ATHIRAH BINTI OTHMAN

SCALE REMOVAL IN WATER PIPELINE WITH A MAGNETIC FIELD

ATHIRAH BINTI OTHMAN

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

School of Civil Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

AUGUST 2020

iv

DEDICATION

This is dedicated specially for,

HAJI OTHMAN BIN MD. JUSOH

HAJAH SHOBARIAH BINTI HANAFI

*MY OTHER HALF*

MOHD ARIFF

ADAM

SITI YUSRINA

NURUL FADZNI

ASIAH

LUQMAN RAFIEE

ASMAK

HUD

or their endless support, sacrifices and faith on this Doctor of Philosophy

journey of mine, from year September 2014 to August 2020.

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

“In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Compassionate”

First and foremost, a very special thanks you and appreciation to my supervisor,

Assoc. Prof. Dr Johan bin Sohaili for being the most understanding, spending his

valuable time, guidance and encouragement throughout this research.

Not forgetting my supportive parents and family who are always stay by my

side and motivate me all the way. For my dearest friends, I am so thankful to have all

of you during our study time together. Finally, I wish to extend my sincere thankful to

all environmental laboratory technicians for their timely support during my study.

I am greatly indebted to School of Civil Engineering (SKA) for the support and

facilities provided to carry out the experimental work. Same goes to the academic and

non-academic staff of the faculty for their support, assistance and friendly treatment

that facilitated the work. I remain immensely grateful for the financial support by

Ministry of Education Malaysia through the scholarship of MyPhD, and also a research

grant under GUP Tier 1 entitle of Removal of Scale in Water Pipeline with Magnetic

Field; Q. J130000.2522.18H24.

Last but not least, I also owe special thanks to whomever that always been there

for me and extended every possible support during this research.

vi

ABSTRACT

Magnetic water treatment (MWT) is a green concept of water treatment where

the magnetic device is installed to the system. This concept is intended to cater to scale

problem as it is the most common problem experienced in water pipeline which causes

the reduction of system performance. This leads to the pipeline becoming clogged and

causing potential damage. Scale is a soluble salt known as calcium carbonate, CaCO3,

which usually develop due to the mineral content of the water itself and external factors

from surroundings. Calcium carbonate, can be found in almost every type of scale in

various water system, is the ingredient of scale. Conventional treatment was used in

controlling the scale, but it is harmful to the system and environmentally unfriendly.

Thus, water treatment with the application of magnetic field is an alternative for future

practice. This study was conducted experimentally in the laboratory where all the

samples and variables were installed and conducted in 4 phases. The first phase of this

study was aimed to determine the variables of this study. In order to obtain the

optimum results, the variables selected were orientation of magnetic devices, the flow

rate of water and the intensity of magnetic field under 18 days of operation time.

Magnetic devices for treating scale in used water pipes are subjected to different

magnetic orientations under inverted and non-inverted, with one control device

without magnet. The water flow rate used were 1.0 mL/s, 2.0 mL/s and 3.0 mL/s and

the magnet intensity were 0.1 Tesla, 0.3 Tesla and 0.5 Tesla respectively. All these

flow rates and magnet intensities were applied and conducted simultaneously under

those orientations. These variables were applied in order to achieve the objectives of

the next phase of the study, which were water sample characteristics and morphology

structure of scale. The final phase for this study was formulating the empirical

relationship of scale removal efficiency using Response Surface Methodology (RSM).

The results showed that inverted orientation was 28% greater rate of scale removal

compared to that of non-inverted which was 20%. For variables of water flow rate,

greater flow rate of 3.0 mL/s (78%) gave better results than lower flow rate. Regarding

magnetic intensity, the higher the intensity of permanent magnet used, the greater the

rate of scale removal. Hence, under inverted orientation with 3.0 mL/s water flow rate

and magnetic intensity of 0.5 Tesla, the experiment results of scale removal under

MWT was 57% compared to 0.3 Tesla (43%) and 0.1 Tesla (23%). The morphology

structure of scale was analysed under Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope

(FESEM) and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) resulting in the crystal form of scale ranged

from harder crystal (calcite) to softer crystal (vaterite and aragonite). From the analysis

of Three Dimension Response Surface Plot, it was found that scale removal efficiency

had the effects and interaction towards magnet intensity of 0.5 Tesla, water flow rate

of 2.98 mL/s and 18 days of operation time under inverted orientation. Experimental

validation demonstrated a scale removal prediction of 37.527 mg/L and the observed

results from experiments was 36.9 mg/L representing an error of only 1.7%. The

outcome of the study bridges the knowledge of magnetic water treatment and will aid

the concept to the future practices in water treatment as our world is now ingeared

towards sustainable and environmentally friendly treatment.

