AT-20

Photographyin Your Science Fair Project

INTRODUCTION

These web pages will give you detailed instructions onhow to more effectively use photography in your sciencefair project. The suggestions on how to improve yourphotographs actually apply more broadly than just to ascience fair project. If you follow these suggestions, yourown personal or vacation pictures will be better. Also,these suggestions will help you run better scientificexperiments. Because the data gathering step of manyscientific experiments must be carried out with the use ofphotography, these suggestions will apply to experimentsyou carry out throughout your life. If you learn thesetechniques and use them in your experiments, you will bea better scientist or engineer.

These web pages will describe techniques on how touse photography to gather the raw data in an experiment,to record how the experiment was carried out, and toclearly present the results and conclusions of yourexperiment. Some experiments can only be carried outwith the use of photography, while others are mucheasier to carry out if photography is used. Almost allexperiments can be more clearly explained withphotography.

Throughout these web pages, the emphasis is onconventional photography using a camera andphotographic film. For most people (and mostapplications), this is still the least expensive and easiestway to use photography in an experiment. However, thetechniques described here apply equally well to digital orvideo cameras.

When using these newer technologies, you will have topresent your images on a computer monitor or you willhave to make hard-copy images such as thermal prints,inkjet prints, or slides. Likewise, with a conventionalfilm image, it is easy to scan the film and convert thefilm image to digital image for use in a computer anddisplay on a computer monitor. Clearly, conventionaland digital photography are coming closer together andin many cases the choice of which to use in a particularexperiment comes down to questions of what equipmentis available to you or what will give you better results forthe particular experiment you are running.

As you will see as you read these web pages, the useof a camera, which has f-stop and shutter controls, whichyou can set, will give you more flexibility in taking thephotographs. This greater flexibility will sometimesallow you to capture the optimum image needed in yourexperiment. Therefore, you will find these types ofcameras described more often. Also, cameras withinterchangeable lenses will allow you more freedom tocapture the image that is best in your experiment. Bothdigital and conventional film cameras are made withthese features and can be used. However, automaticexposure cameras, fixed lens cameras, and evenone-time-use cameras may be very effectively used inmany experiments. The differences are flexibility andfreedom of control of the captured image. Thetechniques described in these web pages are applicable toall of these cameras.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 2

GENERAL PICTURE-TAKING TECHNIQUES 6

Outdoor Lighting 7Indoor Lighting 7Exposure and Sharpness Considerations 8

SPECIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES 9

Close-Up Techniques 9Copying Flat Subjects 11Infrared Photography 13Photomicrography 16Astrophotography 18Exposure Guide for Basic Astrophotography 20

DISPLAYING YOUR PICTURES 21

Science Fair Exhibit 21Lecture-Demonstration 23

USEFUL FILMS FORSCIENCE FAIR PROJECTS 25

MORE INFORMATION 26

Eastman Kodak CompanyINTEL International Scienceand Engineering Fair Award

For those regional science fairs affiliated with the IntelInternational Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF),Eastman Kodak Company offers a special award to thestudent making the most effective use of photography ina science fair project. The project itself need not beconcerned directly with the science of photography.Especially good photographic documentation,outstanding photographic display techniques,imaginative incorporation of photography in undertakingthe project, appropriate photographic illustration of thesubject, photography used for data collection or dataanalysis, etc. make a project eligible for consideration.

The award consists of a Kodak camera kit andKodak photographic publications. A matching award willalso be sent to the science department or sponsoringteacher of the school in which the student is enrolled.

©Eastman Kodak Company, 1999

4

PHOTOGRAPHS HELPYOUR SCIENCE FAIR PRESENTATION

An experienced science-fair-judge puts it this way: “Mostexhibits utilize photography with the main impetus torecord data.” Many of the exhibits would be much lesseffective if they didn’t have photographic support.

“The pictures represent convincing documentation or keydata collection step of the research. In fact, some exhibitswouldn’t exist at all if it weren’t for photography.”

These four pictures were taken in available light by Kevin Urie,Denver, Colorado, for his exhibit, “Incidence of Parasites Foundin Canine Feces Sampled from Public Parks and PrivateResidences in the Denver Area.” At an international sciencefair, Kevin’s exhibit won awards from the American VeterinaryMedical Association and the U.S. Air Force.

5

Another judge adds:“There are two aspects to using photography in an

exhibit, and it’s important for a participant to understandthe distinction. The first is that the student has usedphotography simply to illustrate the method. These canbe excellent pictures, but they aren’t really mainstream tothe methods or results of the project. However, picturingthe method is very desirable because of thecommunicating power of a photograph. Often, 10 goodpictures can describe a project more quickly andsuccinctly than 10,000 words—and you can see howimportant this is to a judge who is comparing andcontrasting a particular exhibit against dozens or perhapshundreds of others.”

“The second aspect is that photography is used as arecording tool. For example, if you’re measuring theflight of a rocket or recording the movement of Jupiter’smoons, you’d really have to use photography in order tomake the measurements. In other words, we photographyjudges distinguish between photography as a recordingtool and photography as a communications tool. And onequestion we ask ourselves when looking at an exhibit is‘Could that exhibit exist if there weren’t anyphotographs?”

A third judge adds:“The inescapable conclusion is that photography and

many science fair projects are nearly inseparable.”

Let’s summarize some of the roles of photography:

• Photographs are necessary as an analysis ormeasuring tool. For example, close-up photographyand infrared and ultraviolet photography can be usedto ascertain the age, the authenticity, and thepossibility of alterations of stamp collections or otherpaper documents.

• Photographs are desirable as a project-recordingtechnique and as a subsequent communicationmedium. Mounted enlargements can form a vital partof a display showing investigative procedures andproject results in a pretest/posttest mode. Photographyis very efficient as a time recorder; there is no betterway to record an event than to take a picture of it.

• Color slides can be an important element in lectureand demonstration procedures. It isn’t often feasible totransport delicate or heavy laboratory apparatus orbulky specimens to a presentation; whereas, it’s veryconvenient to use slides as a communication tool to anaudience.

• Photographic print illustrations may be helpful, oractually necessary, if your paper is to be submitted forpublication. In addition, illustrations are oftenrequired in submitting a documented abstract prior toan actual presentation.

It’s not difficult to understand Eastman KodakCompany’s interest and concern about science fairphotography. We want you to gather accurate dataquickly with pictures and create pictures that will helpcommunicate your message effectively, whatever yoursubject, whatever your idea.

We welcome you to the fascinating world ofscientific photography.

6

GENERAL PICTURE-TAKING TECHNIQUES

An examination of thousands of photographs used inscience fair exhibits indicates that the problemscommonly encountered in picture-taking fall into threecategories: lighting, exposure, and sharpness.

In addition, when photographing, keep these threerelated-composition suggestions in mind:

• If you’re not close enough, your pictures aren’t goodenough.

Don’t leave a lot of wasted space around the subject—move the camera closer until the subject really fills theframe.

• Have all the areas of your picture working for you.

Any object included in the picture area shouldcontribute to the message. If it doesn’t, remove itbefore you shoot.

• Keep the backgrounds simple.

Note that getting close to the subject helps to solvesome of the background clutter by simply eliminatingit. Furthermore, the closer the camera is to a subject,the more the background is likely to be out of focus.The background problem can be solved simply byusing a plain sheet of cardboard placed behind thesubject. For best color prints, use a background that isneither light nor dark, and that is not strongly colored,but be sure that it contrasts some with the objectsbeing photographed.

