St. John Fisher CollegeFisher Digital Publications

Sport Management Undergraduate Sport Management Department

Spring 2012

Athlete Endorsements: Effects on College StudentsCory McAllisterSt. John Fisher College

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Athlete Endorsements: Effects on College Students

AbstractCelebrities have been used as endorsements for years and have often been heralded as the best way for acompany to sell their product through advertisements. Professional athletes are known around the globe asthe most recognizable celebrities. Numerous studies have been completed in order to find the effects thatathlete endorsements have on consumer spending. These studies have discovered changes in purchasingbehaviors based on youth, gender, race and geographic location. Yet, there are limited sources that explain theeffects on college students and their purchasing intentions. A sample of St. John Fisher College students wasused to examine the effects that athletes have in endorsing products on college students. The results haveshown students in college are less affected by athlete endorsements than other age groups.

Document TypeUndergraduate Project

Professor's NameEmily Dane-Staples

Subject CategoriesSports Management

This undergraduate project is available at Fisher Digital Publications: http://fisherpub.sjfc.edu/sport_undergrad/33

Running head: ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 1

Athlete Endorsements: Effects on College Students

Cory McAllister

St. John Fisher College

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 2

Abstract

Celebrities have been used as endorsements for years and have often been heralded as the best

way for a company to sell their product through advertisements. Professional athletes are known

around the globe as the most recognizable celebrities. Numerous studies have been completed in

order to find the effects that athlete endorsements have on consumer spending. These studies

have discovered changes in purchasing behaviors based on youth, gender, race and geographic

location. Yet, there are limited sources that explain the effects on college students and their

purchasing intentions. A sample of St. John Fisher College students was used to examine the

effects that athletes have in endorsing products on college students. The results have shown

students in college are less affected by athlete endorsements than other age groups.

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 3

Athlete Endorsements: Effects on College Students

Four types of celebrity endorsers are most popular. They include genuine celebrities, the

company’s chief executive, lookalike celebrities and celebrities by association (Kaikati, 1987).

Genuine celebrities are the celebrities that are actually on the playing field or starring in the

movies. The company’s chief executive is popular because usually he is used to guarantee the

satisfaction of the product which could influence how a consumer feels about a product when it

comes from the CEO (Kaikati, 1987). Lookalike celebrities are used because people can

associate with the brand or pay attention more to the brand because they think that the person in

the advertisement is really a celebrity. Along with lookalike celebrities, companies will often use

voices that sound similar to a celebrity mostly hear on radio or TV commercials. Lastly,

celebrities by association are used because consumers feel that if they are using a product and

they associate themselves with the celebrity, then they could do the same (Kaikati, 1987). An

example of this is having a star quarterback’s wife endorse a makeup product. In doing so,

people viewing the advertisement will feel as if they can also marry a star athlete if they can look

and wear stuff that the wife is wearing. Overall, business will utilize different types of athletes or

celebrities to increase their brand awareness.

According to Shanklin and Miciak (1996), professional athletes are known around the

globe as the most recognizable celebrities of all. People who try to imitate these athletes find

themselves purchasing the brands which these famous celebrities are endorsing. Hiring sport

celebrities to endorse brands has been embedded in the international business practice (Stotlar,

2005). The company will use athletes to sell their products or services more effectively. The

underlying cause of this is because consumers need to associate themselves with the popularity

and success of the athlete. Youth tend to be persuaded to buy athlete endorsed products to fit in

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or because they have the belief that they will succeed in a sport like the athlete and depending on

what is socially acceptable. Social acceptance is seen to be more important to youth than older

adults. Studies revealed that there was a greater support for societal competition, material items

and persuasive advertising appeals among young men, when the youth socialized the most with

friends and they participated in school sponsored sports (Denham, 2009). Along with youth

fitting in, there is the aspect of societal competition. Not only do people feel as if they fit in, but

often they feel as if they should be better than others and in doing so they will purchase the most

popular items or brands.

Athletes have been endorsing products for numerous years and have been known to be

the best way to sell a product to consumers (Stotlar, 2005). In today’s society, social status can

be based off of what you wear or buy based on what is popular. Marketers and advertisers who

have celebrities endorse products such as clothing or other material items have created these

social statuses among consumers (Denham, 2009). These statuses include whether or not what

people wear is considered to be “cool” or not. Often people feel as if they are gaining the same

advantage if they use or wear a product that is endorsed by an athlete (Shanklin & Miciak, 1996).

