an$ re*"ritings0 @nman& cases the te%ts $i$ not follo" the same stages+ so "e 8ust ticke$those "hich "ere present+ but for other te%ts "e ha$ to a$$ e%tra

stages+ especiall& to be able to consi$er fun$amental $etails0 @t shoul$also be remembere$ that stages can o,erlap an$Eor some categoriesma& ha,e blurre$ margins an$ e%ten$ o,er the "hole narrati,e0 This isthe case of evaluation+ in "hich the narrator often comments on theresolution an$ e%presses his ,ie" on the significance of the stor&'Fabb (;;G: (B<)0 This $oes not necessaril& occur through a moralsince+ as Labo, '(;<.) an$ others ha,e notice$+ narrators morefre4uentl& intersperse e,aluati,e comments throughout theirnarrati,es "ith ,ar&ing $egrees of e%plicitness0

Which (inguistic Features?

Turning no" back to the linguistic features+ it is "orth bearing in min$that an& narrati,e piece is concei,e$ to be communicate$ to anau$ience+ "ho must be able to follo" it an$ un$erstan$ its meaning0The linguistic form of a narrati,e $epen$s partl& on the genre an$partl& on the au$ience for "hom it is "ritten0

@n the telling of a tale+ linguistic form communicates a part of theinformation an$ ma& pro,i$e e,i$ence for it0 Our rea$ing of fair& tales"as mainl& aime$ to i$entif& the most recursi,e+ outstan$ing features

of the genre an$ the most fre4uent "a&s of enco$ing an$ gra$inginformation in linguistic form 'Ta&lor Torsello (;;<)0 The proce$ure ofscanning te%ts for significant patterns is te%t oriente$ an$ its ma8orpurpose is to help stu$ents to get at their o"n interpretation ofphenomena "ithout offering them theoretical mo$els an$metalinguistic terminolog& beforehan$0 Once the& ha$ i$entifie$ an$un$erstoo$ the te%tual aspects on "hich "e ha$ concentrate$+ it "aseasier for them to learn a metalanguage for te%t $escription0 M&stu$ents in$ee$ $isco,ere$ things for themsel,es an$ thanks to theiracti,e role "ere able to re*appl& the same $e,ices "hen creating their

o"n te%ts0As @ ha,e alrea$& pointe$ out+ one of the clearest cases of enco$ing ofnarrati,e meaning in some fi%e$ phrases is the opening an$ closingformula 6once upon a time6 an$ 6li,e$ happil& e,er after60 Thesee%pressions in$icate the threshol$ bet"een realit& an$ the narrati,e"orl$ an$ ,ice ,ersa0 So the& both belong to the narrati,e agreement"hich each "riter establishes "ith his au$ience '1co (;<;- Pugliatti



(;G)0 2ith this pact the rea$er engages himself to 6suspen$ his$isbelief6 an$ not to 4uestion the possible o$$ities he "ill fin$ 'e0g0talking animals+ spells)0 This feature is also reinforce$ b& the constantuse of thir$ person narration+ 6not >to? arouse an& $oubt in therecei,ers min$ about the real nature of the supernatural e,ents that

he is presente$ "ith6 'Pisant& (;;: (/.)0

Along "ith these ritual formulas+ fair& tales make e%tensi,e use ofrepetitions of both e%pressions an$ e,ents 'stereot&pical numbers+binar& or ternar& rh&thm- see Pisant& (;;/: /( ff0- La,inio (;;=:(99)0 This cohesi,e $e,ice is not onl& helpful in making the te%t easierfor the au$ience to un$erstan$+ but is most of all a trace "hich oraltra$ition has left in the literar& tale0 All these recursi,e mechanisms"ere essential to the stor&teller as long as the& ga,e him time tothink+ recollect i$eas or e,en in,ent bran$ ne" episo$es0 @n themeantime+ the& ease$ the task of the hearers b& refreshing theirmemor& an$ gi,ing them some basis for future pre$ictions0 The abilit&of a stor&teller consiste$ in "ea,ing together episo$es "hich "eret&pecast so that the final outcome "as not particularl& original for itsnarrati,e material+ but for the "a& in "hich such material "asorgani3e$0 e$un$ant structures are still one of the main features of"ritten fair& tales an$ perform a function that is practicall& i$entical tothe one of oral narrati,es: the& allo" the a$$ressees to get a tight gripon the narrati,e "orl$ an$ impose on them a minimal co*operati,eeffort0 The& also contribute to the processing of information+ for the&repro$uce share$ information that ma& ser,e as a common basis on

"hich unshare$ information hinges0 As Ta&lor Torsello $emonstrates'(;;<: (/G)+ fair& tale "riters usuall& organi3e information "ithin te%tsso that 6structure >000? perfectl& reflects the actual kno"le$ge set60 @nother "or$s+ "riters "rite their stories starting from chil$renskno"le$ge sets an$ not from their o"n0

Some other formal features inclu$e the absence of $etaile$$escriptions0 !oth people an$ ob8ects are rather sketchil& outline$+usuall& through a single attribute+ to achie,e semantic clarit& an$uni4ueness an$ a,oi$ ps&chological complications 'Luthi (;9<- La,inio(;;9)0 This feature has again been inherite$ from the oral folk tale"here action pre,aile$ o,er $escription0 The result is that in fair& talescharacters ma& un$ergo moral $e,elopment+ but the& $o not changeph&sicall&+ nor $o the& gro" ol$0 !oth the temporal an$ spatial$imensions are either obliterate$ or e%aggerate$: sometimes the tale"orl$ is not i$entifie$ an$ e,ents take place in an un$etermine$no"here at an unspecifie$ time0 Other times the author pro,i$es thenarrati,e "ith some spatial or temporal information+ "hich is



nonetheless in$eterminate: it ma& be the case of h&perbolic $istances'6he "alke$ for hun$re$s of miles6) an$ e%ten$e$ time 'e0g0 ahun$re$*&ear slumber)0 There is nonetheless no gap bet"een stor&an$ plot 'Propp (;BB)+ because oral narrati,es follo"e$ an i$eal lineara%is of $e,elopment0 2riting 'an$ mo$ern literature in general) can

rel& on a ph&sical space+ the page+ "hich can be ,isuali3e$+ an$ cantherefore make use of temporal $e,iations0 Finall&+ as @ ha,e briefl&hinte$ at abo,e+ the presence of the narrator is hi$$en un$er the maskof thir$ person narration+ but his ,oice is fre4uentl& hear$ as hebreaks in an$ comments on "hat is happening in the hope ofinfluencing his rea$ers response0 The conati,e function 'Jakobson(;BB) "as much more $e,elope$ in the oral folk tale because thetelling of the tale "as a collecti,e action in "hich the stor&teller le$ thenarration an$ his au$ience acti,el& contribute$ b& posing 4uestions+suggesting changes+ an$ making comments 'ipes (;<;)0