The only difference between these pictures is the use of a lightcardboard background to eliminate the clutter. A simple backgroundhelps the photograph to communicate more clearly.

7

Selecting Display Pictures. Select only the beststorytelling photographs for your exhibit from those youhave taken during the course of your investigation. Butbeware of the common tendency to include too manysmall prints. It’s far better to have a few8 x 10-inch enlargements of the most important pictures.You can overwhelm the judges with an exhibit plasteredwith tiny prints. Some exhibitors used close to 100pictures, but there are simply too many to becomprehended by the passersby. In addition, keep inmind that a 3 x 5-inch print may be fine to look at whenheld in the hand, but it’s too small to be observedadequately when located on exhibition panels that maytower higher than the viewer.

Be sure to arrange your best enlargements in aleft-to-right, top-to-bottom order (because that’s howmost people scan a printed communication). It would bea good idea either to number the viewing order or toconnect the prints with bright-colored arrows to helpdirect the viewer’s gaze.

It’s a good idea at this point to make a preliminarylayout of your exhibit photographs. Tape themtemporarily onto a door, or a wall utilizing the samespace as on actual exhibit panels. Step back to 8 or 10feet and reassess the arrangement and visual impact ofeach picture. Get an objective opinion from friends andinstructors. Are your picture captions easily readable atthis viewing distance? Would the judicious use of colorpep up your exhibit? Are the lines of your charts andgraphs heavy enough to be clearly seen at that distance?Could the individual elements of the exhibit berearranged to capture more attention or make the projectclearer and more concise?

Outdoor Lighting

Direct Sunlight. Best for landscapes, cityscapes, andother wide-angle shots of distant subjects. It’s alsonecessary for pictures of shallow underwater subjects.

Be aware of the difference that the time of day canmake in the direction of the sunlight. For example,suppose you want to photograph the face of an erodedcliff that showed geological layering. You should choosea time of day when the sun rays are shining across theface of the cliff, illuminating its texture dramatically.

Sunlight can also be used successfully for small-object photography. Try to position the subject so that thesun is striking it from the side. You can use a large whitecardboard reflector to reflect some light back into theshadows. This will show details in the shadows and avoida harsh and contrasty appearance in the picture.

The cardboard reflector should be placed just outsidethe camera field of view. Perhaps a friend could hold itexactly where you want it, or you could devise a methodof standing it upright with pointed stakes.

Hazy, Overcast, and Shade Lighting. Best for close-upsof people and suitable for small nature close-ups (also

helpful when photographing objects that have shinysurfaces or cast confusing shadows). It’s especially goodfor in-the-woods pictures where the low-lighting contrastis far preferable to sunny-day lighting with its bright spothighlights. Try to exclude as much of the colorless skyarea from your composition as possible on a gray-skyday.

Indoor Lighting

Some modifications to the above method are needed forpoint-and-shoot cameras and one-time-use cameras.With either type of camera, if it has a flash and theobjects being photographed are less than 8 feet from thecamera, place two thicknesses of tissue paper or ahandkerchief over the flash so it does not overpower theambient light, but still provides some fill light to theshadowed areas. One-time-use cameras usually are fixedfocus (work best at longer distances) and fixed exposure(work better in brighter light). With these cameras, itwould be better to arrange your setup so that directsunlight falls on the objects being photographed, and tobe sure that your camera is at least 4 feet from theobjects. If you own a point-and-shoot camera, check yourowner’s manual to see if it is an autofocus model (and ifso, note its minimum focusing distance) and whether ithas exposure control (if there is only one shutter speedand one aperture listed, then there is no exposurecontrol). Don’t photograph objects closer than theminimum focusing distance (or 4 feet if fixed focus) anduse direct sunlight if there is no exposure control.

Window light is soft, diffused, and even. Use white cardboards forbackgrounds and for reflectors if needed.

8

Exposure and Sharpness Considerations

Exposure meters in modern cameras are quite reliableover a range of lighting conditions and scene properties.When using color negative film for prints, seriousmisexposures are uncommon when there is not enoughlight. One-time-use cameras and point-and-shootcameras without exposure control should generally beused in daylight for best results. Cameras with exposurecontrol can be used at lower light levels, particularly if atripod or surface is used to stabilize the camera duringthe longer exposures needed in dimmer light. Even athigher light levels, images taken with tripods or othersupport are usually sharper, and a tripod makes it mucheasier to compose a pleasing and effective image, becauseit permits the viewfinder image to be studied carefullyand adjusted precisely. Use of a cable release or timeralso can improve stability. For close shots, if possible,manually focus carefully on the primary subject. If youare using a point-and-shoot camera with autofocus, donot get closer to the subject than the minimum focusingdistance (see previous section); with fixed focus andone-time-use cameras, assume this distance to be 4 feet.

If your camera has an ISO speed control, be sure it isset to the film speed you are using. ISO 400 colornegative film is a good all around choice for most sciencefair photography, when prints will be made for display oranalysis. To produce a slide program, ISO 200 slide filmis a good choice. Slide film has less exposure flexibilitythan color negative film, and should be used in a camerawith exposure control. With slide film, it is a good ideain unfamiliar circumstances to “bracket” your exposures,that is, make three different exposures of each scene.

The middle exposure should be that indicated by thecamera light meter, and the other exposures should beone stop to either side. In a manual metering mode, tochange the exposure by one stop, move the shutter speedor aperture to an adjacent value. For example, if themiddle exposure is at 1/60 second and f/8, the bracketedexposures would be at 1/30 second (increased exposure)and 1/125 (decreased) at f/8, or at f/5.6 (increased) andf/11 (decreased). With automatic metering, you canchange the film speed by a factor of two in each direction(higher exposure is a lower film speed and vice versa) or,if your camera has one, the compensation to +1 (higher)or -1 (lower).

If your subject does not fill much of the frame, and isvery different in brightness from the background, it isworth adjusting your exposure from that indicated by thecamera meter. This may be done in several ways. First,you can move closer to your subject, so it mostly fills theframe, and take a new meter reading. Second, you canmeter off a midtone gray surface (such as a Kodak graycard, available at most camera stores) that is in the samelight as the main subject, and is tipped slightly towardthe main light source (see instructions with the Kodakgray card). Third, you can make an adjustment based onwhether the background is dark (decreased exposure onestop), light (increase exposure one stop), or truly bright(as in a back-lit scene; increase exposure 2 stops). Somecameras have spotmeters that can be aimed at the mainsubject, activated to “freeze’ the exposure and focus, andthen re-aimed to compose the picture.

9

SPECIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES

Close-Up Techniques

Many science fair projects require close-up picturesnecessitating a camera-subject distance closer than thenormal camera lens will focus. This is known asphotomacrography. Few cameras can focus closer than2 feet, and many point-and-shoot and one-time-usecameras cannot be used at distances less than 4 feet(check your owner’s manual to find the minimumfocusing distance). However, for many small subjects—insects, a single plant leaf or blossom, a detail of anelectronic circuit—some sort of an accessory lensattachment will have to be used to render the subjectsharply (see below).

Using such an accessory will result in a far betterquality photograph than taking the picture with astandard lens and then making an enlargement in adarkroom.

