Associate prof. Mariam Gabr Salem report: Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate...
Transcript of Associate prof. Mariam Gabr Salem report: Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate...
Technical report:
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate
Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
Associate prof. Mariam Gabr Salem
April 2013
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
2013
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Comments could be sent to:
Associate Prof. Mariam Gabr Salem (email: [email protected])
The designations employed and presentation of material through the
publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city
or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or
boundaries.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I give all the thanks to God for the completion of this work.
I am sincerely grateful to the Climate Change Risk Management Project in Egypt-
UNESCO Cairo Office (UCO) who provides support for the preparation of this
technical report.
I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Mohamed Nour-Eldin, Ain Shams University, Faculty
of Engineering, for his kind guidance and valuable suggestions that I greatly
appreciate.
Thanks also to (UCO) technical stuff, whose assistance contributed to the success of
the work.
I specially acknowledge my family for their encouragement throughout my work. My
sincerest gratitude goes to my father and mother, who kindly and cheerfully
withstood my study.
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CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER (1): INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 14
1.1 General .............................................................................................................. 14
1.2 Problem Definition ............................................................................................ 14
1.3 Criteria ............................................................................................................... 15
1.4 Aim of the Study ............................................................................................... 15
1.5 Outline of the Report ......................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER (2): LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................... 16
2.1 Potential Solar Desalination Work Globally ..................................................... 16
2.1.1 Historical Background of Desalination and Renewable Energies ................. 16
2.1.2 Principle of Solar Distillation: a State of the Art ........................................... 18
2.1.3 Classification of Solar Distillation Systems ................................................... 18
2.1.4 Performance of Solar Still .............................................................................. 19
2.1.5 Solar Still Coupled with Thermal Storage and Solar Collectors .................... 20
2.1.6 Solar Still Coupled with Thermal Storage and Other Heat Source ................ 21
2.1.7 Plastic Solar Water Purifier with High Output ............................................... 22
2.1.8 Solar Water Desalination System Utilizing a Passive Vacuum Technique ... 27
2.2 Potential Solar Desalination Application in Egypt and Its Future Perspective . 30
2.2.1 Performance of Solar Still in Egypt ............................................................... 30
2.2.2 Concentrating Solar Technologies (CST) ...................................................... 30
2.2.3 Solar Energy Desalination for Arid Coastal Regions: Greenhouse ............... 32
2.2.4 Effect of Dust Deposition ............................................................................... 33
2.2.5 Conventional Desalination Combined with Solar Energy ............................. 33
CHAPTER (3): SOLAR DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM (SDSS) MODEL ........ 35
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 35
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3.2 Design Parameters of (SDSS) Model ................................................................. 35
3.3 Classification of (SDSS) Model ......................................................................... 36
3.4 Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) to Buildup (SDSS) Model ....................... 43
3.5 (SDSS) Model Inputs.......................................................................................... 44
3.5.1 Saline Water Resources Salinity and Depth .................................................... 44
3.5.2 Solar Energy .................................................................................................... 47
3.5.3 Vulnerable Areas Due To Climate Change, Sea Level Rise (SLR), and
Seawater Intrusion .................................................................................................... 50
3.5.4 Topographic Obstacles .................................................................................... 51
3.5.5 Power Potentiality (Conventional and Renewable) ......................................... 52
3.5.6 Population ........................................................................................................ 54
3.5.7 Land Use .......................................................................................................... 55
3.5.8 National Strategic Plans for Development ...................................................... 56
3.6 (SDSS) Model Outputs ....................................................................................... 56
3.7 Promising Areas for Desalination by Solar Energy in Egypt ............................. 60
3.8 Inundation and New Safe Areas in Egypt .......................................................... 67
CHAPTER (4): ASSESSMENT OF THE SOLAR DESALINATION ................... 69
4.1 Desalination Assessment Model ......................................................................... 69
4.1.1 Model inputs .................................................................................................... 69
4.1.2 Model boundary conditions ............................................................................. 69
4.1.3 Model Database ............................................................................................... 72
4.1.4 Model Output ................................................................................................... 74
4.2 Technical Assessment......................................................................................... 78
4.3 Environmental Assessment................................................................................. 78
4.4 Economical Assessment ..................................................................................... 80
4.5 Solar Pond as a Solution of Brine ....................................................................... 82
CHAPTER (5): CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................... 85
ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................. 87
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 91
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List of Tables
Table 1 Primary assessment of brackish groundwater in Egypt ................................. 34
Table 2 Classification of Solar Decision Support System (SDSS) model, numbers in
parenthesis indicate the weights of each factor ........................................................... 38
Table 3 Global solar radiation on horizontal surface (kwh/m2/day) and its annual
average ........................................................................................................................ 49
Table 4 Actual sunshine duration (hr/month) and its annual average ........................ 49
Table 5 Zonal statistical analysis of potential areas of solar desalination in Egypt ... 63
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List of Figures
Fig. 1 Della Porta solar distillation apparatus ............................................................. 17
Fig. 2 Cross-sectional view of multi-wick solar still-passive mode ........................... 19
Fig. 3 Hybrid solar distillation system-active mode ................................................... 19
Fig. 4 Hybrid solar distillation system ........................................................................ 21
Fig. 5 Solar still with storage tank and external heat source ...................................... 22
Fig. 6 Plan view of solar water purifier showing water flow path .............................. 23
Fig. 7 Single unit solar water purifier ......................................................................... 23
Fig. 8 Orientation of solar water purifier in southern hemisphere .............................. 25
Fig. 9 Align solar water purifier to the sun ................................................................. 25
Fig. 10 Level solar water purifier ............................................................................... 26
Fig. 11 Dynamic mode operation in southern hemisphere ......................................... 26
Fig. 12 Schematic of vacuum system ......................................................................... 28
Fig. 13 Evaporator–condenser of vacuum system ...................................................... 29
Fig. 14 El-Nasr pilot solar steam generation plant layout .......................................... 31
Fig. 15 Solar parabolic trough collector in EL-Nasr Plant ......................................... 32
Fig. 16 Seawater greenhouse ...................................................................................... 33
Fig. 17 Solar desalination plant .................................................................................. 33
Fig. 18 User interface of (SDSS) model tool boxes .................................................... 37
Fig. 19 Salt lakes, Drains, Coastal aquifer, and Moghra aquifer in Egypt ................. 44
Fig. 20 Fissured carbonate aquifer, Nubian sandstone aquifer, and major production
wells in Egypt ............................................................................................................. 45
Fig. 21 Average groundwater depth in Egypt ............................................................. 46
Fig. 22 Average groundwater salinity in Egypt .......................................................... 46
Fig. 23 Solar energy intensity in Egypt ...................................................................... 48
Fig. 24 Egypt climatic stations .................................................................................... 48
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Fig. 25 Delta subsidence in Egypt .............................................................................. 50
Fig. 26 Delta sea level rise .......................................................................................... 51
Fig. 27 Sand dunes and land slope in Egypt ............................................................... 51
Fig. 28 Electric and wind power in Egypt .................................................................. 52
Fig. 29 Natural gas in Egypt ....................................................................................... 52
Fig. 30 Potagas in Egypt ............................................................................................. 53
Fig. 31 Possible biogas production in Egypt .............................................................. 53
Fig. 32 Percentage of rural in Egypt ........................................................................... 54
Fig. 33 Population in Egypt ........................................................................................ 54
Fig. 34 Gross domestic product (GDP) in Egypt ........................................................ 55
Fig. 35 Major land use indicators in Egypt ................................................................ 55
Fig. 36 Potential regions for national projects in Egypt ............................................. 56
Fig. 37 Classification degree of promising areas in Egypt for saline water (resources,
salinity, and depth) ...................................................................................................... 57
Fig. 38 Classification degree of vulnerable areas due to climate change, Sea Level
Rise (SLR), and Seawater intrusion in Egypt ............................................................. 57
Fig. 39 Classification degree of topographic obstacles in Egypt ................................ 58
Fig. 40 Classification degree of electric grid, gas, possible biogas from wastes,
natural gas, and wind power potentiality in Egypt ..................................................... 58
Fig. 41 Classification degree of population in Egypt ................................................. 59
Fig. 42 Classification degree of land use in Egypt ..................................................... 59
Fig. 43 Classification degree of potential regions for national strategic plans for
development in Egypt ................................................................................................. 60
Fig. 44 Promising areas for desalination by solar energy in Egypt, Optimistic
Scenario ....................................................................................................................... 61
Fig. 45 Promising areas for desalination by solar energy in Egypt, Moderate Scenario
..................................................................................................................................... 61
Fig. 46 Promising areas for desalination by solar energy in Egypt, Pessimistic
Scenario ....................................................................................................................... 62
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Fig. 47 Soak away (SLR) to Qattara Depression ........................................................ 68
Fig. 48 Thermal desalination flow process assessment model ................................... 70
Fig. 49 Reverse osmosis desalination flow process assessment model ...................... 71
Fig. 50 Solar still flow process assessment model ...................................................... 71
Fig. 51 Desalination assessment model ...................................................................... 72
Fig. 53 Desalination assessment model output ........................................................... 75
Fig. 54 Water process ................................................................................................. 76
Fig. 55 Chemicals process .......................................................................................... 76
Fig. 56 Land use process ............................................................................................. 76
Fig. 57 Energy use process ......................................................................................... 77
Fig. 58 Emissions process ........................................................................................... 77
Fig. 59 Sludge and noise process ................................................................................ 77
Fig. 60 Economical process ........................................................................................ 78
Fig. 61 Solar pond temperature under Egypt climatic conditions .............................. 84
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This study provides recommendations for promoting the use of solar energy in
desalination as a strategic option for overcoming the water resources scarcity
problems in Egypt; especially under the expected climate change impacts. According
to many studies, Egypt already has reached the water poverty due to increased water
demands and population in addition to the complexity of the hydro-political situation
in the Nile Basin. Egypt possesses a high potential of saline water resources (long sea
shores, salt lakes, brackish groundwater available from different aquifers, and long
drainage network). Egypt has the highest rates of sun shining hours almost all year
round in the world. Egypt extends from the Mediterranean coast to the Cancer tropic
that passes in the southern of Egypt. Because of this location the length of daylight in
the summer increases to 14 hours, this increases the amount of solar radiation
reaching Egypt. It is worth to stress on the interrelation of water and energy. If power
is available, desalination and transmission of water would be done. As Egypt suffers
from energy shortage, solar energy could provide potential resources for water
desalination and renewable energy in Egypt.