Another interesting feature is connecte$ to the use of $ifferent tenses0As 2einrich '(;B9) clearl& points out+ ,erbal tenses function as in$icesthat gui$e a$$resses an$ help them to $isco,er basic information suchas linguistic attitu$e+ perspecti,e an$ focus0 Tenses ma& be either6commentati,e6 or 6narrati,e6: in the first case a commentati,eattitu$e is associate$ to a $eep in,ol,ement of the speaker+ an$conse4uentl& of his a$$ressees+ in the "orl$ he $escribes0 @n 1nglishthe present perfect is an e%ample of commentati,e ,erb0 Narrati,e,erbs 'e0g0 the 1nglish past tense) con,e& a more $etache$ attitu$e0Perspecti,e is concerne$ "ith the temporal se4uence in the narrati,e+

so tenses are classifie$ into t"o categories+ the retrospecti,e+ "hichpoint to the past+ an$ the perspecti,e+ "hich point to the future0 Focusis instea$ the $imension that regulates the perceptual e,i$ence ofinformation through ,erbs0 There are in fact ,erbs that $escribebackgroun$ actions 'cf0 @talian i#perfetto) an$ ,erbs that outline moresalient e,ents0 @n 1nglish the choice is more limite$+ because there isno tense correspon$ing to @talian i#perfetto+ French i#parfait + orDerman rHteritu#+ so the e%pression of salience is entruste$ to othermeans0 After all the $efecti,eness of the 1nglish ,erbal para$igm turnsout to be positi,e+ for the massi,e use of past tense in fair& tales

'apart from a fe" occurrences of 6commentati,e6 ,erbs+ "hen theauthor crops up) makes the stu$ents task ,er& much easier0

As for the content+ it must be obser,e$ that it is not oftene%traor$inar& in itself: or$inar& ob8ects coe%ist "ith supernatural ones02hen e,er&$a& ob8ects are inserte$ in a fantastic "orl$ the& lose theirreal nature to fit the $&namics of the narrati,e0 To use 1costerminolog& '(;<;)+ the& are 6narcoti3e$6 in that the& lose an& social



or ps&chological ,alue to become instrumental in smoothing theprocee$ing of the action0 So content is rarel& fair&*tale like in itself+but it becomes so "hen it is frame$ "ithin the fair& tale architecture0

Audience and eception

The au$ience usuall& $oes not ob8ect to the presence of supernaturalelements or phenomena+ but accept them rea$il& because the&recogni3e them as t&pical traits of that genre0 As Le,orato '(;GG)claims+ people ha,e a schematic kno"le$ge about narrati,es thatenables them to $eci$e "hat is a narrati,e te%t an$ "hat is not0 Thismental mo$el is abstract an$ pre$icti,e+ an$ concerns the "a&s in"hich se4uences of actions an$ e,ents are narrate$0 @t is thanks tothis that rea$ers make pre$ictions on the t&pe of information the& "illfin$0 This schematic pattern is rather narro" in chil$ren+ but becomes

more fle%ible an$ "i$ens to inclu$e less protot&pical members of thesame narrati,e categor& for more sophisticate$ rea$ers0

eception is ,er& important for narrati,e sub*genres an$ $istinguishesfair& tales from other narrati,e t&pes such as m&th+ science fiction an$so on0 To$oro, '(;<<) locates fantastic tales bet"een the t"ocategories of 6l]trange6 an$ 6le mer,eilleu%60 2hen the rea$er noticessomething o$$ in the narrati,e "orl$ he has t"o options: either hefin$s a con,incing e%planation+ or he has to postulate ne" la"s "hichma& 8ustif& them0 @n the first case 6le fantasti4ue6 $issol,es into6ltrange6 'cf0 the case of thrillers)+ "hereas in the secon$s it turns

into 6le mer,eilleu%60 As often happens "ith classifications+ thecategories are not enough to co,er all the possible te%ts: To$oro,a$$e$ some bor$erline sub*genres+ such as 6le fantasti4ue*mer,eilleu%6 "here a tale that begins as a fantastic stor& en$s up "itha supernatural e%planation0 2hen on the contrar& the supernaturalelements are not 4uestione$+ either b& the characters or b& therea$ers+ the genre is 6le mer,eilleu% pur6+ "hich encompasses man&$ifferent narrati,e t&pes+ among "hich fair& tales0 espite the resultsof the application of this ta%onom&+ "hich might be $isappointing+ thisclassif&ing task is useful because it familiarises stu$ents "ith genres+

so that 6the& learn to make $istinctions+ think about subtle categories+an$ appl& abstract thinking in imaginati,e an$ concrete "a&s6 'ipes(;;: (<)

Concluding emarks

The task of establishing "hat $istinguishes one sub*genre fromanother is in$ee$ $ifficult an$ @ m&self e%perience$ it "hen @ rea$ m&



stu$ents fair& tales before their e%amination0 Some of them areclearl& meant to be tra$itional fair& tales an$ e,en share some plotelements "ith tra$itional ones0 Some others also belong to the genre+but the& in$ulge in the characterisation of both people an$ places+ an$are therefore more suitable to an ol$er au$ience or rea$ership0

Stu$ents "ere 8ustifie$ in a$$ing comple%it& to their plots becausee,en some literar& tales in$ulge in $etaile$ $escriptions an$ impartmoral lessons to rea$ers0 !esi$es+ a certain ten$enc& to"ar$s $eeperps&chological characteri3ation can easil& be $etecte$ in mo$ern tales'e0g0 Cal,inos tales)0 Some of the stories har$l& fit the para$igm offair& tales at all an$ cross the frontier into the $omain of short stories0@ ha$ in fact "arne$ m& stu$ents that @ "oul$ accept an& stor&pro,i$e$ the& "ere rea$& to $efen$ their choices0 The& ha$ the samefree$om in the "riting of their commentaries0 uring the seminar the&ha$ $one $ifferent t&pes of anal&ses+ ranging from linguistic$escriptions to more general comments about content an$ genre0 Fortheir final paper the& ha$ full free$om an$ "ere allo"e$ to choose ho"to organise their comments0 Some of them concentrate$ on thelinguistic aspects+ some on the plot+ "hile others trie$ to reconcileboth aspects an$ sho"e$ ho" the& "ante$ to communicate meaningthrough specific constructions0

