Caregiver-infant interactions◦Who tested the correlation between physical contact and attachment?

◦What is reciprocity? (TT)

◦One factor of infant-caregiver attachment is “I____________ S____________”

◦What did Meltzoff and Moore find?

Homework…What we’ve looked at so far… ◦Physical Contact◦Reciprocity◦Interactional Synchrony

◦Evaluate these theories/research using PEE’s for each point made…

◦ Intentional Behaviour◦ Ethics and infants◦ Failure to replicate◦ Individual differences

Intentional Behaviour◦P – People have argued that the infants do not imitate facial

expressions as an intentional effort to encourage social attachments

◦E – However, research has found that infants will not imitate the same facial expressions used in Meltzoff and Moore’s study when they are simulated by inanimate objects

◦E – This suggests that interactional synchrony and imitation is used by infants as a social response to aid attachment building and therefore is intentional .

Failure to Replicate◦P - Despite findings demonstrating new born imitation, Meltzoff and

Moore’s study has been criticised as being unreliable due to replications not finding the same results

◦E - Koepke (1983) carried out the same experiment as Meltzoff and Moore and failed to identify any evidence of new born imitation

◦E - The lack of replicability questions the original findings’ reliability which may have been vulnerable to experimental bias.

Individual Differences

◦P – There may be individual differences in the level of reciprocity and interactional synchrony seen in infants and care givers

◦E – Isabelle (1989) found that more strongly attached infants are likely to demonstrate greater levels of interactional synchrony

◦E – Therefore these behaviours will differ dependent on strength of attachment

Ethics & Infants◦P - Experimenting infant-caregiver interactions can be difficult to pass

through Ethical Guidelines.

◦E - Observation techniques used may breach Informed Consent guidelines, especially if they are naturalistic, covert observation methods

◦E - Researchers can also not guarantee protection from harm as the discovery of an insecure attachment with one’s infant may be psychologically distressing for the care giver in question.

Observational Research◦Observing participant(s) behaviour…

◦Naturalistic vs. Controlled Observations

◦Naturalistic = nothing has been manipulated by experimenter◦Controlled = researcher regulates aspects of environment

◦Overt vs. Covert Observations

Observational Research◦ High Ecological Validity (natural observations)

◦ Practical Method for things you can’t test (i.e. aggression in football hooligans)

◦ No demand characteristics (covert observations)

Observational Research

◦Researchers use either event-sampling or time-sampling to collect data

◦Event sampling = ‘how often did the infant stick out it’s tongue’

◦Time Sampling = ‘Record behaviour at every 20 seconds’

Tronick’s Still Face Experiment◦Tronick wanted to observe caregiver-infant interactions

◦He wanted to see what would happen if interactional synchrony and reciprocity were lost

◦Mothers were instructed to interact normally with the infant and then stop responding and show a ‘still face’

◦The baby’s response was observed and recorded

In pairs…

◦Produce an observational schedule using event sampling

◦You will be observing the response of an infant to the still face experiment

Inter-Observer Reliability◦If both yours and your partner’s score sheets are the same you have ‘High inter-observer reliability’

◦If there are differences you have ‘low inter-observer reliability’

◦If it’s low, your research can be criticized as unreliable

How to OvercomeLow Inter-Observer Reliability

◦Train your Observers

◦Use more observers

◦Use objective observation schedules

◦How reliable was meltzoff and moore’s inter-observer data? (pg. 70)

Disadvantages of Observations

◦ Possibly low inter-observer reliability?

◦ Cause and Effect cannot be inferred

◦ Ethics?

◦ Observer Bias

DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENTS

Shaffer and Emerson’s Stage theory of Attachment Development

How/when do we make these attachments?◦‘Stage theory’ of attachment

◦Schaffer & Emerson (1964) devised 4 stages of attachment development

◦They conducted a study to create their stage theory

Schaffer & Emerson (1964)◦Conducted a Longitudinal Study

◦Followed 60 infants from a mainly working-class area of Glasgow

◦Observed parent-infant interactions and ‘Stranger Anxiety’ every month until they were 18m◦Asked parents to report ‘Separation Anxiety’ each month

Schaffer & Emerson (1964)◦Parent Reports on Separation Anxiety in 7 everyday scenarios;

◦Left alone in a room◦Left with other people◦Left in their pram outside the house◦Left in their pram outside the shops◦Left in their cot at night◦Put down after being held◦Passed by while sitting on their cot/chair

Schaffer & Emerson (1964)◦Results:

◦Half the children showed their 1st specific attachment between 6-8m

◦By 10m 50% had more than one attachment

◦65% had the mother as primary attachment

◦39% of the infants had a primary attachment with someone other than the person who usually fed, bathed and changed them

S&E’s 4 stages of attachment

1. ‘Indiscriminate Attachments’

* Approx. 2 months* Babies respond equally to all caregivers* Begin to show greater preference for ‘Social

Stimuli’

S&E’s 4 stages of attachment

2. ‘Preference’

* Approx. 4 months* Prefer human company* Can distinguish between unfamiliar & familiar

people

S&E’s 4 stages of attachment

3. ‘Discriminate’

* Approx. 7 months* Specific attachment with PCG* Experience ‘Separation Anxiety’* Experience ‘Stranger Anxiety’

S&E’s 4 stages of attachment

4. ‘Multiple Attachments’

* Approx. 10 months* Baby becomes increasingly independent* Forms several attachments

S&E’s 4 stages of Attachment◦Indiscriminate

◦Preference

◦Discriminate

◦Multiple

Evaluation of Schaffer & Emerson’s Stage Theory of Attachment

◦ Unreliable/Invalid Data?

◦Data based on reports from mothers, likely to have been skewed

◦Vulnerable to ‘Social Desirability’

Reliability vs. Validity

◦Reliability = Test – Retest◦Validity = Accuracy

◦External Validity ◦Does it apply to real life?

◦Internal Validity◦Are we measuring what we

think we’re measuring?

Biased Sample

◦Study used to generate 4 stages was Ethnocentric

◦Working Class area of Glasgow…

◦Cannot be applied to other cultures / classes

Temporal Validity?

◦Study was conducted in the 1960s

◦If the study was repeated today would we still get the same results?

◦Why might there be differences?

Cultural Variation?

◦UK is an Individualistic country

◦Collectivist cultures often have shared responsibility of child-rearing and do not experience just 1 primary care-giver

◦Thus the stage model may only apply to individualist cultures

Too rigid?

◦A stage theory suggests all children should reach each stage at specific time brackets

◦It doesn’t allow for individual differences

◦Highlights abnormalities in child development

Task

◦Create a poster/powerpoint on Schaffer and Emerson (1964)

◦Keep it brief!

◦Outline main points in A01 + A03 as bullet points…