vii

ABSTRAK

Olahan air magnetik (MWT) adalah olahan air berkonsep hijau di mana peranti

magnet dipasang pada sistem. Konsep ini bertujuan untuk mengatasi masalah kerak kerana

kebanyakan saluran paip mengalami masalah kerak yang menyebabkan prestasi sistem

terganggu. Ini menyebabkan saluran paip tersumbat dan boleh menyebabkan kerosakan. Kerak

ialah garam terlarut yang dikenali sebagai kalsium karbonat, CaCO3 yang terbentuk

disebabkan kandungan mineral yang hadir di dalam air itu sendiri dan juga dari faktor keadaan

sekeliling. Kalsium karbonat, boleh dijumpai hampir di kesemua jenis kerak dalam pelbagai

sistem air. Olahan air konvensional telah dipraktiskan untuk mengawal kerak tetapi kaedah ini

mendatangkan bahaya kepada sistem dan tidak mesra alam sekitar. Oleh itu, olahan air dengan

menggunakan peranti magnet merupakan satu alternatif yang berpotensi pada masa hadapan.

Kajian ini dijalankan secara eksperimen di makmal iaitu semua sampel dan pembolehubah

dilaksanakan sepenuhnya di makmal. Kajian ini dimulakan dengan fasa mengenal pasti

pembolehubah untuk penyelidikan ini. Untuk mendapatkan hasil eksperimen yang optimum,

antara pembolehubah yang dipilih ialah orientasi peranti magnet, kadar aliran air dan keamatan

medan magnet dalam tempoh 18 hari masa beroperasi. Peranti magnet yang digunakan adalah

tertakluk kepada orientasi magnet yang berbeza, iaitu terbalik dan tidak terbalik, dengan satu

peranti kawalan tanpa magnet. Kadar aliran air yang digunakan adalah 1.0 mL/s, 2.0 mL/s dan

3.0 mL/s manakala keamatan magnet yang digunakan adalah 0.1 Tesla, 0.3 Tesla dan 0.5

Tesla. Kesemua kadar aliran air dan keamatan magnet ini digunakan dan dilaksanakan secara

serentak di bawah orientasi magnet yang berikut. Pembolehubah ini digunakan supaya objektif

untuk fasa seterusnya dalam kajian ini iaitu ciri-ciri sampel air dan struktur morfologi kerak

dapat dicapai. Fasa terakhir untuk kajian ini adalah merumuskan hubungan empirikal

kecekapan penyingkiran kerak dengan menggunakan kaedah Metodologi Permukaan Tindak

Balas (RSM). Hasil eksperimen menunjukkan bahawa orientasi terbalik memberi kadar

penyingkiran kerak yang lebih besar iaitu 28% berbanding dengan tidak terbalik dengan 20%.

Manakala untuk pembolehubah kadar aliran air, kadar aliran lebih tinggi 3.0 mL/s (78%)

memberikan hasil yang lebih baik daripada kadar aliran yang lebih rendah. Diikuti pula dengan

pembolehubah keamatan magnet, semakin tinggi keamatan magnet kekal yang digunakan,

semakin besar kadar penyingkiran kerak. Oleh itu, di bawah orientasi terbalik dengan kadar

aliran air 3.0 mL/s dan keamatan magnet sebanyak 0.5 Tesla, keputusan penyingkiran kerak

di bawah MWT adalah 57% berbanding 0.3 Tesla (43%) dan 0.1 Tesla (23%). Struktur

morfologi kerak telah dianalis di bawah Mikroskop Elektron Pengimbas Medan (FESEM) dan

Difraksi Sinar-X (XRD) yang menunjukkan perubahan kristal kerak daripada kristal yang

lebih kuat (kalsit) menjadi kristal yang lebih lemah (vaterit dan aragonit). Hasil analisis Plot

Permukaan Tindakbalas Tiga Dimensi, didapati kecekapan penyingkiran kerak mempunyai

kesan dan interaksi terhadap keamatan magnet sebanyak 0.5 Tesla, kadar aliran air 2.98 mL/s

dan 18 hari waktu operasi di bawah orientasi terbalik. Pengesahan eksperimen menunjukkan

penyingkiran kerak yang diramalkan adalah 37.527 mg/L dan hasil yang diperhatikan dari

eksperimen adalah 36.9 mg/L di mana ianya berbeza hanya 1.7%. Hasil kajian ini akan

menjadi rujukan terhadap pengetahuan tentang olahan air magnetik dan akan membantu

konsep ini untuk praktis masa depan dalam sistem olahan air kerana dunia kita kini lebih ke

arah lestari dan mesra alam.

