ASSESSMENT OF FOREST REGENERATION IN MAHAUSAKANDE

Mahausakande Tropical Rainforest Regeneration Initiative

Research Paper No. 4, February 2012

Suranjan Fernando

Sarath Ekanayake

Channa Bambaradeniya

ASSESSMENT OF FOREST REGENERATION IN MAHAUSAKANDE

Technical Partner

ASSESSMENT OF FOREST

REGENERATION IN MAHAUSAKANDE

Citation:

Fernando, R.H.S.S., Ekanayake, S.P., and Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. (2012). Assessment of Forest Regeneration in Mahausakande. Mahausakande Tropical Rainforest Regeneration Initiative, Research Paper No.4, 46 pp.

Author of correspondence:

Suranjan Fernando (Email: [email protected])

© 2012 Ellawala Foundation Trust

For more information about the Mahausakande Tropical Rainforest

Regeneration Initiative, please visit http://mahausakande.org

EXECUTIVESUMMARY

Enumeration of temporal changes in floristic structure and composition in a regenerating forest serves as an important knowledge base to guide systematic reforestation programs designed to address climate change, biodiversity loss, sociological and hydrological issues. This study examined the structure and composition in a regenerating forest stand located in Kiriella, with a history of rubber cultivation. Plants in the site were assessed in permanent plots measuring 10m x 10m set up randomly in 13 locations representing perceived forest variations. Woody plants were enumerated for height, DBH/GBH, and number of individuals. A reconnaissance survey was carried out in a natural forest located in close proximity to the regenerating forest, to be considered as a benchmark for comparison. A total of 73 species of short ground flora (<1m in height), 60 species of tall ground flora (> 1m in height, < 3cm gbh), and 87 species of large woody flora (>3cm gbh) were documented in the survey plots. Structural dominance of Hevea brasiliensis, Symplocos cochinchinensis and Alstonia macrophylla was clearly evident in the regenerating forest, which is currently at an early stage of succession. The occurrence of several native rainforest plant species in the plots surveyed at the site is a positive indicator of its gradual progression into a rainforest. The set of data gathered during the survey will be used for evaluating the progression of forest regeneration at the site through temporal replication of the census in permanent plots.

Key words: forest regeneration, rainforest, species, permanent plots

TableofContentsEXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................ 2

1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ................................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Site Description ............................................................................................................................. 1

1.3 Rationale ....................................................................................................................................... 1

1.4 Research Hypothesis ..................................................................................................................... 2

1.5 Objectives ...................................................................................................................................... 2

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS ................................................................................................................ 3

2.1 Field Survey Methods ................................................................................................................... 3

2.2 Identification, Taxonomy and Nomenclature of Flora .................................................................. 4

2.3 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 4

3. RESULTS ............................................................................................................................................... 5

3.1 Floristic Structure and Composition of Bambarakande Forest ..................................................... 5

3.2 Structure and Composition of Short Ground Flora in MRF ........................................................... 5

3.3 Structure and Composition of Tall Ground Flora in MRF .............................................................. 6

3.4 Structure and Composition of Large Woody Flora in MRF ........................................................... 6

4. DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................................... 8

4.1 Evaluation of Short Ground Flora in MRF ..................................................................................... 9

4.2 Evaluation of Tall Ground Flora in MRF ........................................................................................ 9

4.1 Evaluation of Large Woody Flora in MRF ...................................................................................... 9

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 11

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................................... 12

LITERATURE CITED ................................................................................................................................ 13

APPENDICES

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Assessment of Forest Regeneration in Mahausakande


1. INTRODUCTION

1.1BackgroundLarge scale deforestation over the last century led to a rapid decline of tropical forests throughout the world, which in turn affected the biodiversity, ecological services, and the livelihoods of forest dwelling as well as rural people.1 Sri Lanka has experienced a similar situation, where the island has progressively lost half of its forest cover compared to what existed in the 1950s, for human settlements, agricultural expansion, and other infrastructure related to development.2 In 2003, it was estimated that the average rate of forest cover loss in Sri Lanka over a period of five decades was about 30,000 ha per year.3 About a decade ago, the closed-canopy forest cover in Sri Lanka was estimated at 25.7% of the total land area.4 This includes the natural forests as well as plantation forests and home gardens. The near-primary forest cover in the biodiversity rich wet zone accounts for less than 5% of the total land area, occurring as small patches of heavily fragmented and isolated forests.2 The future survival of a majority of the threatened fauna and flora of Sri Lanka is dependent on the remaining patches of forests in the wet zone. Therefore, reforestation programs in degraded lands in the wet zone are a timely need, and the Mahausakande Tropical Rainforest Restoration Program stands out as a pioneering initiative in a privately owned property.

1.2SiteDescriptionThe Mahausakande regenerating rainforest (MRF) is located in Kiriella (6076’68.9”N-80025’38.4”E) of Ratnapura district. The 40-acre site was a managed rubber plantation till 2002. Subsequently, a forest restoration programme was initiated by the Ellawala Foundation Trust (EFT) to convert the site into a tropical rainforest ecosystem through assisted forest regeneration activities. At present, the main forest community is composed of rubber trees mixed with pioneers and primary forest species typical of lowland wet zone rainforest areas. Over 6000 saplings of rainforest plants have been introduced to the site over the past decade. The area receives an annual rainfall of 3200mm.5 Topographically, the site is located in a hilly area at an elevation of 190m above sea level. The Bambarakande Forest Reserve is located in the vicinity of the site at a higher altitude, and most of the peripheral lands are used for tea plantations, rubber plantations and semi wild tree dominated home gardens. The current land use types of the MRF site is shown in Figure 1.1.

1.3RationaleTropical forest restoration is widely accepted as a 'win-win' solution for environmental degradation and rural poverty.1 However, in Sri Lanka, the effectiveness of restoration actions in increasing ecosystem productivity has not been adequately evaluated. It is well accepted that forest regeneration surveys are essential for measuring forest renewal success and also for developing effective forest management strategies. The present investigation attempts to assess the current status of forest regeneration in MRF, which in turn would provide relevant information to guide future restoration work at the site.

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Figure 1.1: Map of Mahausakande regenerating forest area

1.4ResearchHypothesisIt is hypothesized that, over the past decade, the forest restoration activities at MRF has resulted in a positive change in structure and composition, as reflected by having more native plants species, increase of cover abundance of typical rain forest plants and improvement of the vegetation stratification. Although this research hypothesis is valid for a long term study, the present investigation lays the foundation for such studies and examines early signs of forest regeneration.

1.5ObjectivesThe specific objectives of this research included the following:

1. To determine the status of forest regeneration with respect to vegetation structure and taxonomic composition that would enable future time series analysis.

2. To examine the usefulness of ongoing adaptive management actions in restoring the forest and provide relevant guidance for future forest restoration actions.

3. Identify and study the possible climax forest stage relevant to MRF. 4. To establish a series of permanent plots for periodic monitoring in the future.

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2.MATERIALSANDMETHODS

2.1FieldSurveyMethodsConsidering the available time, resources and extent of forest, it was decided to enumerate woody flora in 10mx10m sampling plots (13) laid in randomly selected locations representing different vegetation types identified through a site reconnaissance (see Table 2.1). Since the regenerating forest is dominated by plants with a small diameter (<10cm dbh - diameter at breast height), 100 m2 plots are considered as adequate.6

Table 2.1: Habitat characteristics of the plots selected for assessment

PLOT CODE HABITAT CHARACTERISTICS

AR1A; AR1B; AR2A; AR2B

Abandoned rubber plantation site where natural and planted tree species are growing among unmanaged rubber plants.

RE1A; RE1B Forest adjacent to a stream – a patch with riverine forest characteristics.

RF1A; RF1B; RF2A

Regenerating forest with many small plants, dominated by Symplocos cochinchinensis (Bombu) of small diameter class; 10cm or less.