In this study the potential solar desalination and its future perspective and possible
application in Egypt globally were reviewed. Geographic Information System (GIS)
as a tool was used to build up Solar Decision Support System (SDSS) model for solar
desalination. The (SDSS) is a decision support model that defines the situation, set
objectives, put criteria, and establishes priorities to reach a final decision of pilot
areas. The (SDSS) incorporates key data and elements of environment and
meteorological conditions of Egypt. The (SDSS) input 8 parameters. 8 tool boxes
were built to run the (SDSS). These tool boxes classify the potential priorities of
promising area depend on:
1. Areas of lower groundwater depth and salinity; Areas near saline water
resource as seas, salt lakes, main drains, and brackish groundwater source to
overcome shortage in water resources;
2. Areas of higher solar energy intensity, that could be connected to an electric
grid so that continuous power generation is achievable by a mix of
renewable/non-renewable energy production in a dual system;
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3. Lower vulnerable areas, areas far from seawater intrusion in Delta, areas of
lower Sea Level Rise (SLR), areas of lower Delta subsidence;
4. Areas of lower topographic obstacles, lower land slope, far from sand dunes
and mountain chains;
5. Areas of higher power potentialities in both conventional and renewable. The
conventional powers are electric grid, thermal power station, natural gas, and
potagas production. The renewable energy were wind energy and potential
ability to produce biogas from solid wastes and aquatic weed;
6. Areas of higher rural population and lower income.
7. Areas of better land use. These areas are selected near Delta and Nile Valley
Marakez, main port, airports, railways, roads, and main piped water networks;
8. Finally potential areas for national strategic plans for development in tourism,
industry, agriculture, mining, and flash floods that recharge groundwater.
The priorities of all parameters were classified in an ascending order from 1 to 10
degrees. This classification covers the extremes of possible desalination process in
Egypt. The best extreme includes class from 1 to 10 of all elements. The worst
extreme includes classes 4 and 5 of all elements. Three scenarios were run by
(SDSS) to test low, high, and moderate conditions of Egypt. The first is the optimistic
scenario that covers all possible solar desalination process in Egypt from class 1 to
10. The second is the moderate scenario from class 3 to 7. The third is the pessimistic
scenario limited to classes 4 and 5. Accordingly, the (SDSS) outputs are digital maps
of pilot areas of solar desalination potentiality in Egypt. The result of the optimistic
scenario shows that about 0.414 (million Km2) of Egypt is most suitable for solar
desalination. Some of these areas could be developed as follow:
1. 800 (km2) for grass land in North Sinai that has groundwater. The salinity
ranges from 1,500 to 12,000 (ppm).
2. 700 (km2) for industrial activities in Suez, area from Aswan to Red sea, deep
back desert of Beni Suief and Fayoum. The salinity ranges from 1,500 to
5,000 (ppm).
3. 60,000 (km2) for mining along Suez Gulf in both sides in Sinai and in Red Sea
shore until Hurghada, back desert of Qena that has high amount of brackish
groundwater, and North Western Coast near El Alamin. The salinity ranges
from 1,500 to 2,500 (ppm).
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4. 20,000 (km2) for Safari tours near the Oasis in Western Desert. The salinity
ranges from 1,500 to 15,000 (ppm).
5. 50,000 (km2) of crops could be irrigated with brackish groundwater south
Qattara Depression, Qena, and Aswan. The salinity ranges from 1,200 to
15,000 (ppm).
6. 50,000 (km2) of wheat, maize, sunflower, alfalfa, barely, and olive could be
irrigated by brackish groundwater in Old Delta. The solar desalination could
provide drinking water in that area. The salinity ranges from 1,500 to 15,000
(ppm).
The results of the other 2 scenarios show that most of Egypt is suitable for solar
desalination. The (SDSS) process is dynamic and could run on several future change
variables. Solar desalination could save cost of piping and pumping Nile water for
new safe areas.
A spreadsheet model is used for performing comparative evaluation and assessment
of the solar desalination technically, environmentally, and economically. The model
consists of three matrixes. Matrix 1 computes thermal desalination, matrix 2
computes reverse osmosis (RO), matrix 3 computes solar still. Every matrix consists
of 3 processes:
Technical process computes quantities of water discharge, chemicals, energy,
and land use at each stage of desalination process. The desalination process
starts from saline water intake, primary and post treatment, solar
concentrating system, storage and distribution, and brine discharge.
Environmental process computes global warming emissions, cooling water,
brine, noise, and sludge.
Economical process computes the cost.
The model inputs are water quantity and quality (sea, brackish wells, or
drainage); Location potentiality (available land, nearby power station, solar energy
system).
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Model boundary conditions are: drainage water is only used in solar still
technology; Thermal distillation is only used if power station is available; Land
available must be larger than land required.
The model outputs runs show that the emissions, chemicals, and energy are
reduced by 99% when use solar energy. The massive production reduces desalination
cost from 2.7 to 0.06 ($/m3), Solar energy reduce cost from 1.65 to 0.04 ($/m
3),
nearby thermal power station reduce cost from 0.9 to 0.02 ($/m3), combined solar and
power station reduce cost to 0.01 ($/m3). Desalination of brackish water by (RO)
reduces cost from 0.6 to 0.36 ($/m3). Thermal desalination is preferable for coastal
regions for large quantities required for cooling water. This process could supply
fresh water for towns, villages, and new development sustainable projects. Reverse
osmosis is preferable for medium productivity for limited community as hotels,
hospitals, and industrial establishments. Solar still is preferable for small and medium
size desalination for remote area where land is available. Solar pond is a key issue in
solving brine problem in Egypt. Clean renewable energy could be extracted from
solar ponds in which brine is storing sun energy. A numerical model is used to predict
the performance of a solar pond under Egypt climatic condition. The mass and energy
balance equations have been used to compute pond temperature. The results show
that average pond temperature in Egypt reach 75 (ºC) that could be used in
thermodynamic cycles to produce energy.
This study suggests area around Qattara Depression to shift people from inundation
areas due to impacts of climate change induced (SLR) on the Nile delta. The (SLR)
water could be soaked away from lowest point in Delta to the depression. Clean
electric generation could be generated from net head of filling Qattara Depression.
Qattara Depression potentiality of generating hydropower could support Egypt future
needs and could be exported to Eastern Nile countries. The hydropower generation
from Qattara Depression does not need filling time, and high cost building dam.
Keywords: Desalination; Solar Energy; GIS; Mathematical Modeling; Wastewater;
Climate Change; Egypt.
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CHAPTER (1): INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
More than two-thirds of the earth’s surface is covered with water. Most of the
available water is either present as seawater or icebergs in the Polar Regions. More
than 97% of the earth’s water is salty; the remaining 2.6% is fresh water. Less than
1% fresh water is within human reach. This small amount is adequate to support life
and vegetation on earth. Nature itself provides most of the required fresh water,
through the hydrological cycle. A very large-scale process of solar distillation
naturally produces fresh water. The essential features of this process are thus
summarized as the production of vapors above the surface of the liquids, the transport
of vapors by winds, the cooling of air–vapor mixture, condensation and precipitation.
This natural process is copied on solar desalination. As the available fresh water is
fixed on earth and its demand is increasing day by day due to increasing population
and rapidly increasing of industry, hence there is an essential need to get fresh water
from the saline brackish water present on or inside the earth. This process of getting
fresh water from saline brackish water can be done easily and economically by
desalination, [36].
1.2 Problem Definition
In many countries that suffer a chronic shortage of water, such as those of the Middle
East and North Africa, over 80% of all fresh water consumed is used by agriculture.
As fresh water resources are finite, there is a pressure to reduce agricultural use of
water to meet the growing demand for domestic and industrial use, [13]. The number
of desalination plants in Egypt is 230 plants in 2000 with an overall capacity of
220000 (m3/day). The average quota of water resources in Egypt is expected to reach
645 (m3/person) in 2025. So there is a need for desalination to meet the requirements
of industry, tourism, petroleum, electricity, health, and reconstruction. The
desalination plants spread on the Red Sea coast, South Sinai, and the northern coast,
[30].
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1.3 Criteria
Overall evaluation of the various desalination technologies, research, developments
and previous studies show that desalination technologies varied from the
conventional to the advanced methods. Conventional desalination technologies are
thermal technology (distillation) and membrane technology. Advanced methods are
ion exchange, membrane distillation, freezing, and solar distillation.
The Greenhouse Gases (GHG) increases the temperature by about 2°C in 2020.
Reducing emissions of (GHG) could be achieved by switching to renewable energy.
Solar energy represents a huge energy resource for the world, particularly in the
southern countries close to the Equator, where the deserts have some of the best solar
resource levels. Egypt possesses a high intensity of solar radiation, all year round,
that justifies the economical use of this type of clean energy, [21].
The methodology of the present work is: Collect previous work data then analyze it
to get information, indicators, and finally index to put suitable solution to the
problem.
1.4 Aim of the Study
The objectives of the present work are preparation and development of digital maps
of pilot areas of solar desalination potentiality as an adaptation tool for climate
change impacts on the water resources in Egypt.
1.5 Outline of the Report
Chapter (1) offers an outline about the technical report contents. Chapter (2) is
concerned with the literature review. Chapter (3) describes design parameters to build
up Solar Decision Support System (SDSS) model under Egypt meteorological data. A
new safe area is suggested in this chapter as a solution for the inundation areas due to
sea level rise in the Nile delta. Chapter (4) is concerned with evaluation and
assessment of the solar desalination technology. Finally, conclusions and
recommendations are presented in chapter (5).
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CHAPTER (2): LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Potential Solar Desalination Work Globally
Worldwide there already exists a water supply crisis and the water quality is a major
concern. It is hoped that attention to this fact will make people more aware that water
resources are finite and water itself is not a totally renewable resource. Historically
and presently, water and energy were and still are two of the most critical and
interdependent fundamental elements of vital importance that determine and drive the
economics and consequently the culture and way of life in a society, [15].
2.1.1 Historical Background of Desalination and Renewable Energies
Delyannis, [8] has studied the history of desalination processes. He found that the sun
was especially esteemed by the Egyptians, Greeks, and Incas. Water and energy are
two inseparable items that govern our lives and promote civilization. Looking to the
history of mankind, one finds that water and civilization were also two inseparable
entities. It is not a coincidence that all great civilizations were developed and
flourished near large bodies of water. Rivers, seas, oases, and oceans have attracted
mankind to their coasts because water is the source of life.
The desalination concept from pre-historic times to middle ages
Of all philosophers of antiquity it is the well-known scientist, Aristotle (384–322),
who described in a surprisingly correct way the origin and properties of natural,
brackish and seawater. He writes for the water cycle in nature:
The sun moving, as it does, sets up processes of becoming and decay, and sweetest
water is every day carried out and is dissolved into vapor and rises to the upper
regions, where it is condensed again by the cold and so returns to the earth. Even
today no better explanation is given for the water cycle in nature. Really, the water
cycle is a huge solar energy open distillation plant. Mouchot (1869, 1879) the
well-known French scientist who experimented with solar energy, mentions in one of
his numerous books that during medieval times Arab alchemists carried out
experiments with polished Damascus concave mirrors to focus solar radiation onto
glass vessels containing salt water in order to produce fresh water.
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The development of solar desalination during the Renaissance period
Later on during the Renaissance, Giovani Batista Della Porta (1535–1615), one of the
most important scientists of his time wrote many books. In the volume on distillation
he mentions seven methods of desalination, but the most important reference is in the
19th
volume where he describes a solar distillation apparatus that converted brackish
water into fresh water (Della Porta). Fig. 1 shows the Della Porta solar distillation
unit. He also describes, in the second chapter of volume 20, a method to obtain fresh
water from the air (nowadays called the humidification– dehumidification method).
