Assessment

The term ‘assessment’ refers to all those activities undertaken by teachers, and by their students in assessing themselves, which provide information to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged. Since this seminal article, educators have differentiated assessment according to its purpose:

Assessment for learning

Assessment as learning

Assessment of learning

- Assessment for learning is ongoing, diagnostic, and formative. It is for ongoing planning. It is not used for grading and Report Cards.

- Assessment as learning actively involves students. It is ongoing, and it involves self and peer assessment. It provides students with the opportunity to use the feedback to improve learning. Allows time for self-edit.

- Assessment of learning occurs at end of year or at key stages. It is summative. It is for grading and Report cards.

diagnostic and formative teacher assessment,

student self-assessment, and/or student peer assessment

criterion-referenced – criteria based on prescribed learning outcomes identified in the provincial curriculum, reflecting performance in relation to a specific learning task

involves both teacher and student in a process of continual reflection and review about progress

teachers adjust their plans and engage in corrective teaching in response to formative assessment

self-assessment the development of self-

assessment skills peer-assessment the development of peer-

assessment skills provides students with

information on their own achievement and prompts them to consider how they can continue to improve their learning

student-determined criteria based on previous learning and personal learning goals

students use assessment information to make adaptations to their learning process and to develop new understandings

provides the opportunity to respond to assessment feedback to improve a project.

summative teacher assessment may be either criterion-

referenced (based on prescribed learning outcomes) or norm-referenced (comparing student achievement to that of others)

information on student performance can be shared with parents/guardians, school and district staff, and other education professionals (e.g., for the purposes of curriculum development)

used to make judgments about students’ performance in relation to provincial standards

used for grading and Report Cards

ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING

Assessment is defined as the process of observing and measuring learning. In order to improve student learning, teachers evaluate students' achievement levels. While many people still think of assessment as a multiple-choice test, in reality, assessments are accomplished in a number of ways.

Educator and scholar Rick DuFour once defined the core mission of education as ensuring that students learn, rather than merely being taught. This raises the questions of what students should learn and how to determine whether they have learned it. State standardized tests and similar assessments help answer these questions by assessing student learning. Since the 1980s, assessment of learning has been a key element in educational accountability.

Identification

Assessment of learning, also known as summative assessment, is designed to measure student achievement and gauge what they have learned. Federal and state education laws, aimed at strengthening educational accountability, often require such assessments as measures of how well schools and their students perform academically. Guided by state and federal standards, school systems determine what knowledge and skills students should acquire and align school curriculum to instruments designed to assess the extent to which students have learned.

Significance

Because education policy-makers use assessments of learning as a kind of report card by which to grade the performance of individual campuses and entire school systems, educators and students receive enormous pressure to perform well on these tests. The federal No Child Left Behind law, passed in 2001, mandates school improvement requirements for campuses and school systems that fall short of state performance standards.

Types

State standardized tests in reading/language arts, mathematics, science and social studies are the most common types of summative assessments. Other examples include the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), which many colleges and universities require for admission. The SAT measures verbal and mathematical skills. School- and classroom-based final exams in specific subjects are other examples of assessments of learning, because they measure how well students learned the course material.

History

Assessment of learning grew in prominence in American education in the 1980s, following the publication of "A Nation at Risk," a federal report which warned of "a rising tide of mediocrity" in American schools. This report set off a wave of education reforms that included a new emphasis on school accountability, as measured by standardized assessments. Key states in this reform movement included Texas, South Carolina and Arkansas.

Misconceptions

Because of the high stakes associated with standardized testing, many people may regard all tests as assessments of learning. However, there is another class of assessment, known as formative. Formative tests are assessments for learning, rather than assessments of learning. Formative assessments are designed to measure student progress in learning, and can help guide classroom instruction by identifying strengths and weaknesses in student knowledge. These assessments also can identify students who need additional academic help. Examples of assessments for learning include benchmark assessments, which some school systems

administer during the course of a school year to gauge student progress in reaching learning objectives.

What Is Assessment of Learning?