When taking close-up photographs with camerashaving built-in flash, place two thicknesses of tissuepaper or a handkerchief over the flash so it does notoverpower the ambient light, but still provides some filllight to the shadowed areas

Close-Up Hardware. Various optical accessories areavailable at camera stores to accomplish close-upphotography; the advantages and disadvantages of eachtype are itemized as follows:

• Close-up lenses (sometimes known as portraitattachments) are the least expensive accessories fortaking close-up pictures. These lenses are available inscrew-in mounts to fit various diameter camera lenses.The automatic camera exposure mechanism is notaffected, and accurate through-the-lens exposures canbe obtained.

These supplementary lenses come in three commonmagnifying powers: +1, +2, and +4. The higher the lensnumber, the closer you can focus on the subject. They canbe used either singly or in any combination of two ofthem. Combining three is not recommended because ofprobable loss of image quality. A +10 is available if youneed to reproduce a very small object in 1:1 (actual) size.However, note that a +10 close-up attachment willnecessitate a very short working distance so that you maycrowd your subject with not enough room to arrange thelighting.

• A macroreverse ring fits between the lens and thecamera body and allows you to reverse the lens forimproved optical quality at extremely close workingdistances. There are two notable disadvantages to areversing ring: You lose the advantage ofmeter-coupled exposures; and you have only one fixedcamera-to-subject distance with no focusingadjustment. To focus, you must observe the subject

through the viewfinder and move back and forth untilthe subject becomes critically sharp. The reproductionratio will be in the neighborhood of 1:2; that is, thesubject will be imaged at 1/2 its actual size.

• Extension tubes are available for most popular

interchangeable-lens 35 mm cameras. Different lengthtubes can be used for a variety of working distances.Excellent image quality is possible because you are notadding any glass to your camera optical system (aswith close-up lens attachments). However, the addeddistance between lens and film requires additionalexposure. Nonautomatic tubes are available, but theautomatic variety is far more desirable because itincorporates the advantage of automatic,meter-coupled exposures. Extension tubes also havethe feature of accommodating different focal lengthlenses. Thus, it is possible to use a short telephotolens, such as a 100 mm lens, on an extension tube toprovide a large image when you can’t operate too closeto the subject.

• Bellows are expensive and generally are usedextensively for photomacrography. Fitted between thelens and the camera and mounted on a track to permitprecise focusing, bellows have the advantages ofaccepting different focal-length lenses and allowing acompletely variable camera-to-subject distance. Theyare available with and without automatic exposurecoupling; this saves a lot of exposure calculations andexposure guesswork.

• Macro lenses offer probably the best, most convenientway to do close-up photography— though probably themost expensive. This is a special lens designed toproduce very sharp images at very close subjectdistances. The usual focal lengths are 55 mm and100 mm, with the latter being preferred by the expertssince it prevents being right on top of the subject. Mostmacro lenses will focus to a 1:2 range and with anextension tube to 1:1.

• Zoom lenses with macro capability are zoom lensesthat can be shifted into close-up capability. They arenot true macro lenses, but some of them will focus to a1:4 ratio—1/4 normal size. In other words, they arenot really suitable for photographing extremely smallsubjects. However, if you are on location with a zoomlens-equipped camera, it is handy to be able to shiftthe lens to the macro setting since thecamera-to-subject distance is reduced to about 11inches.

10

Small nest of eumenid wasp lit with two reflector photoflood lamps—sources too broad for such a small specimen.

Operating Techniques. As the camera-to-subjectdistance diminishes—as you get closer to tiny subjects toobtain a frame-filling image—the zone of sharpness(depth of field) also becomes shorter (see page 8). If youare photographing an object at 1:1 ratio, the total depthof field at f/16 is only about 1/4 inch! Consequently, forextreme close-up photography, two interrelated cameratechniques become very important: First, you must focusthe subject critically. The camera should be focused on aplane 1/3 to 1/2 of the way into the depth range.

Second, you should use the smallest feasible lensopening (highest f-number) to preserve as much subjectsharpness as possible. The small lens opening willnecessitate a comparatively slow shutter speed to obtainthe correct exposure. This necessitates that the camerabe on a firm support that will keep it motionless duringexposure. Use a tripod, copying stand, or set the cameraonto the edge of a table, but keep it steady!

A cable release will help prevent jarring the camera.If you don’t have one, use the camera self-timer to makethe exposure.

Lighting for Close-Ups. There’s more to making goodclose-ups than getting close enough to the subject,stopping the lens down, and keeping the camera steady.Lighting is also an important factor.

Avoid flash mounted on the camera. You can’tobserve the lighting effects until it’s too late. The singlefrontal-light source obliterates much of the detailedtexture of the subject.

Lit with a bare, clear glass projection lamp having a 1 centimetrefilament. Lighting angle and all other technical factors were the same forboth photos. Note how much better the small source has rendered thespecimen.

The best lighting results in photomacrography areaccomplished by using very small light sources andpatiently manipulating them to enhance the subject’sform and details. The result of the lighting should beobserved through the camera viewfinder before thepicture is taken.

Specifically, it’s best to use light sources of a sizecomparable to that of the subject. For example, supposeyou want to photograph the small nest of a eumenidwasp. The nest, shown in the accompanying illustrations,is about 1/3 inch in diameter with details of shape andtexture that demanded careful lighting.

When such a small subject is photographed with theuse of reflector photoflood lamps, much of the form andtexture is lost because the beams of the lamps are toobroad. These lamps are not suitable for subjects of lessthan 3-inch size. To produce a crisp, magnified record,undiffused illumination from a small source is needed.

The light source used for the nest was 1-centimetresquare. It was a clear-glass, bare, 500-watt, 3200 K, witha projection bulb located 1 foot from the nest. A lightingdirection was chosen that cast an informative shadow onthe neck. Fill-in illumination was reflected from the mainsource by a piece of matte metallic foil. The accent on thelip was obtained from a small mirror that was coveredwith black paper containing a 1/8-inch hole. The tinyspot of light reflected from the main light by this1/8-inch “mirror” has the effect of bringing the neck andlip forward, enhancing the three-dimensional modelingof the nest.

11

Except for the use of small light sources, lighting aphotomacrographic specimen is not much different fromlighting a larger one. For subjects 5 mm or smaller, abare microscope-lamp bulb having a filament about1 mm in diameter is useful. For subjects in the 1 to2-inch range, a miniature desk or inspection light with ahigh- and low-voltage switch will work. For livingspecimens, with which some subject motion might beencountered, electronic flash units (two firingsynchronously) on extension cords can be used. You maywant to use one fairly close to the subject from one side,and the other about twice the distance from the oppositeside. A piece of white reflector cardboard could besubstituted for this second light to provide shadow-fillingillumination. You also may want to consider masking theflash reflector (or reflectors) with a piece of black papercontaining a hole cut in it about the size of the subject.

There are times when undiffused lighting is toocontrasty, especially with smooth, shiny subjects. Theseare better rendered with diffuse lighting because they arelustrous and have no significant texture, and no relief.Small, white, translucent paper cylinders placed around aspecimen will diffuse the illumination. Thephotomacrographic light source is then placed outside thecylinder. The effects of cylinder height and lighting anglecan be observed visually from the camera viewpoint.

Copying Flat Subjects

Sooner or later you may be faced with photographing apiece of flat copy. This could be a page from a referencebook, a chart, a graph, a title, or other artwork.