Fig. 1 Della Porta solar distillation apparatus, [8]
In 1870 the first American patent on solar distillation was granted to Wheeler and
Evans the inventors described the greenhouse effect, analyzed in detail the cover
condensation and re-evaporation, discussed the dark surface absorption and the
possibility of corrosion problems. High operating temperatures were claimed as well
as means of rotating the still in order to follow the solar incident radiation. Two years
later, in 1872, an engineer from Sweden, Carlos Wilson, designed and built the first
large solar distillation plant, in Las Salinas, Chile (Harding, 1883).
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2.1.2 Principle of Solar Distillation: a State of the Art
Solar still is an air tight basin, usually constructed out of concrete/cement, galvanized
iron sheet (GI) or fiber re-enforced plastic (FRP) with a top cover of transparent
material like glass, plastic etc. The inner surface of the base known as basin liner is
blackened to efficiently absorb the solar radiation incident on it. There is a provision
to collect distillate output at lower ends of top cover. The brackish or saline water is
fed inside the basin for purification using solar energy, [36].
2.1.3 Classification of Solar Distillation Systems
Solar distillation systems are classified as passive and active solar stills. In the case of
active solar stills, an extra-thermal energy by external mode is fed into the basin of
passive solar still for faster evaporation. The external mode may be collector
concentrator panel. Different types of solar still available in the literature are:
Conventional Solar Stills
Single-slope Solar Still with Passive Condenser
Double Condensing Chamber Solar Still
Vertical Solar Still
Conical Solar Still
Inverted Absorber Solar Still
Multi-Wick Solar Still
Multiple Effect Solar Still, [36]
Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 show the cross-sectional view of multi-wick solar still and Hybrid
solar distillation system.
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Fig. 2 Cross-sectional view of multi-wick solar still-passive mode, [36]
Fig. 3 Hybrid solar distillation system-active mode, [36]
2.1.4 Performance of Solar Still
The meteorological parameters namely wind velocity, solar radiation, sky
temperature, ambient temperature, salt concentration, algae formation on water
and mineral layers on basin liner affect significantly the performance of solar stills.
It is observed that there is about 10–15% effect in overall daily yield due to change of
climatic and operational parameters within the expected range, [36]. For better
performance of a conventional solar still, following modifications were suggested by
various researchers:
Reducing bottom loss coefficient
Reducing water depth in basin/multi-wick solar still using reflector
Using internal and external condensers
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Using back wall with cotton cloth
Use of dye
Use of charcoal
Use of energy storage element
Use of sponge cubes
Multi-wick solar still
Condensing cover cooling
Inclined solar still
Increasing evaporative area, [36].
Millions of people have no access to a secure source of fresh water. Nevertheless,
since many arid regions are coastal areas, seawater desalination is a reasonable
alternative. On the other hand, the energy requirements of desalination processes are
high. Then, the energy supply in low development countries or isolated areas may be
a problem, especially if electricity is required. Since most arid regions have high
renewable energy resources, the use of renewable energies in seawater desalination
exhibits an interesting chance, or even the only way to offers a secure source of fresh
water. The status and perspectives of development of coupling renewable energy
systems with desalination units seem to be the most mature ones, [12].
2.1.5 Solar Still Coupled with Thermal Storage and Solar Collectors
In summer the collector energy is not used at its whole. The hybrid design of this
system, which is able to supply not only desalted water but also hot water, from the
tank, could lead to higher water productivity in the day and night. This new system
consists of three parts:
1. asymmetric type single-effect solar still of greenhouse type
2. integrated storage
3. flat-plate solar collector field, Fig. 4.
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There is a water tank with the same dimensions as the basin just below the still’s
basin. There is no insulation between basin and storage tank, thus direct thermal
contact is established through the bottom of the basin. The tank is, insulated exactly
as the still’s basin in the bottom and sides. Inside the tank there exists a heat
exchanger, through which the heating medium coming from the solar collector field
flows. The water amount produced with the solar field in operation is about the
double than that when the still operated alone, in a 24 (hr) period, having an average
increase of distilled water productivity of around 100%. The night increase is higher
from about 60% up to 180%. This increase in the night operation is expected since
the water in basin remains hot enough so that distillation is continued during the
night.
Fig. 4 Hybrid solar distillation system, [25]
2.1.6 Solar Still Coupled with Thermal Storage and Other Heat Source
The conventional solar still is a solar device, which can use other heat sources.
Examples of these cases are:
shallow geothermal fields
solar ponds
industrial waste heat
heat recovery in condenser of chiller
cooling towers in air-conditioning installations, Fig. 5.
This type could save money that is needed for the rejection of the heat, improving at
the same time efficiency of other energy installations, such as air-conditioning units.
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Coupling solar still with storage tank leads to a significant increase in the production
rates. For example, system productivity under constant saline water temperature of 50
(°C) is almost five times more than productivity of the solar still working alone, for
similar weather conditions. The behavior of a solar still coupled with heat storage
tank has been found to be dint than that of the solar still itself regarding dependence
on solar radiation. Changes in solar radiation do not significantly affect production,
meaning that in the coupled still the hot water storage tank acts as the heat-collecting
unit and the solar still serves mainly as condensation unit.
Hot water usage from the distillation system; An interesting aspect of the solar still
coupled with storage tank and collector field is the ability to use it as a conventional
solar water heating system, that is to draw-off quantities of hot water from the storage
tank parallel to distilled water production.
Fig. 5 Solar still with storage tank and external heat source, [25]
2.1.7 Plastic Solar Water Purifier with High Output
Ward, [37] studied a solar water purifier which consisted of a carefully designed
black plastic sheet covered by a white glass window. The plastic was formed into an
array of interconnected square cells which contained impure water. The selected
material ensures that no plastic taste, color or smell is transferred to the pure water
output. There were no filters, no electronics, no moving parts and cleaning was rarely
needed. It was lightweight, cheap, strong, and durable and can be used in any sunny
location on Earth. Seawater input with 35,000 (ppm) of totally dissolved solids.
(TDS) was converted into potable water with a TDS of 1–2 (ppm). Yields up to 9
(liter/m2day) were obtained at 35 (°C) ambient or approximately 1000 (W/m
2) of
insulation. It is useful for poor communities suffering from polluted water and water-
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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borne diseases affecting the health and life of young people in particular. It is a small
family units to have access to their own, self-made, pure drinking water that would
produce high-quality, potable water output from virtually any type of dirty input
water such as sea, bore, effluent, urine, radioactive, arsenic contaminated, brackish
etc. This device known as a ‘‘solar water purifier’’
Description of the solar water purifier: A black plastic sheet was vacuum formed
onto an aluminum pattern which had been machined to the desired shape. The
resultant plastic sheet consisted of a rectangular shaped array of shallow, square
section trays which were interconnected by a series of weirs. Each individual tray was
about 100 by 100 (mm) in cross-section and about 10 (mm) deep. The liquid holding
capacity of each tray was thus about 100 (ml). In all, the array consisted of 32 trays
and suitable channels for distributing and collecting the impure and pure water
outputs. Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 show the arrangement used.
Fig. 6 Plan view of solar water purifier showing water flow path, [37]
Fig. 7 Single unit solar water purifier, [37]
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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The black plastic absorber panel was covered by a toughened, white-glass window
and sealed to it using the surface tension of the condensed water vapor produced
during its escape from the trays of impure aqueous liquid. A condensation collector in
the pure water collection channel redirected the sheeting flow of water from the
underside of the cover glass into the channel itself. The underside of the absorber
panel was thermally insulated. The solar water purifier was then mounted in an
aluminum frame for strength and shadow minimization. Finally, the frame was fitted
with folding legs so that overall, the system was inclined at 12.5 o
to the horizontal. A
handle for ease of carrying could be fitted if required. Large banks of solar water
purifiers could be used to obtain large volumes of potable water, neither legs nor
carry handles were needed.
Principle of operation: Short wavelength as ultraviolet, infra-red radiation (0.7–2.5
µm) from the sun is transmitted through the white glass, through the water and
absorbed by the black plastic. The plastic re-radiates at long wavelengths (8–10 µm),
hemi-spherically from each side of the plastic. On the non-water-side, an aluminum
reflector transfers this long wavelength radiation back to the plastic where it is
absorbed. On the water-side of the plastic, the long wavelength radiation is directly
absorbed by the water. The water gets hot and vaporizes. The water vapor drives out
the air in the cavity between the glass and water surfaces. The kinetic energy of the
water vapor molecules on the glass cannot return to its source, and to conserve
energy, the individual droplets coalesce forming a sheet of water which then runs
down the underside of the glass window into a collection channel. The ultraviolet
radiation (0.34–0.40 µm) combined with prolonged exposure times proves to be
extremely effective for the high killing rates (measured at >99.99%) of many
commonly occurring bacteria, such as, Salmonella spp., Shigellaspp., Escherica coli,
Campylobacter coli, etc. The good design geometry made the bacteria unable to cross
over the water vapor barrier above each tray of impure water.
Positioning the solar water purifier: In the southern hemisphere the purifier should
be oriented with the input end facing south as shown in Fig. 8, while in the northern
hemisphere the north and south positions must be interchanged. The purifiers is
facing in the north–south direction when the purifier shadow is aligned along the
purifier itself around 12 o’clock noon at your location, as shown in Fig. 9. This is the
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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orientation to use if you want to operate the purifier in a fixed, stationary position.
For example, if you rotate the purifier every 30 (min). So throughout the day so that
its shadow is underneath itself then the overall output for that day will increase by
about 30%. Effectively you are tracking the sun. However, if you move the panel in
this way then you must be very careful to keep the panel level and avoid slopping any
impure water into the pure water outlet channel.
Fig. 8 Orientation of solar water purifier in southern hemisphere, [37]
Fig. 9 Align solar water purifier to the sun, [37]
The purifier must be adjusted to the horizontal so that the water level at both ends of
the input channel is the same height, as shown by the symbol H in Fig. 10. To avoid
the possibility of impure input water overflowing into the pure water outlet, the input
water should be fed slowly into the input channel until all the trays are full and water
is just starting to flow out of the impure water outlet. 4.5 (liter) of input water is
sufficient to fill the purifier unit. To maintain the purity of the output, a clean glass
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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bottle rather than plastic should be used to collect the pure water output. The purifier
can be operated in two modes: in Static mode’ where the initial fill of 4.5 (liter) is not
replenished throughout the day, or in Dynamic mode’ as shown in Fig. 11 where
impure water from a reservoir drip feeds continuously through the purifier at a rate of
about 10–15 (liter/day).
Fig. 10 Level solar water purifier, [37]
Fig. 11 Dynamic mode operation in southern hemisphere, [37]
Maintenance of the solar water purifier: The major maintenance activity required
to ensure that the solar water purifier continues to provide pure water output is
cleaning. When the purifier is operated in the Dynamic mode, the dissolved solids in
the water continuously flow through the purifier into the overflow channel. Virtually
none of the dissolved solids settle out in the trays and therefore the purifier rarely
needs cleaning. If the purifier is operated in the Static mode, then the solids which
were in solution are deposited on the surface of each tray and further exposure to the
sun ultimately produces a colored hardened deposit that is undesirable. This deposit
can readily be removed by cleaning with a dilute acid solution such as citric acid (or
lemon juice) or oxalic acid, which are not harmful. In either operating mode, the
outer surface of the glass must be cleaned regularly to remove dust and any other
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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contamination to allow maximum transmission of the sun’s rays through the glass and
into the water. Visually the glass will appear to be quite white, because these small
bubbles reflect the sun’s visible and near infrared radiation and totally prevent the
water from heating up, thus lowering considerably the efficiency of the purifier. This
occurs because of a buildup of a very thin, almost molecular layer on the glass
surface which prevents wetting taking place. This problem can be overcome by
removing the glass, cleaning it thoroughly and replacing it in its original position.