SF1A; SF1B Regenerating forest at early stage of succession, lower strata dominated by pioneer species Clerodendrum infortunatum (Pinna), and Trema orientalis (Gedumba); mainly 5cm or less in diameter.

TR2A; TR2B A patch of rubber plantation where latex is harvested on a regular basis. Some wild tree species also occur within this plantation.

These were established as permanent sampling plots for monitoring of long term changes in floristic structure and composition along with the progression of forest regeneration. In each of the 10x10m plots, the four corners were demarcated by placing painted PVC pipes of 1m height. In each plot, all trees ≥ 1 cm in dbh were tagged, identified botanically as per standard herbarium methods, and diameters were measured to the nearest millimeter. All enumerated woody plants were permanently tagged with metal tags. The default point of measurement was at 130 cm above ground following standard forestry techniques. Measurements were made at a different height in case of an irregularity of the bole; 50 cm above any buttresses or deformities. Plants above 1m but below 3cm girth at breast height (gbh) (e.g., tall ground flora) were also recorded and only the height measurements were noted. Height of the trees above 5m was measured using a laser distance finder (Nikon Forestry Pro), and smaller plants below 5m were directly measured using a graduated pole. The herbs and saplings below 1m height were sampled in 5x5m plots within 10mx10m plots and percent (%) cover values were estimated visually following standard methods.6 The Bambarakande Forest Reserve located in close proximity to MRF was identified as the benchmark for evaluation of forest regeneration at MRF, and a reconnaissance survey was carried out to document its general structure and plant composition.

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2.2Identification,TaxonomyandNomenclatureofFloraIdentification and taxonomy of plant species was based on the Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. 7-10 Nomenclature of plant species adopted in this report follows Senaratne11 (for flowering plants), and Dassanayake and Shaffer-Fehre10 (for Pteridophytes).

2.3DataAnalysisThe raw data was analyzed to prepare species check lists, determine species and individual counts, girth classes, basal areas (basal area = gbh2/12.57) and height classes. These sets of data are considered as the baseline plant data for long term monitoring of forest regeneration.

Photo 1: Plots demarcated for long term monitoring Photo 2: Trees labeled with metal tags

Photo 3: Measurement of tree stem DBH Photo 4: Measurement of tree height

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3.RESULTS

3.1FloristicStructureandCompositionofBambarakandeForestThe Bambarakande Forest Reserve located in the vicinity of MRF is a near climax forest with rare endemic rainforest plant species such as Anisophyllea cinnamomoides, Antidesma pyrifolium, Artocarpus nobilis, Aporusa lanceolata, Bhesa ceylanica, Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, Litsea longifolia, Neolitsea cassia, Semecarpus subpeltata, Stemonurus apicalis and Trichadenia zeylanica. Other typical rainforest plants observed include Cryptocarya wightiana, Cyathocalyx zeylanicus, Dalbergia pseudo-sissoo, Dimocarpus longan, Ficus laevis, Mesua ferrea, Ochlandra stridula, Pometia pinnata, Quassia indica, Alphonsea sp., and Uvaria sp. The plants were organized in five main vertical strata; canopy layer (30m-35m), sub canopy layer (20m-25m), understory layer (5m-20m), shrub layer (2m-4m) and a ground layer (below 1m) (see Table 3.1 for general species composition in each strata).

Table 3.1: General species composition of vegetation strata in Bambarakande Forest

Strata Plant Species

Emergent Dipterocarpus hispidus (Bu Hora), D. zelyanicus (Hora), and Shorea megistophylla (Honda beraliya)

Canopy Dipterocarpus hispidus (Bu hora), D. zelyanicus (Hora), Shorea megistophylla (Honda beraliya), Shorea distichta (Beraliya), Mesua nagasarium (Batu na) and Anisophyllea cinnamomoides (Welipiyanna)

Sub-canopy Cullenia rosyroana (Katamoda), Myristica dactyloides (Malaboda), Hopea jucunda (Rath beraliya), Shorea cordifolia (Kotikan beraliya) and Caryota urens (Kitul)

Understory Garcinnia hermonii (Madol) and Xylopia championii (Athuketiya)

Shrub layer Apama siliquosa (Thapasara bulath), Lijndenia capitellata (Pinibaru), Agrostistachys spp. (Beru), Gaertnera vaginans (Perathambala) and Humboldtia laurifolia (Galkaranda)

Ground layer Acrotrema spp. (Gondiva), Anoectochilus regalis (Wana raja)

3.2StructureandCompositionofShortGroundFlorainMRFThe short ground flora is represented by plants below 1m height that include seedlings, saplings, small semi-woody plants and herbaceous flora. A total of 73 plant species were recorded in 13 plots occupying this layer. Based on the cover values, this layer was dominated by Symplocos cochinchinensis, Clidemia hirta, Nephrolepis exaltata, Desmodium heterocarpon and Pothos scandens (see Appendix 1). These five species occupy nearly three

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forth (72%) of the ground cover of survey plots in MRF. The total ground cover in the 25m2 survey plots varied from 8.53 m2 to 24.89 m2, with the highest ground cover observed in a patch of rubber plantation maintained for extraction of latex.

3.3StructureandCompositionofTallGroundFlorainMRFTall ground flora includes those herbaceous or woody plants growing above 1m height but below 3cm gbh. A total of 60 species were recorded from the plots surveyed in MRF (see Appendix 2 for species and their individual numbers in each plot). Symplocos cochinchinensis, Clerodendrum infortunatum and Syzygium caryophyllatum were recorded as the most common species in this forest layer, occupying more than half of the total individual plant counts. The plant counts were highly variable among sampling plots and ranged between 10 to 118 individuals per 25 m2 plot. A total of 404 individual plants were counted in the 13 plots surveyed. The highest number of S. cochinchinensis was recorded in abandoned rubber plots.

3.4StructureandCompositionofLargeWoodyFlorainMRFA total of 1161 individuals belonging to 87 species of woody plants above 3cm gbh were recorded in the survey plots established at MRF. The list of species and their stem counts representing different girth classes are given in Appendix 3. Symplocos cochinchinensis, Clerodendrum infortunatum, Alstonia macrophylla, Syzygium caryophyllatum and Hevea brasiliensis were recorded as the most common large plants as per stem counts. These species were spread over the plots surveyed, and varied in girth, as shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Distribution of number of individuals in girth classes

Girth Class

Plot Code

Gra

nd

Tot

al

AR

2A

AR

2B

AR

1A

AR

1B

RE

1A

RE

1B

RF

1A

RF

1B

RF

2A

SF

1A

SF

1B

TR

2A

TR

2B

A=10cm & below 54

62

72

100

33

42

49

44

47

149

110

31

15

808

B=10+cm - 20cm 22

20

15

7 10

7 15

38

37

21

17

6 1 216

C=20+cm - 30cm 3 4 1 10

16

11

10

5 2 62

D=30+cm - 40cm 2 4 5 4 7 1 23

E=40+cm - 50cm 1 1 2 1 1 3 9

F=50+cm - 60cm 1 2 2 1 1 7

G=60+cm -70cm 1 1 1 2 5

H=70+cm - 80cm 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 9

I=80+cm - 90cm 2 1 1 1 5

J=90+cm - 100cm 1 1 2 1 1 1 7

K = 100+cm 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 10

Grand Total 81

90

94

110

49

62

83

102

105

185

134

41

25

1161

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The ecological dominance as represented by plant cover or basal cover in this case, shows that 57% of the basal area of the woody flora is occupied by three most dominant species namely Hevea brasiliensis, Symplocos cochinchinensis and Alsotonia scholaris. The balance is spread over the other 84 species of different girth classes (see Appendix 4 & 5). The variability of total basal cover among different plots shows that the riverine forest plots RE1A and RE1B have the highest basal cover values occupied by plants; 5055.2 cm2 and 5287.2 cm2 respectively (see Appendix 6). The pattern of height classes of woody flora (see Appendix 7 & 8) shows that Alstonia macrophylla and Hevea brasiliensis are occupying the tallest layer in MRF, while most of the natural rainforest species, e.g. Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, Shorea affinis, Shorea ovalifolia and Thottea siliquosa are still at a low height class.