Making a good copy is easy if you keep thesesuggestions in mind:

• Outdoor lighting of any kind—shade, overcast, or fullsun—is very suitable.

• If your artwork is on floppy construction paper, lay itdown flat for copying; if it’s on stiff cardboard, prop itup against a tree or a chair at a convenient angle tophotograph it. Don’t let it sag—keep it flat.

• Be sure to align your camera so that the lens axis isperpendicular to the center of the object to be copied.Angle shots will cause parallel chart lines andcolumns of type to diverge and, in addition, may causedifferential sharpness across the plane of the object.

• Fill the viewfinder with the chart image—no more andno less—don’t let any background show at the edges.The extraneous material could be cropped out whenmaking a print enlargement, but there is no convenientway to eliminate this mistake in a slide. Plan ahead,and use artwork cardboard that has a 2:3 ratio (e.g.,10 x 15 inches, 12 x 18 inches, etc.), and your title orgraph will fit in a 35 mm camera viewfinder. Don’ttrap yourself by making your original artwork toosmall or you’ll have to use some sort of supplementaryclose-up lens attachment to get close enough to fill theframe.

12

This detailed integrated circuit was too complex for raw lighting.Shadows and highlights are quite confusing, and the broken lead wire isdifficult to see.

Outdoors makes a fine copy studio. Use a tripod to help line up theimage precisely and a cable release for “jarless” exposures. Check

Made with diffused illumination.

for reflections before shooting. If you’ve done everything correctly, yourchart will result in a clean, clear copy.

13

• Use a tripod for precise framing and for an absolutelysteady camera. If you are taking the picture insunlight, be sure that neither you nor the tripod legscast a shadow across the subject.

• Resist the temptation of shooting flat art with ahandheld camera, even if there is enough light. Youwon’t align things precisely and you may also loseimage sharpness through camera movement.

• Use slow-speed, fine-grain films if utmost resolution ofdetails is important.

• Stop down the lens to help compensate for slighterrors in focusing and depth of field

• Check the image in the viewfinder before you shoot tomake absolutely sure the artwork isn’t picking upsurface reflections from the sun or the bright sky,which will degrade the image. This could happenespecially with glossy subjects. Tip the subject forwardand then backward a bit while watching critically fromthe lens position. If there are reflections, a slightlydifferent angle should eliminate them.

If it isn’t feasible to do your copy work outdoors, youcan do it indoors with artificial light. Do not use flash onthe camera. If your camera has a built-in flash thatcannot be turned off, tape a piece of aluminum foil overthe flash to block the light. Direct flash will causereflections, even from matte subjects, that will probablyruin the picture. Instead, use two inexpensive clamp-onreflectors equipped with photoflood lamps. These arereadily available from photo dealers or electrical supplystores. Here’s one way to make the arrangement:

Set two same-size, nonmetallic wastepaper basketson a flat, stable surface—a lab bench or a table or eventhe floor. Attach one of the clip-on reflectors to the rim ofeach basket. Place the material to be copied between thebaskets. Adjust the position of the lights so that they arethe same height as the center of your subject and are at a45-degree angle from each side. Don’t use the lights tooclose—about 4 feet from most subjects should be aboutright. Check for evenness of illumination on the subjectby holding a pencil 2 inches from the subject and parallelto its surface. The two-light arrangement should castidentical twin shadows—same angle, same density—onthe subject. If necessary, make the illumination even byrepositioning the wastebaskets, not the metal reflectors,which can become very hot.

An improvised setup for making an occasional copy. If you do nothave light stands, try the wastebasket described here.

Exposure Determination. If the subject you are copyingis comprised mostly of middle gray tones, you can rely onyour through-the-lens camera-metering system to giveyou the correct exposure. However, if your artworkconsists of a few lines on a white background, your meterwill cause you to underexpose it. You must give a verylight-toned subject like this 1 stop more exposure thanthe meter indicates. Conversely, if you make your titleart, for instance, on a dark or black sheet of paper,decrease the calculated exposure by 1 stop (using 18%gray card).

Infrared Photography

Infrared photography involves the production ofphotographs by means of near-infrared radiation. Thisradiation that lies in a range roughly between 700 and900 nanometers can be recorded on specially sensitizedphotographic emulsions. Infrared radiation actuallycomprises a much greater part of the electromagneticspectrum, most of which cannot be recorded directly byphotographic means. Elaborate electronic equipment isrequired to record heat waves. Various techniques ininfrared photography and thermal photography arediscussed in detail in KODAK Publications No. P-570 ,Thermal Recording and Infrared Photography of HotObjects.

14

Technical Applications. Near-infrared radiation has theability to penetrate aerial haze, which makes it possiblefor you to photograph distant terrain, a valuable factor inaerial photography. Even more important is the way inwhich foliage is recorded on infrared-sensitiveemulsions. The internal structure of leaves reflectinfrared strongly, so that they appear lighter in tone inthe photograph than they do when viewed directly. Theusefulness of infrared photography lies in the uniquetonal differentiation that it produces. Conifers, forexample, appear darker than the leaves on deciduoustrees; diseased fruit and vegetable crops or thosesuffering climatic or nutritional stress can be detectedbefore trouble becomes apparent visually. These featuresof infrared photography become especially valuable inpictures taken from the air.

Infrared color photography is a technique thatprovides even greater differentiation than black-and-white infrared photography does. It is accomplished withan infrared film such as KODAK EKTACHROMEProfessional Infrared EIR Film. This modified color(false-color) emulsion has layers that are sensitized togreen, red, and infrared, instead of blue, green, and redas in regular color films. With it, healthy leaves recordred, whereas stressed leaves vary in color from purple toyellow. Many dramatic pictorial effects, as well asnumerous informative scientific and technologicalrecords, can be obtained with infrared color film.

Panchromatic (left) and infrared (right) renditions of magnolia leavescovered with a sooty mold. Note how the leaf structures have reflectedthe infrared radiation, allowing the infrared-absorbing mold to stand out.

In infrared color photography, the visible componentis, of course, added to the infrared record. As a result,this film produces the correct colors in photographs ofmany animal and botanical substances. It is the infraredcomponent, however, that produces the modified colorrenditions. This translation of the color of objects is thebasis of infrared color photography and is a valuableasset in the study of phenomena revealed in the infrared.

Other outdoor applications are possible in the naturalsciences. The technique of infrared photography isextremely valuable in ecology for differentiating plantsand soils; in hydrology for studying pollution and waterconditions; and in archaeology, to some extent, forrevealing ancient sites. Zoological infrared photographyis quite similar to medical infrared photography.

Infrared photography is used in the examination ofobliterated and questioned documents and is part of theroutine examination of paintings. Fossils and coals lendthemselves to infrared study. Human and animalbehavior in the dark can be recorded with invisibleinfrared radiation, when such radiation is supplied by anexternal source.

15

Recording Infrared Radiation. You can useconventional cameras and specially sensitized films torecord infrared radiation. The camera lens should befitted with a filter that excludes the near ultraviolet andall or part of the visible spectrum.

By using conventional techniques, you can imagereflected and transmitted infrared radiation directly onthe film. Similarly, it is possible to record infraredluminescence from certain materials that respond toexcitation by green, blue, or ultraviolet radiation. Thesame procedures can be used to record the self-radianceof objects that have been heated to at least 50°C(approximately 480°F). Objects that have been heated tomore than 500°C (approximately 930°F) emit visibleradiation and, therefore, can be photographed with filmshaving panchromatic or extended-red panchromaticsensitivity. However, such heated objects also emitstrongly in the infrared, so there may be specialsituations in which it would be appropriate to record heatpatterns of marginally incandescent objects with infraredfilms.