2.1.8 Solar Water Desalination System Utilizing a Passive Vacuum Technique
The efficiency of the solar stills depends on the temperature difference between the
water surface and the glass cover. To increase the temperature difference:
Increase the water surface by coupling the solar still to a flat plate solar
collector.
Reduce the temperature of the glass cover.
Increase the temperature difference between the saline water surface and the
transparent cover could by adding a condenser to the still, thus increasing the
heat sink capacity,
Increase the evaporation rate by using vacuum conditions to evaporate at a
low temperature and pressure.
Al-Kharabsheh, Yogi Goswami, [3] studied utilizing vacuum conditions for
evaporation and condensation, where a vacuum is created using natural forces of
gravity and atmospheric pressure. They proposed a desalination system consisted of a
solar heating system, and an evaporation chamber and a condenser at a height of
about 10 (m) above ground level, connected via pipes to a saline water supply tank
and a fresh water tank, respectively. Fig. 12 shows a schematic of the system. A
vacuum is created by balancing the hydrostatic and the atmospheric pressures in the
supply and discharge pipes.
The distillation of water at a lower temperature level requires less thermal energy.
This heat can be provided from solar collectors, which will operate at a higher
efficiency because of lower collector operating temperatures. Simple flat plate
collectors may be used to heat the saline water in the evaporator.
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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As saline water in the evaporator starts evaporating, its salinity increases which tends
to decrease evaporation rate, so it becomes necessary to withdraw the concentrated
brine at a certain flow rate and inject saline water at a rate equivalent to the
withdrawal plus evaporation rates. The withdrawn water will be at a temperature
equal to that of the evaporator, so it becomes necessary to recover the energy from it.
A tube-in-tube heat exchanger is used for this purpose, where injected water flows
inside the inner tube and withdrawn water will flow in the annulus in a counter-
current direction.
Under the influence of vacuum conditions at the saline water surface in the
evaporator, water can be injected by the atmospheric pressure; hence no pumping
power is required. This makes the proposed system a continuous process type, unlike
a flat basin solar still which is usually a batch process. The withdrawn concentrated
brine can be concentrated further and used to construct a solar pond, which may be
used as a solar energy collection and storage system. The system will require periodic
cleaning by flushing and restarting it, so that the non-condensable gases are not
allowed to accumulate destroying the vacuum.
Fig. 12 Schematic of vacuum system, [3]
The evaporation chamber was feed by the cold fluid directly. The chamber was
provided by solar or other low-grade thermal energy through a closed loop heat
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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exchanger as well as withdrawing the concentrated brine. The incoming cold fluid
and withdrawn brine pass through a tube-in-tube heat exchanger in order to extract
the maximum possible heat from the hot brine. The evaporation chamber is connected
to a condenser, which dissipates the heat of condensation to the environment. It is
known that the vapor pressure of seawater is about 1.84% less than that of fresh water
in the temperature range of 0–100 (°C). This means that if the top of the two
chambers (saline water evaporator and fresh water condenser) are connected while
maintained at the same temperature, water will distill from the fresh water side to the
saline water side. In order to maintain the distillation of potable water from the saline
water the vapor pressure of the saline water must be kept above that of the fresh
water, which is done by increasing the temperature of the saline water by solar
energy. To start up the unit, it is filled completely with water initially. The water is
then allowed to drop down out of the unit under the influence of gravity. Depending
on the barometric pressure, water falls to a level of about 10 (m) from the ground
level, leaving behind a vacuum above the water level in the unit. Vacuum enables
Fig. 13 shows the evaporator–condenser.
Fig. 13 Evaporator–condenser of vacuum system, [3]
A vacuum equivalent to 3.7 (kPa abs) or less can be created depending on the
ambient temperature at which condensation will take place. The effect of various
operating conditions (withdrawal rate, depth of water body and temperature of the
heat source) were studied experimentally and compared with theoretical results. The
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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experimental results agreed well with the theoretical predictions. It was found that the
effects of withdrawal rate and the depth of water in the evaporator were small while
the effect of heat source temperature was significant. Based on theoretical simulations
the present system would perform much better than a simple flat basin solar still. A
multi-effect system based on the same principle, which would utilize the latent heat
of condensation from one stage to evaporate a part of water in the next stage, would
improve the performance even further, [3].
2.2 Potential Solar Desalination Application in Egypt and Its Future Perspective
2.2.1 Performance of Solar Still in Egypt
Abdel-Wahaab, El-Shazly, Swelam, [1] studied the performance of solar still to
maximize the productivity according to Egypt conditions. These modifications are
cover thickness, cover slope, evaporation and condensation surface areas and shapes
and the internal volume. They concluded that, when the cover thickness increased
from 2 to 3 then to 4 (mm), the daily output decreased by 2% and 7% respectively.
The cover slope with tilt angles with 17o, 25
o, 50
o and 75
o on vertical direction has
been tested with tilt angles on horizontal direction the tested tilt angles were 5o, 8
o
and 11o. The greatest amount of fresh water obtained under tilt angle of 50
o and 11
o.
The effect of the internal volume experimentally studied and observed that,
increasing the internal volume by 25%, 50% and 78% decreases the still output by
4.4%, 12.8% and 21% respectively. Increasing the evaporation surface area by 46.2%
increase the productivity by 16.7%, while increasing the condensation surface area by
24% it improved the productivity by 20%.
2.2.2 Concentrating Solar Technologies (CST)
Concentrating Solar Technologies (CST) involve devices, which concentrate solar
energy by focusing solar radiation onto a focal point or line. Mohamed, Mohsen,
Kaddah, [26] studied the performance of El Nasr pilot solar plant project involves the
construction of a 1,900 (m2) parabolic trough field to produce saturated process steam
at 7.5 (bars) and 175 (ºC) to supply El Nasr Pharmaceutical Chemicals factory in
Cairo, Egypt. The solar field comprises 144 solar parabolic trough collectors arranged
in 8 rows with 18 collectors in each row. The solar plant design includes the solar
field and process equipment, Fig. 14. The collectors are arranged to form four
identical hydraulic loops of 36 collectors each, through which the condensate passes
to gain solar heat and transfer it to the flash drum. In this plant, the flash drum,
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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instead of the heat exchanger, is used to produce saturated steam. This is a first in
Egypt: The parabolic trough solar collectors are locally built and manufactured of
aluminum with dimensions 6 (m) long by 2.3 (m) aperture, Fig. 15. The heat absorber
tube lies in the focus of the collector where the direct beam solar radiation
concentrates, and is manufactured from carbon steel pipes coated with a black nickel
surface (selective emitter coat) with highly effective absorption and surrounded by a
glass envelope to minimize the heat losses. The solar collectors are monitored and
tracked automatically to follow the sun with a simple mechanism using electric
motors and worm gear actuators and a group of ropes and pulleys.
Processes: The condensate (or hot water) enters the condensate tank at 85 (°C) [as
per design, actually 25 (°C) only] from the existing EL-Nasr factory network. The
condensate pump transfers condensate from the condensate tank to the liquid outlet at
the bottom of the flash drum to replace the generated steam. The condensate pump
operates intermittently through two level switches (high/low) that monitor the level of
the condensate liquid inside the flash drum. The two streams are mixed together
before entering the recycle pump, which boosts the pressure of the mix to about 26
bars and sends it to the solar field at a constant rate of 28 (m3/hr), where solar heat is
added to the condensate as it travels through the solar collectors. The solar-heated
condensate returns to the flash drum at about 23 (bars) through an orifice/atomizer.
As the pressure inside the flash drum is kept (by the predominant El-Nasr steam
network) at some 7.5 (bar), flash steam is generated due to the flashing process. The
pressure of the solar plant is maintained and controlled by a check valve located on
the steam delivery line, [26]
Fig. 14 El-Nasr pilot solar steam generation plant layout, [26]
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 15 Solar parabolic trough collector in EL-Nasr Plant, [26]
2.2.3 Solar Energy Desalination for Arid Coastal Regions: Greenhouse
The most common desalination methods are based on fossil fueled thermal and
membrane processes, alternative techniques, such as solar desalination, are also being
considered. Solar methods are well suited for the arid and sunny regions of the world
as in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Both efficiency and economics need to
be considered when choosing a solar desalination system. The Seawater Greenhouse
is a new development that produces fresh water from sea water, and cools and
humidifies the growing environment, creating optimum conditions for the cultivation
of temperate crops.
Fig. 16 shows the humidification–dehumidification method in a greenhouse structure
for desalination and for crop growth. The Sea-water Greenhouse produced fresh
water and crops in one unit. The temperature difference between the solid surfaces
heated by the sun and cold water drawn from below the sea surface was the driving
force in the system. The Greenhouse acted as a solar still while providing a controlled
environment suited for the cultivation of crops.
This technology founded to be of real benefit to coastal farms, worldwide, that are
struggling with the problem of saline intrusion. It will provide a real alternative to
increasing shortages of groundwater, [13].
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 16 Seawater greenhouse, [13]
2.2.4 Effect of Dust Deposition
El-Nashar, [11] studied the performance of a solar desalination plant (whether using
thermal or photovoltaic collectors
The dust deposition on the collector surface causes a drop in the transmittance
of the glass cover that affects both the collector efficiency and subsequently
the amount of heat collected.
Higher amount of dust accumulated means lower production. Production can
drop by about 40% when the transmittance drops from its clean condition
value of 0.98 to a very dusty value of 0.70.
2.2.5 Conventional Desalination Combined with Solar Energy
A field of tube collectors, thermally stratified heat accumulator could be used to
preheat seawater in a multiple effect distillation (MED) unit, Fig. 17.
Fig. 17 Solar desalination plant, [11]
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Egypt has the highest sun hours all over the year in the world. It has a great advantage
of being in best sun-belt region. Perfect meteorological conditions and land space are
available in remote areas. Solar desalination could supply fresh water for drinking
and for agriculture green house in these remote areas. The development in remote
areas would increase the exports, imports, tours, and political activities, and also
would save high cost of piping and pumping network from the River Nile to these
remote areas. Egypt has its political and cultural weight in the region that would
create development in manufacturing, operating, maintenance in desalination
technologies. Egypt lies on the northeastern side of Africa. Its area is about one
million (km2). Nile Valley and Delta area is 4%; Eastern desert 22 %; Western desert
68 %; and Sinai 6 %. Seawater desalinated represents 0.08% of water resources in
Egypt [5]. Most aquifer systems in Egypt contain high quantities of brackish
groundwater with salinity ranges from 1,500 to 15,000 (ppm). Groundwater sector in
Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation in Egypt predicted the total amount of
brackish groundwater as shown in table 1, [14].