In addition, there is a different social environment which involves fans. Fans are known to

associate themselves with brands based on what their favorite team or player represents. Some

athletes make more money annually from endorsement deals than they do from their playing

salaries (Carlson, 2008). Previous research has been completed to investigate athlete

endorsements based on advertisement relations and brand related outcomes.

Businesses strategically place advertisements with athlete endorsed products to be seen

by youth. Businesses spend millions of dollars associating their product with athletes through

product endorsements (Martin, 1996). The companies try to find the best fit athletes for their

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 5

brand that will influence consumers in buying. In other words, businesses find athletes who can

be easily connected with the brand and fit in with the company’s goals for the product. Martin

reveals studies that show the impact on how the athlete endorser is chosen as the best fit for a

brand. Companies are not going to use out dated athletes to represent a new popular clothing

brand. If Joe Montana was endorsing American Eagle Clothing, would that make youth want to

go purchase their clothes? Youth are clearly an important asset to companies selling athlete

endorsements. However, research involving older adults such as college students is lacking.

Therefore, new research such as this study is being completed to examine a different target

market in college students.

Literature Review

Two theories that are used often when researching consumer intentions based on athlete

endorsed products are Social Identity Theory and the Social Adaptation Theory. Both theories

define how people in an environment will react based on the type of society in which they live.

According to the Social Identity Theory, individuals satisfy the need of identifying and

categorizing themselves and others into groups (Carlson, 2008). Social Identity Theory deals

with both the psychological and sociological aspects of group behavior (Carlson, 2008). Social

Adaptation Theory deals with how people adjust their lives based on interpersonal, social and

cultural norms (Kahle, & Homer, 1985). Both theories explore the reasoning to consumers

purchasing intentions based on athlete endorsed products.

The study by Carlson in 2008 used Social Identity Theory to determine the effect that

athlete endorsers have on both brand and team-related attitudes and intentions. They proposed

that the athletes would have positive influence on team, brand purchase intentions and team

abandonment. They used primary sources by producing surveys of Dallas Cowboys fans. The

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 6

theoretical development found that when fans aspire to be like athletes then they try and

associate themselves with the athlete’s image and therefore identify with them (Carlson, 2008).

The data collected relates to how athletes are used to increase sales based on customer

preferences.

In the study done by Kahle and Homer in 2008, they manipulated an advertisement for

disposable razors to survey individual’s feelings on potentially purchasing the product. The

factors in which they looked at were celebrity physical attractiveness, celebrity likability, and

participant product involvement. Kahle and Homer used the Social Adaption Theory to support

their results which concludes that people will adapt to things based on certain societal factors

that are important. In this case, the important societal factor was physical attraction.

Endorsement Effectiveness

Athletes are chosen by companies as endorsers to associate the company’s brand with the

athlete’s celebrity image (Carlson, 2008). Companies benefit from having an athlete endorse

their product because consumers feel connected to the brand. Often companies decide on

whether or not they should use an athlete to endorse their product even if the product is not sport

related. According to Koernig and Boyd in 2009, they determine the effective use of having

athlete endorsements for sports and non-sports brands. The results of the data collected showed

that there was a bigger effect on consumers for a famous athlete to endorse a sport brand rather

than a non-sport brand. The study relates to the circumstances in when the athletes should be

used for endorsements and when athletes shouldn’t be used to endorse brands. Using certain

athletes can be more effective for brands based on what the brand is trying to sell. Companies

will use stronger athletes to sell products such as muscle building products (Simmers, Damron-

Martinez, & Haytko, 2009).

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Companies are always looking for the best way to get their product or brand name out to

the general public especially if they are a new company (Van Heerden, Kuiper, & Saar, 2008).