The final results "ere ,er& pleasing: the fair&*tales "ere all rich inin,enti,eness+ imagination an$ more or less o,ert messages to theau$ience0 The stu$ents $emonstrate$ to be capable of mastering thegenre an$ their competence in the "ritten language "as 4uite goo$ *

although the& ,arie$ from in$i,i$ual to in$i,i$ual*0 Linguistickno"le$ge "as ho"e,er sufficient to communicate "ell+ "hereas$eficiencies mostl& occurre$ in the han$ling of the narrati,e material'especiall& in managing information an$ in se4uencing episo$es)0 Onthe "hole it can be sai$ that stu$ents not onl& ha,e learne$ ho" tore$uce a te%t to its macro*structure+ but are no" also familiar "ith themost t&pical linguistic an$ rhetorical strategies of the genre the& ha,econcentrate$ on0 The parallel structure of te%t*anal&sis an$ pro$uction"as essential to stimulate a better pragmatic a"areness in thestu$ents0 At the en$ of the &ear+ @ "as gla$ to ,erif& that it ha$ been

possible to account for the specific rhetorical functions an$ speech actsthat characteri3e $ifferent te%t*t&pes b& closel& anal&3ing te%ts0 Thisin,estigation allo"s to i$entif& the parameters "hich gui$e te%tualorgani3ation an$ the recurrent features of $ifferent genres0 All thesepatterns are not onl& factors of increase$ 6rea$abilit&6 in that the&make both rea$ing an$ comprehension easier+ but become car$inal inthe act of te%t pro$uction0



e!erences

• AA0KK0+ (;G/+ La narra/ione fantastica+ Pisa+ Nistri*Lischi0• !alboni+ P0100+ (;;G+ Tecniche didattiche per lBeduca/ione

linguistica+ Torino+ HT1T Libreria0• !enison+ J0+ (;;G+ 6Analisi e pro$u3ione $i testi scritti in inglese:

un approccio integrato basato sul concetto $i genere6+ in M0Pa,esi an$ D0 !ernini 'e$s0)+ LBapprendi#ento linguistcoallBUniversitH6 le lingue speciali + oma+ !ul3oni+ .;*/(/0

• !iber+ 0+ (;GG+ Variation across peech and Writing+ Cambri$ge+Cambri$ge Hni,ersit& Press0

• Carter+ 0 an$ J0 Mcae 'e$s0)+ (;;B+ Language, Literature & the

Learner + Lon$on+ A$$ison 2esle& Longman0• i8k+ T0A0+ ,an+ (;<<+ Te9t and Conte9t + Lon$on+ Longman0• Fabb+ N0+ (;;<+ Linguistics and Literature+ O%for$+ !lack"ell0• Denette+ D0+ (;BBE(;B;+ 1igure+ Torino+ 1inau$i0• Denette+ D0+ (;<.E(;G(+ 1igure ... + Torino+ 1inau$i0• Jakobson+ 0+ (;BB+ aggi di linguistica generale+ Milano+

Feltrinelli0• lammer+ T0P0 an$ C0J0 Compton+ (;<9+ 6Some recent

contributions to tagmemic anal&sis of $iscourse6+ in 0M0 !ren$'e$0)+ Advances in tag#e#ics+ Ne" Iork+ North 5ollan$Publishing Compan&+ /<<*/GB0

• Labo,+ 20+ (;<.+ Language in the .nner City + O%for$+ !lack"ell0• La,inio+ C0+ (;;=+ Teoria e didattica dei testi + Firen3e+ La Nuo,a

@talia0•

La,inio+ C0+ (;;/+ La #agia della fia!a7 Tra oralitH e scrittura+Firen3e+ La Nuo,a @talia0• Le,orato+ M0C0+ (;GG+ Racconti, storie e narra/ioni7 . processi di

co#prensione dei testi + !ologna+ @l Mulino0• Longacre+ 010+ (;<9+ 6Narrati,e ,ersus other $iscourse genre6+

in 0M0 !ren$ 'e$0)+ Advances in tag#e#ics+ Ne" Iork+ North5ollan$ Publishing Compan&+ /<* /<B0

• Lthi+ M0+ (;<=+ 0s %ar ein#al + '1nglish translation+ Once upon a

ti#e7 On the nature of fairy tales+ !loomington an$ Lon$on+@n$iana Hni,ersit& Press+ (;<B)0

• McCarth&+ M0 an$ 0 Carter+ (;;9+ Language as 'iscourse6

erspectives on Language Teaching+ Lon$on+ Longman0• Marchese+ A0 (;G/+ LBofficina del racconto+ Milano+ Mon$a$ori0• Perelman+ Ch0 an$ L0 Olbrects*T&teca+ (;GE(;BB+ Trattato

dellBargo#enta/ione7 La nuova retorica+ Torino+ 1inau$i0• Pisant&+ K0+ (;;/+ Leggere la fia!a+ Milano+ !ompiani0• Pisant&+ K0+ (;;+ 6Oralit& an$ Literac& in the Folktale6+ Versus+

<.+ (.;*(/G0



• Propp+ K0Ja0+ (;BB+ Forfologia della fia!a+ Torino+ 1inau$i0• Pugliatti+ P0+ (;G+ Lo sguardo nel r acconto+ !ologna+ anichelli0• o$ari+ D0+ (;</+ =ra##atica della fantasia+ Torino+ 1inau$i0• Schiffrin+ 0+ (;G(+ 6Tense ,ariation in narrati,e6+ Language+ <+

9*B.0• Ta&lor Torsello+ C0+ (;;<+ 6Linguistic Management of Share$ an$

Hnshare$ @nformation: From the Fair& Tale through the ScientificArticle to the No,el6+ in F0 Do33i an$ A0L0 Johnson 'e$s0)+ cien/ae .##aginario+ Pisa+ 1TS+ (//*(G0

• To$oro,+ T0+ (;<<+ La letteratura fantastica+ Milano+ Dar3anti0• Toolan+ M0+ (;;G+ Language in Literature+ Lon$on+ Arnol$0• 2einrich+ 50+ (;B9+ Te#pus+ ohlhammer+ Stuttgart 'tr0 fr0+ Le

te#ps+ Paris+ Seuil+ (;</)0• ipes+ J0+ (;<;+ 8rea"ing the Fagic pell6 Radical Theories of

1ol" and 1airy Tales+ Ne" Iork+ outle$ge0•

ipes+ J0 'e$0)+ (;G/+ The Trials and Tri!ulations of Little RedRiding ood + South 5a$le&+ !ergin # Dar,e&0

• ipes+ J0+ (;GB+ 'onBt 8et on the rince6 Conte#porary 1e#inist

1airy Tales in $orth A#erica and 0ngland + Al$ershot+ ScolarPress0

• ipes+ J0+ (;;+ Creative torytelling7 8uilding Co##unity,

Changing Lives+ Lon$on+ outle$ge0• ipes+ J0+ (;;<+ appily 0ver After7 1airy Tales, Children, and the

Culture .ndustry + Lon$on+ outle$ge0

Fair# Tales• An$ersen+ 50C0+ (;;9+ 6The Little Mermai$6+ 6The Hgl& uckling6+

1airy Tales+ 5armon$s"orth+ Penguin0• Carter+ A0 (;<;E(;G(+ 6The Compan& of 2ol,es60 @n The 8loody