Assessment of learning refers to strategies designed to confirm what students know, demonstrate whether or not they have met curriculum outcomes or the goals of their individualized programs, or to certify proficiency and make decisions about students’ future programs or placements. It is designed to provide evidence of achievement to parents, other educators, the students themselves, and sometimes to outside groups (e.g., employers, other educational institutions).

Assessment of learning is the assessment that becomes public and results in statements or symbols about how well students are learning. It often contributes to pivotal decisions that will affect students’ futures. It is important, then, that the underlying logic and measurement of assessment of learning be credible and defensible.

Teachers’ Roles in Assessment of Learning

Because the consequences of assessment of learning are often far-reaching and affect students seriously, teachers have the responsibility of reporting student learning accurately and fairly, based on evidence obtained from a variety of contexts and applications. Effective assessment of learning requires that teachers provide

a rationale for undertaking a particular assessment of learning at a particular point in time clear descriptions of the intended learning processes that make it possible for students to demonstrate their competence and skill a range of alternative mechanisms for assessing the same outcomes public and defensible reference points for making judgments transparent approaches to interpretation descriptions of the assessment process strategies for recourse in the event of disagreement about the decisions

With the help of their teachers, students can look forward to assessment of learning tasks as occasions to show their competence, as well as the depth and breadth of their learning.

Planning Assessment of Learning

The purpose of assessment of learning is to measure, certify, and report the level of students’ learning, so that reasonable decisions can be made about students.There are many potential users of the information:

teachers (who can use the information to communicate with parents about their children’s proficiency and progress)

parents and students (who can use the results for making educational and vocational decisions) potential employers and post-secondary institutions (who can use the information to make

decisions about hiring or acceptance) principals, district or divisional administrators, and teachers (who can use the information to

review and revise programming)

Why am I assessing

What am I assessing?

Assessment of learning requires the collection and interpretation of information about students’ accomplishments in important curricular areas, in ways that represent the nature and complexity of the intended learning. Because genuine learning for understanding is much more than just recognition or recall of facts or algorithms, assessment of learning tasks need to enable students to show the complexity of their understanding. Students need to be able to apply key concepts, knowledge, skills, and attitudes in ways that are authentic and consistent with current thinking in the knowledge domain.

In assessment of learning, the methods chosen need to address the intended curriculum outcomes and the continuum of learning that is required to reach the outcomes. The methods must allow all students to show their understanding and produce sufficient information to support credible and defensible statements about the nature and quality of their learning, so that others can use the results in appropriate ways.

Assessment of learning methods include not only tests and examinations, but also a rich variety of products and demonstrations of learning—portfolios, exhibitions, performances, presentations, simulations, multimedia projects, and a variety of other written, oral, and visual methods.

Graduation Portfolios

- is a requirement for graduation from British Columbia and Yukon Senior Years schools. These portfolios comprise collections (electronic or printed) of evidence of students’ accomplishments at school, home, and in the community, including demonstrations of their competence in skills that are not measured in examinations.

Worth four credits toward graduation, the portfolios begin in Grade 10 and are completed by the end of Grade 12. The following are some goals of graduation portfolios:

Students will adopt an active and reflective role in planning, managing, and assessing their learning.

Students will demonstrate learning that complements intellectual development and course-based learning.

Students will plan for successful transitions beyond Grade 12.

Graduation portfolios are prepared at the school level and are based on specific Ministry criteria and standards. Students use the criteria and standards as guides for planning, collecting, and presenting their evidence, and for self-assessing. Teachers use the criteria and standards to assess student evidence and assign marks.

THREE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A GRADUATION PORTFOLIO:

What assessment method should I

1. Portfolio Core (30 percent of the mark). Students must complete requirements in the following six portfolio organizers: arts and design (respond to an art, performance, or design work); community involvement and responsibility (participate co-operatively and respectfully in a service activity); education and career planning (complete a graduation transition plan); employability skills (complete 30 hours of work or volunteer experience); information technology (use information technology skills); personal health (complete 80 hours of moderate to intense physical activity)

2. Portfolio Choice (50 percent of the mark). Students expand on the above areas, choosing additional evidence of their achievements.

