Assessment of Gaseous Emissions and Socio-Economic Impacts ... · 2013). Masts are frequently found...

African Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences

Volume 2, No. 1., Dec, (2020), 517-523 |[email protected]|

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Assessment of Gaseous Emissions and Socio-Economic

Impacts From Diesel Generators used in GSM BTS in Kano

Metropolis Bashir Muhammad Adam Department of Civil Engineering, Bayero University, Kano, Kano State Aliyu Haidar Abubakar Department of Environmental Management, Bayero University, Kano, Kano State Jamilu Haruna Dalibi Faculty of Humanities, Management and Social Sciences, Federal University Kashere, Gombe State Mukhtar Khalil Mustapha Department of Soil Science, Federal University Dutsinma, Katsina, Katsina State

ABSTRACT

The study investigated the compliance of some selected GSM Base Transceiver Stations (BTS) in Kano Metropolis. Twenty sites were selected at random and sampling over the selected BTS was carried out over a period of 5 days. For each of the BTS, three sampling points were established namely point source, 5m from point source and 10m away from point source. Measurement of the concentration of air pollutants namely Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) from the generators used in the BTSs were carried out. Survey questionnaires were also used to assess the socio-economic impacts of the BTS on health and environment. Results show that the mean concentrations of air pollutants measured from the exhaust of the generators were 2.2–14.00ppm for CO; <0.001ppm–0.21ppm for NO2; 0.01ppm–0.15ppm for SO2 and 38.58µg/m3–268.50µg/m3 for suspended particulate matter (SPM). Comparing the measured concentrations with the Federal Ministry of Environment (FMENV) stipulated threshold concentrations for potential air contaminants; it was observed that at point source, the concentrations of air pollutants in over 80% of the BTS were above the FMENV limits. At 5m setback, over 95% of the BTS were in compliance with the FMENV limit. At 10m however, the concentrations of the pollutants in all the stations were below the FMENV threshold limits and particularly the concentrations of NO2 which were found to be below the instrument’s detection limit. Apparently, the detected levels were not of threat to the environment since there is a reduction in the concentrations of the pollutants farther away from the BTS. Findings from the survey revealed that 70% of the BTSs that were cited 10m or below from residential buildings were reported by the participants to be a source of discomfort and felt the surroundings of the BTSs were not safe due to the gaseous emissions. Adoption of environment-friendly alternative power sources were among the recommended ways of mitigating the environmental pollution from the BTS operation.

Article History

Received: 19 February 2020 Received in revised form: 30 April 2020 Accepted: 15 May 2020 Published Online: 2 September 2020 Keywords:

GSM; Base Transceiver Stations; FMENV; Air pollution Corresponding Author Contact: Aliyu H. Abubakar

Email:[email protected] DOI: 10.11113/ajees.v3.n1.104

1.1 INTRODUCTION Nigerian Telecommunication sector is one of the fastest growing sectors in the country and this is so much evident by the number of telecommunication masts that are being installed every month (Adeniji et al., 2015). Before the advent of global system for mobile communications (GSM) in Nigeria in 2001,

there were communication masts erected by internet service providers (ISPs), banks, and government agencies, for the purpose of transmitting and receiving communication signals. But the licensing of GSM operators automatically increased the number of communication masts (Onuoha, 2016). As the number of subscribers increased, it was

522 Adam, Abubakar, Dalibi & Mustapha – African Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Volume 2, No. 1., Dec, 2020, 517-523


expected that telecommunications operators will increase infrastructure rollout at a commensurate level to that of subscriber’s growth. But little attention was paid to infrastructure improvement until a time when network congestion set in, leading to subscribers experiencing poor services delivery (Ajibola et al., 2015). In order to have optimal network coverage, most BTS are located in close proximity to the target users; the reason telecom operators also site their masts in residential neighborhoods (Michael et al., 2013). Masts are frequently found near or on shops, buildings, homes, schools, daycare centers, and hospitals (Vini et al., 2010). According to Mobile Manufactures Forum and GSM Association, BTS(BTSs) are sited in close proximity to inhabited areas, because the farther the equipment is located away from the users, the poorer will be the quality of communication (Bello, 2010). Today, Nigeria has many erected masts from telecommunications operators alone combined with that of the ISPs, and banks. These masts are highly concentrated in the urban areas and cities (such as Lagos, Abuja, Port- Harcourt, Kano etc.) which have posed challenges for effective land use planning (Onuoha, 2016). In Nigeria, diesel generators are commonly used to power base station sites round the clock. This is mainly due to limited availability of the national electricity grid, and therefore the task of providing uninterrupted power to satisfy minimum Quality of Service requirements is difficult (Anayochukwu and Nnene, 2013).With the erratic power supply in the country, all the communication companies power their BTS with diesel plants all through the day in order to avoid failure in transmission in their services. These infrastructures have impacted on the surroundings both positively and negatively (Aderoju et al., 2013). While bio-electromagnetic experts are concerned primarily with possible adverse