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION iii

DEDICATION ivv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v

ABSTRACT vi

ABSTRAK vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS viii

LIST OF TABLES xiii

LIST OF FIGURES xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xix

LIST OF SYMBOLS xxi

LIST OF APPENDICES xxii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Problem Statement 3

1.3 Objectives 5

1.4 Scope of Study 6

1.5 Significance of Study 7

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 9

2.1 Introduction 9

2.2 Existence and Effects of Scale in Water Pipe 9

2.3 Scale Microstructure under their Crystal Forms 12

2.4 Factors Causing Scale Growth 15

2.4.1 Natural Minerals 15

2.4.2 Water Temperature and Flow 16

2.4.3 Materials of Pipeline and Its Medium 18

2.5 Water Treatment System 19

ix

2.6 The Existing Water Treatment in Control Scale 20

2.6.1 Chemical Additives 21

2.6.2 Ion Exchange 23

2.6.3 Reverse Osmosis 24

2.6.4 Mechanical Method in Scale Removal 25

2.7 Drawback of Existing Scale Water Treatment 26

2.8 Introduction of Magnetic Water Treatment 28

2.8.1 Turbidity 31

2.8.2 Water pH 32

2.8.3 Water Hardness 33

2.9 The Concepts of Magnetic Field on Water 34

2.9.1 Faraday’s Law 35

2.9.2 Lorentz Force 36

2.9.3 Magnetic Memory 36

2.9.4 Magnetic Concepts of Colloidal, Ostwald

Ripening and Others 37

2.10 Performance of Magnetic Field on Scale 39

2.10.1 Scale Formation 39

2.10.2 Scale Removal 40

2.11 Booster of Magnetic Water Treatment 40

2.11.1 The Criteria of Magnet 41

2.11.2 The Condition of Water Sample 42

2.11.3 The Flow Rate of Water 43

2.12 Advantages of Implementing Magnetic Water

Treatment 43

2.13 Optimization Process under Response Surface

Methodology 48

2.14 Adequacy Checking of the Model 49

2.15 Summary of Research Gap 50

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 53

3.1 Problem Background 47

3.2 Experimental Framework 53

3.3 Experiment Work for Magnetic Water Treatment 56

x

3.3.1 Preparation of Experimental Setup 57

3.3.2 Preparation of Morphology Structure Analysis 58

3.4 Experimental Materials and Instruments 59

3.4.1 Water Pipe 59

3.4.2 Permanent Magnets 60

3.4.3 Peristaltic Pump 61

3.4.4 Tubing 62

3.4.5 Glass Apparatus 63

3.4.6 Water Bath 64

3.5 The Orientations of Permanent Magnets 65

3.5.1 Inverted Magnetic Design 67

3.5.2 Non-Inverted Magnetic Design 68

3.5.3 Non-Magnetic Design 69

3.6 Formulation of Empirical Relationship on Scale

Removal by Experimental Design of Response Surface

Methodology 69

3.7 Summary on the Research Materials and Methods 72

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 73

4.1 Introduction 73

4.2 Relationship of Magnet Orientation on Magnetic Field

Exposure 74

4.2.1 The Performance on Water Turbidity under

Magnet Orientations 74

4.2.2 The Performance on Water pH under Magnet

Orientations 77

4.2.3 The Performance on Concentration of Calcium

Carbonate under Magnet Orientations 79

4.2.4 Summary of Results on the Variable of Magnet

Orientations 81

4.3 Relationship of Water Flow Rate on Magnetic Field

Exposure 84

4.3.1 The Performance on Turbidity under Water

Flow Rate 84

4.3.2 Summary Between Variables of Permanent

Magnet Orientation and Water Flow Rate under

Parameter of Turbidity 87

xi


Carbonate under Water Flow Rate 89


Magnet Orientation and Water Flow Rate under

Parameter of Water Hardness 92

4.4 Relationship of Magnet Intensity on MWT 94

4.4.1 The Performance on Water Turbidity under

Magnet Intensity 95


Magnet Orientation and Intensity under

Parameter of Turbidity 97