Table 1 Primary assessment of brackish groundwater in Egypt, [14]
Site Aquifer Salinity (ppm) Inventory
(billion m3)
Egyptian coasts Fissure carbonate
and Wadis
> 2,000 2
Nile Valley Ridges and
North Western Coast
Nile > 1,500 4
Western Delta Moghra > 3,000 1
Western Desert Fissure carbonate > 3,000 5
Sinai and Eastern
Desert
Nubian
sandstone
1,500 – 3,000 100
Total All aquifers 112
Low cost solar water desalination is a strategic solution for Egypt. The number of
desalination plants has increased in the last 30 years and generated 2333.963
(m3/day) in 2004, [35].
In conclusion solar desalination is feasible as the best technologies in Egypt.
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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CHAPTER (3): SOLAR DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM (SDSS) MODEL
3.1 Introduction
Identifying sites for solar desalination as an adaptive tool to climate change
vulnerability requires a clear conceptual framework as follow:
First step data were collected from reports, papers, scientific books, Central
Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS), World Bank data
base, and Information and Decision Support Center (IDSC), [17]. These data
were (maps, demography, climate, hydro-geology, aquifer systems, drainage
system, solid waste, and today’s and the future’s water needs).
Second step includes the classification of the data by using Geographic
Information System (GIS) to generate thematic maps. (GIS) and multi criteria
evaluation (MCE) were used in site classification. The concept of
classification degrees were done according to weighted linear combination
(WLC) method, as a kind of (MCE), and an analytic hierarchy process (AHP).
Third step was building up digital database in spread sheets files and
connected it to the previous thematic maps to generate digital maps for all
major elements of the study.
Fourth step was building up Solar Decision Support System (SDSS) model.
3.2 Design Parameters of (SDSS) Model
The input data for this model are the collected digital maps. The model runs through
8 tool boxes that were built in the main interface of the model Fig. 18. These 8 tools
represent the 8 study parameters for promising areas classification as follow:
1. Saline water (resources, salinity, and depth);
2. Solar Energy intensity;
3. Vulnerable areas due to climate change, Sea Level Rise (SLR), and Seawater
intrusion;
4. Topographic obstacles;
5. Power Potentiality (conventional and renewable);
6. Population;
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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7. Land use;
8. National strategic plans for development.
3.3 Classification of (SDSS) Model
Each tool box classifies the potential priorities of promising area as in Table 2. The
model was run for each developed 8 factor toolboxes. The outputs of the 8 tool boxes
are digital maps with a detailed spread sheets file report determining where the
promising areas are. Then overlay all these digital maps with equal weights of each 8
tool boxes to produce the final classification of the most promising areas in Egypt.
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 18 User interface of (SDSS) model tool boxes
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Table 2 Classification of Solar Decision Support System (SDSS) model, numbers in parenthesis indicate the weights of each factor
Item
No.
Factor Parameter Classification degrees
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. [1/8]
Saline water
(resources,
salinity, and
depth)
[1/40]
Average
groundwater
depth
<0.002 0.002-0.01 0.01-0.05 0.05-0.5 0.5-0.6 0.6-0.7 0.7-0.8 0.8-.9 0.9-1 >1.5
2. [1/40]
Average
groundwater
salinity
<1,500 1,500-2,000 2,000-
2500
2,500-
3,500
3,500-
5,000
5,000-
6,000
6,000-
8,000
8,000-
10,000
10,000-
12,000
>15,000
3. [1/40]
Distance from
seas
<100 100-200 200-300 300-400 400-500 500-600 600-700 700-800 800-900 >1000
4. [3/80]
Distance from
salt lakes, and
main drains
network,
<50 50-100 100-150 150-200 200-250 250-300 300-350 350-400 400-450 >500
5. [1/80]
Distance from
main production
wells
<50 50-100 100-150 150-200 200-250 250-300 300-350 350-400 400-450 >500
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Item
No.
Factor Parameter Classification degrees
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6. [1/8]
Solar Energy
intensity
[1/8]
Solar energy
intensity
>7.2 6.8-7.2 6.7-6.8 6.6-6.7 6.4-6.6 6.2-6.4 6-6.2 5.8-6 5.4-5.8 <5.4
7. [1/8]
Vulnerable
areas due to
climate change,
Sea Level Rise
(SLR), and
Seawater
intrusion
[1/16]
Delta sea level
rise
- 3-20
(M.S.L)
Sand
protection
3-4
(M.S.L)
Land
2-3
(M.S.L)
Land
1-2
(M.S.L)
Land
0-1
(M.S.L)
Land
-3-0
(M.S.L)
North
Lakes
-3-0
(M.S.L)
Fishers
aquaculture
-3-0
(M.S.L)
Land
Sensitive
attack sub
zones
8. [1/16]
Delta
subsidence
- - - - 0-0.5
(mm/year)
0.5-1
(mm/year)
1-2
(mm/year)
2-3
(mm/year)
3-4
(mm/year)
Above 4
(mm/year)
9. Seawater
intrusion
Seawater
desalination
North lakes
desalination
- - - - - - - Groundwater
desalination
10. Rock faults Out of classification (these areas are removed)
11. [1/8]
Topographic
obstacles
[1/16]
Land slope
<0-2 2-4 4-7 7-10 10-14 14-18 18-23 23-30 30-45 >45
12. [1/16]
Sand dunes
Class degree 10
13. Mountain
Chains
Class degree 10
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Item
No.
Factor Parameter Classification degrees
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
14. [1/8]
Power
Potentiality
(conventional
and renewable)
Thermal power
stations near sea
shores
Class degree 1
15. [1/80]
Distance from
main electrical
networks
<50 50-100 100-150 150-200 200-250 250-300 300-350 350-400 400-450 >500
16. [1/80]
Natural gas
production
>0.011 0.00884-
0.011
0.00716-
0.00884
0.000773-
0.00716
0.000001-
0.000773
0-
0.000773
0 0 0 0
17. [1/80]
Potagas
production
>0.000529 0.000245-
0.000529
0.000225-
0.000245
0.000177-
0.000225
0-
0.000177
0 0 0 0 0
18. [3/40]
Wind speed
>9 9-8 8-7 7-6 6-5 5-4 3-4 stagnant stagnant stagnant
19. [1/80]
Possible biogas
production from
organic
municipal waste
and aquatic
weeds
>2 1-2 0.9-1 0.7-0.9 0.5-0.7 0.4-0.5 0.3-0.4 0.2-0.3 0.06-0.2 >.06
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Item
No.
Factor Parameter Classification degrees
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
20. [1/8]
Population
[1/20]
Rural to Urban
population ratio
90-100 80-90 70-80 60-70 50-60 40-50 30-40 20-30 10-20 <10
21. [3/80]
Population
(Capita No)
>0.5 0.4-0.5 0.3-0.4 0.25-0.3 0.15-0.25 0.12-0.15 0.08-0.12 0.045-0.08 0.025-
0.045
<0.025
22. [3/80]
Gross domestic
product (GDP)
<5 5-10 10-20 20-30 30-50 50-70 70-90 90-130 130-170 >170
23. [1/8]
Land use
[1/40]
Distance from
Delta and Nile
Valley Marakez
<50 50-100 100-150 150-200 200-250 250-300 300-350 350-400 400-450 >500
24. [1/10]
Distance from
main port,
airports,
railways, roads,
and main piped
water networks
<30 30-60 60-90 90-120 120-150 150-180 180-210 210-240 240-300 >300
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Item
No.
Factor Parameter Classification degrees
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
25. [1/8]
National
strategic plans
for development
[7/80]
Potential
regions
Tourism Industry Old delta
agriculture
New
reclaimed
land with
saline
water
Mining Grassland Low flash
flood
High flash
floods
- -
26. [3/80]
Distance from
mining regions
(quarries, and
petrol fields)
<50 50-100 100-150 150-200 200-250 250-300 300-350 350-400 400-450 >500
Distance (km); Salinity (ppm); Solar energy (kwh/m2/day); Gas production (billion metric ton/year); Wind speed (m/s); Ratio (%); Capita No (million)
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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3.4 Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) to Buildup (SDSS) Model
Egypt is among the most vulnerable regions in Nile Basin Countries. This (SDSS)
model was carried out by overlaying climate hazard maps and potential capacity
maps on the spatial distribution of various areas of Egypt. The model is developed to
select suitable areas of solar desalination in Egypt. Classification degrees are
designed according to (AHP) to define the governing factors of the study. (AHP)
assists the decision-makers to simplify the problem by creating a hierarchy of criteria
that best suits their goal and their understanding of the problem [33]. The steps of
(AHP) are: define problem; set objectives; put criteria for evaluating the options;
establish priorities among the elements of the hierarchy; synthesize these judgments
to yield a set of overall priorities for the hierarchy; check the consistency of the
judgments; come to a final decision based on the results of this process [33]. The
steps of (SDSS) are:
1. Convert thematic feature to raster maps for all factors.
2. Numeric values of 1 to 10 are given for cell of all raster maps.
3. Each raster is weighted according to its importance.
4. The cell values of each input raster are multiplied by its weights.
5. The resulting cell values are added together to produce the output raster.
6. The total influence for all rasters equal 100 %.
7. Generate suitability map ranked in an ascending order. Most suitable areas
classification degree less than 4. Promising areas classification degree ranges
from 4 to 5. Low suitable areas classification degree ranges from 5 to 6.
Higher degree than 6 are unsuitable areas, [32].
8. Three scenarios were run by (SDSS) model to test the two extreme and the
moderate conditions of Egypt. The first is the optimistic scenario that covers
all possible solar desalination process in Egypt from class 1 to 10. The second
is the moderate scenario from class 3 to 7. The third is the pessimistic
scenario limited to classes 4 and 5.
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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3.5 (SDSS) Model Inputs
3.5.1 Saline Water Resources Salinity and Depth
The saline water resources in Egypt used in this study are shown from Figs. 19 to 22.
Fig. 19 Salt lakes, Drains, Coastal aquifer, and Moghra aquifer in Egypt, modified
after [16]
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 20 Fissured carbonate aquifer, Nubian sandstone aquifer, and major production
wells in Egypt, modified after [16]
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 21 Average groundwater depth in Egypt, modified after [16]
Fig. 22 Average groundwater salinity in Egypt, modified after [16]
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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3.5.2 Solar Energy
Egypt is located between latitudes 22° 0`, 31° 26` North extends from the
Mediterranean coast to the Cancer tropic that passes in the southern of Egypt. This
astronomical of Egypt offers warm tropical dry temperature and helps to evaporation.
So this site earns air and land of Egypt high solar radiation. The sun sends rays of a
vertical or near vertical to the land of Egypt in the summer when the sun is
perpendicular to the Cancer Tropic. The sun intensity is medium during the spring
and autumn and low during winter months (December-January-February) when the
sun is perpendicular to the Capricorn Tropic. Because of this location the length of
daylight in the summer increases to 14 (hr), this increases the amount of solar
radiation reaching the Earth in that period, [16]. Climatic Atlas of Egypt, [7]
describes the meteorological condition for data record of 30 years. It indicates that the
maximum global radiation is in June and minimum at December, which agree with
the movement of the sun. Moreover, the sky radiation reaches its maximum value in
spring season (April, May) this season is characterized by rising sand and sand
storms, while the minimum occurs during December and January. The range of
annual radiation is about 6 (MJ/m2/day).The direct solar radiation is maximum in
June and minimum in January over Cairo and Aswan with secondary maximum in
February. Two minimum take place in both May and October at Aswan, which are
due to the cloud covers during spring and autumn in the southern region in Egypt.