effects of hand-held telephones (terminals), the general opinion seems to be considerably more concerned about the BTS (Alicja et al., 2011). The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended investigating the effects of exposure to emissions from mobile phone BTS to address public concerns (Hutter et al., 2005).The emissions and noise from generating set used to power the BTS 24-hours a day as a result of epileptic power supply situation of the country is a source of air and noise pollution (Daramola, 2013). Apart from the heat, vibration and noise accompanying generator operations,, nitrogen oxides (NOx), Sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter are also released (Mbamali et al.,2012). Recent research by Godfrey (2015) reported that Diesel-powered generators being the main source of electric power to GSM infrastructure in Nigeria are notorious for emitting pollutants from burning heterogeneous mixture of diesel fuel and air. The pollutants, sometimes visible as smoke or smog include oxides of nitrogen (NOx), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and particulate matter. Collectively and individually, exposure to the pollutants endangers human health and the environment. Therefore, the continuous emissions from mobile BTS may impact negative health on the residents nearby (Gursatej et al., 2013). In Nigeria, pollutants emanate from different sources. The common air pollutants from the chemical industries are Sulphur dioxide, which are emitted from process and from fuel combustion, while the major pollutant from automobiles is carbon monoxide. The national agency responsible for setting and maintaining standards in Nigeria, the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA, 1999), has stated the air quality standard as presented in Table1.



Table 1: Nigerian Ambient Air Quality Standards

Pollutants Averaging Time Limits

Particulates Daily average of hourly Values 1 hour

250 µg/m3

600 µg/m3

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Daily average of hourly Values 1 hour

0.01 ppm (26 µg/m3) 0.1 ppm (260 µg/m3)

Non-Methane Hydro carbons Daily average of 3-hourly Values 160 µg/m3

Carbon Monoixde Daily average of hourly Values 8 hourly values

10 ppm (11.4 µg/m3) 20 ppm (22.8 µg/m3)

Nitrogen Oxide Daily average of hourly Values (Range)

0.04 ppm – 0.06 ppm (75.0 µg/m3 – 113 µg/m3)

Photo Chemical Oxidants Hourly Values 0.06 ppm

Source: Godfrey (2015)Power generation at GSMBTS in Nigeria is considered as an emerging source of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions and metropolitan atmospheric pollution. Currently, the industrial sector continues to increase GHG emissions through the use of fossil fuels in heavy-duty electricity generators. This practice is especially evident since the year 2001, with the arrival of the GSM in Nigeria. Due to the large patronage from millions of subscribers and potential users, GSM operators persist in extending their network coverage across the country (Anayochukwu and Nnene, 2013). Diesel run combustion engines are known to release fugitive emissions and other air pollutants. Thus, the atmosphere receives gaseous and particulate pollutants from BTS operations (Olatunji and Akinsoji, 2013). Accumulations of Green House Gases within living areas could have chronic toxic effects, especially at concentrations above permissible limits (Anayochukwu and Nnene, 2013). In Nigeria, a study by Adeofun et al., (2009) considered GSM BTS as an emerging source of emission and metropolitan atmospheric pollution in Abeokuta city alongside associated environmental problems. The concentrations (%) for CO2 and (ppm) for CO, NOX, SOX emissions from each base station were measured and the result of the assessment

