ASSESSMENT OF ALUMINUM CONTAMINANT

IN PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY IN SARA W AK

NGTZENYAN

A thesis submitted

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Environmental Science (Sustainable Land Use and Water

Resource Management)

Faculty of Resource Science and Technology

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARA W AK

2004

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank the Sarawak Health Department for allowing me to make use of

secondary data of the Department, and renders other facilities to enable me to complete

this research project. I would also sincerely thank my supervisor, Associate Professor, Dr.

Lau Seng for his invaluable advice and guidance in carrying out this research, and for his

invaluable comments and discussion in reading the manuscript. I would also like to

express my appreciation to all my colleagues and friends who had assisted me and

rendered their services during this study. I would also express my sincere thanks and

appreciation to my wife, Mdm. Ngo Hong Hun, for her strong support and tolerance

during this study.

11

Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF PLATES

ABSTRACT

ABSTRAK

Chapter 1 :

1.1. Introduction

T 1.1.1 Drinking water supply in Sarawak

1.1.2 Water Treatment Procedures

1.1.3 Aluminum and Health

1.1.4 Aluminum pathway into the water supply

1.2 Hypothesis

1.3 Objectives

1.3.1 General objective

1.3.2 Specific objectives

Chapter 2 Literature review

2.1 Legislation and guidelines of drinking standards

2.2 Abundance of aluminum and its uses

2.3 Aluminum level in drinking water

III

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iii

vi

viii

lX

x

X11

1

1

3

5

8

9

9

10

11

11

13

15

2.4 Health effects of aluminum in drinking water 17

2.5 Water treatment processes for surface waters 19

2.5.1 Conventional treatment processes 19

2.5.2 The drinking water treatment processes in treatment 25

plants practiced in Sarawak

2.6 Jar test 25

Chapter 3 Materials and method 27

3.1.1 Instrumentation 27

3.1.2 Method 27

3.1.3 Site selection 30

3.1.4 Statistic Analysis 32

Chapter 4 Results and Discussion 33

4.1 The status of aluminum level in portable water in Sarawak 33

4.2 Assessment of secondary data from the selected 7 treatment 36

plants

4.3 Assessment ofprimary data for validation of secondary data 37

4.3.1 Description ofvarious water quality parameters 37

4.3.2 Statistical assessment of primary data 39

4.4 Assessment of human dimension through interview by using 54

open- ended questionnaires

IV

Chapter 5 Recommendations 59

Chapter 6 Conclusion 60

References 62

APPENDIX A 72

APPENDIX B 74

APPENDIX C 76

APPENDIX D 81

APPENDIX E 84

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v

I

List of Figures

Figure 2.1

Figure 3.1

Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

Conventional treatments for surface water

Location map for the selected treatment plants

Line graph showing the mean values for Sarawak and among the water

authorities from 1999-2003

The distribution of pH for the five stages of the water treatment

Processes

The distribution of conductivity for the five stages of water

treatment processes.

Figure 4.4 The distribution of total dissolved solids for the five stages of water

treatment processes.

Figure 4.5 The distribution of dissolved oxygen for the five stages of water

treatment processes . .. r Figure 4.6 The distribution of turbidity for the five stages of water treatment

processes.

Figure 4.7 The distribution of total suspended solids for the five stages of

water treatment processes.

Figure 4.8 The distribution ofaluminum level for the five stages of water

treatment processes.

Figure 4.9 Changes of selected water quality parameters at different stages

of water treatment processes.

! 't

vi

Figure 4.10 Pie chart showing the distribution of educational level of staffs

in treatment plants.

Figure 4.11 Pie chart showing the distribution of the treatment plants with

quality assurance programme .

• r

...

Vll

F ...

List of Tables

Table 4.1 Summary of mean aluminum level (mg/l) of respective water

authorities by Division and mean aluminum level in Sarawak

Table 4.2 Summary of water analysis from water treatment plants

Table 4.3 Standardized coefficients for each parameter

Table 4.4 Standardized data for water quality parameters at different stages

ofwater treatment for generating the graph (Figure 4.9)

,

! "

I

[

I 4.

V111

List of Plates

Plate 2.1

Plate 2.2

Plate 2.3

Plate 2.4

Plate 2.5

Plate 2.6

Plate 2.7

Plate 2.8

Plate 2.9

Plate 2.10

Plate 2.11

Plate 2.12

Chemical feed

Rapid mix

Coagulation

Sedimentation

Filtration

Disinfection

Jar test

Hanna pH meter

Millipore turbidity meter

Dissolved oxygen meter

HACH ConductivitylTDS meter

HACH Chemical test kits DR 2000

ix

,.. .,..