The lowest solar radiation occurs in the north of Egypt, where cloud increases. Solar
radiation increases further southwards as clear skies predominate. Solar radiation
decreases to small extent over mountainous areas, especially in the Sinai and Red
Sea, due to the formation of orthographic clouds. The annual solar radiation is 5
(kwh/m2/day) in northern Egypt, while it ranges from 7.1 to 20 (kwh/m
2/day) in
southern Egypt, Fig. 23, [29]. Table 3 shows global solar radiation on horizontal
surface (kwh/m2/day) and its annual average, [29]. Fig. 24 shows Egypt climatic
stations. Table 4 shows actual sunshine duration (hr/month) and its annual average,
[29].
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 23 Solar energy intensity in Egypt, [29]
Fig. 24 Egypt climatic stations
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Table 3 Global solar radiation on horizontal surface (kwh/m2/day) and its annual average, [29]
No Station Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Average
1 Sidi Barani 3.11 3.77 5.26 6.65 7.07 7.95 7.98 7.21 6.17 4.65 3.38 2.79 5.50
2 Mersa Matruh 3.10 3.97 5.33 6.61 7.37 8.01 7.98 7.37 6.3 4.73 3.51 2.92 5.60
3 El-Arish 3.37 4.01 5.31 6.16 7.56 7.69 7.78 7.14 6.07 4.58 3.56 3.14 5.53
6 Cairo 3.04 3.70 5.04 6.05 6.96 7.45 7.25 6.64 5.71 4.49 3.29 2.85 5.21
7 Assuit 3.88 4.91 5.98 6.91 7.47 7.93 7.82 7.29 6.48 5.37 4.18 3.6 5.99
8 Aswan 4.70 5.65 6.61 7.41 7.68 8.02 7.94 7.45 6.76 5.81 7.96 4.39 6.70
9 Kharga 4.43 5.43 6.38 7.17 7.66 8.02 7.9 7.45 6.7 5.64 4.68 4.13 6.30
10 Hurghada 4.26 5.36 6.53 7.41 7.88 8.27 8.18 7.75 6.96 5.56 4.48 3.91 6.38
11 Abu Rudeis 3.90 4.97 6.28 7.27 8.01 8.15 8.11 7.74 6.77 5.16 4.23 3.58 6.18
Table 4 Actual sunshine duration (hr/month) and its annual average, [29]
No Station Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Average
1 Sidi Barani 6.76 7.72 7.65 8.99 10.65 12.06 12.34 12.01 10.6 9.54 7.84 6.59 9.40
2 Mersa Matruh 6.84 7.61 8 8.98 10.59 11.85 12.19 11.89 10.52 9.01 7.87 6.2 9.30
3 El-Arish 6.98 7.93 8.06 9 10.75 11.78 11.75 11.4 11.34 9.33 7.64 6.82 9.40
6 Cairo 7.52 8.14 8.63 9.89 10.78 11.59 11.57 11.05 10.19 9.47 8.54 7.27 9.55
7 Assuit 8.53 9.46 9.77 10.2 11.3 12.3 12.43 12.03 10.7 10.1 9.64 8.38 10.40
8 Aswan 9.73 9.80 9.73 10.43 10.93 12.07 12.07 11.57 10.37 9.94 9.9 9.43 10.50
9 Kharga 9.49 10.13 10.35 10.45 11.53 12.33 12.45 12.05 11.24 10.6 10.08 9.77 10.87
10 Hurghada 9.20 9.70 9.66 10.49 11.59 12.81 12.47 12.08 11.17 10.17 9.73 8.85 10.66
11 Abu Rudeis 8.70 9.20 9.56 10.12 10.48 11.19 12.21 11.76 10.92 10.16 9.2 8.14 10.14
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3.5.3 Vulnerable Areas Due To Climate Change, Sea Level Rise (SLR), and
Seawater Intrusion
Climate change scenarios refer to a minimum temperature increase of 2 (ºC) leads to
sea level rise (SLR) of 0.5 and 1 (m) at the end of the 21st century, [18]. Delta is one
of the areas that are most prone to inundation as a result of expected (SLR). (SLR) is
also accompanied by soil subsidence at varying rates. Delta coastal zone is divided
into three sub zones depending on the degree of exposure and vulnerability to the risk
of erosion and sea level rise as follow:
Sub-Zone one: Areas of high risks. It is also vulnerable to subsidence or
erosion at high rates. These areas include Manzala Lake shore, Rosetta,
Gamasa, Damietta port, and Alexandria’s coastal strip that is considered as
one of the most vulnerable areas to the risk of inundation due to land levels
falling to less than 3 (m) below the current sea level, Fig. 25.
Sub-Zone two: Areas are relatively safe, as the presence of sand dunes
creates a natural defense line.
Sub-Zone three: Areas of naturally and artificially protected shores, Fig. 26,
[25].
Delta vulnerable to seawater intrusion, the seawater frontage reached 40 (km) near
Tanta city in the Delta [27].
Fig. 25 Delta subsidence in Egypt
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 26 Delta sea level rise, [18]
3.5.4 Topographic Obstacles
Relatively flat ground with lower slope far from sand dunes are preferable, Fig. 27.
Fig. 27 Sand dunes and land slope in Egypt, modified after [16] and [39]
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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3.5.5 Power Potentiality (Conventional and Renewable)
The wind energy in Egypt reaches 10 (m/s). The potential areas of using wind power
are in the Northern Western Coast, Northern Sinai, the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba, the
Red Sea coast, and large parts of Western Desert. The early national strategy of Egypt
in 1982 targeted to develop renewable energy to supply 5% of traditional energy
mainly from solar, wind, and biomass. Figs. 28 to 31 show power potentiality in
Egypt.
Fig. 28 Electric and wind power in Egypt, [28]
Fig. 29 Natural gas in Egypt, data from [5]
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 30 Potagas in Egypt, data from [5]
Fig. 31 Possible biogas production in Egypt, data from [10] and [23]
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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3.5.6 Population
Figs. 32 to 34 show population in Egypt.
Fig. 32 Percentage of rural in Egypt, data from [5]
Fig. 33 Population in Egypt, data from [39]
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 34 Gross domestic product (GDP) in Egypt, data from [39]
3.5.7 Land Use
Fig. 35 shows major land use indicators in Egypt.
Fig. 35 Major land use indicators in Egypt
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3.5.8 National Strategic Plans for Development
Fig. 36 shows national project plans in Egypt.
Fig. 36 Potential regions for national projects in Egypt, Agriculture in Old Delta data
from [2]
3.6 (SDSS) Model Outputs
The first output is the optimistic scenario that covers all possible solar desalination
process in Egypt from class 1 to 10. Figs. 37 to 43 show classification degree of each
tool box of the first optimistic scenario.
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 37 Classification degree of promising areas in Egypt for saline water (resources,
salinity, and depth)
Fig. 38 Classification degree of vulnerable areas due to climate change, Sea Level
Rise (SLR), and Seawater intrusion in Egypt
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Fig. 39 Classification degree of topographic obstacles in Egypt
Fig. 40 Classification degree of electric grid, gas, possible biogas from wastes,
natural gas, and wind power potentiality in Egypt
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Fig. 41 Classification degree of population in Egypt
Fig. 42 Classification degree of land use in Egypt
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Fig. 43 Classification degree of potential regions for national strategic plans for
development in Egypt
3.7 Promising Areas for Desalination by Solar Energy in Egypt
The final output of the (SDSS) model is a digital map of pilot areas of solar
desalination potentiality in Egypt. The first optimistic scenario is shown in Fig. 44
that covers all possible solar desalination process in Egypt from class 1 to 10. The
second is the moderate scenario from class 3 to 7 is shown in Fig. 45. The third is the
pessimistic scenario limited to classes 4 and 5 is shown in Fig. 46. This (SDSS)
model is dynamic; consequently more result from it could be obtained for future
plans.
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 44 Promising areas for desalination by solar energy in Egypt, Optimistic
Scenario
Fig. 45 Promising areas for desalination by solar energy in Egypt, Moderate Scenario
+
+
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 46 Promising areas for desalination by solar energy in Egypt, Pessimistic
Scenario
Table 5 shows the zonal statistical analysis of the 3 scenarios. The potential of solar
desalination is greatest in Eastern Desert, upper Western Desert, Oasis, Old Delta,
and Gulf of Suez.