Carbonate under Magnet Intensity 99


Magnet Orientation and Intensity under

Parameter of Water Hardness 101

4.5 Effect of Temperature on The Magnetic Field

Exposure 103

4.6 Morphology Characteristics of Scale 106

4.6.1 Visual Observation of Removed Scale 106

4.6.2 Microscopic Properties of Scale 108

4.7 Conclusion 115

CHAPTER 5 RESPONSE SURFACE METHOD 117

5.1 Introduction 117

5.2 Empirical Relationship Formula for Scale Removal

Efficiency 117

5.3 Determination of Suitable Model 119

5.3.1 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 124

5.3.2 Adequacy Checking of the Model 125

5.3.2.1 Normal Probability Plot 126

5.3.2.2 Residuals versus Predicted Plot 127

5.3.2.3 Residuals versus Run Number Plot 128

5.3.2.4 Actual versus Predicted Plot 129

5.4 Three Dimension Response Surface Plot 130

5.4.1 Magnet Intensity and Water Flow Rate

Variables 130

xii

5.4.2 Magnet Intensity and Operation Time Variable 133

5.4.3 Water Flow Rate and Operation Time Variable 136

5.5 Experimental Condition Optimization 139

5.6 Summary of Response Surface Method 140

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 141

6.1 Conclusions 141

6.2 Recommendations 142

REFERENCES 145

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 179

xiii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

Table 2.1 Classification of water hardness (WHO, 2011) 34

Table 2.2 Published research articles of magnetic water treatment

regards on scale in previous years 46

Table 3.1 Methods and instruments used for each tests conducted 54

Table 3.2 Values on MWT Factors 71

Table 3.3 The Selected Variables and Conditions on MWT Experiment 72

Table 4.1 The Composition of Water Sample 74

Table 5.1 The Variables and Range Values Used in The Experiments 118

Table 5.2 RSM Results on Scale Removal in Actual and Predicted

values 120

Table 5.3 Results of Sequential Model Sum of Squares Test (Type I) 122

Table 5.4 Results of Lack of Fit Test 122

Table 5.5 Results of Model Summary Statistics 123

Table 5.6 ANOVA Results for Scale Removal Efficiency from

Magnetic Water Treatment 125

Table 5.7 Predicted and Observed Scale Removal at Optimum MWT

Condition 140

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

Figure 2.1 (a) Typical scale appears as a crust layer (b) combination

with corrosion inside the water pipe 10

Figure 2.2 The microstructure of calcite under SEM images showing

rhombohedral shape by (a) Dhami et al., 2013 (b) Omari et

al., 2016; scalenohedral shape by (c) Colucci et al., 2017

and flower-like shape by (d) Oral and Ercan, 2018 12

Figure 2.3 The microstructure of aragonite under SEM images

showing needle-like shape by (a) Chang et al., 2017 and (b)

Omari et al., 2016 13

Figure 2.4 The microstructure of vaterite under SEM images showing

spherical shape by (a) Chang et al., 2017 and ellipsoidal

shape by (b) Oral and Ercan, 2018 14

Figure 2.5 The transformations of crystal phase of scale from the least

to the most stable (Sarkar and Mahapatra, 2010) 14

Figure 2.6 Standard processes of water treatment (Edited:

Tchobanoglous et al., 2004) 20

Figure 2.7 Lime and soda were used in water treatment as scaling

prevention effort 22

Figure 2.8 The process of ion exchange with sodium, Na2+ resin

(Skipton et al., 2014) 24

Figure 2.9 Schematic diagram of reverse osmosis process

(Tchobanoglous et al., 2004) 25

Figure 2.10 Crystal size, where small size means a large number of

crystals and demonstrates an acceleration of nucleation by

magnetic field (a) Ordinary water, zero strength of magnet,

where the crystal in bigger size and small quantity (b)