revealed that 90% of the GSM BTS were located in high density areas with only 6% in non-populated areas of the city and 4% found in parks and administrative areas. The range of emissions were; 1.56-15.6% for CO2, 2 to 221 ppm for CO, 0 to 58 ppm for NOX gases and 0 to 38 ppm for SOX gases. He concluded that attainment of CO2 concentration stabilization at 450ppm by 2020 may be unrealistic even if the Annex 1 countries should achieve zero emissions because big developing countries such as India, China, Nigeria and South Africa will continue to emit GHGs with no restrain for reduction before and beyond 2050. Nnaji and Chiedozie (2014) monitored and analyzed pollutants that resulted from the use of diesel generators for power generation and collected data on the environmental concentration of these pollutants from sample points in Lagos Island Local Government Area. Results obtained showed significantly high concentration of CO, SPM, NO2 and SO2, pollutants at all locations studied in Lagos Island. In particular, observed levels of these pollutants in some locations were above Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) and Federal ministry of Environment (FME) Standard for ambient air quality.



2.1 METHODS 2.1.1 The Study Area Kano Metropolis is located at the Central Western part of Kano State between latitude 11059'59.57 – 12002'39.570N of the equator and between longitudes 8033'19.69 – 8031'59.690E (Fig. 3.1). It lies in the northern part of Nigeria and is located some 840km

away from the edge of the Sahara Desert and 1,140km from the Atlantic Ocean. Its metropolis population is the second largest in Nigeria after Lagos. The Kano Urban area covers 137sq.km and comprises eight Local Government Areas (LGAs) - Kano Municipal, Fagge, Dala, Gwale, Tarauni, Nassarawa. Kumbotso and Ungogo (El-Pateh, 2015).

Figure 1: Satellite imagery of Kano Metropolis (Source: Quickbird, 2014) Kano metropolis is one of the largest metropolitan cities in West Africa and is primarily an indigenous city with principal inhabitants which are Hausas; other ethnic groups constitute smaller proportions of the population. It was chosen for this research because it is made up of eight of the most populated Local Government areas in Kano State and reflects both the modern and traditional infrastructure (roads, localities, buildings etc.) which mostly were built before the introduction of GSM in Nigeria in 2001. It is made up of compacted settlement and

contains high commercial activity areas encouraging small scale businesses. 2.1.2 Data Collection and Measurement Techniques Twenty Base Station sites in Kano metropolis were selected and sampled simultaneously over a study period of five days. Geographical coordinates of the BTS were recorded with the aid of a hand-held GARMIN GPSMAP 76CS instrument. Carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and Sulphur dioxide (SO2) were sampled directly from the generator exhaust

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagos



pipes and at some distances (5m and 10m) away from the BTS using the Crowcon Gasman Personal Gas Monitor. For the Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM), the Haz-Dust 10µm particulate matter measuring instrument was used to carry out the measurement and was also sampled at 5m and 10m away from the BTS. 2.1.3 Study Population and Sample Size For large populations, Cochran (1963) developed the equation (1) to yield a representative sample for proportions.

(1)

Which is valid where; n0= desired sample size (when the population>10,000), Z=standard normal deviate; usually set at 1.96 (or a~2), which correspond to 95% confidence level; p=proportion in the target population estimated to have a particular characteristics; q=1-p (proportion in the target population not having the particular characteristics) and d= degree of accuracy required, usually set at 0.05 level (occasionally at 2.0). The value for Z is found in statistical tables which contain the

area under the normal curve. Kano Metropolis has an estimated population of9 million according 2006 population census by the National population commission of Nigeria. This population is however greater than one hundred thousand (>100 000), therefore, assuming p=0.5 (maximum variability). Furthermore, we desire a 95% confidence level and ±5% precision. The resulting sample size is demonstrated in the equation 2.

( ) ( )( )

( )

(2) Therefore, a total number of 400 questionnaires were distributed among those living within the BTS vicinity. 3.1 RESULT AND DISCUSSION The ambient air quality levels were measured and the results are presented in the Table 2 and 3. Also, the results and the discussion of the survey carried out on the socio-economic impact of the BTS to find out the extent of awareness and problems faced by people living close to BTS.