3. Portfolio Presentation (20 percent of the mark). Students celebrate their learning and reflect at the end of the portfolio process.

(Portfolio Assessment and Focus Areas: A Program Guide)

Assessment of learning needs to be very carefully constructed so that the information upon which decisions are made is of the highest quality. Assessment of learning is designed to be summative, and to produce defensible and accurate descriptions of student competence in relation to defined outcomes and, occasionally, in relation to other students’ assessment results. Certification of students’ proficiency should be based on a rigorous, reliable, valid, and equitable process of assessment and evaluation.

Reliability

Reliability in assessment of learning depends on how accurate, consistent, fair, and free from bias and distortion the assessment is. Teachers might ask themselves:

Do I have enough information about the learning of this particular student to make a definitive statement?

Was the information collected in a way that gives all students an equal chance to show their learning?

Would another teacher arrive at the same conclusion? Would I make the same decision if I considered this information at another time or in another

way?

Reference Points

Typically, the reference points for assessment of learning are the learning outcomes as identified in the curriculum that make up the course of study. Assessment tasks include measures of these learning outcomes, and a student’s performance is interpreted and reported in relation to these learning outcomes.

In some situations where selection decisions need to be made for limited positions (e.g., university entrance, scholarships, employment opportunities), assessment of learning results are used to

How can I ensure quality in this assessment

rank students. In such norm-referenced situations, what is being measured needs to be clear, and the way it is being measured needs to be transparent to anyone who might use the assessment results.

Validity

Because assessment of learning results in statements about students’ proficiency in wide areas of study, assessment of learning tasks must reflect the key knowledge, concepts, skills, and dispositions set out in the curriculum, and the statements and inferences that emerge must be upheld by the evidence collected.

Record-Keeping

Whichever approaches teachers choose for assessment of learning, it is their records that provide details about the quality of the measurement. Detailed records of the various components of the assessment of learning are essential, with a description of what each component measures, with what accuracy and against what criteria and reference points, and should include supporting evidence related to the outcomes as justification.

When teachers keep records that are detailed and descriptive, they are in an excellent position to provide meaningful reports to parents and others. Merely a symbolic representation of a student’s accomplishments (e.g., a letter grade or percentage) is inadequate. Reports to parents and others should identify the intended learning that the report covers, the assessment methods used to gather the supporting information, and the criteria used to make the judgment.

Assessing to Meet Benchmarks

Standards are set by every state for each grade level as goals for achievement. Students are assessed to see if they are performing at grade level. For example, in language arts, upper elementary students should be skilled in using reference materials such as a dictionary and thesaurus, and they should be able to identify cause and effect and propaganda techniques. By using assessments to evaluate skill levels, teachers can identify those who need additional help in achieving grade-level goals.

Authentic Assessments

Authentic assessments in the classroom resemble tasks a student might encounter in the real world. Working on an authentic assessment task is an engaging learning activity that motivates the student to complete the assignment. An example of an authentic assessment for reading might be to ask students questions based on reading a newspaper. For authentic assessments, the teacher takes the thinking process the student uses into consideration.

Standardized Tests

Standardized tests are typically a multiple-choice format in which all students answer the same questions. There is usually only one correct answer to the question. This type of testing is only one of the assessment tools used in today's classroom. The problem with standardized tests is that they reward a student's ability to answer a question quickly without any in-depth thought or creativity. Standardized tests have been criticized for not taking minority students' cultural background into consideration and because they do not reflect accurately what is now known about how people learn.

Performance Assessments

Another form of assessment in common use today is the performance assessment. For this type of assessment, students are asked to apply their skills. Students are typically presented with a scoring rubric or matrix ahead of time, so they understand how they are being graded. Performance assessments have the added bonus of allowing students to work in cooperative groups, with each member contributing based on individual interests or skills. For example, after reading a short story by Edgar Allan Poe in class, groups might be assigned to research the author, read another of his stories and compare it to the first one, dramatize a scene from the story and create a visual aid for a presentation. Group members may be allowed to select the contributions they would like to make to the project.