The researchers in this study examine when product information is not available to consumers,

inferences are made to reduce product uncertainty to form perceptions of the product. This

means that if the brand or product is not well known, the company can use a celebrity

endorsement to give their brand a jump start in the market. When there is an uncertainty about a

product, athletes or celebrities are cued to make the consumer feel more comfortable with the

product (Van Heerden, Kuiper, & Saar, 2008). Most often these jump starts are expensive for

companies to do, yet previously displayed research explains that celebrity endorsed products are

the best way to sell a product. The researchers conducted a study of two-hundred people and

resulted in consumers finding a significant enhancement of brand relation when a celebrity

endorsed the product (Van Heerden, et. al., 2008). The study emphasizes the importance of

companies using athlete endorsed brands and its major effect it has on the public.

An example of the effect that one athlete has for a company can be seen in Crawford and

Niendorf’s study in 1999. In this article the researchers discuss how a single athlete has a major

impact on endorsement deals. When there was a rumor of Michael Jordan returning to basketball,

five companies that Jordan had endorsement deals with experienced a three million dollar

increase in the market value (Crawford, & Niendorf, 1999). Jordan created a value to the

shareholders of the companies that he endorsed. After further research was conducted, studies

showed that shareholders experienced negative returns after the retirement and positive excess

returns following the rumors that he was coming back (Crawford, & Niendorf, 1999). Overall,

the study shows how one athlete is capable of determining the wealth of a company. It is also

important to understand how crucial it was for the companies to have Michael Jordan as their

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 8

endorser. Crawford and Niendorf explain how not only were consumers effected by athlete

endorsements but shareholders and the companies as a whole were affected.

Another major advantage to having athletes endorse a product is that fact that because

they are the most popular celebrities in the world, they are easily recognizable in advertisements.

In a study by Stotlar, Veltri and Viswanathan in 1998, the researchers analyze the consumer

recognition of athlete endorsements. The study selected seventeen professional male and female

athletes from six major sports. A questionnaire was then developed which collected responses

from 1,224 people. The response data indicated that the majority of subjects were able to

correctly identify the sport and at least one athletic product endorsed by the selected professional

athlete. This study gives a good example of the effectiveness of athletes endorsing a product.

There have also been studies that explore the relationship between involvement, use of

the brand as a sponsor and the consumer. In a study by Bennett, Ferreira, and Lee in 2009,

examined the relationship between, demographic characteristics, action sport consumption, the

use of event sponsored brands and involvement. The researchers wanted to examine the degree

to which involvement with action sports, demographics and action sports consumption, such as

spectatorship, participation, and video gaming, actually predict drinking Mountain Dew soda

among the people attending an action sporting event (Bennett, Ferreira, & Lee, 2009). The study

found that there was a positive relationship between those who were spectators and drink

Mountain Dew soda. Unfortunately they were unable to get a reliable number when it came to

those who play video games and drink Mountain Dew. Although through this study, there is a

positive correlation made that spectators of a sponsored event are more likely to consume the

product that is sponsoring the event.

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 9

There have also been studies that involve the effectiveness of having athletes used in

advertisements. The study by Freidman and Freidman in 1979 provides a quantitative summary

of the relationship between celebrity endorser source effects and effectiveness in advertising.

The article discusses how the athletes are not just there to make the company revenue but to add

value to their business. The effectiveness of the endorsement comes from the celebrity

performance (Freidman, & Freidman, 1979). Celebrity performance refers to the level of

achievement a celebrity attains at any given time in their chosen profession (Freidman, &

Freidman, 1979). If a celebrity is performing well, that may have a positive effect on the

company. Celebrities are generally viewed by consumers as credible sources of information

about the product or firm they endorse (Freidman, & Freidman, 1979). In other words, usually

the athlete or celebrity will have positive characteristics that will allow for people to look up to

him or her. Results from the study suggest negative celebrity information can be extremely

detrimental to an advertisement. The researchers use a source credibility model composed of

celebrity trustworthiness, celebrity expertise, and celebrity attractiveness. These three are the

most influential source effects on purchase intentions, brand attitudes and attitudes towards the

advertisement.