ABSTRACT

The main objectives of this study are to establish the current levels of aluminum in public

drinking water in Sarawak, to determine the sources of aluminum contaminants and to

assess water treatment processes that influence the introduction of aluminum in the

drinking water. The research method used in this study includes the assessment of the

historic water qualities analytical reports available for the last five years (1999-2003) for

all drinking water treatment plants in Sarawak relating to aluminum level in particular.

Primary data were collected in the field at the selected 7 water treatment plants in order to

validate the secondary data. In addition, observations and field investigation were also

carried out during the field trip. To obtain additional information, interview survey by

using open-ended questionnaires for the staff of the 22 water treatment plants in state

were also carried out. The selection of the 7 water treatment plants were done based on

the high aluminum violation rates. The sites for the interview survey were done by means

of block sampling method whereby 2 water treatment plants were selected from each

Division. The mean aluminum level was found to range from 0.53 mg/l to 1.48 mg/l for

the past 5 years (1999-2003) in Sarawak, which were 2.65 to 7.4 times higher than the

Malaysia Standard and WHO recommended standard of 0.2 mg/l of aluminum level in

drinking water. It was also discovered during this study that the high aluminum level was

due to the inefficient treatment processes as the aluminum level increased markedly

immediately after the addition of Aluminum sulphates in stage 2 of the treatment process.

This was proven by ANOVA that there was a significant difference among all the stages

of water treatment processes for aluminum (p 0.03). Further Post Hoc Test (LSD)

discovered that the raw water (stage I) aluminum level was significantly lower than other

x

F .,...

stages of treatment processes (a 0.05). It was also discovered through multiple

correlations that the level of aluminum is a function of pH, total dissolved solids,

turbidity and total suspended solids based on the primary data collected from the field.

Xl

pi +'

ABSTRAK

Objekif utama bagi kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan tahap paras aluminium dalam

air minuman awam dt Negeri Sarawak, mengenaipasti punca-punca pencemaran

aluminum serta membuat penilaian atas proses-proses rawatan air yang mempengaruhi

kemasukan aluminum di dalam air minuman. Kaedah kajtan yang digunakan

merangkumt penilaian dan penelitian laporan analisa kualiti air bagi tempoh lima tahun

(1999 hingga 2003) untuk semua loji rawatan air di seluruh Negeri Sarawak dengan

menumpukan perhatian kepada tahap aluminium dalam bekalan air yang telah dirawat.

Data asas atau data prima yang sedia ada dikumpul dari 7 buah loji rawatan air yang

dipilih untuk membuat perbandingan dan mengesah kesahihan data skunder. Selain 'I

daripada itu, pemerhatian dan penyiasatan juga dijalankan semasa lawatan dt lapangan.

Bag; mendapatkan maklumat-maklumat tam bahan, temubual dengan menggunakan

borang soalselirik terbuka (open-ended questionaires) di kalangan pekerja loji awam di

22 loji rawatan air awam di seluruh Sarawak. Pemilihan 7 buah lojt rawatan air adalah , "

~

iberdasarkan kadar pelanggaran piawaian serta kedekatan loji dart pusat Bandarraya ";

J

Kuching manakala tempat temuduga atau tembual ditentukan dengan kaedah secara

" block sampling method" di mana 2 buah loji rawatan air dipilih bag; setiap bahagian

pentabiran di Sarawak. Tahap aluminum purata yang terdapat dalam air minum bagi

tepoh 5 tahun yang Iepas di Sarawak berada dalam lingkungan 0.53 mg/l hingga 1.48

mg/l pada 5 tahun yang lepas di Sarawak. Paras ini didapati sekurang-sekurangnya

2.65 hingga 7.4 kali lebih tinggi daripada piawaan Malaysia dan Piawaan yang

dicadangkan oleh Pertubuhan Kesihatan Sedunia (WHO) iaitu 0.2 mg/l bagi aluminum di

dalam air minuman . Kajian ini juga mengenalpasti keadaan ini( tahap aluminum yang

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.. '¥",

tinggi) berpunca dari proses rawatan yang tidak efektif atau kurang berkesan di mana

proses rawatan tidak berupaya menghindar pertambahan yang mendadak bahan

aluminum apabi/a aluminum sulfat dicampur ke dalam air mentah dalam proses rawatan

permulaan. Keputusan ini dibuktikan oleh ANOVA yang dapat menggambarkan

perbezaan yang ketara (significant difference) pada semua peringkat proses rawatan air

untuk aluminum (p 0.03). Analisa Post Hoc (LSD test) lanjutan juga menunjukkan

paras aluminum di dalam air mentah (peringkat 1) adalah lebih rendah jika

dibandingkan dengan semua peringkat proses ( Peringkat 2-5) rawatan air ( a =

0.05).Penemuan ini juga mendapati paras aluminum berhubung kait dengan pH, TDS,

kekeruhan dan TSS melalui ujian korelasi pebagai (multiple correlations test) dengan

menggunakan data-data yang terdapat dari lapangan.