Figure 1: Measured CO Levels at Point Source and 5m and 10m away from point source



Table 2: Geographical locations of the selected Base station and their Characteristics

Site Number

Coordinates Setback (m) Environment Type Northing (N) Easting

(E)

BS1 12°00' 25.7" 008°35' 56.8" 6 Commercial Home BS2 12°00' 13.7" 008°33' 49.9" 3.5 Commercial Home

BS3 11°59' 53.4" 008°33' 58.7" 2.7 Residential Home


BS5 11°59' 51.3" 008°33' 38.0" 25 Residential Home BS6 12°01' 48.9" 008°34' 32.1" 2 Residential Factory


BS8 12°01' 12.6" 008°32' 11.1" 2.6 Residential Shops

BS9 11°57'52.0" 008°35' 21.4" 4.4 Residential Home


BS11 11°58' 47.0" 008°33' 35.5" 12 Commercial Garage

BS12 11°58' 45.1" 008°33' 32.5" 4 Commercial School

BS13 12°00' 27.6" 008°31' 59.8" 3.2 Commercial Shops

BS14 12°00' 41.4" 008°31' 55.4" 8.1 Commercial Secretariat

BS15 12°00' 04.1" 008°31' 36.9" 5 Commercial Shops

BS16 11°59' 22.3" 008°30' 10.9" 2.1 Commercial Shops

BS17 11°57' 45.2" 008°25' 57.4" 1.3 Residential Homes

BS18 11°58' 39.8" 008°29' 26.7" 13.8 Social Admin Block BS19 11°59' 05.7" 008°29' 22.0" 4.8 Residential Home


NESREA LIMITS 10

The results of air pollutants concentration measured around the twenty BTS study sites within Kano Metropolis were compared with the Federal Ministry of Environment Nigeria (FMNENV) stipulated limit and represented in Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4.

Figure 2: Measured SPM Levels at Point Source and 5m and 10m away from point source



Figure 3: Measured NO2 Levels at Point Source and 5m and 10m away from point source

Figure 4: Measured SO2 Levels at Point Source and 5m and 10m away from point source 3.2 Socio-economic impacts of Base Station The empirical study was based on a sample survey of Kano Metropolis. 400 respondents living within the vicinity of the selected BTS were chosen at random. The sample selection represented a cross-section of different gender,

age groups, educational levels, occupation and marital status of respondents and therefore was representative for such an exploratory study. A total of 387 completed survey questionnaires were retrieved, for the eight local governments, and resulting in a response rate of 96.75%.



Table 3: Mean concentrations of air pollutants measured around the BTS

Ambient air quality concentrations measured at selected BTS

Site

Numb

er

Carbon-monoxide (CO) Suspended Particulate

Matter (SPM) Sulphur-dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen-dioxide (NO2)

Point

Source

Daily

Mean

at 5m

Daily

Mean

at 10m

Point

Source

Daily

Mean

at 5m

Daily

Mean

at 10m

Point

Source

Daily

Mean

at 5m

Daily

Mean

at 10m

Point

Source

Daily

Mean

at 5m

Daily

Mean

at 10m

BS1 11.00 4.8 2.6 268.5 88.4 53.4 0.12 0.05 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.01

BS2 12.00 5.6 3 243.2 81.7 38.58 0.09 0.05 0.02 0.07 0.02 0.00

BS3 8.00 5.2 2.2 197.5 84.7 43.88 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.08 0.03 0.00

BS4 10.00 5 3.4 253.4 85.5 45.02 0.10 0.05 0.02 0.07 0.02 0.00

BS5 8.00 5 2.6 205.8 70.6 49.4 0.15 0.05 0.02 0.06 0.03 0.00

BS6 12.00 5 2.8 216.7 82.2 50.22 0.11 0.05 0.02 0.12 0.04 0.00

BS7 11.00 5 2.8 257.2 75.8 43.84 0.13 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.01

BS8 13.00 4.4 2.8 208.4 99.2 54.02 0.09 0.05 0.02 0.21 0.07 0.00

BS9 9.00 5.6 2.6 215.7 73.8 56.58 0.11 0.04 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.00

BS10 11.00 4.4 3 178.2 63.9 39.18 0.13 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.02 0.00

BS11 10.00 4.4 2.4 210.8 91.6 62.96 0.09 0.05 0.01 0.06 0.02 0.00

BS12 12.00 4.6 2.8 201.5 87.7 45.56 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.00

BS13 11.00 4.4 3.2 234.8 89.7 46.24 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.00

