Attention, awareness, ‘noticing’ Attention, awareness, ‘noticing’ and foreign language learningand foreign language learning

Richard SchmidtRichard SchmidtThe University of Hawai‘i at MānoaThe University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa

The Noticing HypothesisThe Noticing Hypothesis

Intake is that part of the input that the learner Intake is that part of the input that the learner notices (Schmidt, 1990, 139)notices (Schmidt, 1990, 139)

The noticing hypothesis claims that awareness The noticing hypothesis claims that awareness at the point of learning (Time 1) is required for at the point of learning (Time 1) is required for all learning (Schmidt, 1995, 27)all learning (Schmidt, 1995, 27)

SLA is largely driven by what learners pay SLA is largely driven by what learners pay attention to and notice in target language input attention to and notice in target language input and what they understand the significance of and what they understand the significance of noticed input to be (Schmidt, 2001, 3-4)noticed input to be (Schmidt, 2001, 3-4)

Precursers to the Noticing Precursers to the Noticing HypothesisHypothesis

““ Yesterday I’m go beach”Yesterday I’m go beach”

““If you back to room, can I bring cigarette?” If you back to room, can I bring cigarette?” (would you please)(would you please)

““So tonight, Tim and me we are come back So tonight, Tim and me we are come back here early, we are apartment”here early, we are apartment”

““She’s name is Izumi Ukimura, she’s working is She’s name is Izumi Ukimura, she’s working is beautiful”beautiful”

The “Wes” Study (Schmidt, The “Wes” Study (Schmidt, 1983)1983)

Classroom instruction was useful.Classroom instruction was useful.

Frequency in input was important.Frequency in input was important.

Some forms were taught and frequent but still Some forms were taught and frequent but still were not learned until they were noticed (o que were not learned until they were noticed (o que é que).é que).

Notice the gap: “For acquisition to occur, Notice the gap: “For acquisition to occur, acquirers need to notice a difference between acquirers need to notice a difference between their current form or competence i and the new their current form or competence i and the new form or structure i + 1” (Krashen, 1983, 140)form or structure i + 1” (Krashen, 1983, 140)

Diary study of a learner of Diary study of a learner of Portuguese (Schmidt & Frota, Portuguese (Schmidt & Frota, 19861986))

The role of consciousness in second The role of consciousness in second language learning (Schmidt 1990)language learning (Schmidt 1990)

Consciousness as intention (incidental vs. Consciousness as intention (incidental vs. intentional learning)intentional learning)

• Claim: Incidental learning is possible and Claim: Incidental learning is possible and often effective, but paying attention is often effective, but paying attention is facilitative and may be necessary in some facilitative and may be necessary in some cases.cases.

Consciousness as attentionConsciousness as attention

• Claim: There is no learning without attentionClaim: There is no learning without attention

Consciousness as awareness Consciousness as awareness

• Claim: Awareness at the level of “noticing” is Claim: Awareness at the level of “noticing” is necessary; Awareness at the level of necessary; Awareness at the level of “understanding” is facilitative.“understanding” is facilitative.

NoticingNoticing UnderstandingUnderstanding

SourceSource

•Raw/primary data: direct input Raw/primary data: direct input from native speakers (oral or from native speakers (oral or written)written)•Specific, particular instances Specific, particular instances (exemplars, tokens)(exemplars, tokens)

•Stored data activated Stored data activated into working memoryinto working memory•Secondary data Secondary data (information from (information from dictionaries, grammars, dictionaries, grammars, teachers comments, teachers comments, etc.)etc.)