"'!'

xiii

CHAPTERl

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Drinking Water Supply in Sarawak

There are several types of water distribution systems which supply water to the

community in Sarawak. In the interior part of Sarawak, the rural populations are supplied

with water through the gravity feed water supply systems in which the stream water is

channeled to the households through the polyethylene (PVC) pipe. Other rural water

supply systems at the rural areas include the rain water collection system, mechanical

pump, ramp pump and sanitary well. However, in the urban and suburban areas of

Sarawak, the community is supplied with treated drinking water either through the water

treatment plants from Public Work Department or the Water Boards.

As at December 2003, a total of 2,660 gravity feed water systems were constructed.

There are 253 sanitary wells and 51 mechanical pumps installed to supply drinking water

to the rural communities in Sarawak. There are 1,271 localities in the rural also being

supplied with treated water either from the Public Work Department or Water Boards

(Sarawak Health Department, 2003). At the moment, 96.95% of rural popUlation in

Sarawak has access of treated water supply.

1

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Drinking water supply in Sarawak is governed by the Water Ordinance, 1994 and Water

Supply Regulations, 1995. The Sarawak Water Resources Council established under the

said Ordinance has the function of advising the Government in relation to the system of

supply and distribution of water supply in the State whereas the State Water Authority

appointed under The Water Ordinance, 1994 has all the powers in water management and

administration of water supplies in the State. This includes the appointment or

establishing of water supply authorities for any particular area of supply, with the

approval of Minister of Public Utilities (Water Ordinance, 1994).

Currently, the water supply authorities in the State consist of Kuching Water Board, Sibu

Water Board, Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara (LAKU) and Public Work Department,

Sarawak. There are ninety drinking water treatment plants currently supplying the treated

drinking water in the urban and sub-urban areas, which cater for about 1.6 millions

people in the State (Sarawak Health Department, 2003). However, the populations of the

rural areas are supplied with the untreated water from the mountain streams, tube wells

and rain water tanks system under the charge of Ministry of Health, Malaysia.

Nevertheless, increasing number of the rural populations will be supplied with treated

water yearly with the upgrading of the water treatment plants and amalgamation of

smaller water supplies into regional water supplies in the water master plan in Sarawak.

2

1.1.2 Water Treatment Procedures

The procedures for a typical conventional water treatment plant for treating surface water

include the following procedures. The pH of the raw water should be adjusted to suit the

optimum pH of the coagulants used (Hammer & Hammer, 2001; Tebbut, 1992; McGhee,

1991 and Holden, 1970). The coagulant is being added to the raw water during the

chemical feeding procedure. During this stage, the selected coagulant such as aluminum

sulphate or ferric sulphate is being introduced to the raw water for coagulation and

flocculation processes. Rapid mixing is done to ensure proper mixing of the coagulant

added to enhance the coagulation processes. The dosage of the coagulant used is

determined by using the jar test procedure (Tebutt, 1992; Wesner, 1998; Droste, 1977 and

Holden, 1970).

After the rapid mixing processes, the water is ready for coagulation, flocculation and

sedimentation processes. These procedures allow the physical and chemical reaction of

the colloidal particles in the water for eventual removal at the later processes. After that,

the water is being filtered by the suitable sand filters to remove the settled particulates.

The final process is the disinfection of the filtered water before the water is ready to be

supplied to the public. However, final pH adjustment may be included if the pH is found

to be too acidic as the low pH may cause the corrosion of the piping materials in the

distribution system.

3

r During the treatment processes, many problems are encountered. The pH of the raw

water may not be sufficiently adjusted to the optimized conditions for the coagulation

processes (Tebutt, 1992 and Crawford & Cline, 1990). The jar test procedure was not

done regularly to determine the dosage of coagulant to be used. This has affected the

treatment processes as pH is not at the optimum level for the coagulant to act on the raw

water and dosage of the coagulant could be either too low or too high which affects the

treatment processes( Tebutt, 1992; McGhee, 1991 and Holden, 1970).