Cha#!er and other stories+ Lon$on+ Penguin0• Carter+ A0 (;<;E(;G(+ 6The 2ere"olf60 @n The 8loody Cha#!er

and other stories+ Lon$on+ Penguin0• Carter+ A0 'e$0) (;<<+ The 1airy Tales of errault + Lon$on+

Dollanc30• ahl+ 0+ (;G.+ 6Little e$ i$ing 5oo$ An$ The 2olf6+ Revolting

Rhy#es+ Ne" Iork+ nopf '"ebsite: http:EE"""0hut0fiE^<1,esantoElink0funEre$0hoo$0html )0

• ahl+ 0+ (;B9E(;G+ Charlie and the chocolate factory +5armon$s"orth+ Puffin !ooks0

• ahl+ 0+ (;G(E(;;/+ =eorge and the #arvellous #edicine+5armon$s"orth+ Puffin !ooks0

http://www.hut.fi/~vesanto/link.fun/red.hood.html






• Finn Darner+ J0 (;;9+ 6Little e$ i$ing 5oo$60 @n olitically

Correct 8edti#e tories+ Ne" Iork+ Macmillan '"ebsite:http:EE"""0*s"iss0ai0mit0e$uEphilgE3ooEre$*ri$ing* hoo$0html)0

• Drimm+ J0 an$ 20+ (G(.E(;G+ 6otkppchen60 @n Kinder und

aus#Hrchen+ Mnchen un$ 5amburg+ 5ellerman '1nglish

translation0+ 6Little e$ Cap60 @n ipes 'e$0) (;G/: (/*(/G0• Meinert+ A0+ (;BE(;G/+ 6Little e$ Cap B60 @n ipes 'e$0)

(;G/: ./;*.9=0• Perrault+ C0+ (B;<E(;<G+ 6Le Petit Chaperon ouge60 @n Les

Contes de errault + Paris+ 5achette0• o$ari+ D0 (;<9E(;G/+ 6Little Dreen i$ing 5oo$60 @n ipes 'e$0)

(;G/: .B*.<0• Samber+ 0+ (<.;E(;G/+ 6The Little e$ i$ing 5oo$60 @n ipes

'e$0) (;G/: </*<B0• Se%ton+ A0 (;<(E(;G/+ 6e$ i$ing 5oo$6+ Transfor#ations0 @n

ipes 'e$0) (;G/: .9(* .90

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*ortfolios and *rocess 2riting+

" *ractical "pproachSimon ea

simon0rea >at? lang0uni*lin30ac0at @nstitute for !usiness Languages+ Hni,ersit& of Lin3+ 'Lin3+ Austria)

Introduction

A simple search of the @nternet using the ke& "or$s 6languageportfolios6 an$ 6portfolio assessment6 sho"s ho" popular these

concepts are in e$ucational circles: the former pro$uce$ about(=+=== mostl& 1uropean*base$ hits an$ the latter about .=+===mostl& HS*base$ hits0 Man& of these articles naturall& link portfolios"ith personal skills like reflection0 Man& practitioners 'see for e%ampleSantos (;;< about Japanese stu$ents) "oul$ agree about the linksbut bemoan the lack of training an$ opportunit& their stu$ents ha,eha$ to $e,elop such skills0 The authors o"n teaching e%periences inJapan+ Ne" ealan$+ Central 1urope an$ the H also suggests thatsuch problems are not to limite$ to Asian teaching situations0 For somethis means that the& consi$er a portfolio approach to be un"orkable intheir teaching situation0 The& fin$ a gap bet"een "hat the& belie,e

coul$ be a helpful pe$agogical approach an$ "hat their stu$entsactuall& $o0 This article aims to bri$ge that gap b& sho"ing ho" thepositi,e benefits of portfolios an$ reflection can be integrate$ into aprocess "riting course "ithout causing a critical o,erloa$ on theinstructors time resources0 This "ill be $one b& $escribing their placein a uni,ersit&*le,el process "riting course calle$ Te%t Pro$uction 'TP)0

Course 2ackground

The TP course consists of .( contact hours "hich are $i,i$e$ into (9blocks of ( (E. hours an$ is taught on a "eekl& basis0 The final

teaching block comprises the inter,ie"s0 The stu$ents are generall& inthe thir$ semesters of their stu$ies an$ there can be up to /= stu$entsin each class0 As part of the course re4uirements the stu$ents aree%pecte$ to pro$uce a t&pe"ritten report of about eight A9 pages'e%clu$ing bibliograph& an$ notes)0 The final gra$e is base$ on this$ossier+ home"ork gra$es+ participation in class "ork+ a "riting 8ournalan$ a portfolio "hich the stu$ents themsel,es select an$ $iscuss "iththe instructor in a final inter,ie" $iscussion0

mailto:simon.rea%20%5Bat%5D%20lang.uni-linz.ac.at?subject=ITESLJ%20Article%20-%20Portfolios

mailto:simon.rea%20%5Bat%5D%20lang.uni-linz.ac.at?subject=ITESLJ%20Article%20-%20Portfolios



@n common "ith man& 1SL "riting courses 'see for e%ampleFlo"er$e" (;;/ or a& an$ u$le&*1,ans (;;G)+ stu$ents arefamiliarise$ "ith insights of the genre approach an$ gi,en practice inpro$ucing $ifferent aca$emic 'S"ales (;;=) an$ professional genres'!hatia (;;/)0 @n common "ith much process "riting instruction+ the

course also emphasises metho$s "hich help the stu$ents to becomea"are of "riting as a process 'see for e%ample 2hite an$ Arn$t (;;(+aimes (;;.)0 @n the TP course+ these inclu$e practice in an$ $irectteaching about generating an$ planning techni4ues such asbrainstorming an$ concept mapping0 Stu$ents are also gi,en an article'ea .===) an$ short content*base$ inputs about "riting as a process0These theoretical inputs are linke$ to the tape of a think*alou$ protocolof a short te%t being "ritten "hich the stu$ents listen to an$ then talkabout0

Te%t reformulation 'Cohen (;G/+ All"right et al (;GG) is use$ toencourage stu$ents to look at their o"n "riting criticall&0 @n a firststage+ the stu$ents "ork on set te%ts+ inclu$ing intro$uctions an$conclusions of $ossiers from pre,ious &ears+ "hich are rea$+ correcte$for surface le,el errors an$ then re"ritten0 The& $o this first asin$i,i$uals an$ then $iscuss the results as a "hole group0 Follo"ingthis+ the stu$ents rea$ an$ re"rite $ifferent sections of each otherste%ts+ using the insights the& ha,e gaine$ from the class $iscussions0After that the& go on to re*formulate their o"n "ork base$ on theinsights of their colleagues 'an$ the instructors) rather than 8ustcorrect it for grammar an$ spelling mistakes0 eformulation ob,iousl&

helps stu$ents to become a"are of e%ternal rea$ers an$ this isreinforce$ "ith ,i$eo an$ te%t*base$ input 'Little"oo$ (;;9)0