Processing Processing stagestage

•Attention to surface form and Attention to surface form and meaning in contextmeaning in context•Online cognitive registration of Online cognitive registration of sensory stimulisensory stimuli•Detection within selective Detection within selective attention (Tomlin & Villa, 1994)attention (Tomlin & Villa, 1994)•Detection plus rehearsal in Detection plus rehearsal in short-term memory (Robinson, short-term memory (Robinson, 1995)1995)

Analysis:Analysis:•Comparisons across Comparisons across instances, hypothesis instances, hypothesis formation & testing, formation & testing, etc.)etc.)•Inspection of Inspection of secondary data secondary data

Resulting Resulting knowledge typeknowledge type

•Item learningItem learning•Episodic memory of who said Episodic memory of who said what whenwhat when•Learning without “noticing” = Learning without “noticing” = subliminal learningsubliminal learning

•System learningSystem learning•Metalinguistic Metalinguistic awareness Learning awareness Learning without without “understanding” = “understanding” = implicit learningimplicit learning

““ Noticing” vs. Noticing” vs. “understandin“understanding”g”

Noticing vs. understanding: Noticing vs. understanding: transitive “grow” (Pullam, 2005)transitive “grow” (Pullam, 2005)““ Now, we can do the right thing and create jobs and grow our Now, we can do the right thing and create jobs and grow our economy. This is really an age of remarkable possibility for our economy. This is really an age of remarkable possibility for our Nation.” (William J. Clinton, Presidential radio address, March 30, 1996)Nation.” (William J. Clinton, Presidential radio address, March 30, 1996)

““After seeing Guy's “Growing a Language” a few months ago I went After seeing Guy's “Growing a Language” a few months ago I went around telling everyone I knew about it, regardless of interest in around telling everyone I knew about it, regardless of interest in programming.” (Tauber, 1998)programming.” (Tauber, 1998)

““If I were God, using ‘grow’ as a transitive verb would give the speaker If I were God, using ‘grow’ as a transitive verb would give the speaker an instant hangnail.” (Twitter post by hotdogsladies, May 12, 2008)an instant hangnail.” (Twitter post by hotdogsladies, May 12, 2008)

““John McCain has a better plan. Grow jobs, grow our economy ... not John McCain has a better plan. Grow jobs, grow our economy ... not grow Washington" (campaign ad, April, 2008)grow Washington" (campaign ad, April, 2008)

Impact and associated ideasImpact and associated ideas

A resurgence in interest in basic issues A resurgence in interest in basic issues concerning implicit and explicit learning concerning implicit and explicit learning (Robinson, 1995, 1996; Ellis, 1994; Hulstijn & (Robinson, 1995, 1996; Ellis, 1994; Hulstijn & Ellis, 2005)Ellis, 2005)

Merrill Swain’s output hypothesis (Swain, 1998)Merrill Swain’s output hypothesis (Swain, 1998)

Bill VanPatten’s proposals for input-processing Bill VanPatten’s proposals for input-processing instruction (VanPatten, 2002)instruction (VanPatten, 2002)

Rod Ellis’ form-focused instruction and proposals Rod Ellis’ form-focused instruction and proposals for consciousnes-raising tasks (Ellis, 2001)for consciousnes-raising tasks (Ellis, 2001)

Michael Long’s revised interaction hypothesis Michael Long’s revised interaction hypothesis (Long, 1996) (Long, 1996)

Feedbac

Feedbackk

Feedbac

FeedbackkRecastsRecastsRecastsRecasts

NegotiatiNegotiationon

NegotiatiNegotiationon

AttentionAttention

NoticingNoticing

AttentionAttention

NoticingNoticing

LearningLearningLearningLearning

Model of Interaction and Learning (Gass and Model of Interaction and Learning (Gass and Mackey, 2006)Mackey, 2006)

mm nn

ss

tt rr nn

dd

pp

rr

ss ee dd mmrr

nn11 across: 3rd person 11 across: 3rd person pl preterite of the verb pl preterite of the verb mentirmentir

9 down: the opposite of 9 down: the opposite of nono in Spanish in Spanish

11

9

e i e o e i e o ii

Leow, 1997Leow, 1997

mm ii nn tt rr nn

dd

pp

rr

ss ee dd mmuu rr

nn

5

9

4

3

4 across: 3rd person sing 4 across: 3rd person sing preterite of the verb preterite of the verb dormirsedormirse