Feedback to Students

Because assessment of learning comes most often at the end of a unit or learning cycle, feedback to students has a less obvious effect on student learning than assessment for learning and assessment as learning. Nevertheless, students do rely on their marks and on teachers’ comments as indicators of their level of success, and to make decisions about their future learning endeavors.

Differentiating Learning

In assessment of learning, differentiation occurs in the assessment itself. It would make little sense to ask a near-sighted person to demonstrate driving proficiency without glasses. When the driver uses glasses, it is possible for the examiner to get an accurate picture of the driver’s ability, and to certify him or her as proficient. In much the same way, differentiation in assessment of learning requires that the necessary accommodations be in place that allow students to make the particular learning visible. Multiple forms of assessment offer multiple pathways for making student learning transparent to the teacher. A particular curriculum outcome requirement, such as an understanding of the social studies notion of conflict, for example, might be demonstrated through visual, oral, dramatic, or written representations. As long as writing were not an explicit component of the outcome, students who have difficulties with written language, for example, would then have the same opportunity to demonstrate their learning as other students.

Although assessment of learning does not always lead teachers to differentiate instruction or resources, it has a profound effect on the placement and promotion of students and, consequently, on the nature and differentiation of the future instruction and programming that students receive. Therefore, assessment results need to be accurate and detailed enough to allow for wise recommendations.

Reporting

There are many possible approaches to reporting student proficiency. Reporting assessment of learning needs to be appropriate for the audiences for whom it is intended, and should provide all of the information necessary for them to make reasoned decisions. Regardless of the form of the reporting, however, it should be honest, fair, and provide sufficient detail and contextual information so that it can be clearly understood. Traditional reporting, which relies only on a student’s average score, provides little information about that student’s skill development or knowledge. One alternate mechanism, which recognizes many forms of success and provides a profile of a student’s level of performance on an emergent-proficient continuum, is the parent-student- teacher conference. This forum provides parents with a great deal of information, and reinforces students’ responsibility for their learning.

How can I use the information from this assessment?

ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING

ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING AT A GLANCE

Assessment for learning is a relatively new concept. This involves a process where assessment, including tests, quizzes, and informal assessments such as discussions, journaling and question-and-answer exchanges in the classroom, is directly aligned to the learning outcomes of a particular unit. In other words, the assessment is designed to match the objectives and outcomes for each unit of study.

It is a crucial component of effective instruction. When students clearly understand their learning targets, and their progress toward those learning targets, they are more motivated. Additionally when teachers clearly understand how well their students are learning content, they can make better decisions about how to differentiate and pace learning experiences in the classroom.

Educators define assessment for learning as the process of determining what a student knows or what skills the student has and then making sure the assessment aligns with the knowledge which the student needs to gain in a curriculum unit. Increasingly, educational research favors methods of assessment that involve the student in actively constructing a product or idea and that allow the student to express knowledge in multiple ways: reading, writing, drawing, acting and composing. Such methods maximize student learning and involvement in the process.

The Process

This approach to developing assessment for learning involves six components:

One: Develop Guiding Questions

Effective questions should be comprehensive—that is, if students can effectively answer all of the guiding questions for a unit, they should do well on the end of unit assessments. Also, questions should be easy for students to understand.

Two: Develop Answers to the Guiding Questions

Prior to teaching, teachers should identify (a) what students need to know to be able to answer the unit question successfully, and (b) what students need to be able to do in order to successfully answer each unit question.

Three: Write Specific Proficiencies

Once teachers have written answer to the guiding questions, or while they are answering questions, they should create a list of specific proficiencies: short sentences that summarize the content or abilities students need to learn, demonstrate, or master. Good specific proficiencies are (a) partial answers to guiding questions, (b) short, (c) contain one idea, (d) written as complete sentences, and are (e) easily understood by students.

Four: Identify Informal Assessments

Review the list of possible assessments. Identify effective assessments for each specific proficiencies. Effective assessments (a) clearly tell students how well they are performing; (b) clearly tell teachers how well all students are performing (c) are easy to use (d) take little time to implement.

Five: Use Assessments Effectively

During the class, employ the assessments in a way that ensures you are assessing all students.