The competency of the staffs involved in the water treatment plants are of the paramount

importance (HRD Engineering, 2001). In addition to that, the lack of water chemistry

I,'

knowledge and the water treatment processes among the operation staffs particularly the

plant operators are critical in water treatment plants. The lack of logistics and appropriate

equipments in most of the small water treatment plants have also escalated the problem

•J on how drinking water is treated (Hammer & Hammer, 2001) .

Poor maintenance of the water treatment plants may also aggravate the problem in the

water treatment processes. The old designs of the water treatment plants with inadequate

capacity, have also contributed to the problem. In addition, the poor raw water quality

and the increasing water demand have also affected the normal operation of the water

treatment plants and add more problems to the drinking water treatment (Hammer &

Hammer, 2001 and Gilbert & Calabrese, 1992).

4

1.1.3 Aluminum and Health

Aluminum is easily available and it is cheap. It occurs naturally in some waters.

Aluminum salts had been widely in drinking water supply treatment as coagulants

through out the world for many decades (Reiber & Kukull, 1996). Aluminum salts

particularly aluminum sulphate are used in all the public water supplies in Sarawak.

Researchers have discovered that high levels of aluminum in water had shriveled the

brains of Alzheimer's disease victims in the past years. In addition, a growing number of

investigators said that aluminum may playa central role in causing the said disease that

afflicts mostly elderly people. In addition, aluminum is one of the dissolved inorganic in

water which has health effects (McGhee, 1991).

Recent study in Australia also showed that aluminum used to purify water accumulated in

the brains of laboratory rats. This shows that aluminum in drinking water can be absorbed

by the body (Wesner, 1998). Study also discovered that workers directly exposed to

aluminum production from raw materials and aluminum sulphate have shown increased

level of aluminum in their urine which testifies that this element has entered their bodies

through pulmonary absorption.

5

Aluminum is ubiquitous in our environment and it is pervasive in all the 27 Health

Districts in Sarawak and affecting 60 out of the 90 water treatment plants, which are

producing drinking water with high aluminum contaminants and affecting about 1.6

million who live in the urban and sub-urban areas of the State (Sarawak Health

Department, 2002).

Aluminum is not a required substance for humans. There is no known function or

requirement in human body. But, every human being is exposed to aluminum in some

degree either through food, air or water. Aluminum can enter human body during

inhalation and through the gastronic system. Based on the studies conducted by the

United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA), total dietary intake of aluminum

is related to total food intake. It is estimated that the average American adult consumes

20 to 40 mg of aluminum per day.

A great deal of scientific studies had been done over the years to identify the effect of

aluminum. Anon. (1997) reported that under certain conditions, aluminum can be part of

a neurotoxic compound. The long-term accumulation of aluminum in the bloodstream, a

condition frequently suffered by kidney dialysis patients, can result in severe

encephalopathy, leading to dementia.

Studies also showed that aluminum injected into the brains of animals leads to the

formation of amyloid protein deposits and neurofibrillary tangles that are similar, though

not identical, to those that appear in human Alzheimer's disease. In addition, aluminum

6

has been implicated as a neurotoxic in a number of laboratory and epidemiological

studies. Elevated Aluminum concentrations have been related to impaired motor function

and a number ofcognitive deficiencies in both humans, and experimental animals.

Many studies had shown that elevated concentrations of aluminum in water have been

associated with Alzheimer's disease and prehensile dementia as well as physiological

problems among dialysis (Shovlin et al., 1993; Tebbutt, 1992; Letterman & Dircoll,

1988; McGhee, 1991; Ganrot, 1986; Crapper et aI., 1973 and Kopeloff et al., 1942).

Letterman et al. (1999) added that aluminum in drinking water has been implicated as a

contributing factor in Alzheimer's disease. However, to date researchers have been

unable to verify or refute these claims. Tebbut (1992) added that very high levels of

aluminum can have a number of health consequences and accidental discharge of

concentrated aluminum sulphate to drinking water in South-West England caused a

considerable concerned in 1992 was a concrete example.

It was also reported that a specialized health hazard arising from presence of aluminum in

water can be fatally affecting the patients on kidney dialysis machines if the supply to the

machine contain soluble aluminum (Tebbut, 1992). In addition, Exley (1996) reported

that aluminum has been found to combine with adenosine triphosphate and adenosine

diphosphate in the intestinal system causing disruption of mineral metabolism and

affecting the equilibrium of the bodies' electrolyte system, and aluminum had also being

identified as the agent which weakens molecular movement within the brain cells.