5 across: 3rd person pl 5 across: 3rd person pl preterite of the verb preterite of the verb mentirmentir

3 down: 3rd person pl 3 down: 3rd person pl preterite of the verb preterite of the verb pedirpedir Leow, 2000Leow, 2000

i ói ó

i e i e oo

i i

o o

4

Feedback, noticing and instructed L2 Feedback, noticing and instructed L2 learning (Mackey 2006)learning (Mackey 2006)

Participants: students in a university level Participants: students in a university level intensive ESL program intensive ESL program

Targets: questions, plurals, and past tense Targets: questions, plurals, and past tense forms forms

Multiple measures of noticingMultiple measures of noticing

Learners report more noticing when feedback Learners report more noticing when feedback is provided.is provided.

Learners who noticed more developed more.Learners who noticed more developed more.

Output, input enhancing & noticing Output, input enhancing & noticing (Izumi, 2002)(Izumi, 2002)

Target: English relative clausesTarget: English relative clauses

H1: Output subjects will H1: Output subjects will noticenotice more than non- more than non-output subjects (confirmed)output subjects (confirmed)

H2: Enhanced-input subjects will H2: Enhanced-input subjects will noticenotice more more than non-enhanced-input subjects (confirmed)than non-enhanced-input subjects (confirmed)

H3: Output subjects will H3: Output subjects will learnlearn more than non- more than non-output subjects (confirmed)output subjects (confirmed)

H4: Enhanced-input subjects will H4: Enhanced-input subjects will learnlearn more more than non-enhanced-input subjects (not than non-enhanced-input subjects (not confirmed). confirmed).

Major challenges and objections to Major challenges and objections to the Noticing Hypothesisthe Noticing Hypothesis

Objection 1: The temporal granularity of diary Objection 1: The temporal granularity of diary studies is too coarse. (Tomlin & Villa, 1994)studies is too coarse. (Tomlin & Villa, 1994)

Objection 2: Finer grained analyses of the Objection 2: Finer grained analyses of the language learning problem and the construct language learning problem and the construct of attention are required. (Tomlin & Villa, 1994)of attention are required. (Tomlin & Villa, 1994)

Objection 3: Of the three functional Objection 3: Of the three functional subsystems of attention (alertness, orientation, subsystems of attention (alertness, orientation, detection), detection is crucial – but detection detection), detection is crucial – but detection does not require awareness. (Tomlin & Villa, does not require awareness. (Tomlin & Villa, 1994; Williams, 2005)1994; Williams, 2005)

gi dog

the near dog

ul dog

the far dog

ro book

the near book

ne book

the far book

The lady spent many hours sewing…The lady spent many hours sewing…The lady spent many hours sewing…The lady spent many hours sewing…

‣gi cushionsgi cushions

‣ro cushionsro cushions

‣gi cushionsgi cushions

‣ro cushionsro cushions

The art collector went to Greece to collect…The art collector went to Greece to collect…

‣ne vasesne vases

‣ul vasesul vases

LivingLiving Non-livingNon-living

nearnear farfar nearnear farfar

gigi ulul roro nene

Williams, 2005Williams, 2005Williams, 2005Williams, 2005

Aware subjects (N= 8)Aware subjects (N= 8)

94.4%94.4%

Aware subjects (N= 8)Aware subjects (N= 8)

94.4%94.4%

Unaware subjects (N= 33)Unaware subjects (N= 33)

61.7%61.7%

Unaware subjects (N= 33)Unaware subjects (N= 33)

61.7%61.7%

Williams, 2005. Results for Experiment 1, Williams, 2005. Results for Experiment 1, first test phase, performance on first test phase, performance on

generalization items.generalization items.

Objection 4: Attention/awareness may be Objection 4: Attention/awareness may be necessary for some kinds of learning but not necessary for some kinds of learning but not others. others.