Journal "riting an$ fast"rites are also integral parts of the course0 @nboth acti,ities the stu$ents can prepare for the final inter,ie" "ithoutbeing a"are that the& are $oing so because both acti,ities can b& their,er& nature be ,er& reflecti,e0 There are t"o compulsor& fast"rites0!oth take se,en minutes an$ are on the topic 65o" @ "rite 00060 One is"ritten in the first meeting an$ the other in the final professional"riting "orkshop0 These ,er& often sho" the $e,elopment of thestu$ents "riting skills0 Some stu$ents use fast"rites in their "riting 8ournals too0

The "riting 8ournal is a kin$ of 6personal $iar&6 'cf aimes (;;.)"here the stu$ents can "rite about their e%periences an$ feelingsabout "riting in general an$ this course in particular0 Stu$ents are tol$that it has t"o main purposes+ namel& to make stu$ents feel at ease"riting in 1nglish an$ to gi,e them the chance to e%press themsel,es0



For these reasons+ it $oes not ha,e the relati,el& tight structurerecommen$e$ for e%ample b& Nunan '(;GG) "ho suggests a numberof 4uestions "hich stu$ents shoul$ ans"er about their learning0 This isbecause the $iar& aims to help the stu$ents o,ercome 6"ritingan%iet&6+ as "ell as to help them focus on their learning processes0 @t

$oes this b& mo$elling the t&pe of "riting stu$ents can $o in the "a&the acti,it& is intro$uce$ an$ in the fast "rites0 The& are e%pecte$ tospen$ about fi,e to ten minutes a $a& 'or /=*B= minutes a "eek) onthis "riting0 The 8ournal can be "ritten b& han$ or "ith the computer0@t is e,aluate$ for 4uantit& rather than 4ualit&0 !ecause of the personalnature of some of the comments+ the instructor onl& looks at the 8ournal if the stu$ents re4uest this or a$$ it to their portfolios0

Port!olios

2hat then are the portfolios an$ ho" $o the& fit in7 The ans"er is that

the& pro,i$e a frame"ork for the "hole course0 @n the sche$ule the&get at the start+ stu$ents are tol$ that the& "ill prepare a portfolio oftheir best "ork $uring the semester "hich the& "ill $iscuss "ith theinstructor in a personal inter,ie" at the en$ of the semester0 @t shoul$$ocument their progress 'as measure$ b& their sub8ecti,e feelings an$the amount of effort the& ha,e put into the course)- their achie,ement'as measure$ b& the 6ob8ecti,e6 gra$es the& ha,e been gi,en $uringthe semester)- an$ an& other information the& belie,e is rele,ant0 @nthis "a& the course begins an$ en$s "ith a portfolio focus0

The portfolio consists of si% pieces of "ritten "ork inclu$ing a "rittenself*e,aluation+ the eight*page research $ossier an$ three pieces of"ork of the stu$ents o"n choice0 The "ritten self*e,aluations ten$ tobe in the form of memos or letters to the instructor0 @t is+ ho"e,er+ upto the in$i,i$ual stu$ent to chose "hich genre suits him or her best0Some stu$ents e,en choose to "rite a mini*case stu$& "ith a S2OTanal&sis+ e%plaining their strengths+ "eaknesses+ opportunities an$threats in "riting0 Appen$i% / sho"s t"o t&pical self*e,aluations0Together the portfolio an$ the inter,ie" account for =^ of the finalgra$e0

The three pieces of "ork of their o"n choice ma& be taken from an& of the "ork the& ha,e $one $uring the semester0 The& ma& be "ork the&ha,e $one in*class or as home"ork0 The& ma& be from an& part of thecourse an$ inclu$e the intro$uction an$Eor conclusion "ith theirreformulation ,ersions or e,en their "riting $iar& or an& t"o of thefast*"rites0 @t is completel& up to them0



Teacher%s =iewpoint

The portfolio $iscussion inter,ie"s ten$ to follo" a similar frame"ork:starting "ith a focus on the stu$ents ,ie" of the process of "riting+then mo,ing on to their choice of "ork an$Eor specific course featuresan$ finishing "ith their self assessment0 The or$er is not al"a&s thesame but all three elements ten$ to be present+ as the i$ea is to allo"the stu$ents to talk 4uiet freel& an$ bring in their o"n ,ie"s on "hatan$ ho" the& ha,e learne$ $uring the course0 This is similar in effectto the 6interlocutor frames6 gi,en for e%aminations such as theCambri$ge A$,ance$ 1nglish 'see http:EE"""0cambri$ge*efl0org formore $etails)0 Such a frame"ork makes it easier to 8u$ge stu$entsoral abilities+ as the content ,ariable is not gi,en to the same e%tent asin sub8ect*base$ oral e%aminations or presentations0 As far as gra$ingis concerne$+ the stu$ents spoken performance in this relati,el&content*controlle$ en,ironment can easil& be benchmarke$ against

internationall&*recognise$ marking scales such as those from theCouncil of 1urope 'http:EEculture0coe0frElangEengEee$u.0980htm) or theAssociation of Language Testers in 1urope 'http:EE"""0alte0org)+"hich is also use$ in e%aminations like the CA10

The process 4uestions focus on ho" the& chose the pieces of "ork fortheir portfolio0 More mature stu$ents ten$ to start "ith the$e,elopmental aspect as the& ha,e generall& chosen te%ts "ith bothgoo$ an$ poor gra$es "hile less reflecti,e stu$ents "ill ten$ to put allthe goo$ gra$es together an$ focus onl& on the pro$uct aspect0 2iththe former group of stu$ents it is relati,el& eas& to ha,e a goo$$iscussion an$ fruitful an$ honest reflection0 The latter groupsometimes nee$s to be remin$e$ of the in*class $iscussions aboutlearning before this can take place0 This can also be $one b& askingthem $irectl& about their choice an$ getting them to reflect on "hatmakes each piece of "ork goo$0 Mo,ing on to the 6most usefulacti,ities from &our '_the stu$ents) point of ,ie" 6 can also help tomo,e the $iscussion from a pro$uct to a process perspecti,e0 2henthis has happene$ it is much easier for the stu$ents to focus onreflection than negotiation an$ tr&ing to pla& the s&stem0

Hsing portfolios in this "a& has both strengths an$ "eaknesses0 Onthe negati,e si$e is of course the amount of time nee$e$ "ith bet"een( minutes per stu$ent an$ a short break bet"een each one0 This canlea$ to a certain 6portfolio fatigue6 on the instructors part+ generall&after the first si% or se,en inter,ie"s0 @n turn this ma& lea$ to theinstructor $ominating the $iscussion an$ not allo"ing the stu$ents toe%press themsel,es in their o"n "a&0