Six: Revisit, Reflect, Revise

After you’ve used the assessments, and at the end of the unit, consider whether or not the unit questions and the assessments for learning were effective. Where necessary, revise the assessment to make them are more effective.

Formative vs Summative Assessment

Formative Assessment

The goal of formative assessment is to gather feedback that can be used by the instructor and the students to guide improvements in the ongoing teaching and learning context. These are low stakes assessments for students and instructors.

Examples:

Asking students to submit one or two sentences identifying the main point of a lectureHave students submit an outline for a paper.Early course evaluations

Summative Assessment

The goal of summative assessment is to measure the level of success or proficiency that has been obtained at the end of an instructional unit, by comparing it against some standard or benchmark.

Examples:

Assigning a grade to a final examCritique of a Senior recitalUniversity Faculty Course Evaluations

The outcome of a summative assessment can be used formatively, however, when students or faculty take the results and use them to guide their efforts and activities in subsequent courses.

High quality assessment is based on the following principles:

1. The primary purpose of assessment is to improve student learning.2. Assessment practices must be fair and equitable for all students. 3. Communication about assessment is ongoing, clear and meaningful.4. Professional development and collaboration support assessment.5. Students and parents are involved in the assessment process.6. Assessment practices are regularly reviewed and refined.

The Primary Purpose of Assessment

The primary purpose of assessment is for the student to receive multiple attempts to practice and to demonstrate understanding of content and to develop skills by receiving specific and timely feedback by the teacher in order to improve achievement.

The primary purpose of assessment is for the teacher to analyze student progress for the purpose of modifying and refining the teaching/learning cycle to better meet student needs.

There are three types of assessment, each distinguished by the kinds of questions that it answers. With the exception of some very simple diagnostic tools, the same contexts, methods, and tools can be used to collect data for each of the three types of assessment: diagnostic, formative, and summative.

Identifying the Purpose of Teaching/Learning and Assessment

Teachers should review the Board's curriculum guidelines and resource documents, their knowledge of learning and child development, and assessment information about their students, with the learning expectations presented in The Ontario Curriculum in mind. One the basis of this information, they:

determine what their students currently know, can do and value describe what they want their students to know, be able to do and value describe developmentally appropriate criteria/observable indicators of achievement

Programs, units, lessons, tasks and contexts are then planned and implemented to provide:

multiple and varied opportunities for students to achieve what we want them to know, do and value

multiple and varied opportunities for students to demonstrate their learning evidence of student achievement information for the analysis of students' strengths, needs and interests information for determining how successful instructions have been and where modifications

may be required

The Differences between Assessment and Evaluation

ASSESSMENT EVALUATION

gathering of information about something, such as student performance

is information qualitative pinpoints specific strengths and

weaknesses diagnostic and formative, as well as

summative most useful to teachers and students focuses on the individual student is an educational measure is referenced by criterion

act of setting a value on the assessment information

is a judgment quantitative ranks and sorts individuals within groups only summative most useful to administrators, politicians

and parents focuses on the group is a political/administrative measure is referenced by norm

REFERENCES

http://www.ehow.com/about_5542444_definition-assessment-learning.html http://www.qualityresearchinternational.com/glossary/assessmentoflearning.htm http://www.ehow.com/about_6526638_define-assessment-learning.html http://www.ehow.com/about_6644935_introduction-student_involved-assessment-

learning.html http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/assessment/howto/basics/formative-summative.html

http://www.gecdsb.on.ca/d&g/onlinepd/Assessment%20&%20Evaluation/Purpose.htm http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/learningteachingandassessment/assessment/

progressandachievement/index.asp http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assessment_for_Learning http://jaylordlosabia.blogspot.com/2010/09/principles-of-teaching-and-learning.html http://www.crcs.bc.ca/teacherlinks/for-as-of.html http://www.ehow.com/info_8332115_different-kinds-assessment-tools.html http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/resources/educational/

teaching_backgrounders/media_literacy/types_of_assessment.cfm http://www.eduplace.com/science/profdev/articles/badders.html

St. Louise de Marillac College of Sorsogon

Sorsogon City

Higher Education Department

Submitted by:Jushabeth G. Garcera

BSEd-III

Submitted to:Mr. Ruel Frago

Instructor

A.Y. 2011-2012

Table of Contents

Acknowledgement

……………………………………………….…………….