+
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Table 5 Zonal statistical analysis of potential areas of solar desalination in Egypt
Scenario Location
Classification Area (m2)
Groundwater Salinity (ppm)
Min Max Majority Minority Median
Optimistic
Scenario
1. Eastern Desert
2. South Sinai
3. Upper North Sinai
4. Strip line parallel to North Western
Coast
5. Western Oasis
6. Old Delta in area from Assuit to Qattara
Depression
7. El Wadi Elgadid
8. South Delta
9. Nile Valley fringes
Most suitable
areas
4.14 E+11 1200 15000 2500 9940 2500
Activities
Grass land 8 E+09 1500 12000 3500 12000 3500
Industry 7 E+09 1500 5000 2500 5000 2500
Mining 6 E+10 1500 15000 2500 9940 2500
Tourist 2 E+10 1500 2500 1500 2500 1500
Agriculture by saline water 5 E+10 1200 15000 2500 9940 2500
Agriculture in old delta 5 E+10 1500 15000 5000 9940 5000
1. Marsa Matruh governorate
2. Middle Sinai
3. Toshka
Promising
areas
3.31 E+11 1200 15000 1500 4800 1500
Activities
Grass land 5 E+09 2000 15000 2000 8000 3500
Industry 2 E+08 1500 3500 2500 1500 2500
Mining 2 E+10 1500 15000 2500 5000 2500
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Scenario Location
Classification Area (m2)
Groundwater Salinity (ppm)
Min Max Majority Minority Median
Tourist 8 E+09 1500 9940 1500 9940 1500
Agriculture by saline water 1 E+10 1500 15000 1500 15000 1500
Agriculture in old delta
9 E+09 1500 15000 15000 5000 15000
1. Great sand sea in border between Egypt
and Libya
Low suitable
areas
8.79 E+10 1500 15000 1500 2400 1500
Activities
Grass land 2 E+07 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Industry - - - - - -
Mining 8 E+08 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500
Tourist - - - - - -
Agriculture by saline water 2 E+07 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Agriculture in old delta 4 E+07 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500
1. Rock faults
2. North Delta
3. Red Sea mountain chains
Unsuitable
areas
3.7 E+07 3600 3600 3600 3600 3600
Total area of optimistic scenario
8.33 E+11
Moderate
Scenario
1. Areas near sea shores thermal power
station
2. Old Delta from Assuit to south Qattara
Depression
3. Upper Eastern Desert from Suez Gulf to
Nile Valley
4. Extended Fringes around Qena in
Eastern and Western Desert
5. Lower Western Delta
Most suitable
areas
1.14 E+11 1200 15000 2500 15000 2500
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Scenario Location
Classification Area (m2)
Groundwater Salinity (ppm)
Min Max Majority Minority Median
Activities
Grass land - - - - - -
Industry 2 E+08 2500 5000 5000 2500 3500
Mining 3 E+10 2000 9940 2500 9940 2500
Tourist 4 E+07 1500 2500 1500 1500 1500
Agriculture by saline water 3 E+10 1200 9940 2500 3600 2500
Agriculture in old delta 2 E+10 1500 5000 5000 2000 5000
1. Sinai
2. Delta
3. Western Desert
Promising
areas
5.56 E+11 1200 15000 1500 9940 1500
Activities
Grass land 1 E+10 1500 15000 3500 15000 3500
Industry 9 E+08 1500 3500 2500 1500 2500
Mining 5 E+10 1500 15000 2500 2400 2500
Tourist 6 E+08 1500 2500 1500 2500 1500
Agriculture by saline water 3 E+10 1200 15000 1500 1200 2000
Agriculture in old delta 4 E+10 1500 15000 1500 9940 5000
1. Long Strip pass Great sand sea in border
between Egypt and Libya
Low suitable
areas
4.65 E+10
1500 9940 1500 3600 1500
Activities
Grass land - - - - - -
Industry - - - - - -
Mining 2 E+07 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500
Tourist 6 E+07 2500 2500 2500 2500 2500
Agriculture by saline water - - - - - -
Agriculture in old delta - - - - - -
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Scenario Location
Classification Area (m2)
Groundwater Salinity (ppm)
Min Max Majority Minority Median
Total area of moderate scenario
2.15 E+11
Pessimistic
Scenario
1. Areas near sea shores thermal power
station
2. Fayoum
3. Wadi Natrun
Most suitable
areas
6.47 E+08 1200 3500 2000 1500 2000
Activities
Grass land - - - - - -
Industry - - - - - -
Mining - - - - - -
Tourist - - - - - -
Agriculture by saline water 6 E+08 1200 3500 2000 1500 2000
Agriculture in old delta - - - - - -
1. Most of Western Desert
2. Delta
3. Upper and lower Eastern Desert
4. Longitudinal strip pass Sinai
Promising
areas
6.28 E+11 1200 15000 1500 9940 1500
Activities
Grass land 1 E+08 2000 6000 3500 2500 3500
Industry 5 E+08 1500 5000 2500 5000 2500
Mining 8 E+10 1500 15000 2500 9940 2500
Tourist 8 E+08 1500 2500 1500 2500 1500
Agriculture by saline water 6 E+10 1200 15000 2500 9940 2500
Agriculture in old delta 2 E+10 1500 15000 1500 9940 2500
Total area of pessimistic scenario
1.63 E+11
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3.8 Inundation and New Safe Areas in Egypt
The inundation areas were described in Fig. 25 and Fig. 26. This study suggests a
new safe area to shift people from inundation areas due to impacts of climate change
induced sea level rise on the Nile delta. The most appropriate areas are North
Western coast and area around Qattara Depression that lies in the northern of Egypt.
This area is about 2% of Egypt. The lowest level of the depression is 134 (m) below
the sea level. The (SLR) water could be soaked away from lowest point in Delta to
the depression. Clean electric generation could be generated from net head of filling
Qattara Depression. Qattara Depression would defend the Delta from the sinking or
inundation of (SLR) and reduce the cost of protecting coastal shores, Fig. 47. The
total volume of depression at zero (MSL) is 1218 (trillion m3). Large quantities of
water could be desalinated and this will safe piping and pumping cost for transfer
Nile water to new safe areas. Qattara Depression would support, fish farming,
tourism, and agriculture. The depression will take 20 years to be filled to level -50
(MSL) and will generate 7100 (million KWH). If it works 8000 (hr) annually, then
the annual total power will be 56800 (MW) during filling period. The Ministry of
Electricity and Energy suggested establishing hydropower station to work 4 (hr/day)
at a level from -60 to +215 (MSL) to generate 2400 (MW) if work 4 (hr/day) and
generate 4800 (MW) if work 8 (hr/day) after filling period. Qattara Depression
potentiality of generating hydropower could support Egypt future needs and could be
exported to Eastern Nile countries. The hydropower generation from Qattara
Depression does not need filling time and high cost building dam, [24].
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 47 Soak away (SLR) to Qattara Depression
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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CHAPTER (4): ASSESSMENT OF THE SOLAR DESALINATION
Technically, Environmentally, and Economically
4.1 Desalination Assessment Model
A spreadsheet model is used for conducting simple technical, environmental, and
economical assessment of desalination process, [22]. The model consists of three
matrixes. These matrixes transform flow desalination process into flow chart
computing system. Every matrix computes technical process, emissions, and cost.
4.1.1 Model inputs
The model inputs are:
Water quantity and quality (sea, brackish wells, or drainage).
Location (available land, nearby power station, solar energy intensity).
4.1.2 Model boundary conditions
For drainage water solar still technology is only used.
If power station is available thermal desalination is only used.
Land available must be larger than land required.
Matrix one is thermal desalination technology could be coupled with thermal
electrical power station or with solar collectors, or with both. The thermal desalination
flow process is shown in Fig. 48. Matrix two is the reverse osmosis desalination
technology could be coupled with solar energy. The reverse osmosis desalination flow
process is shown in Fig. 49. Matrix three is solar still desalination. The solar still flow
process is shown in Fig. 50. The reason for using these three processes is that these
processes are the most commonly used in the world and advisedly for Egypt. The
desalination model is shown in Fig. 51.
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 48 Thermal desalination flow process assessment model
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 49 Reverse osmosis desalination flow process assessment model
Fig. 50 Solar still flow process assessment model
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 51 Desalination assessment model
4.1.3 Model Database
A database worksheet is built for computing all parameters for desalination
technologies alternatives: Conventional thermal desalination; thermal desalination and
concentrating solar power (CSP); thermal desalination and combined heat and power
(CHP); thermal desalination and (CSP) and (CHP); Conventional reverse osmosis;
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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reverse osmosis and (CSP); and solar still. Input values into process are negative and
output values from process are positive. The desalination model database is shown in
Fig. 52.
Water and sludge balance process
MED MSF RO
Intake Intake Intake
1.00 1 1.00
cooling water Feed water cooling water Feed water brine freshwater
0.67 0.33 0.7 0.3 0.67 0.33
brine freshwater brine freshwater Sludge (kg)
0.22 0.11 0.2 0.1 101.33
desalination effluent=cooling + brine desalination effluent=cooling + brine
0.89 0.9
Sludge (kg) Sludge (kg)
135.11 136.80
Fig. 52 Desalination assessment model data base
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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4.1.4 Model Output
Model runs on virtual case of brackish water 100 (m3/day), using solar energy, and
available land area =5 (feddan) = 21,000(m2). The desalination model output is shown
in Fig. 53. The comparative results are shown from Figs. 54 to 60.
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 53 Desalination assessment model output
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts
on the Water Resources of Egypt
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76
Fig. 54 Water process
Fig. 55 Chemicals process
Fig. 56 Land use process
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts
on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 57 Energy use process
Fig. 58 Emissions process
Fig. 59 Sludge and noise process
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts
on the Water Resources of Egypt
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Fig. 60 Economical process
4.2 Technical Assessment
The model results show that emissions reduced when use solar energy. Thermal
desalination, Process one is preferable for coastal regions for large quantities required
for cooling water. This process could supply fresh water for towns, villages, new
development sustainable projects. Reverse osmosis, Process two is preferable for
medium productivity for limited community as hotels, hospitals, industrial
establishments. Solar still, Process three is preferable for small and medium size
desalination for remote area where land is available, [22].
4.3 Environmental Assessment
The thermal desalination plants burning fuels cause global warming. Brine discharges
contain chemicals as anti-fouling materials. Brine also discharged at high temperature
and very high concentrated salts. The brine harms sensitive marine habitats as algal,
coral reefs, salt marsh, mangrove flats. Seawater and brine pipes may leak and pollute
groundwater. High pressure pumps produce noise over 90 dB (A).
According to World Health Organization (WHO), the permissible limit of salinity in
water is 500 (ppm) and for special cases up to 1000 (ppm). Excess brackishness
causes the problem of taste, stomach problems and laxative effects. One of the control
measures includes supply of water with total dissolved solids within permissible
limits of 500 (ppm) or less. Traditional desalination plants are uneconomical for low
Solar Desalination as an Adaptation tool for Climate Change impacts
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capacity fresh water demand, under these situations, solar stills are viewed as means
to attain self-reliance and ensure regular supply of water, [36].
Negative impacts of distilled water
No damages for the household uses, but harmful for drinking for long time,
weakening the immune system.
Effect of distilled water on the liver: Distilled water usually used in desert areas
away from the source of fresh water. So vegetables grown in desert land contain a
high concentration of silica. When eating these vegetables, the silica interacts with
distilled drinking water resulting in different silicate compounds in the body, which in
turn transmitted to the blood. It is known that the whole blood passes through the liver
every 4 minutes where the liver blocks the silica compounds resulting in stone
formation which leads to liver failure in the long time, [30].
Effect of distilled water on the skin and hair: Most skin specialists and cosmetics
experts agree that distilled water is the main reason for hair falling and skin dryness.
The distilled water does not contain minerals to feed the roots of the hair and the skin,
[30].
Effect of distilled water on the immune and digestive systems: The use of distilled
water regularly weakens the immunity, thereby exposing the body to infections
resulting from immunodeficiency. It also affected the digestive system by diarrhea
and intestinal diseases, especially when using regular drinking water in other
countries. The Gulf countries residents when using regular drinking water are
suffering from acute virus infection and other viruses associated with
immunodeficiency, [30].
Medical explanation for the harmful effects of distilled water: The human body
contains many salts and minerals in an electrolytic balance. Any imbalance destroys
the body's immunity so that the human body, which in turn begin a series of serious
diseases, [30].
Distilled water damage to vegetation: Desalinated water affects the growth of
plants. It spoils the Cytoplasm which in turn affects the process of photosynthesis in
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plants and could lead to plants death, [30].
Precautions when drinking distilled water: Must eat fresh vegetables, dairy
products and avoid coffee, alcohol, and cigarettes for the prevention of liver stone
formation
1 Consult a doctor specializing in electrolytic balance when feeling ill to treat
the imbalance of salts in the body.
2 To maintain electrolytic balance in distilled water, add manually for every
package of distilled water from 20 to 25 liters
1 spoon of iodine salt
1/4 to 1/2 tea spoon of potassium
1 / 8 iron tablet
Another method is used during the production of distilled water of large quantities by
adding treated sea water by 1:1 or 2:1, [30].
4.4 Economical Assessment
It is very important to conduct economic analysis and evaluation of an engineering
system to test it. The cost of the water produced depends on:
capital cost of equipment
cost of the energy and the operation
maintenance cost other than energy
In the case of solar stills, the cost of energy is a very small fraction of the total one,
since the energy other than solar is generally required for operating pumps and
controls. Thus, the major share of the water cost in solar still is that of the capital cost.
The production rate is proportional to the area of the solar still. This means that solar
still may be more attractive than other methods for small sizes. Solar still plants
having capacity less than 200 (m2/day) are more economical than other plants.