Photo 5: Profile of regenerating vegetation in MRF Photo 6: Profile of vegetation in Bambarakande

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4.DISCUSSION

According to the most recent classification of natural vegetation types in Sri Lanka,12 the main natural forest type in the southwest region of Sri Lanka is the Lowland Wet Evergreen Forests (LWEF) that occur in wet lowlands up to an elevation of 900m, characterized by the Doona-Dipterocarpus-Mesua tree communities. The LWEF profile is composed of several strata of vegetation, including emergent trees (>45m), dense canopy (30m), broad sub-canopy (15-30m), sparse shrub layer consisting mostly of tree saplings, and a scanty herbaceous ground flora (see Table 4.1).

Table 4.1: The vegetation profile of LWEF (Source: NCR Survey13)

Component Constituent Species

Emergent Shorea dyeri, Shorea stipularis, Doona congestiflora and Doona affinis

Canopy Doona trapezifolia, Dipterocarpus zeylanica, Dipoterocarpus hispidus, Palaquium petiolare and Mesua pulchella

High sub-canopy Cullenia zeylanica, Cullenia rosayroana, Bhesa ceylanica, Calophyllum bracteatum, Calophyllum thwaitesii, Mastixia tetrandra, Syzygium firmum, Chaetocarpus castanocarpus, Hydnocarpus octandra, Cryptocarya wightiana, Myristica dactyloides and Anisophyllea cinnamomoides

Low sub-canopy Wormia triquetra, Garcinia hermonii, Xylopia championii, Cinnamomum dubium, Memecylon rostratum, Allophylus zeylanicus and Schumacheria castaneifolia.

High shrub / treelet Gyrinops walla, Aporusa lanceolata, Gaetnera rosea, Gaetnera vaginans, Microtropis wallichiana, Litsea longifolia, and Ochlandra stridula

Low shrub Lijndenia capitellata, Psychotria dubia, Psychotria nigra, Apama siquosa, Lasianthus oliganthus, Dracaena thwaitesii, and Dachapetalum gelonioides

Liana Connarus championii, Dalbergia pseudo-sisso, Salacia reticulata, Salacia diandra, Kadsura heteroclita and Calamus zeylanicus

Herb Acrotrema spp., Neurocalyx spp., Acranthera ceylanica, Ophiorhiza mungos and Schizostigma hirsutum.

The vegetation profile of Bambarakande forest closely resembles the profile of a LWEF. Since it is located in close proximity to Mahausakande, it can be assumed that LWEF is the historical vegetation type in Mahausakande. The data gathered during the present investigation indicates that the MRF is currently at an early stage of succession, with several positive indicators of its gradual progression into a rainforest. Many plant species that could eventually contribute towards the stratified structure of a lowland rainforest are already present in MRF. Bambarakande forest functions as an important natural seed bank for MRF.

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4.1EvaluationofShortGroundFlorainMRFThe dominance of Symplocos cochinchinensis and Clidemia hirta among short ground flora occupying over 70% of the ground area indicates that MRF is still at early stage of succession, and requires active interventions to expedite forest regeneration. Symplocos cochinchinensis is a common pioneer species in disturbed sites of rainforests, while Clidemia hirta is an invasive alien species that colonize disturbed habitats. Both these species are dispersed by birds. Nephrolepis exaltata, a dominant fern among the short ground flora, also affects the forest regeneration in a negative manner. It is a problematic weed in rubber lands and can suppress natural forest regeneration since close aggregation of this species prevents vital space for the growth of native plant species. Desmodium heterocarpon ranking at 4th in abundance is a favorable species at low abundance in account of its nitrogen fixing ability which in turn improves the fertility of soil. The occurrence of native plant species such as Syzygium caryophyllatum, Caryota urens, Dillenia retusa, Freycinetia walkeri, Tetracera sarmentosa, Cinnamomum verum, Litsea longifolia, Syzygium operculatum, Gaertnera vaginans, Dillenia triquetra, Carallia brachiata, Artocarpus nobilis, Pometia pinnata, Semecarpus gardneri, Bhesa ceylanica and Bridelia moonii even at a low abundance is a positive indicator of the progression of MRF. The presence of the invasive alien Dillenia suffruticosa even at low abundance is a matter of serious concern, as it can rapidly spread throughout MRF, and suppress the growth of native species.

4.2EvaluationofTallGroundFlorainMRFSimilar to the short ground flora, the tall ground flora at MRF are also dominated by the pioneer species Symplocos cochinchinensis and Clerodendrum infortunatum which colonize disturbed areas. This highlights the potential trend for pioneer species continuing to dominate the lower layer of vegetation in MRF over subsequent years, unless they are managed and enrichment with native plant species is carried out in a timely manner. However, the presence of many species of native flora species as seedlings or saplings, namely Anisophyllea cinnamomoide, Antidesma bunious, Antidesma pyrifolium, Artocarpus nobilis, Bridelia moonii, Calamus thwaitesii, Callophyllum inophyllum, Carallia brachiata, Cryptocarya wightiana, Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, Doona trapizifolia, Erythroxylum indicum, Gaertnera vaginans, Glochidion coriaceum, Glochidion nemorale, Gyrinops walla, Horsfieldia irya, Ixora thwitesii, Litsea longifolia, Mesua ferrea, Ochlandra sridula, Ouratea serrata, Persea macrantha, Pometia pinnata, Shorea spp., Syzygium operculatum, Syzygium zeylanicum, Thottea siliquosa and Vitex altissima even at low abundance is favorable for the recovery process. These native species would increase in abundance once the weedy and pioneer species are suppressed naturally or through external interventions.

4.1EvaluationofLargeWoodyFlorainMRFAmong the large woody flora in MRF, the dominance of Hevea brasiliansis, Symplocos cochinchinensis and Alstonia scholaris which occupy over 55% of the basal area cover of the forest stand is an unfavorable trend with regards to forest regeneration at present. It calls for a gradual reduction of these three species to facilitate the growth of native rainforest woody

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plant species such as Artocarpus nobilis, Carallia brachiata, Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, Calamus thwaitesii, Cinnamomum verum, Horsfieldia irya, Pericopsis mooniana, Myristica dactyloides, Litsea longifolia, Garcinia quaesita, Thottea siliquosa, Dillenia retusa, Shorea ovalifolia, Persea macrantha, Cryptocarya membranacea, Bridelia moonii, Glochidion coriaceum, Dillenia triquetra, Antidesma alexiteria, Cryptocarya wightiana, Shorea affinis, Erythroxylum indicum and Tetracera sarmentosa. The most widely represented girth class is shown by Hevea brasiliansis as a result of former rubber plantation and natural regeneration of rubber over the years. The dominance of stem counts by Symplocos cochinchinensis, and Clerodendrum infortunatum also highlights the need to control them in order to facilitate the growth of native rainforest species. Overall, the girth class distribution of riverine forest plots (RE1A and RE1B) is well spread and exemplifies a near natural condition. The future forest regeneration work at MRF should try to achieve such a combination of girth classes.

The pattern of height classes of woody flora in MRF shows that most of the natural rainforest species (e.g. Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, Shorea affinis, Shorea ovalifolia and Thottea siliquosa) are still at a lower height, which further indicates the early stages of succession. The large number of Symplocos cochinchinensis and Clerodendrum infortunatum trees found at 3m-6m height class (592 individuals) has largely contributed to making this height category the most common at MRF. The dominance of these two pioneer species can be suppressed through their controlled removal and promotion of tall canopy species (e.g., mainly Dipterocarpaceae). However, at the present stage of forest regeneration at MRF, it is necessary to maintain at least 60% canopy cover for successful establishment of native rainforest species.