BS14 9.00 4.4 2.6 181.6 79.3 45.28 0.09 0.04 0.02 0.08 0.03 0.00

BS15 14.00 4.6 3 222.5 91.7 38.92 0.07 0.05 0.02 0.16 0.07 0.00

BS16 12.00 5.0 2.8 211.2 95.7 42.0 0.14 0.05 0.02 0.13 0.06 0.00

BS17 11.00 4.4 2.8 255.2 68.8 44.98 0.09 0.04 0.02 0.09 0.04 0.00

BS18 14.00 4.8 2.4 264.7 66.7 40.34 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.08 0.03 0.00

BS19 11.00 4.8 2.6 181.2 66.3 41.4 0.12 0.05 0.02 0.07 0.02 0.00

BS20 12.00 5.4 3.2 194.2 67.6 53.38 0.11 0.05 0.01 0.09 0.02 0.00

FMEN

V

Limits

10ppm 250 µg/m3 0.1ppm 0.04-0.06ppm

The data from the survey showed that 287 (74.2%) of the respondents live in the same area with the Base Station considered. This was justified by the fact that some of the respondents were having their shops/property/houses were located within the vicinity. When asked how long the respondents have lived in the area, 215 (55.6%) which was the highest number of respondents have lived 3 years and above in the

area. 349 (90.2%) of the respondents had their houses/shops/properties built before the BTS were sited. This showed that the Telecommunication operators failed to comply with the NESREA Set-Back limit of 10m from the perimeter wall in some of the Base stations. From the 26 (6.7%) respondents who said that their property/houses/shops was built after the BTS were sited, it was discovered that the Telecom operators actually did comply with



the 10m set-back and the houses/shops were built while the Base Stations were in place suggesting the lack of compliance came from the residents. Asked if removal of the BTS from their area so as to reduce the risk associated with its operations, results showed that 351 (90.7%) of the respondents suggested the removal of the base stations so as to reduce the risk associated with their operations. Residents living close to the BTS were concerned about environmental risks and their potential health impacts. When asked of the level of awareness of the dangers/health risks posed by the gaseous emissions from the exhaust of the diesel generators used in the BTS, 353 (91.2%) respondents were aware of the health risks from the gaseous emissions. When the respondents were asked whether they have suffered any form of discomfort or ill health due to the gaseous emissions from the exhaust of the Diesel generators, 266 (68.7%) said they have suffered some form of discomfort/ill health but the nature of the ill health/discomfort was not assessed. The role of Environmental Protection Agency in curbing the pollution in these areas was assessed and 319 (82.4%) of the respondents believed that the Environmental Protection Agencies have not played any role and/or have seemed ‘Less concerned’ about the pollution due from gaseous emissions in the area. 4.1 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The mean concentrations of air pollutants measured from the exhaust of the generators were 2.2ppm–14.00ppm for CO; <0.001ppm–0.21ppm for NO2; 0.01ppm–0.15ppm for SO2 and 38.58µg/m3–268.50µg/m3 for suspended particulate matter (SPM). The concentrations of air pollutants in over 80% of the Base Transceiver Stations were above the FMENV limits. At 5m setback, over 95% of the Base Transceiver Stations were in compliance with the FMENV limit and at 10m, concentrations of the pollutants in all

the stations were below the FMENV threshold limits and particularly the concentrations of NO2 which were found to be below the instrument’s detection limit. Findings from the survey analysis revealed that over 90% of the participants felt the surroundings of the BTS were not comfortable and complained of high disturbances due to gaseous emissions. Some recommendations on how majority of the challenges could be resolved were made including alternative power source, since a substantial part of problems like Noise, vibration, diesel pollution and gaseous emission are all generator power related. In the face of the continued insufficient national power supply, the development of cost effective and environmentally friendly alternative power sources (renewable power sources) should be provided. Also regulatory authorities responsible like NESREA should strictly enforce the penalties for violating the standard for siting of these BTS and should take active measures and develop keen interest in enforcing the laws that are guiding the location of these base transceiver stations. Furthermore, auditing of GSM base transceiver stations should be carried out to ensure compliance with the regulated standards should be regularly. Further investigations into the area of Electromagnetic radiation (EMR), so as to know the extent of the effects on people living within the vicinity of the BTS. This is as a result of some conflicting findings by studies conducted to determine whether or not electromagnetic radiations (EMR) emitted by telecommunication masts are injurious to human health and the environment. REFERENCES Adeniji, M. A., Oyeleye, O. I., Rahem, W.

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