Distilled water production for potable use might be 3.5 times more economical than
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chemical water acquisition. Condensed water can be mixed with well water to
produce potable water. Impurities like nitrates, chlorides, iron, and dissolved solids in
the water are completely removed by the solar still, [36]. General economic analysis is
not easy to accomplish. The problem is that most of solar still are constructed from
local materials using local personnel. In such a situation, prices differ considerably
from one location to another, [13].
The Key issue in desalination assessment is how to dispose brine?
The answer is discharge the brine to a solar pond
A solar pond is a body of saline water that collects and store solar energy all the year.
Various models are available to predict solar pond performance. Solar pond can be
used to generate heat, generate electricity, and desalinate water. Solar pond heat could
be used for production of chemicals, foods, textiles, greenhouses, livestock buildings,
other low temperature agricultural applications, control of crystallization in certain
mining operations, and separation of crude oil from brine in oil recovery operations.
Solar ponds work in winter even when covered with a sheet of ice and surrounded by
drifts of snow, El Paso Solar Pond in Texas produced temperatures of 68 (°C) hot
enough to generate electricity. The electricity could be used for peaking and base load
power for remote locations. The supply heat from a solar pond can be used to improve
the output of desalting units to purify contaminated or minerally impaired water, and
the pond itself can become the receptacle for the waste brine products. A hyper saline
lake resort could be coupled with hot spa powered by solar pond hot water in tourism.
It is low cost per unit area, continuous storage capacity, and easily constructed over
large areas, it provides heat energy without burning fuel, thus reducing pollution. It is
site built and long life spans, [4]. Solar pond could be constructed in areas where brine
from desalination units or waste thermal energy from power plant cooling systems is
available. The cost of solar pond is 4-7 ($/m2), for surface area of 2000 (m
2) the total
cost is 15000 ($). The cost of power produced by a solar pond is about 120 ($/MWh)
about twice that of wind 20-60 ($/MWh- in a windy area) and three times that of coal
fired power 40 ($/MWh). Photovoltaic (solar cells) combined with batteries to provide
24 (hr) supply cost around 1000 ($/MWh). Solar ponds are much more reliable
delivering power 24 (hr) a day and 365 days a year.
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4.5 Solar Pond as a Solution of Brine
A numerical model is used to predict the performance of a solar pond temperature in
Egypt, [21].
Assumptions:
1. The solar pond is shallow or so large (surface area>>depth) and can be considered
as a one dimensional heat transfer model.
2. Energy and mass balance are calculated per unit area of the pond surface.
3. All side wall of the pond are insulated and do not shade the pond bottom.
4. The ground thermal conductivity is very low and neglected.
5. Inflow and outflow rates are high and can be considered as an un-stratified pond
Governing equations:
Mass balance
∆ṁ(kg/s)=ṁinlet-(ṁout+ṁevaporation+ṁseepageto ground and groundwater)=ρpond(kg/m3)
νpond (m/s) Apond(m2)
ṁevaporation(kg/s)=3600×24×1000
(mm/day)n evaporatioApond(m2) ρfresh water(kg/m3)
Equation (1)
Energy balance
The temperature is calculated from energy balance equations, [4]
qin-qout=dt
dTpondVρpondcp(pond)
balanceenergy for C/s)(º 0,cp V
constant2 +T×constant1
cp V
q+q+q+q+q+q+q
dt
dT
(pond)pond
pond
(pond)pond
fluidgrounwatergroundnevaporatioconvectionthermalsolarpond
Equation
(2)
qsolar = solar radiant heat gain to the pond
qsolar = I (1 – ρ´)Apond
Equation (3)
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qthermal = thermal radiant heat transfer at the pond surface
qthermal = hrApond (Tsky–Tpond)
hr= 3pondsky)
2
T +T (4 ,(Tsky, Tpond) should be (ºK)
Equation (4)
qconvection = convective heat transfer at the pond surface
free qconvection = hcApond (Tair–Tpond)
hc = Lc/s
k Nu fm,fm,, Lc/s= (pond area/pond perimeter)
Num,f = 0.664Repond1/2Prm,f
1/3(laminar flow)
Num,f = 0.037Repond4/5Prm,f
1/3 (turbulent flow)
forced qconvectionhc=hc+hwind,
hwind=Lc/s
k Nu fm,wind, Lc/s=(L+W) for simple assumption
Nuwind = 0.664Rewind1/2Prm,f
1/3(laminar flow)
Nuwind = 0.037Rewind4/5Prm,f
1/3(turbulent flow)
Rewind=fm,
fm, Lc/s WS
Equation (5)
qground = heat transfer to/from the ground in contact with the pond
qground =0 (the pond bottom and side walls are insulated)
Equation (6)
qgroundwater= heat transfer to/from the groundwater
qgroundwater =0 (the pond bottom and side walls are insulated)
Equation (7)
qevaporation= heat transfer due to evaporation
qevaporation = -7.732 ER Apond
Equation (8)
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Thermo-physical properties of saline water
Correlations and data for the thermo-physical properties of seawater were reviewed as
functions of temperature and salinity, [34]. Properties include density, specific heat
capacity, thermal conductivity, dynamic viscosity. The meteorological data are
collected from Weather Underground Inc., [38]. After running the numerical model
with initial pond temperature of 30 (ºC) the variation of temperature and heat
extraction with day time was examined as shown in Fig. 61.
Fig. 61 Solar pond temperature under Egypt climatic conditions, [21]
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CHAPTER (5): CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Solar Decision Support System (SDSS) model was built for identifying
potential areas for solar desalination in Egypt. 3 Scenario were tested and gave
the following result:
Optimistic Scenario: Most suitable areas (0.414 million km2
– major
salinity 2,500 ppm); Promising areas (0.331 million km2
- major salinity
1,500 ppm); Low suitable areas (0.0898 million km2
- major salinity 1,500
ppm); and Unsuitable areas (20 km2
- major salinity 3,600 ppm). These
scenario areas are in Eastern Desert, Sinai, Strip line parallel to North
Western Coast, Western Oasis, Old Delta in area from Assuit to Qattara
Depression, El Wadi Elgadid, South Delta, and Nile Valley fringe.
Moderate Scenario: Most suitable areas (0.114 million km2
- major salinity
2,500 ppm); Promising areas (0.5561 million km2
- major salinity 1,500
ppm); and Low suitable areas (0.0456 million km2
- major salinity 1,500
ppm). These scenario areas are near sea shores thermal power station,
Upper Eastern Desert from Suez Gulf to Nile Valley, Extended Fringes
around Qena in Eastern and Western Desert, and Lower Western Delta.
Pessimistic Scenario: Most suitable areas (647 km2
- major salinity 2,000
ppm); Promising areas (0.628 million km2
- major salinity 1,500 ppm);
while now low suitable areas. These scenario areas are near, Fayoum, and
Wadi Natrun.
This study would help in the decision-making process for the use of water
desalination to be easier, better, faster, and effective.
Spread sheet model was used to perform comparative assessment of thermal,
reverse osmosis, and solar still desalination technologies.
The solar still is the most economical to provide drinking water for domestic
applications at decentralized level. It is simple in design, fabrication, easy to
handle, longer life. Further, low operation and maintenance, it is most suitable
in rural areas that has brackish groundwater.
Solar energy coupled to desalination suitable for remote regions, where
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connection to the public electrical grid is costly, and where the water scarcity
is severe.
The Greenhouse acted as a solar still technology is recommended to coastal
farms, suffering from saline intrusion. The development in these coastal areas
would increase the exports, imports, tours, and political activities, especially
with European Union Nations and also would save high cost of piping and
pumping network from the River Nile.
Starting to establish projects for desalinating large quantities of water to
develop new areas.
The cost of desalination is expected to be cheaper as a result of advances in
solar concentrating systems technology, especially when manufactured locally.
Start building environmental villages in the desert to prevent people transition
from rural to urban areas.
The solar energy could be stored in brine discharged to solar pond with
temperature range from 50 - 75 (ºC).
Through the study results, it can be recommended to enhance the (SDSS)
model with fine resolution maps and satellite groundwater exploration images
in Western Desert for more accurate results.
The (SDSS) and desalination assessment model should be reviewed with
specialist experts to get their feedback and field practices to rerun the model
with different weights and more criteria.
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ABBREVIATIONS
The following abbreviations are used in this study:
A Anti-scalents
AF Anti-foaming
AHP analytic hierarchy process
Apond pond area, (m2)
CHP combined Heat & Power
Cl chlorine
Co coagulants
CO2 global warming
cp(m,f) air specific heat capacity at film temperature, (J/kg·ºC)
cp(pond) pond specific heat capacity, (J/kg·ºC)
CSP concentrating solar power
CST concentrating solar technologies
dpond pond depth, (m)
ER evaporation rate, (mm/day)
Ethen summer Smog
ff fouling factor, (m2·ºC/W)
FRP fiber re-enforced plastic
GDP gross domestic product
GHG greenhouse gases
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GI galvanized iron sheet
GIS geographic information system
I solar radiant flux on horizontal, (W/m2)
k(m,f) air thermal conductivity at film temperature, (W/m·ºC)
kpond pond thermal conductivity, (W/m·ºC)
L pond length, (m)
M metals
MCE multi criteria evaluation
MED Multi-Effect Desalination
MSF multi-Stage Flash
MSL mean sea level
MtCO2e metric tons or tons of carbon dioxide equivalent
Num,f
air Nusselt number at film temperature = 0.664Repond1/2
Prm,f1/3
(laminar flow), 0.037Repond4/5
Prm,f1/3
(turbulent flow)
Nuwind
wind Nusselt number = 0.664Rewind1/2
Prm,f1/3
(laminar flow),
0.037Rewind4/5
Prm,f1/3
(turbulent flow)
PM10 particles
PO4 eutrophication
Ppond pond perimeter, (m)
Prm,f air Prandtl number at film temperature = cp(m,f)μm,f/km,f (-)
Prpond pond Prandtl number at film temperature = cp(m,f)μm,f/km,f (-)
q heat extraction, (W)
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Ram,f air Rayleigh number at film temperature, (-)
Rapond pond Rayleigh number at pond temperature, (-)
Rewind wind Reynolds number = ρm,fWS(L+W)/μm,f, (-)
RO reverse Osmosis
SDSS spatial decision support systems
SLR sea level rise
SO2 acidification
Tair air temperature, (ºC)
TDS totally dissolved solids
Tm,f air film temperature = [(Tair + Tpond)/2]+273.15
Tpond pond temperature, (ºC)
Tsky sky temperature=Tair(0.8+(Tdewpiont/250))0.25
, (ºC)
U fluid overall heat transfer coefficient, (W/m2·ºC)
V pond volume, (m3)
W pond width, (m)
WLC weighted linear combination
WS wind speed, (m/s)
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Greek symbols
∆T temperature difference, (ºC)
μm,f air viscosity at film temperature, (kg/m.s)
μpond pond viscosity, (kg/m.s)
νpond pond velocity, (m/s)
ρ´ reflectance of pond surface (-)
ρm,f air density at film temperature, (kg/m3)
ρpond pond density, (kg/m3)
σ Stephan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 × 10-8
W/m2·K
4
pond emissivity coefficient (-)
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