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5.CONCLUSIONSANDRECOMMENDATIONS

The findings of the present investigation on forest regeneration in MRF are significant in relation to two aspects; (a) it enabled to document the current status of the forest ecosystem in terms of its structure and composition, and established a baseline for future monitoring, and (b) it highlights the strategies and further interventions necessary to expedite forest regeneration at Mahausakande in the future. The results clearly highlight that MRF is at an early stage of succession, with several positive indications of its gradual progression into a tropical Lowland Wet Evergreen Forest. Based on the results of this investigation, the following recommendations are proposed to facilitate forest restoration activities at MRF:

A comprehensive strategy should be prepared to guide the future restoration work at MRF, with a monitoring plan as well. The broad rainforest restoration framework proposed by Ashton et al14 through their long-term restoration studies should be used as a guide to facilitate the future forest restoration activities at MRF, with emphasis on the following aspects:

o Prevention of disturbances to rainforest succession.

o Site specific enrichment of plants.

o Introduction of successionally compatible mixed-species plantations.

The pioneer species and other weedy species that are currently dominating the vegetation layers in MRF should be systematically controlled, in order to facilitate the growth of native rainforest plant species. The removal of these species should be carried out in a gradual manner during the drier months, to avoid soil erosion. They should be replaced with native rainforest canopy species such as the Dipterocarps, which are good competitors that can resist the pioneer species. The problematic plant species in different layers recommended for gradual removal are highlighted below:

o Short ground flora: Symplocos cochinchinensis, Clidemia hirta, Nephrolepis exaltata, Swietenia macrophylla, Dillenia suffruticosa, Alstonia macrophylla, Stachytarpheta indica, Hevea brasiliensis, Mikania cordata. Clerodendrum infortunatum. Hibiscus furcatus, Lantana camara, Macaranga peltata and Melastoma malabathricum.

o Tall ground flora, Symplococs cochinchinensis, Clerodendrum infortunatum, Hevea brasiliensis, Alstonia macrophylla, Dillenia suffruticosa and Coffea arabica.

o Large woody flora: Symplocos cochinchinensis, Clerodendrum infortunatum, Alstonia macrophylla, Hevea brasiliensis, and Dillenia suffruticosa

The possibility to establish a forest corridor to link MRF with Bambarakande forest should be actively explored.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe authors are grateful to Mrs. Nalini Ellawala (Founder Trustee of Ellawala Foundation Trust, and initiator of the Mahauskande tropical forest restoration programme) for her efforts in planning, organizing, and coordinating the field work. We also thank Mr. Gamage, Mr. Sarath, and Mrs. Punchinona for assistance given in the field. The support provided by staff members of HSBC who participated in field data gathering is much appreciated. This research was funded through a grant from the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) of Sri Lanka.

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LITERATURECITED1. Lamb, D., Erskine, P.D., and Parrotta, J.A. (2005). Restoration of degraded forest

lands. Science, 310:1628-1632.

2. IUCN and MENR (2007). The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka Colombo Sri Lanka. xiii+148 pp.

3. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources – MOENR 2003. Caring for the Environment 2003-2007 – Path to Sustainable Development. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Colombo. 152pp.

4. Ratnayake, J., Abeykoon, M. and Chemin, Y. 2002. District-wise forest area variation in Sri Lanka from 1992 to 2001 for supporting the National Physical Planning Policy; Proceedings of the Asian Conference on Remote Sensing, Kathmandu, Nepal.

5. Punyawardena, B.V.R., 2008, Rain fall and agro-climatic zones of Sri Lanka (in Sinhala), Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka.

6. Sutherland. W.J. 1996. Ecological Census Techniques, Cambridge University Press, New York.

7. Dassanayake, M.D. and Fosberg, F.R. 1980–1991. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. (Vols. 1–7) Amerind Publishing Co., New Delhi.

8. Dassanayake, M.D., Fosberg, F.R. and Clayton, W.D., 1994-1995. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. (Vols. 8-9) Amerind Publishing Co., New Delhi.

9. Dassanayake, M.D. and Clayton, W.D., 1996-2000. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. (Vols. 10-14) Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., Calcutta.

10. Dassanayake, M.D. and Shaffer-Fehre, M., 2006. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. (Vols. 15A-B) Science Publishers, Inc.

11. Senaratna, L.K. 2001. A checklist of the flowering plants of Sri Lanka. National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka. 451pp.

12. Jayasuriya, A. H. M., D. Kitchener and C. M. Biradar (2006). Portfolio of Strategic Conservation Sites / Protected Area Gap Analysis in Sri Lanka: Deliverable 3. Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources, Battaramulla 76 pp

13. IUCN & WCMC (1997). Designing an optimum protected areas system for Sri Lanka’s natural forests, Vol. 1 & 2. Forest Department, Ministry of Forestry and Environment, Battaramulla, x + 299 pp.

14. Ashton, M.S., Gunetilleke, C.V.S., Sinhakumara, B.M.P., Gunetilleke, I.A.U.N., 2001, Restoration pathways for rain forest in south west Sri Lanka: a review of concepts and models. Forest Ecology and Management, 154: 409-430.

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APPENDIX 1:

COVER ABUNDANCE OF SHORT GROUND FLORA

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Plant Species AR2A AR2B AR1A AR1B RE1A RE1B RF1A RF1B RF2A SF1A SF1B TR2A TR2B Grand Total Alloteropsis cimicina 1.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.88 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.13

Alstonia macrophylla 0.00 0.75 0.25 0.50 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 2.08

Anamirta cocculus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03

Anisophyllea cinnamomoides 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.00

Aristolochia indica 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.75 0.00 3.88

Artocarpus heterophyllus 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38

Artocarpus nobilis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20

Axonopos affinis 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.40

Bhesa ceylanica 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05

Bridelia moonii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03

Carallia brachiata 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.33

Carex leucantha ? 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.03 0.00 1.25 0.00 0.00 1.84

Caryota urens 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.88 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.00 1.71

Celtis sp. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03

Centotheca lappacea 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38

Cinnamomum verum 0.00 0.75 0.00 0.05 0.13 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.25 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.25

Cirtococcum oxyphyllum 0.00 0.00 1.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.50 0.38 0.20 2.35

Cissus gardneri 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25

Clerodendrum infortunatum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.63

Clidemia hirta 6.25 1.25 1.25 2.50 2.13 0.00 0.13 1.60 1.25 2.50 10.00 1.25 4.00 34.10

Curculigo 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20

Curculigo sp. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03

Curculigosp. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03

Dalbergia pseudo-sissoo 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01

Desmodium heterocarpon 2.50 0.00 0.25 0.03 0.63 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 3.75 7.50 0.02 14.69

Dichranopteris linearis 1.25 5.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.25

February2012 Page16

Research Paper No.4



Plant Species AR2A AR2B AR1A AR1B RE1A RE1B RF1A RF1B RF2A SF1A SF1B TR2A TR2B Grand Total Dillenia retusa 0.00 2.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.50

Dillenia suffruticosa 0.75 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.00 3.75

Dillenia triquetra 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50

Dioscorea spicata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13

Drynaria quarcifolia 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50

Exallage auricularia 1.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.20 1.58

Fern sp 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.25 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.50 0.00 3.78

Fern sp. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03

Ficus laevis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23

Ficus sp. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08

Freycinetia walkeri 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.25

Gaertnera vaginans 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.25 0.00 0.20 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.73

Garcinia quaesita 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50

Hedyotis fruticosa 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03

Hemidesmus indicus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.15

Hevea brasiliensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.70

Hibiscus furcatus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.25 0.00 0.28