Role of Demographics

Demographics are a major area that marketers and companies have analyzed to better

reach out to their target market. Endorsements such as advertisements on television are effected

by demographics in ways such as geographically where people live and wealth (Cianfrone, &

Zhang, 2006). Cianfrone and Zhang in 2006 examine the effectiveness of television

commercials, venue signage, and other promotional offerings. The article includes the different

types of endorsement possibilities and how consumers can react differently based on the way the

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 10

advertisement is viewed and capabilities of viewing. The studies showed that controlling the

differences in the consumption backgrounds of action sports among the people surveyed, the four

promotional procedures examined increased during a televised event. The results revealed that

television commercials were most effective, followed by combined promotion, athlete

endorsement and venue signage. This study is an example of how background and

demographics can alter how people view media endorsements.

There are numerous studies that include demographics such as gender and race to explain

the purchasing behaviors of products that are athlete endorsed. The role of gender has a major

influence on consumers when it comes to purchasing athlete endorsed products (Peets, Parks, &

Spencer, 2004). This study explored the role of gender to explain the meaning of athlete

endorsements, the product and the purchase intentions. There was a sample of students used to

describe photographs of athletes and how they can alter their purchasing intentions. They found

that male intentions of purchasing were higher based on the athletes rather than the female’s

intentions to purchase. The reasoning behind this was that males often have a higher aspiration to

be like the famous athlete more than females do. This could be due to the fact that male athletes

are often seen more in media coverage therefore they get more recognition than female athletes

(Peets, et. al., 2004).

Another study by Lantz and Shroeder in 1999 was done to examine the difference in

gender perceptions based on the role of an athlete in an advertisement and their role of

masculinity and femininity. They surveyed four hundred and nine students from Midwestern

University. The main idea behind this study is how to show how competitive sports convey

strong messages about masculinity and femininity. The study found that men are encouraged by

athletic role and therefore masculinity is highly encouraged through some athlete endorsed

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 11

products (Lantz, et. al., 1999). The study clearly identifies the perceived behaviors of men to try

and act more masculine with the athletic role and for the female to act in as less of masculinity as

they can.

One study in particular looks at female teenagers and their perspectives on athlete

endorsements. In research done by James in 2010, the study identifies how female teenagers are

affected by sports celebrities as endorsers in magazines. The studies show that there is a positive

impact of self-image and self-identification among teenagers. The theory used in the study is the

Eriksonian which focuses on the ego of individuals. James (2010) also describes how female

teenagers often dress and tend to try and resemble celebrities in their actions. This theory relates

to Social Identity Theory in that they focus on their individual identity. In the Eriksonian Theory,

people tend to focus more on their ego and displaying who they are to others and in the Social

Identity Theory; it is all about identifying oneself and association with things and people. All in

all, this study examines not only female but male teenagers as well and how they feel the need to

fit in and identify themselves. Teenagers are still at a vulnerable age where it is important for

them to be able to identify themselves with wish to be in life.

In addition to gender, race has also been determined as a specific target market to reach

out to. Based on the color of the athlete, it will determine which target market will be reached

more effectively (Ruihley, Runyan, & Lear, 2010). Targeting certain groups of fans is crucial for

companies to really reach out to that individual market. Using a brand that is significantly worn

more by African-Americans, would be endorsed best by using an African-American celebrity.

This is because African-Americans will be able to associate themselves with a brand that has a

celebrity with the same ethnicity (Ruihley, et. al., 2010).

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 12

Youth are the most influenced consumers of athlete endorsed brands (Denham, 2009).

Denham uses a study to analyze the effect of endorsements on youth and explain why the

phenomenon exists. An analyses of the data revealed that there was a greater support for societal

competition, material items and persuasive advertising among males, those who socialized the

most with friends and those participants who played in school sponsored sports (Denham, 2009).

In other words, males were more likely to buy something based on the fact that they saw it on

TV worn by a famous athlete or celebrity. The study also reveals the significance in youth who

view print media or participate in a recreational sport (Denham, 2009). Youth athletes dream to

become professional athletes and to be just like them in every aspect. This includes wearing what

they wear because they believe it will help them perform the way they do. Those youth who

actually play on a sports team have a higher rate of purchasing something endorsed by an athlete.

Lastly, youth who view print media including television commercials are more likely to be

persuaded to buy the product (Denham, 2009). This can be a significant finding because parents

have different views on how much television their child can watch which can cause the findings

to vary.