7

..,

Ganrot (1986) and Joshi (1990) reported that, despite its low acute toxicity, when

administers to certain laboratory animals, aluminum is a neurotoxicant. They reiterated

that chronic high - level exposure data are limited, but indicated that aluminum affects

phosphorous absorption, resulting in weakness, bone pain as well as anorexia (Letterman

& Driscoll, 1988). Hammer and Hammer (2001) added that aluminum salts increase

faecal excretions of fluoride, results in decreased absorption, and can cause constipation.

However, Davenport and Roberts (1986) reiterated that individuals with renal

inefficiencies tend to accumulate aluminum as a consequence of their inability to excrete

it via the kidney. It has been reported that aluminum impairs the formation and release of

parathyroid hormone. The parathyroid glands concentrate aluminum above levels in

surrounding tissues.

Study had also shown that 4 ppm of aluminum in human blood can cause it to coagulate ": ;! • ,Ii.

and aluminum in humans is documented to inhabit learning (Bishop et al., 1997). It was I: /

also reported that aluminum toxicity is associated with the development of bone

disorders, including fractures, osteopenia, and osteomalacia (Koo et al., 1992; Savory et

at., 1986 and Hewitt et al., 1990). In addition, it was reported that Aluminum also caused

allergy (Kaaber et at., 1992 and Veien et at. 1986)).

1.1.4 Aluminum pathway into the water supply

Aluminum is introduced into the water supply through the use of aluminum salts as

coagulant. Aluminum sulphate (Alum) is used as coagulant in drinking water treatment

8

processes to remove fine particles, colour and bacteria. It is excessively used in all of the

drinking water treatment plants in Sarawak.

As Farwell et al.(1996) put it , residual aluminum concentration in treated waters are a

function of aluminum levels in the source water, the amount of aluminum coagulant used,

and the efficiency of the filtration of the aluminum floc. In addition to that, the acidic raw

water obtained from the swampy areas or coastal areas with low pH levels has aggravated

the problem as the low pH level affects the efficiency of coagulation process when

aluminum sulphate is used as coagulant.

According to Tebbut (1992), the solubility of aluminum hydroxide (AI (OH) 3) is pH i'; I'; \

dependant. The minimum solubility range is in between pH 5 pH 7.5; outside this range ,I ,~, , ,

, ;

coagulation with aluminum salts is not successful (Tebbutt, 1992; Morris & Knocke, " ,

"

1984). Therefore, excessive aluminum sulphate is used; aluminum in the form of Al

(OH)3 will continue to dissolve in the water during the coagulation processes.

1.2 Hypothesis

The high aluminum contaminant in the drinking water in Sarawak is due to inefficient

water treatment processes by not optimizing of pH for coagulation, overused of

aluminum sulphate (Alum) as coagulant, lack of competent plant operators, lack of

logistics like appropriate equipments and the inefficient sand filters.

9

1.3 Objectives

1.3.1 General Objective

The general objectives of the study are to assess the level of Aluminum in public

drinking water supplies and to identify the major sources of Aluminum in the water

supply.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

i) To establish the level ofaluminum in public drinking water in Sarawak.

ii) To determine the sources ofaluminum contaminants in the drinking water.

iii) To assess the water quality parameter that influences the aluminum

contaminant in the drinking water.

10

CHAPTER 2

2. Literature review

2.1 Legislation and guidelines of drinking water standards

The standards for the quality of drinking water have a long history, going back into

classical times. One of the first sets of known water quality standards was proposed by

Vitruvious, a Roman architect and engineer (Vesuvius, 1960). At the moment, there is no

specific legislation in control of drinking water standard in Malaysia except in the Food

Regulations 1985. The standard for water is specified under Regulation 394(1) of the said I';I';

Regulation in the twenty-fifth schedule as in Appendix A. On the other hand, the State of ,/ I r,:

'I

':. :~ , "Sarawak has Water Ordinance 1994 and the Water Regulations 1995 to govern the supply " " ,,

I

of drinking water to the consumers in the State. In addition, the Ministry of Health, ,II,

Malaysia has developed the National Drinking Water Guidelines for drinking water

quality, and a manual on drinking water quality surveillance since 1983 with the help of

World Health Organization.

The Water Ordinance 1994 consists of eight parts as follows:

I) The preliminary including the short title and commencement, and

interpretation.

II) The Establishment of the Sarawak Resources Council,

III) The protection and development of water resources,

11