Hiptage benghalensis 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13

Ixora coccinea 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13

Lantana camara 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02

Litsea longifolia 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.83

Lygodium sp. 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03

Macaranga peltata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02

Melastoma malabathricum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03

Mikania cordata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.02 0.40

Nephrolepis exaltata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 18.00 18.25

February2012 Page17

Research Paper No.4



Plant Species AR2A AR2B AR1A AR1B RE1A RE1B RF1A RF1B RF2A SF1A SF1B TR2A TR2B Grand Total Nephrolepis sp. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.75 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.75

Ochlandra sridula 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.00

Persea macrantha 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05

Phyllanthus indicus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08

Piper sylvestre 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.75 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.20 3.98

Pometia pinnata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 3.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.63

Pothos scandens 0.75 1.25 2.50 0.13 0.50 0.00 1.25 1.00 2.50 2.50 0.25 2.50 0.40 15.53

Pteris sp. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03

Pueraria phaseoloides 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.25 0.00 2.13

Pyrrosia sp. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03

Rubiaceae sp. 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25

Sauropus androgynus 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50

Schizea digitata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02

Semecarpus gardneri 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13

Smilax perfoliata 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.75 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.78

Smilax zeylanica 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30

Stachytarpheta indica 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.50 0.63 0.00 1.15

Swietenia macrophylla 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.50

Symplocos cochinchinensis 2.00 2.50 10.00 15.00 0.13 0.00 15.00 12.00 5.00 2.50 0.25 3.75 1.00 69.13

Syzygium caryophyllatum 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 4.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 4.38

Syzygium operculatum 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.75

Tetracera sarmentosa 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.15

Zingiber sp 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10

Grand Total 18.75 14.50 16.65 18.85 22.86 14.75 18.65 21.30 10.98 8.53 16.83 24.89 24.46 231.99

February2012 Page18

Research Paper No.4



February2012 Page19

Research Paper No.4



APPENDIX 2:

COUNTS OF TALL GROUND FLORA SPECIES

February2012 Page20

Research Paper No.4



Species AR2A AR2B AR1A AR1B RE1A RE1B RF1A RF1B RF2A SF1A SF1B TR2A TR2B Total

Symplococs cochinchinensis 19 8 22 89 1 1 1 3 3 4 4 155

Clerodendrum infortunatum 10 1 4 2 11 9 1 38

Syzygium caryophyllatum 4 3 7 12 1 1 2 3 33

Hevea brasiliensis 1 2 2 4 1 5 15

Caryota urens 9 4 1 14

Alstonia macrophylla 2 1 4 2 2 2 13

Litsea longifolia 1 1 1 1 2 1 4 11

Carallia brachiata 1 2 5 1 9

Dillenia suffruticosa 1 1 4 1 1 1 9

Ficus hispida 5 3 8

Melastoma malabathricum 2 1 4 1 8

Cinnamomum verum 1 1 2 1 1 6

Hedyotis fruticosa 5 5

Turpinia malabarica 1 4 5

Mussaenda frondosa 3 1 4

Syzygium operculatum 1 1 1 1 4

Antidesma pyrifolium 2 1 3

Artocarpus nobilis 1 1 1 3

Breynia vitis-idaea 1 2 3

Coffea arabica 1 1 1 3

Gyrinops walla 1 1 1 3

Schefflera emarginata 1 2 3

Acronychia pedunculata 2 2

Artocarpus heterophyllus 1 1 2

Bridelia moonii 1 1 2

Glochidion coriaceum 1 1 2

Ixora thwitesii 2 2

Macaranga peltata 1 1 2

Persea macrantha 1 1 2

Sauropus androgynus 1 1 2

Stereospermum coalis 1 1 2

Thottea siliquosa 2 2

Vitex altissima 1 1 2

Alsotonia scholaris 1 1

Anisophyllea cinnamomoides 1 1

Antidesma bunious 1 1

Berrya cordifolia 1 1

Calamus thwaitesii 1 1

Callophyllum inophyllum 1 1

Cryptocarya wightiana 1 1

Dipterocarpus zeylanicus 1 1

February2012 Page21

Research Paper No.4



Species AR2A AR2B AR1A AR1B RE1A RE1B RF1A RF1B RF2A SF1A SF1B TR2A TR2B Total

Doona trapizifolia 1 1

Erythroxylum indicum 1 1

Ficus tinctoria 1 1

Gaertnera vaginans 1 1

Gliricidia sepium 1 1

Glochidion nemorale 1 1

Horsfieldia irya 1 1

Mesua ferrea 1 1

Ochlandra sridula 1 1

Osbeckia octandra 1 1

Ouratea serrata 1 1

Pagiantha dichotoma 1 1

Pometia pinnata 1 1

Schumacheria castaneifolia 1 1

Shorea sp.1 1 1

Shorea sp.2 1 1

Swietenia macrophylla 1 1

Syzygium zeylanicum 1 1

Zyzyphus oenoplea 1 1

Grand Total 46 25 31 118 23 18 12 19 10 33 24 26 19 404

February2012 Page22

Research Paper No.4



APPENDIX 3:

LIST OF PLANTS AND THEIR STEM COUNTS REPRESENTED IN DIFFERENT GIRTH CLASSES

February2012 Page23

Research Paper No.4



Species

Girth Class

A=10

cm&b

elow

B=10

cm p

lus

-20c

m

C=2

0cm

plu

s -3

0cm

D=3

0cm

plu

s -4

0cm

E=40

cm p

lus

- 50c

m

F=50

cm p

lus

- 60c

m

G=6

0cm

plu

s -7

0cm

H=7

0cm

plu

s - 8

0cm

I=80

cm p

lus

- 90c

m

J=90

cm p

lus

- 100

cm

K =

100c

m p

lus

Gran

d To

tal

Symplocos cochinchinensis 157 66 23 8 1 255

Clerodendrum infortunatum 206 15 1 222

Alstonia macrophylla 46 12 4 1 2 1 66

Syzygium caryophyllatum 50 9 59

Hevea brasiliensis 16 3 2 1 3 3 4 4 4 5 45

Dillenia suffruticosa 41 2 1 44

Syzygium operculatum 23 9 2 1 1 36

Alsotonia scholaris 7 16 10 2 35

Carallia brachiata 17 9 3 3 1 33

Dipterocarpus zeylanicus 13 16 29

Cinnamomum verum 19 1 20

Gyrinops walla 10 7 2 1 20

Acronychia pedunculata 8 7 1 2 18

Melastoma malabathricum 18 18

Antidesma bunious 5 9 1 15

Schefflera emarginata 13 13

Anodendron paniculatum 11 1 12

Caryota urens 8 1 1 1 1 12

Calamus thwaitesii 4 7 11

Turpinia malabarica 9 1 1 11

Elaeocarpus serratus 1 1 1 5 1 1 10

Ficus hispida 8 8


Artocarpus nobilis 5 1 1 7

Pometia pinnata 5 1 1 7

Albizia falcataria 2 2 1 1 6

Artocarpus heterophyllus 3 1 1 1 6

Ochlandra sridula 6 6

Pagiantha dichotoma 3 3 6

Trema orientalis 2 3 1 6


Canthium coromandelicum 5 5

Gaertnera vaginans 4 1 5

Pericopsis mooniana 4 1 5

Bhesa ceylanica 2 1 1 4

Breynia vitis-idaea 3 1 4

February2012 Page24

Research Paper No.4



Species

Girth Class

A=10

cm&b

elow

B=10

cm p

lus

-20c

m

C=2

0cm

plu

s -3

0cm

D=3

0cm

plu

s -4

0cm

E=40

cm p

lus

- 50c

m

F=50

cm p

lus

- 60c

m

G=6

0cm

plu

s -7

0cm

H=7

0cm

plu

s - 8

0cm

I=80

cm p

lus

- 90c

m

J=90

cm p

lus

- 100

cm

K =

100c

m p

lus

Gran

d To

tal

Dillenia retusa 4 4

Litsea longifolia 4 4

Macaranga peltata 2 2 4


Coffea arabica 3 3

Garcinia quaesita 3 3

Glochidion coriaceum 3 3

Horsfieldia irya 2 1 3

Stereospermum coalis 3 3

Vitex altissima 3 3

Albizia odoratissima 1 1 2

Anodendron manubriatum 2 2

Bombax ceiba 1 1 2

Bridelia moonii 2 2

Dillenia triquetra 2 2


Lantana camara 2 2

Leea indica 2 2

Mallotus tetracoccus 1 1 2

Myristica dactyloides 1 1 2

Neolitsea lancifolia 2 2

Nothopegia beddomei 1 1 2

Smilax zeylanica 2 2

Unknown sp.1 2 2

Anamirta cocculus 1 1

Antidesma alexiteria 1 1

Artocarpus gomezianus 1 1

Barleria restita 1 1

Breynia retusa 1 1

Cleistanthus sp. 1 1

Cryptocarya membranacea 1 1


Dalbergia pseudo-sissoo 1 1

Dioscorea sp. 1 1

Enicosanthum acuminata 1 1


Ficus laevis 1 1

February2012 Page25

Research Paper No.4



Species

Girth Class

A=10

cm&b

elow

B=10

cm p

lus

-20c

m

C=2

0cm

plu

s -3

0cm

D=3

0cm

plu

s -4

0cm

E=40

cm p

lus

- 50c

m

F=50

cm p

lus

- 60c

m

G=6

0cm

plu

s -7

0cm

H=7

0cm

plu

s - 8

0cm

I=80

cm p

lus

- 90c

m

J=90

cm p

lus

- 100

cm

K =

100c

m p

lus

Gran

d To

tal

Ficus sp. 1 1


Mussaenda frondosa 1 1

Ochna jabotapeta 1 1

Passiflora edulis 1 1

Persea macrantha 1 1

Quassia indica 1 1

Sandoricum indicum 1 1

Shorea affinis 1 1

Shorea ovalifolia 1 1

Shorea sp.1 1 1

Shorea sp.2 1 1

Tetracera sarmentosa 1 1

Urandra sp. 1 1

Grand Total 808 216 62 23 9 7 5 9 5 7 10 1161

February2012 Page26

Research Paper No.4



APPENDIX 4:

SUM OF BASAL AREA OCCUPIED BY DIFFERENT SPECIES

February2012 Page27

Research Paper No.4



Species AR 2A AR 2B AR1A AR1B RE 1A RE 1B RF1A RF1B RF2A SF1A SF1B TR2A TR2B Grand Total

Hevea brasiliensis 1134.61 1884.90 3823.99 2990.43 1265.06 319.35 8.95 5.75 1769.64 1910.93 15113.60 Symplococs cochinchinensis 81.30 181.93 101.73 123.24 147.10 890.34 951.75 1247.07 17.26 13.32 1.61 3.39 3760.04

Alsotonia scholaris 1889.12 896.66 190.07 302.54 20.88 136.48 75.33 11.46 3522.54

Caryota urens 579.63 588.39 84.37 863.77 2116.16

Alstonia macrophylla 73.56 170.17 17.94 733.17 3.51 549.92 219.76 2.86 44.81 71.51 7.04 0.97 1895.22

Artocarpus nobilis 21.14 1.61 1252.29 1.27 1276.31

Albizia falcataria 695.49 38.76 530.59 1264.84

Clerodendrum infortunatum 5.63 2.86 12.47 0.72 32.67 794.03 397.83 1246.21

Elaeocarpus serratus 36.77 1037.79 1074.56

Artocarpus heterophyllus 42.08 7.18 877.19 0.97 927.43

Trema orientalis 471.40 417.74 889.14

Carallia brachiata 8.77 253.95 236.77 11.46 4.84 129.28 5.75 140.67 3.59 24.98 1.61 821.66

Pometia pinnata 727.03 21.66 748.69

Syzygium operculatum 5.09 34.03 6.54 33.15 126.53 219.46 27.23 106.41 14.02 572.48

Turpinia malabarica 499.12 3.36 502.49

Acronychia pedunculata 86.05 20.37 185.15 111.48 403.04

Syzygium caryophyllatum 42.78 23.25 25.38 32.33 12.05 63.19 48.04 26.30 16.77 290.08

Dipterocarpus zeylanicus 274.81 5.09 279.91

Gyrinops walla 56.24 1.61 83.73 104.94 246.52

Mallotus tetracoccus 211.00 28.72 239.72

Antidesma bunious 17.42 17.90 99.32 61.90 196.55

Pagiantha dichotoma 191.60 191.60

Bhesa ceylanica 45.23 126.75 171.98

Dillenia suffruticosa 8.29 89.89 27.14 17.83 20.94 4.97 169.07

Calamus thwaitesii 31.03 67.72 45.84 144.59

Quassia indica 97.45 97.45

February2012 Page28

Research Paper No.4




Enicosanthum acuminata 66.91 66.91

Anodendron paniculatum 7.18 21.66 15.61 18.12 1.61 64.18

Nothopegia beddomei 53.78 1.61 55.39

Cinnamomum verum 6.09 1.27 2.25 1.27 19.19 10.09 10.38 3.16 53.70

Bombax ceiba 1.27 51.73 53.00

Horsfieldia irya 1.95 42.08 44.03

Melastoma malabathricum 0.76 11.03 7.95 14.46 1.27 5.75 41.23

Neolitsea lancifolia 33.49 33.49

Macaranga peltata 0.97 13.86 13.44 1.27 29.55

Pericopsis mooniana 29.49 29.49

Schefflera emarginata 23.78 0.76 4.87 29.42

Antidesma pyrifolium 2.41 13.86 5.09 3.36 24.72

Albizia odoratissima 17.90 6.44 24.34

Ficus hispida 22.71 22.71

Myristica dactyloides 19.51 19.51

Breynia vitis-idaea 1.40 13.86 3.68 18.94

Gaertnera vaginans 2.25 1.69 12.43 16.37

Leea indica 13.70 13.70

Hedyotis fruticosa 13.61 13.61

Litsea longifolia 7.18 3.26 1.61 12.05

Ochlandra sridula 2.41 9.39 11.79

Garcinia quaesita 1.61 9.31 10.92

Canthium coromandelicum 2.86 7.90 10.76

Thottea siliquosa 6.40 4.36 10.76

Cleistanthus sp. 9.63 9.63

Artocarpus gomezianus 7.96 7.96

February2012 Page29

Research Paper No.4




Dillenia retusa 7.88 7.88

Anodendron manubriatum 2.41 5.09 7.50

Sandoricum indicum 7.18 7.18

Zyzyphus oenoplea 0.81 6.29 7.11

Dalbergia pseudo-sissoo 6.44 6.44

Shorea ovalifolia 6.44 6.44

Stereospermum coalis 5.27 0.97 6.25

Vitex altissima 4.93 1.09 6.02

Persea macrantha 5.75 5.75

Shorea sp.2 5.75 5.75

Cryptocarya membranacea 5.61 5.61

Bridelia moonii 1.83 3.26 5.09

Shorea sp.1 5.09 5.09

Coffea arabica 3.60 0.97 4.57

Breynia retusa 4.47 4.47

Gliricidia sepium 4.47 4.47

Glochidion coriaceum 2.87 1.15 4.02

Dillenia triquetra 4.01 4.01

Passiflora edulis 3.90 3.90

Unknown sp.1 3.75 3.75

Antidesma alexiteria 3.36 3.36

Urandra sp. 3.36 3.36

Cryptocarya wightiana 2.86 2.86

Lantana camara 2.55 2.55

Shorea affinis 2.41 2.41

Barleria restita 1.99 1.99

February2012 Page30

Research Paper No.4




Ochna jabotapeta 1.99 1.99

Smilax zeylanica 0.97 0.72 1.69

Erythroxylum indicum 1.68 1.68

Anamirta cocculus 1.61 1.61

Ficus laevis 1.27 1.27

Ficus sp. 1.27 1.27

Mussaenda frondosa 1.27 1.27

Dioscorea sp. 0.97 0.97

Tetracera sarmentosa 0.97 0.97

Grand Total 1736.32 2717.38 4598.34 3322.72 5055.25 5287.26 2756.24 2041.57 2862.28 2159.01 1629.39 1946.29 2918.57 39030.63