Lighting for Infrared Photography. The lightcommonly used for ordinary photography can supply orexcite the infrared radiation in indoor reflection,transmission, or emission techniques. However, artificiallighting for infrared photography must be symmetricaland flat because the characteristics of infrared emulsionsare inherently contrasty. Two lamps at equal distancesfrom the subject and at 45-degree angles to the cameraaxis usually suffice.

A single flash unit on the camera does not giveacceptable results because the lighting is neither flat noreven. Neither are fluorescent tubes acceptable becausethey do not emit much infrared radiation.

Whenever possible, use electronic flash for livingsubjects. This is especially recommended for infraredcolor photography because the film is balanced forillumination of daylight quality. The illumination mustbe uniform. Lighting for small objects can be adequatelyprovided with two lamps.

Outdoors, sunlight furnishes adequate infraredradiation for photography in this energy band. However,the intensity varies with the amount of haze present andthe extent of cloud cover. If you can’t wait for a sunnyday, it may be necessary to make a range of exposures toobtain the desired rendition of the subject.

Filters in Infrared Photography. Infrared emulsions aresensitive to visible radiation as well as infrared energy. Afilter must be used over the camera lens or over the lightsource to block the unwanted visible wavelengths. Filtersare chosen by the amount of sky darkening and hazepenetration that they achieve, by subject considerations,and by the infrared effects desired.

KODAK WRATTEN Gelatin Filter No. 25 (red) orequivalent is recommended for general black-and-whiteinfrared photography because it limits the film toexposure by the red and infrared region of the spectrum,yet allows visual focusing. If only infrared is to berecorded, WRATTEN Filters No. 87, No. 87C, No. 89B,or equivalent should be used. However, because these arevisually opaque, the camera cannot be focused throughthem.

For infrared color photography, a KODAKWRATTEN Gelatin Filter No. 12 (yellow) or Wratten 15is used on the camera to block the blue light to which thethree emulsion layers are also sensitive.

Focusing for Infrared Photography. Because infraredradiation is longer in wavelength than visible radiation, itwill come to a focus farther from the film plane. Thus thevisible focus must be adjusted for critical exposures.

Some cameras carry an infrared focusing mark onthe lens focusing ring. They may be focused visually andthen be reset to the infrared focus mark. If your camerahas no mark, you can focus through a red filter(WRATTEN Filter No. 25 or equivalent) and photographthe subject through a small aperture such as f/16 or f/22.The depth of field usually offsets the slight differencebetween the visual and infrared focus.

Exposure. Exact film speeds for setting exposure meterscannot be given for infrared films because the ratio ofinfrared to visible energy is variable and meters do notrespond to infrared radiation. Film speeds can be offeredonly as suggested starting points for trial exposures. Theinstructions packaged with Kodak infrared films suggestmeter settings that can be used to determine exposuresunder average conditions when using meters marked forISO (ASA) speeds or exposure indexes.

16

Infrared Luminescence. Just as some substancesfluoresce and emit light when excited by ultravioletradiation, so do other substances emit infrared radiationwhen excited by blue-green light. The infrared emissioncannot be seen, of course, but it can be photographed.Photographs of this invisible luminescence often revealcharacteristics of a specimen or document that are notreadily apparent through other methods of examination.For example, chlorophyll does not reflect infrared, but itdoes luminesce. This provides a means for studyingcertain plant diseases.

To remove reflected infrared from a luminescingspecimen, you can hold back infrared radiation from thelight source with a blue-green, infrared-absorbing filter.Then any infrared radiation coming from the subject canbe due only to luminescence. It is also necessary to placean infrared filter, such as a KODAK WRATTEN GelatinFilter No. 87, over the camera lens to bar blue-green lightreflected from the light source.

Infrared luminescence studies are usually carried outwith enclosed tungsten lamps. Corning glass color filter9780, C.S. No. 4076 (8 mm, molded) provides anefficient excitation filter over the lamps. This filter isavailable from Corning Glass Works, Corning, NewYork through special order.

The exposure, using two suitably filtered 500-wattspotlights at 3 feet, will be roughly 6 minutes at f/5.6 forhigh-speed Kodak infrared films. With two 500-wattreflector photofloods at 16 inches, it will be about 3minutes at f/5.6..

Photomicrography

Two main problems you must solve if you are going toobtain good pictures through a microscope are mountingthe camera and establishing proper illumination.Mounting the camera on the microscope and makingphotographs can be a simple and routine operation.Neither the microscope nor the camera needs to beexcessively expensive. Your major concern will be toachieve correct focus at the film plane.

Mounting a Camera with Noninterchangeable Lenses.The simplest way to make a photomicrograph is to use aconventional camera over the microscope viewing tube.

It might be an inexpensive fixed-focus camera or anexpensive 35 mm camera, but it is usually one designedfor regular photography of people and places. The lensthat is an integral part of the camera often cannot beremoved. A fixed-focus camera is the simplest, havingonly one shutter speed and usually only one lens aperture.The more expensive camera offers a range of shutterspeeds, various distance settings, and a variety ofaperture settings. This type offers more versatility,particularly in exposure control.

When you focus a microscope visually with anormal, relaxed eye, the image may be considered to beat infinity. Therefore, if there is a distance scale on thecamera, it should be set at infinity. If the camera isplaced over the microscope viewing tube in the correctposition, the image will be in focus on the film plane.The correct position of the camera lens is with the frontsurface of the lens at the eyepoint.

The correct position for a camera with a noninterchangeable lens is withthe camera lens at the eye point of the eyepiece.

17

The position of the eyepoint can be determined byholding a piece of white paper right on top of theeyepiece with the microscope focused and the stageilluminated, then slowly raising the paper. A bright circlewill appear on the paper. This circle becomes smaller andthen larger. The position above the eyepiece at which thecircle is the smallest is the eyepoint. The distance of theeyepoint above the eyepiece will vary with differenteyepieces. If the eyepiece is changed, therefore, theeyepoint may appear in a different position. The distancemay be only a few millimeters or it may be almost 20millimeters.

The camera can be held in place over the microscopeby any available means. You can construct a verticalstand out of wood or metal, use a laboratory ring stand,attach the camera to the upright member of a smallenlarger (with the enlarger head removed), or use acamera tripod. You should still be able to move thecamera up out of the way or swing it to one side to lookinto the microscope and adjust image focus. The rule is:Focus the microscope; do not change the distance settingon the camera.

A piece of black cloth or tape or front-to-frontmatting (different size) sun shades can be used to excludelight between the eyepiece and camera lens. Place oneshade on the camera and the other on the microscope.

When the image appears sharp, the camera can bereplaced in position to make an exposure. The camerastand should have some kind of positioning stop or otherarrangement to bring the camera back to the correctposition.

Mounting a Camera with Interchangeable Lenses. Asingle-lens-reflex (SLR) camera can be adapted for useover a microscope. Many firms that manufacture reflexcameras also offer microscope adapters. Normally, whena reflex camera is to be used over a microscope, the lensis removed from the camera and one or more extensiontubes are placed on the camera in the lens position. Amicroscope adapter ring, into which the microscopeeyepiece fits, is then fastened in the front extension tube.The whole assembly of camera, tubes, and adapter can beplaced onto the microscope, fitting the microscopeeyepiece and the adapter ring directly into the drawtubeof the microscope. This assembly, in some designs, canbe attached to a rigid stand that is supportedindependently of the microscope.