For some stu$ents an& such inter,ie" situation can be stressful an$this ma& affect their performance0 As note$ abo,e+ some stu$entsmake use of the inter,ie" as an opportunit& for 6plea bargaining6about their gra$es "hile others ma& tr& to be s&cophantic in the hopethat this "ill impro,e their gra$es0 5o"e,er+ such problems are

common to almost all internal ,i,a ,oce e%aminations0

On the other han$+ the strengths of this approach inclu$e the real64ualit& time6 gi,en to each stu$ent as an in$i,i$ual0 This is in asituation "here the& must talk an$ the& ha,e 6no"here to hi$e60A$$itionall&+ it means that stu$ents ha,e to reflect on learning as aprocess an$ can help them to see their o"n strengths0

These $iscussions are also ,er& useful for the instructors as it ispossible to get a more $etaile$ 6consumer fee$back6 on the coursethan is other"ise possible0 The& can learn about stu$ent effort an$$ifficulties "hich can lea$ to better preparation an$ more effecti,ematerials0

Conclusion

This article has presente$ a "a& to integrate portfolio approach into aprocess "riting course0 Portfolios b& their ,er& nature re4uire reflectionon the part of those "ho are putting them together+ be the& stu$ents'Santos (;;<) or teachers '!asti$as (;;<)0 2hile man& stu$ents inAustria ha,e not been traine$ to reflect on their learning+ process"riting techni4ues+ especiall& acti,ities like reformulation an$ 8ournal"riting can encourage them to $o so0 The ,alue of reflection inlearning processes has long been recognise$ in management e$ucation'eg0 Arg&ris an$ Sch`n (;<G)0 The portfolio*base$ personal inter,ie"bet"een stu$ents an$ instructors can lea$ to the start of consciousl&self*anal&tical $eutero*learning c&cle "hich can then be applie$ inother situations as "ell0 2hen this happens+ the te%t pro$uction has$one more than 8ust help stu$ents "ith their 1nglish0

e!erences

• Arg&ris+ C0 an$ Sch`n+ A0 (;;B0 Organisational Learning: A

Theor& of Action Perspecti,e0 Massachusetts: A$$ison*2esle&• All"right+ 0L0+ 2oo$le&+ M00+ an$ All"right+ J0M0 (;GG0

6@n,estigating eformulation as a practical strateg& for theteaching of aca$emic "riting06 Applie$ Linguistics ;E/: ./B*.B0

• !asti$as+ J0 A0 (;;B0 The teaching portfolio: A tool to become areflecti,e teacher06 1nglish Teaching Forum0 Jul&EOctober: .9*.G0



• !hatia+ K00 (;;/0 Anal&sing Denre: Language use inprofessional settings0 Lon$on: Longman0

• Cohen+ A00 (;G/0 6eformulating compositions06 T1SOLNe"sletter (<EB: (0

• ale& an$ 5aile& (;G90 6• Flo"er$e"+ J0 (;;/0 6An e$ucational or process appraoch to the

teaching of professional genres06 1LT Journal 9<E9: /=*/(B0• a&+ 50L0 an$ u$le&*1,ans+ T0 (;;G0 6Denre: 2hat teachers

think06 1LT Journal .E9: /=G*/(90• Little"oo$+ 20 (;;90 6ea$ing an$ "riting as a 8oint 8ourne&

through i$eas06 Ki$eo of Paper gi,en at ea$ing an$ 2ritingesearch @nternational Conference Southeast Asian Ministers of1$ucation Organisation egional Language Centre Singapore0

• Nunan+ 0 (;GG0 The Learner*centre$ Curriculum0 Cambri$ge:Cambri$ge Hni,ersit& Press0

•

aimes+ A0 (;;.0 1%ploring through 2riting: A Process Approachto 1SL Composition .n$ e$0 Ne" Iork: St0 Martins Press• ea+ S0 20 J0 (;;;0 6Picture this: Three pictures in search of a

process06 1nglish Language Teaching Ne"s '!ritish Council ET1A)0

• Santos+ M0 (;;<0 6Portfolio Assessment an$ the role of learnerreflection06 1nglish Teaching Forum0 April: (=*(90

• S"ales+ J0M0 (;;=0 Denre Anal&sis * 1nglish in Aca$emic an$esearch Settings0 Cambri$ge: CHP0

Appendi4 I

This sheet is han$e$ out an$ $iscusse$ $uring the first coursemeeting0

$35RS) *3RTF3L3

As part of the course &ou "ill be e%pecte$ to pro$uce a portfolio of&our "ork $uring the semester0 Iou "ill $iscuss it "ith the instructor inan inter,ie" of about (= minutes on

The aim of the portfolio is to gi,e &ou a chance to sho" the progress&ou ha,e ma$e $uring the semester0 The aims of the portfolio an$ theinter,ie" are to sho" &our progress $uring the semester0

The portfolio "ill consist of pieces of "ritten "ork0 These "ill inclu$e:

(0 A "ritten self*e,aluation.0 Iour $ossier 'final ,ersion)/0 / pieces of "ork0



Iou "ill also ha,e to sho" the instructor &our "riting 8ournal $uringthe inter,ie"0 The "riting 8ournal "ill not be rea$ b& the instructorunless &ou "ant it to beZ

2ritten self-evaluation

The "ritten self*e,aluation shoul$ be in the form of a memo or letterto the instructor0 @t shoul$ co,er &our o"n ,ie" of &our progress 'asmeasure$ b& &our sub8ecti,e feelings an$ the amount of effort &ouha,e out into the course)+ &our achie,ement 'as measure$ b& the6ob8ecti,e6 gra$es &ou ha,e been gi,en $uring the semester) an$ an&other information &ou belie,e is rele,ant0 Iou ma& e,en $eci$e to $o itthe form of a S2OT anal&sis+ e%plaining &our strengths+ "eaknesses+opportunities an$ threats as far as the course is concerne$0 @t shoul$be han$e$ in on

( pieces of work&The / pieces of "ork of &our o"n choice ma& be taken from an& of the"ork &ou ha,e $one $uring the semester0 The& ma& be "ork &ou ha,e$one in*class or as home"ork0 The& ma& be from the professional"riting part or from the aca$emic "riting part0 Iou ma& also inclu$ethe intro$uction an$Eor conclusion "ith their reformulations in this partor e,en the generating acti,ities0 Iou coul$ also inclu$e &our "riting$iar& or other fast*"rites if &ou prefer0 Another alternati,e is to inclu$e. of &our fast "rites '_( piece of "ork) to sho" ho" &our "ritingan$ E or &our opinions about "riting ha,e change$0 The choice iscompletel& up to &ou but it "oul$ be helpful to choose a broa$

selection of &our "ork0

Appendi4 II

These are some of the most common an$ useful 4uestions for the finalinter,ie"0( Process focus 4uestions