February2012 Page31

Research Paper No.4



APPENDIX 5:

SUM OF BASAL AREA REPRESENTED BY DIFFERENT GIRTH CLASSES OF TREES

February2012 Page32

Research Paper No.4



Species

Girth Class

A=10

cm&b

elow

B=10

cm p

lus -

20cm

C=20

cm p

lus -

30cm

D=30

cm p

lus -

40cm

E=40

cm p

lus -

50cm

F=50

cm p

lus -

60cm

G=60

cm p

lus -

70cm

H=70

cm p

lus -

80cm

I=80

cm p

lus -

90cm

J=90

cm p

lus -

100c

m

K =

100c

m p

lus

Gran

d To

tal

Hevea brasiliensis 48.8

2

40.0

6

219.

25

183.

29

742.

80

967.

08

1810

.89

2361

.77

2804

.63

5935

.00

1511

3.60

Symplocos cochinchinensis 503.

45

1158

.21

1161

.60

789.

68

147.

10

3760

.04

Alsotonia scholaris 22.1

4

261.

40

524.

61

2714

.40

3522

.54

Caryota urens

140.

33

33.4

3

490.

23

588.

39

863.

77

2116

.16

Alstonia macrophylla 93.7

5

198.

56

209.

14

157.

54

503.

05

733.

17

1895

.22

Artocarpus nobilis 12.1

3

21.1

4

1243

.04

1276

.31

Albizia falcataria 10.8

6

86.8

1

471.

68

695.

49

1264

.84

Clerodendrum infortunatum 673.

64

156.

72

415.

85

1246

.21

Elaeocarpus serratus 113.

67

17.1

9

36.7

7

479.

14

187.

13

240.

65

1074

.56

Artocarpus heterophyllus 11.5

2

42.0

8

389.

82

484.

01

927.

43

Trema orientalis

101.

99

471.

40

315.

75

889.

14

Carallia brachiata 43.8

4

153.

04

134.

53

291.

36

198.

89

821.

66

Pometia pinnata 9.05

21.6

6

717.

98

748.

69

Syzygium operculatum 80.8

4

134.

32

86.1

0

124.

12

147.

10

572.

48

Turpinia malabarica 28.4

8

14.5

0

459.

51

502.

49

Acronychia pedunculata 21.8

5

138.

98

59.2

9

182.

92

403.

04

Syzygium caryophyllatum 196.

74

93.3

4

290.

08

Dipterocarpus zeylanicus 51.1

9

228.

71

279.

91

Gyrinops walla 38.1

2

101.

81

105.

33

1.27

246.

52

February2012 Page33

Research Paper No.4



Species

Girth Class

A=10

cm&b

elow

B=10

cm p

lus -

20cm

C=20

cm p

lus -

30cm

D=30

cm p

lus -

40cm

E=40

cm p

lus -

50cm

F=50

cm p

lus -

60cm

G=60

cm p

lus -

70cm

H=70

cm p

lus -

80cm

I=80c

m p

lus -

90cm

J=90

cm p

lus -

100c

m

K = 1

00cm

plu

s

Gran

d To

tal

Mallotus tetracoccus

28.7

2

211.

00

239.

72

Antidesma bunious 21.7

7

139.

02

35.7

5

196.

55

Pagiantha dichotoma

64.3

6

127.

23

191.

60

Bhesa ceylanica 11.7

7

39.2

1

121.

00

171.

98

Dillenia suffruticosa 105.

50

24.3

6

39.2

1

169.

07

Calamus thwaitesii 22.6

1

121.

98

144.

59

Quassia indica

97.4

5

97.4

5

Enicosanthum acuminata

66.9

1

66.9

1

Anodendron paniculatum 42.5

2

21.6

6

64.1

8

Nothopegia beddomei 1.61

53.7

8

55.3

9

Cinnamomum verum 44.9

3

8.77

53.7

0

Bombax ceiba 1.27

51.7

3

53.0

0

Horsfieldia irya 1.95

42.0

8

44.0

3

Melastoma malabathricum 41.2

3

41.2

3 Neolitsea lancifolia

33.4

9

33.4

9

Macaranga peltata 2.25

27.3

1

29.5

5

Pericopsis mooniana 16.0

5

13.4

4

29.4

9

Schefflera emarginata 29.4

2

29.4

2

Antidesma pyrifolium 13.2

7

11.4

6

24.7

2

Albizia odoratissima 6.44

17.9

0

24.3

4

Ficus hispida 22.7

1

22.7

1

Myristica dactyloides 1.61

17.9

0

19.5

1

Breynia vitis-idaea 5.08

13.8

6

18.9

4

Gaertnera vaginans 3.94

12.4

3

16.3

7

February2012 Page34

Research Paper No.4



Species

Girth Class

A=10

cm&b

elow

B=10

cm p

lus -

20cm

C=20

cm p

lus -

30cm

D=30

cm p

lus -

40cm

E=40

cm p

lus -

50cm

F=50

cm p

lus -

60cm

G=60

cm p

lus -

70cm

H=70

cm p

lus -

80cm

I=80c

m p

lus -

90cm

J=90

cm p

lus -

100c

m

K = 1

00cm

plu

s

Gran

d To

tal

Leea indica 13.7

0

13.7

0

Hedyotis fruticosa 13.6

1

13.6

1

Litsea longifolia 12.0

5

12.0

5

Ochlandra sridula 11.7

9

11.7

9

Garcinia quaesita 10.9

2

10.9

2

Canthium coromandelicum 10.7

6

10.7

6

Thottea siliquosa 10.7

6

10.7

6

Cleistanthus sp.

9.63

9.63

Artocarpus gomezianus 7.96

7.96

Dillenia retusa 7.88

7.88

Anodendron manubriatum 7.50

7.50

Sandoricum indicum 7.18

7.18

Zyzyphus oenoplea 7.11

7.11

Dalbergia pseudo-sissoo 6.44

6.44

Shorea ovalifolia 6.44

6.44

Stereospermum coalis 6.25

6.25

Vitex altissima 6.02

6.02

Persea macrantha 5.