The microimage is usually focused by adjusting thefocus knob on the microscope while viewing the image inthe camera viewfinder. A better way is by adjusting theeye lens of a photographic eyepiece, if your equipmentallows it. An accessory side telescope that includes abeam splitter allows accurate focusing on the film plane.Focusing on a ground glass within the viewfinder is allright for lower magnification. Beyond about 80X, criticalfocus cannot be obtained on the ground screen.

Illumination. Although good illumination is importantin visual work, it is absolutely vital inphotomicrography. For visual observation, a diffuseillumination often is adequate, but it is not suitable forphotography. Therefore, you should learn the basics ofgood illumination.

When a microscope does not have built-inillumination, an external illuminator must be used.Separate illuminators are available from microscopemanufacturers or dealers.

The light source should provide sufficient intensityto allow reasonably short photographic exposure times.The lamp housing should allow easy access to the lightsource and should contain those elements necessary forproper adjustment of the illumination furnished to themicroscope. It also should dissipate heat efficiently.

For color film exposure, the light source should havethe proper color temperature or allow suitable filtration tomeet the requirements of the film. A source with acontinuous visible spectrum is necessary. Most commonlight sources like daylight or tungsten light meet thisrequirement.

Kohler illumination is the most common system ofilluminating a microscope specimen inphotomicrography. It is applicable in visual work, too,for best image quality and highest resolution. However,because it requires meticulous adjustment, it is used lessoften in visual microscopy.

Basically, this type of illumination consists of usingthe field (lamp) condenser to focus an image of the lightsource at the substage condenser, which, in turn, focusesan image of the lamp condenser in the plane of thespecimen. Thus the lamp condenser becomes the sourceof illumination and provides a uniformly illuminatedfield.

Microscope illumination, including the Kohlermethod, is described in detail in Photography Throughthe Microscope, which is available through Silver PixelPress, Publication No. P-10, Catalog number1528371.

18

Exposure. The lens-aperture settings (f-numbers) on thecamera do not control exposure as they do in regularphotography. They have no effect on image brightness.Use the largest aperture setting. A small aperture cutsinto the image field and reduces field size, so only asmall, circular image is recorded on the film.

Exposure time can be determined either by makingan exposure test series or by using a sensitive exposuremeter. Because image brightness in photomicrographycan be quite low, particularly at high magnification, anexposure meter should be sensitive to very low-lightlevels.

Some exposure meters are made specifically forphotomicrography and are sensitive enough to respond tolight through a wide range, from very low to very highbrightness. Other meters that are very sensitive to lighthave readings in terms of units of illuminance, such asfoot-candles. In this case, the manufacturer oftenprovides a simple calculator, table, or graph so thatbrightness readings can be converted to exposure times.

If you don’t have a suitable meter, you can make anexposure test series. A convenient series includes all ofthe exposure times available with the camera shutter.These may range from 1 second to 1/125 second or 1/250second. If the shutter has a time (T) setting, you canmake a few long exposures also (2, 4, and 8 seconds, forexample). Out of this wide range of exposure times, oneshould be correct for the particular film and the existingimage brightness.

When the film is processed, keep a detailed record ofspecimens, light source, filters, exposures, etc. This willpermit duplication of a setup for future use with the samespecimens or similar specimens.

Exposure becomes a problem with simple, fixed-focus cameras because the exposure time or shutter speedis usually very short—no longer than 1/40 or 1/60second. This means that you must have a very brightimage in the microscope and, of course, a very brightlight source.

Astrophotography

All you need to start taking astrophotographs is a camera(that can make time exposures), a cable release, a rigidtripod, and film. A long focal length lens can be used inplace of a telescope in some situations.

Stationary Camera. Since many of your pictures will betime exposures, one of the most important requirementsfor astrophotography is a steady camera support.Therefore, place your camera onto a rigid tripod beforetaking pictures. Also, use a cable release. This will helpyou get sharp pictures by keeping camera vibration to aminimum when you open and close the shutter.

To determine the best exposure for your equipment,make test pictures. Load your camera with a fast film. Setthe camera lens at its maximum opening and the focus atinfinity. With your camera on a tripod, aim it toward agroup of stars and open the shutter for several minutes.At the end of the exposure, close the shutter.

After your film has been processed, you will find thatthe stars have been recorded as a series of streaks or startrails. From these star trails you can determine the nextexposure. If the trails are needle-sharp, you know thatyour lens is in sharp focus at the infinity setting. If thetrails are straight and not jagged, you know that yourcamera support is sufficiently rigid.

Using similar techniques, but different exposures,you can also photograph comets, meteors, auroraldisplays, and the moon.

Guided Camera. You can improve yourastrophotographs by using your camera on an equatorialmount to compensate for the rotation of the earth andkeep the images stationary on your film during the longexposures that may be necessary for pictures of faintobjects. An equatorial mount provides a heavy, firmsupport and orients your camera for convenient trackingof celestial objects. You can purchase an equatorialmount without motorized drive. Motorized drive,however, works better.

Equatorial mount for guided cameras.

CAMERA

CELESTIAL POLE-POINTNEAR NROTH STAR

AIMINGDEVICE

POLAR AXIS

ANGLE EQUALTO OBSERVER’S

LATITUDE

COUNTERWEIGHT

DECLINATION AXIS

LOCK

19

You can take pictures of brighter objects withoutusing a drive system, but a drive system is almost anecessity for photographing faint objects requiring longexposures. This equipment will permit the recording ofplanets, nebulae, galaxies, and star clusters. Reasonablypriced Equatorial mounts with clock drives are availablefrom scientific-supply firms. For best viewing andphotography results, choose a site away from urbanlights.

Telescope and Camera. To photograph astronomicalsubjects in greater detail, you will need a telescope. Thefour basic telescope-camera systems are(1) eyepiece-camera lens, (2) eyepiece projection,(3) prime focus, and (4) negative-lens projection. Thesystem you use depends primarily on your equipment andon the desired image size.

The eyepiece-camera lens system does not require aspecial camera or a camera with a removable lens. Youcan take astrophotographs with an ordinary camerapositioned close to the eyepiece of your telescope.However, when using this system, you may find itdifficult to check alignment and focus. Image contrastmay be reduced by reflections from the many lenses inthe light path.

There are several kinds of optical instruments thatyou can use for the telescope part of your eyepiececamera system. These include binoculars and spottingscopes as well as astronomical telescopes with eyepieces.To take pictures with your camera and telescope, you’llneed a simple mounting device to attach the two units.The mounting device should provide both precisealignment of your camera lens with your telescopeeyepiece and a rigid, vibration free support for yourcamera. Although the mount should furnish a lighttightguard between the two units, this guard is not absolutelynecessary. A black, lint-free cloth will do. You canpurchase mounting devices inexpensively fromoptical-supply firms.

With the other three telescope-camera systems, youdo not use your camera lens. Therefore, you’ll need acamera with a removable lens and a shutter that’s builtinto the camera body.

An excellent camera for astrophotography with atelescope is the single-lens-reflex camera with aremovable lens. You can use this type of camera with allfour telescope-camera systems by using the camera withor without its lens, depending on the system you employ.