““... although I (among many others) am perfectly willing to ... although I (among many others) am perfectly willing to agree that learning individual words (the lexicon), individual agree that learning individual words (the lexicon), individual sounds (the phonetic inventory), and writing systems must sounds (the phonetic inventory), and writing systems must be via attentional focus, I am not the least willing to say that be via attentional focus, I am not the least willing to say that learning phonological, morphological and syntactic rules learning phonological, morphological and syntactic rules requires this attentional focus.” (Schachter, 19980)requires this attentional focus.” (Schachter, 19980)

““... some linguistic items are too rare, abstract, complex, or ... some linguistic items are too rare, abstract, complex, or semantically opaque, or have too many irregularities to be semantically opaque, or have too many irregularities to be explicitly noticeable by learners. The article system in explicitly noticeable by learners. The article system in English is a typical problem for learners of many different English is a typical problem for learners of many different native languages. But the fact that learners with no native languages. But the fact that learners with no apparent metalinguistic knowledge are often successful with apparent metalinguistic knowledge are often successful with complex linguistic structures such as the English article complex linguistic structures such as the English article system suggests that implicit learning can occur in such system suggests that implicit learning can occur in such cases. Indeed, with low literate adolescents and adult, this cases. Indeed, with low literate adolescents and adult, this type of implicit learning of L2 systems may be the norm.” type of implicit learning of L2 systems may be the norm.” (Tarone, Bigelow, & Hansen, 2009)(Tarone, Bigelow, & Hansen, 2009)

Can the definite article be used with personal Can the definite article be used with personal names?names?

Normally not:Normally not:

*The Maria never comes on time.*The Maria never comes on time.

A Maria nunca chega a tempo.A Maria nunca chega a tempo.

Exception: the definite article + title + PN constructionException: the definite article + title + PN construction

the Marquis de Sadethe Marquis de Sade

the Ayatollah Khomeinithe Ayatollah Khomeini

Exception: post-modified or pre-modified PNException: post-modified or pre-modified PN

The real McCoyThe real McCoy

the John McCain of 2000the John McCain of 2000

•Exception: the PN + definite article + NP constructionException: the PN + definite article + NP construction

• William the Conqueror (French: Guillaume le Conquérant), a.k.a. William the Conqueror (French: Guillaume le Conquérant), a.k.a. William the BastardWilliam the Bastard

•Catherine the GreatCatherine the Great

•Jack the RipperJack the Ripper

•Nick the Greek Nick the Greek

Mother TeresaMother TeresaMarie CirilloMarie Cirillo““The Mother Teresa of rural The Mother Teresa of rural

Appalachia”Appalachia”

Exception: the definite article + PN of NP constructionException: the definite article + PN of NP construction

John KennedyJohn KennedyBarack ObamaBarack Obama

““ The John Kennedy of our Time” ...The John Kennedy of our Time” ...http://www.rightpundits.com/?p=1747

Objection 5: Attention to environmental stimuli Objection 5: Attention to environmental stimuli does not play a direct role in acquisition does not play a direct role in acquisition because most of what constitutes linguistic because most of what constitutes linguistic knowledge is not in the input to begin with. knowledge is not in the input to begin with. (Carroll)(Carroll)

Objection 6: Language is a social object, not a Objection 6: Language is a social object, not a mental one (Block, 2003). mental one (Block, 2003).

“ “ . . . there is no reason to look under the . . . there is no reason to look under the skull since nothing of interest is to be found skull since nothing of interest is to be found there but brains.” (Garfinkel, 1963: 90)there but brains.” (Garfinkel, 1963: 90)

““[t]here is nothing ‘mental’ about thinking, [t]here is nothing ‘mental’ about thinking, intending or interpreting. It is we as agents intending or interpreting. It is we as agents (not as ‘minds’) who do these things when (not as ‘minds’) who do these things when we do them” (Coulter, 2005, p. 92).we do them” (Coulter, 2005, p. 92).