• 2hat $i$ &ou think about the 'process of putting portfolio

together)7 E Coul$ @ ha,e a look at the $ocuments7• o &ou think its a goo$ i$ea for the teacher to ask the stu$ents

to put together the best pieces of "ork7• 2hat part of the course $i$ &ou fin$ useful7• 2hat $i$ &ou learn7 '"h&7) E 2hat changes $o &ou think &ou

ma$e 'in the "a& &ou "rite)7



. Pro$uct focus 4uestions

• 2hich piece of "ork is most characteristic7 '2h&7)• 2hich piece of "ork best sho"s their progress7 '2h&7 E 5o"7)• 2hat about 'free "rites) '"riting 8ournal)7

Self e,aluation• 2hat gra$e $o &ou think &ou shoul$ get 7 remember its =^ of

the gra$e• The last thing @ aske$ &ou to $o "as to reflect0 o &ou think its

a goo$ i$ea for the teacher to ask the stu$ents to put togethertheir best pieces of "ork7

Appendi4 III

Self-evaluation %

ear Mr0 ea+

As &ou can imagine+ it is $ifficult to formulate a self*e,aluation0 Mostl&+the result of such a "ork can be seen as a compromise bet"eenmo$est& an$ o,erestimation of the o"n abilities0 5o"e,er+ @ amcon,ince$ that @ ha,e impro,e$ m& 1nglish "riting abilities $uring thiscourse0 Although m& "riting st&le is far from being perfect+ the "ritingof the $iar& has gi,en me a lot of practice0

!esi$es+ @ appreciate$ this course because @ ha,e learne$ ho" tomanage "riting a report0 No"+ @ kno" that the research ofinformation+ the organisation an$ other things like 4uotations an$references are as important as the "riting itself @t is astonishing butthe basic kno"le$ge ac4uire$ in this course helpe$ me to organise thecomposition of m& French final e%amination0

espite all the progress @ ha,e ma$e @ am a"are of some "eaknessesas the gra$e of m& report sho"s0 The final gra$e "ill probabl& be the"orst of all m& 1nglish courses0 5o"e,er+ @ am not $isappointe$

because this course has been the har$est an$ most $ifficult of all1nglish courses till no"0

Iours sincerel&+

Self-evaluation

ear Sir+



First of all+ @ "ant to thank &ou for &our helpful instructions in te%tpro$uction0

@ remember &ou entering the classroom an$ asking us "hat "eassociate "ith the "or$ 6te%t pro$uction6 an$ "hat "e are e%pecting

from the course0 To be frank+ @ "as not sure if @ "oul$ be tol$something ne" in this course+ but @ "as "rong0 Iou $re" our attentionto pro$ucing te%ts an$ emphasise$ that "riting is a process0 @ no"kno" ho" to rea$ a letter effecti,el& an$ "hat the important parts of areport or a te%t are0 !efore the course @ thought the bo$& is the mostrele,ant part in a letter+ not kno"ing that a clear an$ preciseintro$uction an$ an informati,e conclusion make a te%t to a goo$ one0

Also the repeate$ emphasis on the structure an$ the links an$ to othermetho$s+ such as @SS 'keep it short an$ simple) or the si% 4uestions'"here an$ "hen an$ "ho an$ "hat an$ "h& an$ ho") "ill influencem& further "ritten "orks0

Not onl& the "orks in class+ but also the tasks "e ha$ to $o at home @foun$ ,er& interesting an$ helpful0 @ like$ ,er& much to pro$uce the"riting 8ournal an$ @ reall& notice$ a change in m& "riting st&lecomparing the first an$ the last page0

The ne%t thing "e "ere tol$ to $o "as a $ossier0 At the ,er& firstmoment @ thought this "oul$ be the chance to "rite about something @"as intereste$ in because the topic "as up to us0 Hnfortunatel&+ @

$eci$e$ to "rite about 6Jeeps6+ inspire$ b& the last Jeep Jamboree inCarinthia0 @ soon foun$ out that this topic coul$ not fulfil there4uirements because @ ha$ not ,er& much useful information0 So @change$ the topic 8ust t"o "eeks before "e "ere aske$ to han$ our$ossier in0 @t "as not much time left an$ so the final $ossier "as notthe report @ like$ it to be0

@n general+ @ ha,e notice$ that m& strength is not the "ritten+ but theoral 1nglish0 @ hope @ can pro,e on Mon$a& that @ speak 1nglish "ellZ

@ am looking for"ar$ to our meeting on Mon$a&+

Iours sincerel&

The @nternet T1SL Journal+ Kol0 K@@+ No0 B+ June .==(http:EEtesl80orgE

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ntegrating 2riting with

Reading

Iang Shu&ingalian Na,al Aca$em& 'alian+ China)

&s& >at? mail0$lptt0ln0cn

Introduction

ea$ing an$ "riting ha,e been consi$ere$ t"o $ifferent language skillsthat shoul$ be stu$ie$ separatel&0 As a result+ man& college stu$entsin China fin$ it har$ to put their thoughts into 1nglish0 The processgenre approach can be successfull& applie$ to integrate "riting intothe rea$ing class0 @n this approach+ besi$es linguistic kno"le$ge+ the"riting genre+ the schematic structure+ an$ the "riting skills of the in*class rea$ing materials are also stresse$0 The "riting skills are in turnutili3e$ in gui$e$ "riting+ from outline "riting+ $rafting+ to re,ising0The purpose of such a teaching process is to achie,e multile,elun$erstan$ing of the rea$ing materials an$ a soun$ basis for the"riting of $ifferent genres0

Procedure

To $eman$ stu$ents acti,e participation+ a lesson using the processgenre approach can be $i,i$e$ into the follo"ing phases:

un$erstan$ing specific information+ in*class collecti,e "riting an$after*class "riting practice0

,nderstanding o! the eading 5aterials

• *review Re0uirements+ o Master the main linguistic kno"le$ge or the language

points0

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o Catch the main i$ea+ fin$ the topic sentence of eachparagraph0

o Tr& to $etermine the genre of the article0• 5nderstanding Specific nformation+

o 3.9ectives+ un$erstan$ing the main i$ea+ mastering the main

language pointso "ctivities+

Ask se,eral stu$ents to tell the main i$eas of thete%t+ or gi,e a brief summar&

Ask 4uestions an$ ans"ers about the specificinformation to make sure the stu$ents un$erstan$$etails of the te%t

1%plain the language points0 As is re4uire$ forpre,ie"+ stu$ents shoul$ ha,e mastere$ the

language points before coming to class0 So theteachers 8ob is 8ust to check to see if the& ha,e0 The"a& to check is to ask stu$ents to the blackboar$ to$o paraphrasing an$ or to gi,e e%planations an$e%amples0