Endorser Importance

Another two concepts that have heavily influenced the consumption of athlete endorsed

products is the hero and physical attractiveness aspect. Having an athlete as a personal hero

could determine the purchase intentions of a consumer (Stevens, Lathrop, & Bradish, 2003). If

the athlete as seen as a hero, more often people strive to be like their hero and to accomplish the

same things as them. Heroic figures stand out more in advertisements more than basic athletes

and therefore draw more attention to the brand (Stevens, et al., 2003). Physical attraction of an

endorsement has also been used to analyze consumer purchase intentions. Studies show that

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 13

attitudes and purchase intentions change due to celebrity attractiveness and likeability and their

overall involvement with the product (Kahle, & Homer, 1985).

In another study involving physical attractiveness of an athlete by Fink, Cunningham and

Konsicki in 2004, data is revealed showing the importance of attractiveness of athletes. The

study drew a hypothesis and used Associated Learning Theory to examine the effects of athlete

attractiveness and athlete expertise. The article looked at the difference between endorsing an

event using a more attractive female rather than a female who is a better athlete. The data that

was found showed that having an athlete who is more attractive is more important to have in an

advertisement rather than having an athlete who is more skilled. It also revealed that when an

athlete was used to advertise for an event, that if the athlete was highly attractive, more fans

would purchase tickets to the event (Fink, Cunningham, & Konsicki, 2004). The data that was

collected helped analyze which circumstance that fans identified themselves more with. In this

study, using attractive athletes is more effective to alter consumers purchase intentions than to

use a more skilled athlete.

Age Correlation

In addition to the research on the social impact of youth, gender, race and the other

factors previously discussed, young adults is often overlooked in consumer studies. Yet, there is

one study that includes young adults in a survey to determine their purchasing habits and how

they correspond to youth (Veltri, Kuzman, & Stotlar, 2003). This study reveals that over fifty

percent of the male respondents were more likely to purchase athletic products endorsed by

professional athletes. Less than fifty percent of the female respondents were less likely to be

influenced by professional athletes in their purchasing decisions. In relationship to previous

findings shown by researchers, young adults are influenced as well in purchasing intentions.

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 14

Research Flaws

One study by Kover Goldberg and James in 1995, explain how some studies and research

may not have got the correct representation of data. The researchers in this article explore

consumer’s emotional reactions to help define advertising and the effectiveness of it. In the

article there are questions that are brought up about individuals responses to advertisements. The

article describes how the responses of people can be more emotional than what their actual

intentions are. This means that they may be in a different stage of emotions when asked the

question than they would be in the store actually paying for the object (Kover, et al., 1995).

Consumers may say that they wouldn’t purchase an item outside from the store, but when they

are actually in the store looking at the product they may have different intentions. Overall,

consumers may react differently based on their surroundings and the time that the study is taking

place which could result in bad representation of data for some studies.

There have also been negative outcomes from athletes endorsing brands and products

(Charbonneau, & Garland, 2006). The authors discuss the difficulties with finding celebrity

athletes to endorse their product in a positive way. When an athlete is representing a certain

brand or product, people will associate the two which often have led to negative perceptions. For

example, if an athlete is endorsing a product and he or she is arrested for criminal behavior, that

will give the brand a bad representation because there is the association between the two. The

research conducted by Charbonneau and Garland consisted of a survey for consumers to take

about possible brands and athletes relation (2006). Negative representation can also come from

not fitting into the brand image. In the study, the researchers touch on how athletes need to fit the

image of the brand so that people would easily associate the two and that the athlete and the

product resemble some type of similar qualities (Charbonneau, & Garland, 2006). This relates to

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 15

a previous study examined that companies will use stronger athletes to sell products such as

muscle building products (Simmers, Damron-Martinez, & Haytko, 2009). If a company uses an

athlete that is not capable of representing the brand image, they could receive negative responses

from the endorsed product.

Most research that has been completed has determined there is a positive effect from

athletes endorsing products because consumers are able to connect the brand and athlete

together. According to a study by Costanzo and Goodnight in 2005, the perceived belief that

there is a positive relationship is not always true. In this study, they analyze how there is the

belief that advertising professions use celebrities to endorse a brand because it will increase

consumer recall of the brand. Advertisers believe that in the minds of a consumer, having a

celebrity will increase their intentions of purchasing the brand (Costanzo, & Goodnight, 2005).