You can purchase specially built astrocameras fromtelescope manufacturers.

With the eyepiece-projection system, you attach yourcamera, with its lens removed, to the telescope eyepiece.The eyepiece projects the image directly onto the camerafilm plane. Because you don’t use the camera lens, thereare fewer lenses for the light to pass through. As a result,less light is absorbed and there are fewer lens aberrationsto affect the image.

Also, with the eyepiece-projection system, you canincrease magnification by moving the film plane fartherfrom the eyepiece. However, as you do this, theimage-forming light is spread over a larger area. Thisfainter image requires a longer exposure.

To focus the image on the film plane, it’s necessaryto move the eyepiece outward slightly from the setting forvisual use.

In the prime-focus system, the objective of thetelescope focuses the image directly on the camera filmplane, thus eliminating extra lenses. Consequently, thissystem yields small images of maximum contrast,sharpness, and brightness.

The negative-lens projection system is similar to theprime-focus method, but a negative achromatic lens,usually referred to as a Barlow lens, is placed inside thefocus of the objective. This lens magnifies the imagewithout greatly increasing the length of the telescope.This principle is used in telephoto lenses.

20

Exposure. General exposure recommendations are givenin the table below. Because there are so many variables intaking astrophotographs, such as equipment, speed of thefilm, and atmospheric conditions, the table givesexposure ranges to serve as a basis for your own pictures.

For more information on astrophotography, seeAstrophotography Basics, KODAK Publication No. P-150.

Exposure Guide for Basic Astrophotography

Subject Instrument Mount Objective ƒ-Number Films Exposure

Star Trailsand Comets

Camera withtime exposure

Rigid support Any lens Wide open Fast,*B/W and color

Up to 30 minor more

Meteors Camera withtime exposure

Rigid support Good wide-field lens

ƒ/6.3 or wider Fast,*B/W and color

10 to 30 min

Aurorae Camera withtime exposureand fast lens

Rigid support Fast lens ƒ/4.5 or wider Fast,*B/W and color

1 s to 2 min

Man-MadeSatellites

Camera withtime exposureand fast lens

Rigid support Fast lens ƒ/4.5 or wider Fast,*B/W and color

Hold shutter openfor duration of pass

Moon Camera orcamera withtelescope

Rigid orequatorialwith or withoutdevice

1" diameter orlarger

ƒ/4.5 or slower Medium-speed,**B/W and color

1/125 s to 10 s

Stars andComets

Camera orcamera withtelescope

Equatorialwith guidingsights

1" diameter orlarger

ƒ/6.3 or wider Fast,*B/W and color

1 min to 1 h

Star Clusters,Nebulae, andGalaxies

Camera orcamera withtelescope

Equatorialwith sights anddrive

1" diameter orlarger

About ƒ/6.3 Fast,*B/W and color

10 min to 1 h

Planets Camera withtelescope

Equatorialpreferably withdrive

1" diameter orlarger; fordetail, 6" andup

Use ƒ-numberdetermined byyour system.

Fast,*B/W and color

½ to 15 s

* ISO 200-800** ISO 64-200

21

DISPLAYING YOUR PICTURES

Graphics—charts, graphs, and photographs—can supportand enhance your science fair project. Photographs,especially, can supplement your written work and bringto the judges scenes and events that cannot be recreated,or allowed (e.g., plant material and chemicals) in adisplay. Very small objects can be presented in a largescale. Colors, textures, numbers, positions, or timesequences can be communicated by photographs. Theycan thus serve as a dramatic focus for a static display.

Science Fair Exhibit

Effective Pictures. To be effective, photographs in theform of a display media, prints, slides, videos, or videodisplays, must be of good technical and artistic quality.The exposure must be right, the contrast normal, and thecomposition simple. Making good photographs does notrequire expensive equipment, but does require reasonablecare, prior planning, and attention to detail.

The first and simplest photograph that you may usein your display is an overall pictorial scene. Thisphotograph can be the first in a series of prints or slides,or it can be the establishing scene in a video about yourproject. You might show the site of your field work—ameadow or stream, a building construction site, or alaboratory.

When composing an overall picture, you shouldconsider how you will relate it to close-ups of specificdetails that you want to show in other photographs. Doyou show the color and density of your test plot or hybridwheat? Are the structural members of a new buildingoutlined and not obscured by equipment? Does theoverall laboratory picture convey the scale of youroriginal test setup?

Once the overall scene or site is established, moveclose to record the details of your experimental work.Pictures tell the story best when they make one veryobvious point. Concentrate on that point.

Close, closer, closest—use the camera as near to the subject as neededto fill the frame with the important detail. The closest picture was takenwith a macro lens.

22

Mounting the Exhibit Prints. Two recommendations:Prints should be securely mounted on an underlay ofdark cardboard that will help keep them absolutely flatand distinctly separate the print borders from the displaypanel itself. There have been some instances in which anexhibition hall happened to have high humidity, so thatinadequately mounted prints became detached,presenting a sorry-looking display.

It’s also advisable that all photographs have a matte(not glossy) surface. Some exhibit panels have a built-inlight at the top that could cause annoying reflections onthe higher prints to the point that they simply would beignored. If you already have glossy prints, they can bedulled with an inexpensive matting spray available frommost photographic dealers.

Color vs Black-and-White Graphics. An experiencedscience fair winner, Jack Lobatin had this to say:

“I think one of the biggest things I’ve learnedfrom my experience in science fairs, just bylooking around at the different projects, is thatthe ones that really catch my eye are the onesthat are the most colorful. So that’s what I’vetried to do with my photographs and mygraphics. A really important thing is to useclear lettering. I also obtained very colorfulconstruction paper and tried to use as manycolors as I could in the graphs and in the actualdisplays. As for the photographs, I think theyare so important because they actually bring thelaboratory to your exhibit. It also brings in thecolor element, too, very much.”

Using Slides. Some science fair exhibits utilize projectedslides as a supplement to their photographic display. Youshould consider these advantages:

• Many pictures can be projected in a relatively shorttime.

• Pictures are viewed one at a time, concentrating theobserver’s attention on each (rather than distractingthe viewer’s attention with a multiple-print display).

Particularly impressive exhibits utilize photography as a measuring orrecording device instead of merely to decorate the display. Note the useof a selected few mounted enlargements presented sequentially.

23

• The brightness range of a projected color slide is fargreater than that of a color print. Thus, the photographis more realistic and impressive.

• Slides can be cycled automatically or, with equipmentsuch as the KODAK EKTAGRAPHICAudioViewer/Projector, a tape sound track can besynchronized with the projected images.

• The size of the projected slide images can be varied.For example, some models of the KODAKEKTAGRAPHIC III Projectors feature a small built-inscreen. This can be pulled from the projector andsnapped into place for slide viewing in restricted spacesuch as a science fair exhibit. A larger projected imagecan be obtained in the same space by bouncing theprojector beam from a mirror onto a white surface oronto a sheet of ground glass from behind. If thisfolded-beam technique is used, be sure to reverse theslides in the tray so that the images will be laterallycorrect.

If your projector doesn’t have a built-in darkscreenshutter, don’t make the mistake of having a glaringwhite screen at the beginning and end of your show.This can easily be prevented by placing a 2 x 2-inchpiece of cardboard in the projector gate before youshow the first slide and a second piece of cardboard inthe tray following your last slide.