As the stu$ents carr& on "ith the language points+the teacher shoul$ pa& close attention an$ be able tomake necessar& a$8ustment an$ supplement0

• "nal!sis of 2riting Skills+ o 3.9ectives+

Hn$erstan$ the t&pical features an$ the "ritingscheme of the genre of the te%t0

o *rinciple+ Hsing a heuristic teaching st&le+ the teacher gi,es

out some clues for the stu$ents to think about an$infer from0 Then the teacher gi,es final confirmation0

o "ctivities+ Anal&3e the genre of the article0 Ask the stu$ents to

think about the purpose of "riting accor$ing to themain i$eas the& ha,e $eri,e$0 eci$e the genre ofthe te%t0

Anal&3e the "riting skill an$ the schematic structureof the te%t0 Through $iscussion+ stu$ents shoul$ beable to $eci$e the functions of each paragraph+ an$the specific $iction to support the main i$eas0

In*class Collective Writing

• 3.9ectives+



o Htili3e the specific "riting skills an$ the schematicstructure 8ust $eri,e$0

• *rinciple+ o @nstea$ of being the information pro,i$er+ the teacher

shoul$ 8ust be the organi3er of classroom acti,ities+ the

person "ho "rites on the blackboar$0• "ctivities+

Droup $iscussion of the topic of the "riting theteacher pro,i$e$0

Collecti,e "riting0 Hsing the output of $iscussion+ theclass "ill "rite a paragraph collecti,el&0 1ach grouppro,i$es a sentence+ follo"ing the "riting scheme,er& closel&0

Comment on the total output0 The teacher "ill makecomments on sentence coherence+ semantic

conformit&+ the specific "riting process+ an$ makenecessar& a$8ustments0 easons must be gi,en as to"h& the change is necessar&0

A!ter*class Writing Practice

Stu$ents shoul$ "rite an article using the "riting skills an$ the specific$iction achie,e$0 The teacher must rea$ e,er& piece of "riting ,er&carefull&- select the best ones an$ the ones "ith t&pical errors to useas e%amples for further comments0

)6ample

The follo"ing is an e%ample of "riting anal&sis of the "riting ofrefutation+ an$ a paragraph of "riting finishe$ in class0

• The schematic structure of a piece of refutation "riting0o The first paragraph: Present the i$easEopinions to be

refute$o The secon$ paragraph: Sho" the $isagreemento The thir$ paragraph: efute the first "rong i$ea

2riting skills: (0 present the i$ea again .0 sho" $isagreementE @ think he is "rong /0 use illustrations to support ones o"n i$ea

o The fourth paragraph0 efute the secon$ "rong i$ea 2riting skill:

(0 present the i$ea .0 sho" $isagreementE @ ha,e ne"s for him /0 use illustrations

o The fifth paragraph: Conclusion



• @n class collecti,e "riting of refutation0 'in brackets are thereasons for the original sentence+ the reasons for the correctionan$ other comments)0 The topic is @t is not necessar& to "orkhar$ once "e enter college0

*aragraph 3ne

Some people sa& that college shoul$ be a time for rela%ing an$ fun0> present the %rong idea? !ut in m& opinion+ college is a time forstu$&ing >ho% oneBs o%n attitude?0 @n the future+ "e "ill "ork in thesociet&0 @f "e $ont ha,e enough kno"le$ge an$ abilit&+ "e "ill lagbehin$ >illustration 2?0 Our li,es are limite$+ but stu$& is unlimite$0The fact that "e entere$ college $oes not mean "e ha,e mastere$ allkno"le$ge >illustration +?0 So "e must stu$& har$0 2e must rea$+"rite+ think an$ $o a lot of things to get 'us) rea$& for our future li,es0>conclusion?

*aragraph Two

Some people sa& >o#e!ody says, later Bthe#B is used, therefore, the

su!5ect should !e plural ? the time at college is to rela% an$ ha,e fun>resent the opposite idea?0 @ $isagree "ith them >ho% oneBs o%n

attitude?0 First+ @ think "e must face the societ&0 @f "e "ant to get agoo$ 8ob+ "e must stu$& har$ >.llustration 2?0 Secon$+ "e must $efineour goals0 2e must cherish our time+ spen$ the time on stu$&ing+ an$not "aste time to make girlfrien$s or bo&frien$s0 An$ "e also ha,e to

face e%aminations >illustration +?0 Thir$+ the stu$& in college is crucialto buil$ing a positi,e attitu$e to"ar$s life >illustration *?0 @f "e '&outhe person use$ shoul$ be rele,ant) rela% an$ ha,e fun+ "e'&ou ibi$)llha,e no moti,ation an$ our future "ill not bright0

The e6uirements o! the Teacher

%& The ".ilit! to 3rgani4e $ommunicative "ctivities

The genre process approach is a 4uite $eman$ing approach+ in "hich at"o*"a& communicational learning en,ironment is critical0 The teacher

must use heuristic teaching st&le0 Onl& through $e$ucti,e teaching canstu$ents ac4uire the abilit& to e,aluate an$ anal&3e the rea$ingmaterial as "ell as the abilit& to rea$ for general information0

& Aer! Sound #asic Linguistic Skills

!esi$es the linguistic kno"le$ge+ grammar rules+ an$ culturalbackgroun$ information generall& re4uire$ for teachers of otherapproaches+ teachers must also master the schematic structure of the



rele,ant genre of the te%t+ an$ be competent to use the rele,ant"riting skills0

(& "n ".ilit! to Deal with the 5ne6pected in $lass

This 4ualit& is essential to perform in*class collecti,e rea$ing+ since it

is 4uite unpre$ictable0 1,en though the main i$ea of the passage isunchange$+ $ifferent class "ill come up "ith $ifferent paragraphs0 Theteacher must be able to a$8ust unsuitable linguistic phenomenon+obser,e coherence an$ conformit& in "riting+ stimulate creati,e an$logic thinking+ an$ grasp the stu$ents attention in class0

e!erences

• 2hite+ an$ K0 Arn$t0 (;;(0 Process 2riting 5arlo": Lon$on• !a$ger+ an$ 2hite+ D .===+ A Process Denre Approach to

Teaching 2riting+ 1LT Journal+ 9E. (/(B=O%for$ Hni,ersit&

Press• James Muncie+ .===+ Hsing 2ritten Teacher Fee$back in 1FL

Composition Classes+ 1LT Journal+ 9E(+ 9</+ O%for$Hni,ersit& Press

• An$re" Little8ohn Language Teaching for the Millennium+1nglish Teaching Professional+ .==(0/

• Paul Darca Teacher Training : eshaping the Future ofLanguage Teaching+ American Language e,ie"+ .===0.

The @nternet T1SL Journal+ Kol0 K@@@+ No0 (+ Januar& .==.

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