75

5.75

Shorea sp.2 5.75

5.75

Cryptocarya membranacea 5.61

5.61

Bridelia moonii 5.09

5.09

Shorea sp.1 5.09

5.09

Coffea arabica 4.57

4.57

Breynia retusa 4.47

4.47

Gliricidia sepium 4.47

4.47

Glochidion coriaceum 4.02

4.02

Dillenia triquetra 4.01

4.01

Passiflora edulis 3.90

3.90

February2012 Page35

Research Paper No.4



Species

Girth Class

A=10

cm&b

elow

B=10

cm p

lus -

20cm

C=20

cm p

lus -

30cm

D=30

cm p

lus -

40cm

E=40

cm p

lus -

50cm

F=50

cm p

lus -

60cm

G=60

cm p

lus -

70cm

H=70

cm p

lus -

80cm

I=80c

m p

lus -

90cm

J=90

cm p

lus -

100c

m

K = 1

00cm

plu

s

Gran

d To

tal

Unknown sp.1 3.75

3.75

Antidesma alexiteria 3.36

3.36

Urandra sp. 3.36

3.36

Cryptocarya wightiana 2.86

2.86

Lantana camara 2.55

2.55

Shorea affinis 2.41

2.41

Barleria restita 1.99

1.99

Ochna jabotapeta 1.99

1.99

Smilax zeylanica 1.69

1.69

Erythroxylum indicum 1.68

1.68

Anamirta cocculus 1.61

1.61

Ficus laevis 1.27

1.27

Ficus sp. 1.27

1.27

Mussaenda frondosa 1.27

1.27

Dioscorea sp. 0.97

0.97

Tetracera sarmentosa 0.97

0.97

Grand Total

2588

.15

3446

.25

3037

.60

2304

.94

1492

.44

1697

.50

1672

.65

4132

.17

2950

.16

4951

.27

1075

7.49

3903

0.63

February2012 Page36

Research Paper No.4



APPENDIX 6:

SUM OF BASAL AREAS OF TREES IN DIFFERENT PLOTS

February2012 Page37

Research Paper No.4



Girth Class AR 2A AR 2B AR1A AR1B RE 1A RE 1B RF1A RF1B RF2A SF1A SF1B TR2A TR2B Grand Total A=10cm&below 154.97 178.36 173.34 243.61 88.42 93.36 186.19 130.10 350.84 461.17 397.00 94.18 36.62 2588.15 B=10cm plus -20cm 292.55 280.99 287.87 91.09 161.08 86.85 234.48 697.25 641.82 337.88 224.70 86.70 22.99 3446.25 C=20cm plus -30cm 165.10 181.48 55.87 481.84 803.75 570.37 471.44 220.26 87.49 3037.60 D=30cm plus -40cm 164.08 469.87 508.10 410.46 660.47 91.96 2304.94 E=40cm plus - 50cm 198.89 157.54 330.39 147.10 187.13 471.40 1492.44 F=50cm plus - 60cm 206.92 503.05 451.65 249.48 286.40 1697.50 G=60cm plus -70cm 389.82 315.75 341.31 625.77 1672.65 H=70cm plus - 80cm 435.64 949.74 484.01 415.85 471.68 471.68 903.57 4132.17 I=80cm plus - 90cm 1179.32 634.41 548.05 588.39 2950.16 J=90cm plus - 100cm 688.07 725.56 1421.24 717.98 695.49 702.94 4951.27 K = 100cm plus 945.19 2636.20 2353.62 1886.71 2070.72 1.27 863.77 10757.49 Grand Total 1736.32 2717.38 4598.34 3322.72 5055.25 5287.26 2756.24 2041.57 2862.28 2159.01 1629.39 1946.29 2918.57 39030.63

February2012 Page38

Research Paper No.4



APPENDIX 7:

NUMBER OF WOODY INDIVIDUALS REPRESENTED IN DIFFERENT HEIGHT CLASSES

February2012 Page39

Research Paper No.4



Height Class AR2A AR2B AR1A AR1B RE1A RE1B RF1A RF1B RF2A SF1A SF1B TR2A TR2B Grand Total A=3m&below 36 25 45 71 20 30 21 12 17 42 20 16 9 364 B=3m plus ‐6m 38 48 35 34 18 18 40 52 51 123 106 20 9 592 C=6m plus ‐9m 4 11 4 1 1 5 30 29 13 3 1 1 103 D=9m plus ‐12m 1 5 10 1 6 2 25 E=12m plus ‐15m 1 4 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 18 F=15m plus‐18m 1 3 2 1 3 3 1 4 5 23 G=18m plus 1 1 2 Grand Total 80 89 90 107 45 59 79 96 104 181 131 41 25 1127

February2012 Page40

Research Paper No.4



APPENDIX 8:

LARGE WOODY SPECIES AND THEIR REPRESENTATION IN HEIGHT CLASSES

February2012 Page41

Research Paper No.4



Species

Height class

Grand

Total

A=3m

&be

low

B=3m

plus ‐6m

C=6m

plus ‐9m

D=9m plus ‐12

m

E=12

m plus ‐15m

F=15

m plus‐18m

G=18m

plus

Symplocos cochinchinensis 88 119 39 8 1 255

Clerodendrum infortunatum 42 178 1 1 222

Alstonia macrophylla 34 18 6 3 3 1 1 66

Syzygium caryophyllatum 13 41 4 1 59

Hevea brasiliensis 7 10 3 2 5 17 1 45

Dillenia suffruticosa 25 18 1 44

Syzygium operculatum 15 14 6 1 36

Alsotonia scholaris 10 18 5 2 35

Carallia brachiata 6 21 5 1 33

Dipterocarpus zeylanicus 5 23 1 29

Cinnamomum verum 15 5 20

Gyrinops walla 6 11 3 20

Acronychia pedunculata 2 10 6 18

Melastoma malabathricum 8 10 18

Antidesma bunious 2 9 4 15

Schefflera emarginata 9 4 13

Caryota urens 4 5 1 1 1 12

Turpinia malabarica 1 9 1 11

Elaeocarpus serratus 3 2 5 10

Ficus hispida 4 4 8

Artocarpus nobilis 3 2 1 1 7

Pometia pinnata 5 1 1 7


Albizia falcataria 2 1 3 6

Artocarpus heterophyllus 2 1 1 1 1 6

Ochlandra sridula 3 3 6

Pagiantha dichotoma 5 1 6

Trema orientalis 5 1 6


Calamus thwaitesii 4 1 5

Canthium coromandelicum 3 2 5

Gaertnera vaginans 4 1 5

Pericopsis mooniana 2 3 5

Bhesa ceylanica 2 1 1 4

Breynia vitis‐idaea 2 2 4

Dillenia retusa 3 1 4

February2012 Page42

Research Paper No.4



Species

Height class

Grand

Total

A=3m

&be

low

B=3m

plus ‐6m

C=6m

plus ‐9m

D=9m plus ‐12m

E=12

m plus ‐15m

F=15

m plus‐18m

G=18m

plus

Litsea longifolia 2 2 4

Macaranga peltata 1 1 2 4

Coffea Arabica 3 3

Garcinia quaesita 1 2 3

Glochidion coriaceum 3 3

Horsfieldia irya 2 1 3

Stereospermum coalis 2 1 3

Vitex altissima 1 2 3

Albizia odoratissima 1 1 2

Bombax ceiba 1 1 2

Bridelia moonii 1 1 2

Dillenia triquetra 1 1 2


Lantana camara 2 2

Leea indica 2 2

Mallotus tetracoccus 1 1 2

Myristica dactyloides 1 1 2

Neolitsea lancifolia 2 2

Nothopegia beddomei 1 1 2

Unknown sp.1 2 2

Shorea affinis 1 1

Shorea ovalifolia 1 1

Artocarpus gomezianus 1 1

Barleria restita 1 1

Breynia retusa 1 1

Cleistanthus sp. 1 1

Cryptocarya membranacea 1 1


Enicosanthum acuminate 1 1


Ficus sp. 1 1


Mussaenda frondosa 1 1

Ochna jabotapeta 1 1

Persea macrantha 1 1

Quassia indica 1 1

Sandoricum indicum 1 1

February2012 Page43

Research Paper No.4



Species

Height class

Grand

Total

A=3m

&be

low

B=3m

plus ‐6m

C=6m

plus ‐9m

D=9m plus ‐12m

E=12

m plus ‐15m

F=15

m plus‐18m

G=18m

plus

Shorea sp.1 1 1

Shorea sp.2 1 1

Urandra sp. 1 1


Grand Total 364 592 103 25 18 23 2 1127

ASSESSMENT OF FOREST REGENERATION IN MAHAUSAKANDE

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