Ordinary water, 0.19 T where the crystal in smaller size and

large quantity (Madsen, 2004) 31

Figure 2.11 Total precipitation ratio in % of the amount of dissolved

CaCO3 against flow rate, which indicates lower pH of water

was enhancing the total precipitation ratio % of CaCO3

(Alimi et al., 2007) where the flow rate (dm3.mn-1) as

decimetre cube per minute 33

Figure 2.12 The orientation of the electric field vector, Ey produced

when the flow vector, vz and magnetic field vector Bx is in

orthogonal angle (Busch et al., 1996) 35

xv

Figure 3.1 Research framework of the study illustrated in flowchart 55

Figure 3.2 The schematic drawing of the magnetic water treatment

where A=Blank orientation, B=Inverted orientation,

C=Non-inverted orientation 57

Figure 3.3 Water pipe made of steel, with (a) diameter of 15mm and

(b) length of 450mm 60

Figure 3.4 Permanent magnet made of NdFeB with dimension of

(50x50x10) mm 60

Figure 3.5 Gauss meter used in determine the intensity of permanent

magnet 61

Figure 3.6 Peristaltic pump of Cole Parmer, USA was used in

controlling the flow rate along the experiment 62

Figure 3.7 Two types of tube as (a) tygon and (b) silicone Masterflex

were used accordingly to their specific usage throughout the

experiment 62

Figure 3.8 Glass apparatus consists of (a) beaker, (b) sample cell for

hardness test, (c) pipette and (d) conical flask 63

Figure 3.9 DR6000 for hardness test 64

Figure 3.10 The setup of water sample inside the water bath for

controlled temperature 65

Figure 3.11 The schematic drawing of the magnetic water treatment 66

Figure 3.12 The experimental setup of magnetic water treatment 67

Figure 3.13 Inverted magnetic design with (a) schematic diagram and

(b) magnetic flux orientation (cross-section view) 68

Figure 3.14 Non-inverted magnetic design with (a) schematic diagram

and (b) magnetic flux orientation (cross-section view) 69

Figure 4.1 The visual observation of water sample turbidity (a) before

MWT and (b) after 18 days under MWT 75

Figure 4.2 The increment of turbidity level of water sample under

inverted, non-inverted and blank orientation (under

intensity of 0.1 T and flow rate of 1.0 mL/s) 76

Figure 4.3 The value of water sample pH under inverted, non-inverted

and blank orientation (under intensity of 0.1 T and flow rate

of 1.0 mL/s) 78

Figure 4.4 The performance of inverted, non-inverted and blank

orientation in removing scale in water pipeline (under

intensity of 0.1 T and flow rate of 1.0 mL/s) 81

xvi

Figure 4.5 Summarization results of all parameters under all

orientations 83

Figure 4.6 The level of turbidity in water sample in blank orientation

shows higher turbidity under higher flow rate (under

intensity of 0.1 T) 85

Figure 4.7 The level of turbidity in water sample under non-inverted

orientation shows slightly significant turbidity under

different flow rates (under intensity of 0.1T) 86

Figure 4.8 The level of turbidity in water sample under inverted

orientation shows significant turbidity under different flow

rates (under intensity of 0.1 T) 87

Figure 4.9 Summarization results of turbidity parameter under all flow

rates in orientation of inverted, non-inverted and blank 89

Figure 4.10 The concentration of CaCO3 under blank orientation with

Q1, Q2 and Q3 results of higher CaCO3 concentration with

higher flow rate 90

Figure 4.11 The concentration of CaCO3 under non-inverted orientation

with Q1, Q2 and Q3 results of higher CaCO3 concentration

with higher flow rate 91

Figure 4.12 The concentration of CaCO3 under inverted orientation

with Q1, Q2 and Q3 results of higher CaCO3 concentration

with higher flow rate 92

Figure 4.13 Summarization results of CaCO3 concentration under

different orientation of magnetic field with different flow

rate. Inverted orientation with flow rate, Q3 results higher

CaCO3 removal due to more nucleation is promoted in the

bulk solution with higher flow rate and precipitation rate 94

Figure 4.14 The turbidity of water sample under non-inverted

orientation results of higher turbidity level with higher

magnetic intensity 96

Figure 4.15 The turbidity of water sample under inverted orientation

results of higher turbidity level with higher magnetic

intensity 97

Figure 4.16 Each magnet intensities of 0.5 Tesla, 0.3 Tesla and 0.1

Tesla results higher turbidity removal under inverted

orientation compared to non-inverted where the highest

turbidity removal goes to magnetic intensity of 0.5 Tesla 98

Figure 4.17 The concentration of CaCO3 under non-inverted orientation

results of higher CaCO3 concentration with higher magnetic

intensity which is up to 47% compared to without magnetic

field 100

xvii

Figure 4.18 The concentration of CaCO3 under inverted orientation

results higher CaCO3 concentration with higher magnetic

intensity where inverted orientation of 0.5 Tesla removed

scale up to 57% compared to without magnetic field 101

Figure 4.19 Summarization results of CaCO3 concentration under

different orientation of magnetic field with different

magnetic intensities shows inverted orientation with

magnet intensity of 0.5 Tesla results highest CaCO3

removal compared to non-inverted and lower intensities 102

Figure 4.20 Turbidity of water sample under temperature of 50 oC in 16

days 104

Figure 4.21 pH of water sample under temperature of 50 oC in 16 days 104

Figure 4.22 Hardness of water sample under temperature of 50oC in 16

days 105

Figure 4.23 Visual observation of scale attached in used steel water pipe

107

Figure 4.24 The visual observation of removed scale from used steel

water pipe with magnetic field, from left: (a) blank, (b) non-

inverted and (c) inverted 107

Figure 4.25 The visual observation of removed scale in closer view after

MWT 107

Figure 4.26 Polymorph of calcium carbonate as calcite with (a, b)