The study found that celebrity recognized in a magazine advertisement did not increase

consumer recall of the brand endorsed by the celebrity for both professional athlete celebrities

and other entertainment celebrities. This study reveals the contrast to most studies and beliefs

that consumer’s intentions are based on endorsed brands and that there is a positive relation

between the two.

When discussing the impact of materialism and social identify among consumers, often

the fact that the data obtained by researchers may be contaminated is overlooked. According to

Mick in 1996, socially desirable responding (SDR) is the tendency of individuals to make

themselves look good according to current cultural norms when answering researcher’s

questions. For over 50 years in the social sciences, SDR has been a complex and controversial

issue, typically viewed as a contaminating response bias (Mick, 1996). While this has been going

on most researchers who get their data from consumers have neglected to include what

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 16

consumers say just to be current with cultural norms. They especially ignore SDR when the issue

is detrimental impact on the research conclusions (Mick, 1996). The study analyzes conceptual,

measurement, and statistical analysis issues related to SDR. The study completed two surveys

that explored the effect of SDR on consumers and then the researcher gave implications and

recommendations for investigating SDR in consumer research, including opportunities for future

contributions.

Based on the intensive research that has already been done, there is significant evidence

to support the fact that athletes are used to increase the intentions for consumers to purchase a

brand or specific product. Studies have used to analyze societal effects or basic intentions based

on demographics and how they correspond with the brand. Unfortunately, very little research has

been done which includes college students. College students should be seen as an important

market in the view of an advertiser. Young adults still find fashion and sports as factors that that

influence their purchasing habits (Veltri, et al., 2003). Specifically the following questions were

addressed in this research study:

1. Do athlete endorsed products have an effect on purchasing intentions of college

students?

2. How does gender impact purchasing intentions based on athlete endorsements?

3. How does fan identification impact purchasing intentions based on athlete

endorsements?

Examining these questions through a study will develop an idea of whether or not college

students are targeted by marketers. In addition, the study will explain any difference between

youth and college students based on the Social Identity and Social Adaptation Theory.

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 17

Method

Participant Selection

The participants in the study consisted of St. John Fisher students. The surveys were sent

out to 2,891 undergraduates and 273 were returned causing a 9.4% response rate. The

demographics of the respondents showed that females almost doubled male response rate and

most male students who responded to the survey were either sophomore or seniors. The female

respondents were pretty evenly distributed with each class rank having around forty respondents.

Data Collection Instrument and Procedure

The survey consisted of eleven questions that are sorted into three sections. The first

section is to find out what type of fan the student is and their overall fan identity. The second

section identified purchasing behaviors of these students and how athlete endorsements affect

those behaviors. The third section gained information about the student taking the survey (See

Appendix A).

The survey was sent electronically through email to the entire undergraduate students

(See Appendix A). Respondents were given a little over three weeks to respond to the research

request. Upon conclusion of the time period, the survey was closed and the results checked for

completeness. In order to ensure the results from the survey were valid, every question that was

used was checked for the entire completion of all the questions. Otherwise, the results were

thrown out.

Data Analysis

Answers from the survey were analyzed using the Qualtrics software. Secondary analyses

used correlation and chi-square to assess the data (See Appendix B). Using the chi-square, there

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 18

were numerous relationships that were able to be examined. One example was whether or not

there is a relationship between non-athletes and athletes when it comes to purchasing intentions.

Another relationship that was examined was the difference in gender when it came to purchase

intentions. In terms of what type of fan the student was and their level of fan, chi-squared was

able to help reveal any relationship with their purchasing intentions and if there was any

differences based on their gender. Also, relationships between class rank and purchasing

intentions were able to be analyzed. Using chi-square, the results from the survey were able to be

analyzed to determine and significant relationships.

Results

There were 273 respondents to the survey that was distributed with the majority of the

respondents being females. Due to some of the difficulty in the questions that may have cause

respondents to be confused, there were questions that were not answered by all 273 respondents.

The majority of respondents indicated that they %were fans of football at 76%with the majority

of fan loyalty being attached to a specific team at. In terms of what type of sports fans the

students were, 43% of males watched every game only missing one, while 41% of female watch

only their favorite team.