Conclusions: What we don’t knowConclusions: What we don’t knowThe claim that The claim that allall learning requires attention is learning requires attention is controversial controversial

The claim that learning is possible without The claim that learning is possible without attention is equally controversialattention is equally controversial

The claim that all learning requires awareness, The claim that all learning requires awareness, at least at the level of noticing, remains at least at the level of noticing, remains controversial.controversial.

The claim that people can learn things (e.g. The claim that people can learn things (e.g. words, morphemes, constructions) that they are words, morphemes, constructions) that they are not aware of is equally controversial.not aware of is equally controversial.

Claims that people can or cannot/do or do not Claims that people can or cannot/do or do not learn abstract systems without awareness is learn abstract systems without awareness is particularly controversial. particularly controversial.

Conclusions: What we do knowConclusions: What we do know

People learn about the things that they attend to People learn about the things that they attend to and do not learn much about the things they do and do not learn much about the things they do not attend to. (James, 1890, Logan et al., 1996; not attend to. (James, 1890, Logan et al., 1996; Schmidt, 2001)Schmidt, 2001)

New associations are best learned explicitly. At New associations are best learned explicitly. At the same time, implicit learning (acquisition of the same time, implicit learning (acquisition of knowledge about the underlying structure of a knowledge about the underlying structure of a complex stimulus environment by processes complex stimulus environment by processes that takes place naturally and without conscious that takes place naturally and without conscious operations) is also possible. (Ellis, 2002)operations) is also possible. (Ellis, 2002)

Promising methodologies for future Promising methodologies for future researchresearch

Conversational analysis (CA) can show how Conversational analysis (CA) can show how participants in interaction jointly manage their participants in interaction jointly manage their attentional focus (Firth, 2009)attentional focus (Firth, 2009)

Promising methodologies for future Promising methodologies for future researchresearch

Eye-tracking technology has the potential to Eye-tracking technology has the potential to discover behavioral indicators or cognitive discover behavioral indicators or cognitive operations including perception & noticing operations including perception & noticing (Godfroid, Hausen & Boers, 2010(Godfroid, Hausen & Boers, 2010

Promising methodologies for future Promising methodologies for future researchresearch

fMRI studies of the neural correlates of artificial fMRI studies of the neural correlates of artificial grammar learning may shed light on implicit grammar learning may shed light on implicit and explicit learning mechanisms of natural and explicit learning mechanisms of natural languages (Skosnic et al, 2002)languages (Skosnic et al, 2002)

In the meantime: Implications for In the meantime: Implications for teachingteaching

Teaching is helping to learn: One of the most Teaching is helping to learn: One of the most important responsibilities of teaching is to help important responsibilities of teaching is to help students notice things that they are unlikely to students notice things that they are unlikely to notice on their own.notice on their own.

Classroom tasks are a powerful determinant of Classroom tasks are a powerful determinant of attention. Students are like to pay attention to and attention. Students are like to pay attention to and to learn the information to complete pedagogical to learn the information to complete pedagogical tasks.tasks.

Explicit: deductive methods are generally superior Explicit: deductive methods are generally superior to implicit: inductive methods in the short run, but to implicit: inductive methods in the short run, but both are necessary for the long run.both are necessary for the long run.

In the meantime: Implications for In the meantime: Implications for learnerslearners

Pay attention to inputPay attention to input

Pay particular attention to whatever aspects of Pay particular attention to whatever aspects of the input that you are concerned to learnthe input that you are concerned to learn

Look for clues (generalizations, rules) Look for clues (generalizations, rules)

If you cannot find a general principle, If you cannot find a general principle, concentrate on noticing on how particular concentrate on noticing on how particular instances are used in specific contextsinstances are used in specific contexts

Thank you for your attention!Thank you for your attention!Thank you for your attention!Thank you for your attention!