scalenohedral shape and (c, d) rhombohedral shape of

crystal in pipe’s wall before MWT under various resolution

109

Figure 4.27 Morphology of calcium carbonate on the pipe’s wall after

completing MWT with polymoprh of aragonite and vaterite

under various resolution 110

Figure 4.28 Morphology of removed scale which accumulated after

MWT with spherical shape of crystal form under various

resolution 111

Figure 4.29 Morphology of scale (a, b) for 0.5 Tesla under inverted

orientation against (c, d) 0.5 Tesla non-inverted orientation

and (e) 0.3 Tesla under inverted orientation 113

Figure 4.30 The content of the elements on the removed scale after

MWT with 0.5 Tesla, 3.0 mL/s flow rate with (a) under non-

inverted orientation with 20.41% and (b) under inverted

orientation with 27.75% where C: CaCO3 114

Figure 5.1 Normal Probability Plot of Scale Removal Efficiency 127

Figure 5.2 The Studentized Residuals versus Predicted Response Plot 128

xviii

Figure 5.3 The Studentized Residuals versus Run Number Plot 129

Figure 5.4 The Predicted versus Actual Plot 130

Figure 5.5 (a) Three Dimension Response Surface Plot (b) Contour

Plot of Non-Inverted Orientation for the Variable of

Magnetic Intensity and Water Flow Rate on Scale Removal

Efficiency 132


Plot of Inverted Orientation for the Variable of Magnetic

Intensity and Water Flow Rate on Scale Removal

Efficiency 133


Plot of Non-Inverted Orientation for the Variable of

Magnetic Intensity and Operation Time on Scale Removal

Efficiency 135


Plot of Inverted Orientation for the Variable of Magnetic

Intensity and Operation Time on Scale Removal Efficiency

136


Plot of Non-Inverted Orientation for the Variable of Water

Flow Rate and Operation Time on Scale Removal

Efficiency 137


Plot of Inverted Orientation for the Variable of Water Flow

Rate and Operation Time on Scale Removal Efficiency 138

xix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

APHA - American Public Health Association

HDPE - High Density Polyethylene

PVC - Polyvinyl

SEM - Scanning Electron Microscopy

MWT - Magnetic Water Treatment

RO - Reverse Osmosis

oC - Degree Celcius

mg/L - milligram per Liter

T - Tesla

NTU - Nephelometric Turbidity Units

mmol/L - milimoles per Liter

gpg - grain per gallon

ppm - parts per million

WHO - World Health Organization

M - Magnetization

χυ - measured magnetic susceptibility

H - magnetic exposure

FL - Faradays Law

E - electric field vector

v - fluid linear/flow velocity

B - magnetic induction

LF - Lorentz Force

q - quantity of charged ion

PEX - high-density cross-linked polyethylene

ANOVA - Analysis of Variances

UTM - Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

FESEM - Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy

XRD - X-Ray Diffraction

mm - millimetre

NdFeB - Neodymium-Ferrite-Boron

xx

L - Length

W - Width

T - Thickness

USA - United States of America

mL - mili Liter

o - Degree

N - North Pole

S - South Pole

cm - Centimetre

B - Blank orientation

NI - Non-Inverted orientation

N. I - Non-Inverted orientation

INV - Inverted Orientation

Q1 - 1.0 mL/s

Q2 - 2.0 mL/s

Q3 - 3.0 mL/s

xxi

LIST OF SYMBOLS

H2CO3 - Carbonic Acid

H2O - Water

CaCO3 - Calcium Carbonate

CO2 - Carbon Dioxide

Cu - Copper

Zn - Zinc

Ca(OH)2) - Calcium Hydroxide

Na2CO3 - Sodium Carbonate

Mg(OH)2 - Magnesium Hydroxide

Na2+ - Sodium ions

Ca2+ - Calcium ions

Mg2+ - Magnesium ions

H+ - Hydrogen ions

OH- - Hydroxide ions

% - Percentage

CaCl2 - Calcium Chloride

CaSO4 - Calcium Sulphate

BaSO4 - Barium Sulphate

Fe - Iron

xxii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

Appendix A ANOVA Analysis for Results Obtained 159

Appendix B Percentage of Element Content for Scale under XRD

Analysis 176

Appendix C The Optimization Results of MWT from Respond Surface Method

under CCD Analysis 178

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Water is one of the most crucial resources and is required by every lifeform or

living creature in the world. We as human can survive without food for up to 73 days

but without water, we only can survive for five days (Popkin et al., 2010). In addition

to staying hydrated in order to prevent harm to our body, water is also very important

for humans on a daily basis. These situations definitely show the importance of water

in our life. The causes of water disruption might due to the water supply problems such

as broken water pipeline, interruption in water treatment plant and water pollution.

Currently, there is water supply problem in Shah Alam, Malaysia due to the old

pipeline system (Mohd, 2019), where 400 km out of total 27 000 km of pipeline were

replaced over a 3 year period. The issue of broken pipeline is believed to be due to

formation of scale and corrosion which causes brittle and leakage to the pipeline. All

of these issues have caused the interruption of water supply especially to the consumer

on a daily basis. Thus, the technology and technique concerning water treatment and

water supply is continues to be developed and has become a compulsory process to

produce a continuous supply of clean water, especially for daily necessities of human

life.

Water treatment is an application that consists of few processes in producing

clean and safe water, compliance with specific end-uses such as drinking water, water

for recreation and irrigation (Khoshravesh et al., 2018). Water treatment is practiced

worldwide according to the environment, such as the type of water sources and water

pipeline. The problem of water disruption is basically from the lack of management in

water supply strategy, poor technology of water treatment and protection of natural

water resources. Water pollution basically comes from various factors such as natural

sources, human being and industry activities. The other common water issue is

2

leakage. Although leakage seems to be small matter, it tends to create big problems,

especially to humans if the leakage is not handled early. Scale formation is one of the

main factors that leads to leakage where its formation is due to the high concentration

of minerals from water sources. Formation of scale in water pipeline is a very common

problem due to the existence of hardness from natural sources where water is used

frequently as a main medium (Alabi et al., 2015). It is not formed because the water is

polluted, as this problem also occurred to the treated water. The growth of scale may

be generated by many external factors, such as water temperature, which is one of the

main factors that enhances the scale growth (Donaldson and Grimes, 1988).