• A disadvantage to using slides versus photographs isthat a judge may not have time to observe them all, sokeep the selections to a few critical ones.

The “folded beam” method of slide projection. The projector image isreflected from a mirror (beneath the screen) onto a small rear projectionscreen. This technique produces fairly large, brilliant color images.

Lecture-Demonstration

Slide Presentation. In some science fairs, especiallylocal and regional, your project may be presented to apanel of judges in a lecture-demonstration procedure.The usual format is a 10-minute presentation followed by5 to 10 minutes of questioning. In this type ofpresentation, slides are an effective way ofcommunicating the project objectives, procedures, andconclusions.

Editing Your Slides. To view your slides while you’rearranging them into an effective presentation, you need alight box or illuminator. Although one can be purchasedat a photo-supply store, it also can be made quite easilyfrom household materials. Perhaps one of the easiestapproaches is to take a storm window and lay it flat sothat it bridges two chairs (two small tables, twosawhorses, or any two sturdy supports that are the sameheight). Tape plain white tissue paper to the underside ofthe glass and put a lamp, with its shade removed, on thefloor underneath the paper-covered glass. Yourstorm-window light box should provide you with plentyof room to lay out and arrange your slides. One word ofcaution: Whether you’re using a homemade orcommercially made light box, do not leave your slides ona lighted surface for an extended period. Turn the lightout whenever you’re not working with the slides. Editingmay be one of the hardest steps in making a slide show.This is the moment when you must part with some ofyour slides because—

• They’re not good enough. Take out any slide that’s toolight, too dark, out of focus, not close enough, notposed right.

• They’re not the best for the job. Take out all thesecond-best shots, the near misses, thecompetent-but-dull slides, the duplicates, or those thatjust don’t contribute anything to your story.

Leave only slides that speak for themselves on your lightbox.

Titling Tips. Limit yourself to as few words as possibleper slide. One or two work best. Make the letters big andbold. Then there will be no question as to whether or notthe people in the back row of your audience will be ableto read them.

24

Avoid black letters on a white background. (They’llnot only be boring but could also fool your exposuremeter.) Choose dark, rich colors for your backgrounds.Consider using textured paper or fabric—burlap, lace,canvas—to convey a special atmosphere. Use ablackboard, memo board, or sand table—any surface youcan write on. Try other surfaces like windows, walls, andrugs that can be temporarily lettered. Be original in yourchoice of materials. Match them to the mood of the show.But always remember to keep it simple.

Adding Words. Like the light box you used to arrangeyour finished slides, a script should help you organizemany different elements—slides, words, and soundeffects, if you need them—by bringing them together inone place.

Write what you want to say when various slidesappear on the screen. Informal remarks are usually best.Refer to any planning cards and notes for ideas, and keepthese tips in mind.

• Make your comments short and snappy. Remember,you don’t have to, nor should you even want to, talkover every slide. Let slides or slide sequences speak forthemselves whenever they can.

• Build word bridges from one section to the next. Youmay find whole slide sequences that say plenty withjust a brief introduction from you. Knowing when tobe quiet and when to speak is the mark of a pro.

• Work toward an interplay between slides and words.Try not to explain what’s obvious from looking at thescreen. If you have trouble being objective here, askfor an outside opinion.

• Be bright. Be conversational. Be brief.

If at all possible, your presentation should be madewithout referring to or (even worse) reading a script. Anoutline may be useful to keep your presentation orderlyand logical while you’re talking extemporaneously. Afterall, you’re the expert on your research and you shouldknow enough about it to look your judges in the eye andtell them about it. Sound authoritative. Be enthusiastic.Smile.

Before the Presentation. Perfect your final presentationby practicing with the script and slides alone at first.Then try the program on a test audience of family,friends, and science instructors. Try to scout the room inwhich you’ll present your show. Locate the light switchand enlist an assistant to operate it for your show. Goodslides should be visible without darkened rooms—wherethe audience can doze.

Locate the electrical outlets. Check the distancesbetween the outlets and the places you’ll put the projectorand other electrical equipment. You may need to bringone or more extension cords of the proper currentcapacity.

Be sure there’s a podium, a microphone, a pointer, atable tall enough to hold your projection equipment—allthe little things you need to put on a top-flight show.

Unless you’re the kind of person who thinks ofeverything, the best way to find out what is missing orwhat isn’t quite right is to rehearse on location. If yourpodium prevents you from seeing the screen, or if youcan’t see your script with the lights out, it’s a lot easier tomake adjustments without an audience. Move the podiumduring rehearsal. If necessary, bring a high-intensitylamp and an extension cord from home to light yourpodium.

On the Day of the Presentation. Arrive early enough toset everything up before your audience begins to arrive.Be sure you have a spare projection lamp.

Adjust the screen so that its bottom edge is at least 4feet above the floor. Place your projector above the headsof the audience and on a sturdy projection stand. Theprojection lens should be level with the center of thescreen, and the projected image (or its longer dimension)should fill the screen. Position your loudspeaker, taperecorder, or other sound source high and near the screen.

Provide your assistants with well-marked copies ofthe script. Place any controls you’ll be handling closeenough to the podium so that you can work them easilywithout taking your eyes off the script. If you handle slidechanges from the podium, you’ll avoid the “Wait!” and“Next slide, please!” syndrome.

Make sure the podium light doesn’t spill onto thescreen or into the audience. Often, a piece of cardboardtaped to the side of the podium will shield the screen.

Warm-up and cue the projector and sound equipmentbefore showtime. If you have time, it’s a good idea to runthrough a quick rehearsal at this point to be sure nothinghas gone wrong during your setup.

25

USEFUL FILMS FOR SCIENCE FAIR PROJECTS

To help you select the film type best suited for your science fair project please go toKodak’s Guide to Films web page at:http://www.kodak.com/global/en/consumer/film/index.shtmlThere you will find:• Kodak Film Finder: This will quickly help you find the right film for any situation• A complete overview of Kodak consumer films• Information on new Kodak film products

26

MORE INFORMATION

The books listed below can help you in your sciencefair project. Other helpful Kodak books on a variety ofphotographic topics are available through your photodealer. For a current list of photography books andprices visithttp://www.saundersphoto.com/html/books.htm or callSilver Pixel Press at 1-800-368-6257

KODAK Guide to 35 mm Photography (AC-95)KODAK Pocket Photoguide (AR-21)KODAK Pocket Guide to 35 mm Photography (AR-22)KODAK Filters for Scientific and Technical Uses (B-3)Close-Up Photography (KW-22)Photography Through the Microscope (P-2)

The following Kodak pamphlets may be of help to you.Single copies are available free from Department 841,Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, New York 14650.

Thermal Recording and Infrared Photography of HotObjects (P-570)Astrophotography Basics (P-150)Close-Up Photography with 35 mm Cameras (AB-20)KODAK Technical Pan Film 2415/6415 (P-255)

For other helpful publications, check your communityand school libraries, book stores, and scientific supplyhouses.

Photography in YourScience Fair Project

KODAK Publication No.AT-20

Kodak, Instamatic, Ektachrome, Wratten, Carousel, Ektagraphic VR, Kodachrome, Dataguide, Plus-X, T-Max, and Tri-X are trademarks.

Minor Revision 10-99-NPrinted in U.S.A.

Photographic Products GroupEASTMAN KODAK COMPANY · ROCHESTER, NY 14650