The number one thing that impacted a student’s purchasing intentions was the cost of the

merchandise. The second thing that impacted students purchasing intentions was that they liked

the specific brand, not the fact that it was necessarily being endorsed by an athlete. Females were

more likely to buy the merchandise at the nearest store, while males were more likely to go

online to buy the merchandise. Only 28% of the respondents said they would never ask for

athlete endorsed products when they were asking for gifts. Only 15% of the respondents said

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 19

they would spend the extra money to have the merchandise they purchase to be in affiliation with

their favorite athlete or team.

Using chi-square to analyze the data, there were eleven statistical results that were

significant (See Appendix C). The chi-square analysis represents some level of significant

difference when the results of two or more questions are correlated together. One correlat ion that

was significant was when students asked for gifts and what their purchasing intentions were. In

this correlation as well as the other significant ones, there were one or two answers that seemed

to be more of a popular answer than a correlation with no significance which is most of the

answers being similar. Using chi-square, there were three significances found that involved

playing and organized sport. They were asking for gifts, gender and the level of fan that the

student was. There were four significant correlations that were found with the students that

involved them asking for gifts; the gender, level of fan, fan of a specific sport and the loyalty of

the fan. Gender also had significance when it was directly correlated with the level of fan and the

fan of a specific sport. The last significant correlations were found when fan loyalty was

correlated with the level of fan, and the fan of a specific sport.

Marketing Research

Due to the number of respondents in this study, the results have limited value to

marketers. If the findings from this study were of value, there were numerous useful take-a-ways

for marketers. When looking at the results, most students considered themselves a fan of

football, with the majority of the fans being attached to a specific team. With this, marketers

could see that they need to focus their athlete endorsed product with football and that they should

use a specific team rather than just one single athlete. Another result that marketers could use

would be with what type of sports fans males and females were. If males watched 43% of every

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 20

game only missing one while the 41% of females only watched their favorite team, it shows the

marketers where to use their endorsements. With males, they could use the general sport for

advertising and endorsing a brand. For females, they need to have a specific team so that females

can relate to that team. When looking at the top choice that determined a student’s purchasing

intentions, it was cost which would show marketers that if they look to obtain college students in

purchasing their products, they need to lower the cost of the merchandise. Two other areas that

may be of interest to marketers would be where the students purchased the merchandise. Females

responded that they would most likely buy the merchandise at the nearest store and for males,

usually online. If this is the case, if marketers are going after females, they should focus on

putting their merchandise in local stores. For males, they should spend less time putting

merchandise in stores and more effort into making the merchandise available online.

Discussion

In examining the question of if athlete endorsed products have an effect on purchasing

intentions of college students, the data analysis showed that there was no significant relationship

between athlete endorsed products and the purchasing intentions on college students. The results

from the data showed that college students were unaffected by athlete endorsed products when it

came to themselves purchasing the item. The question of how gender impacts purchasing

intentions based on athlete endorsements, the results proved that there was no significant

difference in men and women when it came to purchasing an athlete endorsed brand and that

only where they would by the product showed a significant difference. In regards to how fan

identification impacts purchasing intentions based on athlete endorsements, the survey results

found that there were no significant difference in the level of sports fan and their purchasing

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 21

intentions. Although, using chi-square analysis, the study did show that the level of the fan had a

significant impact when it came to asking for gifts.

Based on the results from the questionnaire, the theoretical framework of Social Identity

and Social Adaptation was the most accurate in analyzing the data. Not only do these theories

identify and examine why the students answered the questions, but include how students may or

may not identify themselves within groups and society. One variable that needs to be accounted

for is with only surveying St. John Fisher College, that the number only represents college

students in a certain geographic location. The surveys may have revealed different results if

conducted in another part of the world.

Limitations in Research

One of the main limitations in this research was the amount of time in which the surveys

were given out. The respondents only had three weeks to get the surveys and fill them out

completely before submitting them back in. In those three weeks, only a small percentage

actually returned completed surveys which may be due to the fact that there was not enough time

to complete the surveys and that there was no reminder email sent out to give a warning that the

deadline was approaching. Another flaw in this research is that because there was a short period

of time that survey could be completed, there was a lack of respondents which made the

population size of the results irrelevant to marketers. The sample size for the study was not

enough to be meaningful in terms of marketers changing the way they market their products to

college students. Another limitation to this study was the questions could have been viewed as a

little difficult or confusing. Without allocating appropriate time to develop good questions, the

results of this research may be flawed due to the students answering the questions without fully

understanding the questions.