Scale is an assemblage deposit of calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide

and calcium sulphate (Sohaili et al., 2016) which is normally hard and insulator layer

off-white in color. Scale deposits attach in the pipeline wall and tend to reduce the

pipeline internal diameter, clogging the pipe and obstructing the flow of fluid

especially when the scale is heavily grown. The sources of scale formation come from

various factors but the growth is faster with the existence of high temperature and

higher water hardness. Hardness is described as minerals dissolved in water

specifically calcium and magnesium (Latva et al., 2016).

Water is an excellent solvent, capable to move and make contact in any

medium such as soil and rock, which generally make the water hard. Even if the

amount of mineral content in the solution is small, the minerals will accumulate and

increase the hardness concentration over time. The level of hardness becomes higher

with the greater content of calcium and magnesium where it is referred as

concentration of multivalent cations dissolved in water. When ionic substances

dissolve in water, they tend to split into their own element ions. However, these ions

of calcium and magnesium were not remained the same if they were exposed to certain

circumstances such as evaporation, where the water becomes saturated and tends to

precipitate salt crystal.

Scale in water pipeline can be controlled by implementing magnetic water

treatment (MWT). MWT is one of the physical water treatment approaches which

known as green technology, environmentally friendly, low cost maintenance and

3

simple treatment compared to others. Application of magnetic field in water pipeline

was applied to remove the existing scale in pipeline. Magnetic field was created by

permanent magnets incorporated into many water devices and even water conditioning

devices. The principle of magnetic technology involves the physics of interaction

between a magnetic field and a moving electric charge (ion) as a force is exerted on

each ion and causes redirection of the particles. It tends to increase the frequency with

which ions of opposite charge collide and combine to form a mineral precipitate or

insoluble compound (Gholizadeh et al., 2005). Another theory (Madsen, 2004), which

is Pauli exclusion principle, is focused on proton transfer where magnetic field

influences proton spin relaxation.

Although wide-ranging studies by many researches had been carried out in

order to identify the effectiveness of magnetic field in treating scale, the findings were

still lacking and confusing where the exact factors in optimizing the efficiency of

MWT were not clear yet. The findings of previous researches have their own limitation

which need to be explored further. These issues will be elaborated in Chapter 2. Thus,

with the modification of magnetic devices to the water pipeline, this research is

expected to cater the scale problem through determination of water parameters changes

and identify new potential mechanism of scale removal process under references of

previous findings. Lastly, the determination of relationship by empirical formula,

which prove the significant factors of MWT effectiveness, as one of the main

contributions of this study results.

1.2 Problem Statement

The existence of scale in water pipeline often creates problem in both domestic

purposes and industrial activities. The major problem of pipeline in water supply either

for general purposes or industrial activities is scale formation especially when it

involves the usage of hot water such as water heater, boiler and cooling tower. Scale

causes problems of pipe deterioration (Abdelhady et al., 2011), blockage, corrosion

and biofilm formation (Latva et al., 2016). These problems caused many difficulties

and disruption to the performance system of the pipe and the worst part is the damage

4

caused to the pipe itself when the scale was heavily grown. It takes a long time and

very costly for the maintenance and replacement of the new pipeline. In addition,

damaged pipe tends to pollute the environment and the water itself. Pipeline with scale

had caused the hardness of water to be higher due to the existence of Ca2+ and Mg2+

ions from scale. The impact on environment is where the hardness affects fish and

other aquatic life due to existence of the metal ions in harder water. Some of the metal

ions in the hard water form insoluble precipitates and drop out of solution and are not

available to be taken in by the organism. Large amounts of hardness are undesirable

mostly for economic or aesthetic reasons. If drinking water source comes from nature,

hardness can present problems in the water treatment process. Hardness must also be

removed before certain industries can use the water. For this reason, the hardness test

is one of the most frequent analysis done by facilities that use water.

Scale often leads to interrupt the water flow inside the pipes for domestic

equipment and limit the heat transfer in heat exchanger for industrial plants, leading to

technical and economic problems. Mostly, scale growth is enhanced by water

temperature and becomes big problem to the industrial and technology activities which

implicate heat-transfer, heat exchanger or any that related to water temperature such

as water distribution systems boilers and cooling towers. The problem increases as

water gets hotter (Donaldson and Grimes, 1988). In many industrial processes that use

natural water supplies, scale formation is a common and costly problem (Banejad and

Abdosalehi, 2009) due to existing of various minerals that influence scale growth.