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 22

Directions for Further Research

In order for further research to be completed, there needs to be a few editions made to the

study to develop more significant findings. One thing that would be necessary in furthering this

research would be to edit the questions and make them easier to understand for the person taking

the survey. With such as small survey size, it was very hard to put together concrete findings

based on such few number of respondents. Therefore, there needs to be a larger population that is

added to this study in order to receive the correct number of respondents so the results are

meaningful. Lastly, the study should be developed and analyzed over a longer period of time to

really obtain the necessary results in finding out if college students are affected by athlete

endorsed products.

Conclusion

Based on the ideas of Social Identity Theory, this study shows no connection between

college students and their need to identify with a particular group. These results differ from other

research that has been completed showing other demographics being strongly affected by athlete

endorsements or other celebrity endorsed products. In terms of social adaptation theory, this

study also shows no connection between college students and their need to adapt to a certain

lifestyle because of athlete endorsed products. There were however, significant findings between

some of the categories of questions. If the population size of those students surveyed was bigger,

the study would have been meaningful to companies and marketers who deal with athlete

endorsements.

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 23

Appendix A

Thank you for your interest in taking this survey. The following questions will help gain a better

understanding of the effects that athlete endorsed brands have on college students and will be an

important piece in my overall research.

(The first three questions look to obtain your fan identity.)

1. What sports do you consider yourself a fan of? (Check all that apply)

Baseball

Football

Basketball

Hockey

Soccer

2. What sports do you consider yourself a fan of? (Check all that apply)

Baseball

Football

Basketball

Hockey

Soccer

3. What type of sports fan would you consider yourself?

Turn on a game every so often

Watch only the big games (Super Bowl, National Championship, etc.)

Watch every game rarely missing one

Watch only your favorite team

4. Which would you most likely attach your loyalty to?

An individual sport

An individual team

An individual school

An individual athlete

(The second section will help determine your purchasing and product behavior.)

5. What decisions impact your purchasing decision? (Drag to order your answers, #1

being the top position)

1 I'm a fan of the athlete who wears this item

2 I'm a fan of the school that is sponsored by this company

3 I like the brand

4 The cost of the merchandise

5 The color of the merchandise

6. How likely will an athlete endorsed brand effect your purchasing intentions?

I will only purchase an athlete endorsed product

Sometimes

The athlete doesn't matter to me

Never

7. Where are you most likely to buy team merchandise?

At the sporting event

Online

(Appendix A Continued)

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 24

At the nearest store

8. When asking for gifts, are team/athlete merchandise on your list?

Always

Sometimes

Never

9. How well do each of the following statements describe you? (For each situation,

please select one that applies)

(Not at all like me) (Not much like me) (Somewhat like me) (Quite a lot like me) (Just like

me)

-I will spend the extra money to have what I buy be in affiliation with my favorite team.

-If my favorite athlete endorses it, I will buy it.

-I often purchase items without knowing their background but because they are endorsed by a

celebrity, I'll buy it.

- I like one particular athlete rather than the overall team.

(The third section is to gather additional information about you.)

10. What is your class rank?

Freshman

Sophomore

Junior

Senior

11. What is your gender?

Male

Female

12. Are you currently participating in an organized sport?

No

Yes

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Appendix B

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Appendix C

Purchasing Intentions

Play Organized Sport

Class Rank

Asking For Gifts

Gender Level of Fan

Fan of Specific Sport

Fan Loyalty

Purchasing Intentions

Play Organized Sport

2.68

Class Rank 6.33 3.02

Asking for Gifts 29.05*** 9.10** 2.87

Gender 3.18 6.13** 8.50* 21.16 **

Level of Fan 11.65 13.65** 7.42 62.30 ***

49.38**

Fan of Specific Sport 6.60 3.92 3.77 30.81 ***

19.38 ***

18.58

Fan Loyalty 10.09 4.13 11.93 13.46* 4.87 22.41*** 21.74*

ATHLETE ENDORSEMENTS 27

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