When any heat-transfer surface becomes scaled, this insulating layer inside the

pipeline reduces the efficiency of the equipment, increases fuel requirements and

maintenance due to the internal diameter of the pipelines have been decreased (Quinn

et al., 1997). This may lead to increasing electric bill of users (Orb, 2007).

A few treatments were implemented in controlling the scale formation and

most of them have applied chemical reagents to achieve target. But these treatments

are not environmentally friendly, harmful and not economical and generate harmful

waste. All the drawbacks of these treatment will be explained more in detail in Chapter

2. Since the drawbacks of these treatments were more critical than it function,

5

extensive research on environmentally friendly approaches in controlling scale

formation is required.

If the scale is not either prevented or treated from the early stage, it will

accelerate the degradation process of pipeline or lead to complete failure in thermal

and hydraulic performance which increases initial and operating cost (Meyer et al.,

2000) over time. Also, scale created insulator layer which increases operation and

maintenance costs by lowering the flow rate of water and the thermal transfer

coefficient in heat exchangers and also increasing the energy consumption of the

pumps in drinking water systems (Abdelhady et al., 2011). Formation of scale on heat

transfer surfaces is equivalent to coating the surface with an effective insulating

material (Glater et al., 1980).

As the world is currently focusing on green approach, especially in main

activities such as construction, treatment system, transportation and more, any

approaches that are sustainable and biodegradable are preferable. MWT is a physical

water treatment that has big potential and environmentally friendly where the entire

process does not use any chemicals or produce any harmful waste. Magnetic field has

potential in controlling the scale and can be replace the existing scale treatment and

solve most of the drawbacks produced by conventional treatments. Hence, this

research embarks to investigate the effectiveness of magnetic field on scale removal

in water pipeline under several variables in order to enhance the effectiveness of MWT

where all the variables were set from previous researches on MWT. The empirical

relationship of MWT between each variable will be formulated using the results from

MWT experiments.

1.3 Objectives

The aim of this study is to investigate the potential of implementing the

magnetic field devices into water pipeline due to scale problem. This aim can be

achieved by following objectives:

6

i. To evaluate the effects of magnetic orientation, water flow rate, magnetic

intensity and water temperature towards removing the existing scale in water

pipeline.

ii. To measure the water characteristics that reflects on the effectiveness under

the effects of magnetic exposure.

iii. To measure the changes of scale molecular structure in their crystal form as

reflection of magnetic field exposure

iv. To formulate as empirical equation among the rate of scale removal under

variables of orientation of permanent magnets, water flow rate and magnetic

intensity.

1.4 Scope of Study

The scope of work for this study can be stipulated as follows:

i. Used water pipes made from steel were collected in order to performed the

tests. The usage of steel pipe in water pipeline is still in demand due to the

specialty of steel pipe in temperature resistance which required in most

industrial activities. This study was focused on water pipe made of steel,

which can be related to any system using steel pipe to convey water such as

pipeline system in domestic and industry purposes.

ii. The permanent magnet used on this study have various strength which is 0.10

~ 0.5 Tesla. These permanent magnets have been installed in orientation of

inverted, non-inverted and non-magnetic as a control.

iii. The operating variables selected for this experimental work were flow rate

of water (1.0 mL/s ~ 3 mL/s) and temperature of water (27±2oC ~ 50oC).

iv. The main idea for enhancing the effectiveness of MWT were to expose the

water sample into strong magnetic flux and enhance the contact frequency

between water molecules, magnetic flux and scale in the pipe’s wall. These

7

can be achieved by implementing circulation flow, where the water will be

able to become the stronger magnetized water.

v. The methods used for analytical parameters were referred from Standard

Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (American Public

Health Association, APHA, 2005) and conducted in Environmental

Engineering Laboratory, School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of

Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

1.5 Significance of Study

Regarding on scale control, MWT plays an important role among chemical

water conditioning methods (Banejad and Abdosalehi, 2009) because physical water

treatment of MWT process was developed to substitute chemical water treatment

methods which employ chemical product that is harmful to the environment and

human health (Cai et al., 2009). Magnetic treatment has significant effect on water

quality of irrigation (Bogatin et al., 1999). In addition to its benefits as non-chemical

treatment, it identifies whether the best method to remove the scale is by inverted or

non-inverted magnetic field. According to Donaldson and Grimes (1988), magnetic

device removed existing calcite scale and further hard scale was not forming. Thus, it

can help to recognize scale removal in water pipeline with magnetic field. The findings

of this result will introduce a new potential mechanism on scale removal process and

at the end of this study, the empirical relationship can be formulated according to this

optimum results. A significant contribution of this study is the knowledge and

understanding of optimum design of magnetic devices in scale removal, which has not

been critically researched nor considered in empirical formula yet. This empirical

relationship formula was targeted to be implemented as a new guideline for the future

researchers in order to obtain further progressive results.

145

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