…….….…..

Related Literature

………………………………………………………………….

…..…….

Table of Specification

…………………………………………………………....….

……..

Sample Test Items

……………………………………………………………….

…..……....

Key to Correction

………………………………………………………………….

….…....

Scores

……………………………………………………………………

……………….….…......

Tally of Scores

……………………………………………………………………

.…….….….

Item Analysis

……………………………………………………………………

….…….….…

Statistical Treatment

…………………………………………………………….

……..…..

Scores of Students

23 23 23

2222 21 21

15161717

22

18181819

17

19

19

22

19202121

27

25 242424

24

24

252627 26

ITEM ANALYSIS

Subject: English 1 Grading Period: 3rdSubject Teacher: Mrs. Leah Gabad School year: 2011-2012

ITEMS Nt Nr No Di ACTION

1 38 23 60.53 INCLUDED2 38 35 92.11 DISCARDED3 38 14 36.84 INCLUDED4 38 37 97.37 DISCARDED5 38 21 55.26 INCLUDED6 38 15 39.47 INCLUDED7 38 20 52.63 INCLUDED8 38 26 68.42 INCLUDED9 38 21 55.26 INCLUDED

10 38 32 84.21 DISCARDED11 38 15 39.47 INCLUDED12 38 14 36.84 INCLUDED13 38 13 34.21 INCLUDED14 38 1 2.63 DISCARDED15 38 29 76.32 DISCARDED16 38 24 63.16 INCLUDED17 38 31 81.58 DISCARDED18 38 15 39.47 INCLUDED19 38 9 23.68 DISCARDED

ITEMS Nt Nr No Di ACTION

20 38 7 18.42 DISCARDED21 38 16 42.11 INCLUDED22 38 5 13.16 DISCARDED23 38 33 86.84 DISCARDED24 38 15 39.47 INCLUDED

25 38 28 73.68 DISCARDED26 38 29 76.32 DISCARDED27 38 24 63.16 INCLUDED28 38 20 52.63 INCLUDED29 38 10 26.32 DISCARDED30 38 15 39.47 INCLUDED31 38 24 63.16 INCLUDED32 38 5 13.16 DISCARDED33 38 27 71.05 DISCARDED34 38 26 68.42 INCLUDED35 38 33 86.84 DISCARDED36 38 8 21.05 DISCARDED37 38 9 23.68 DISCARDED38 38 25 65.79 INCLUDED39 38 10 26.32 DISCARDED40 38 25 65.79 INCLUDED

1414 12

Nt= no. of students who took the test No= no. of students who omitted the itemNr= no. of students with correct answer Di= Difficulty indexINTERPRETATION:

0% - 30%= Difficult 31%- 69%= Average 70%- 100%ACTION:

Discard Include Discard

Prepared by: Jushabeth G. GarceraBSEd-III

Acknowledgement

I wish to convey my profound gratitude to my devoted and

experience teacher, Mr. Ruel Frago who guided me in making this

compilation successful. It will help me a lot in my future teaching.

I also express my grateful acknowledgement to my beloved

parents, friends, “hersheyko” and also to my classmates, who

serve as my inspiration in making this project.

This compilation has been done to the best of my ability and

personal knowledge and that if, I will be successful in the future, I

will share what I’ve learned to the coming young future

generation of our entire nation.

JUSHABETH G. GARCERA

NAME OF STUDENTS WITH SCORES

Melly Hullon 22

Fatima Garrido 17

Amy Fulgar 14

Jhon Bechie Marcaida 22

Jesusa Gillego 19

Mila Salve Manuel 24

Alliah Joi Garcera 23

Rona Vargas 21

Roselyn Biñas 26

Mary Joy Dealagdon 23

Venice Lopez 18

Twinky Villacone 18

Nandy Garra20

Nayco Givero 19

Fay Lalen Gazo 18

Journie Basa II 27

CJ Ivanne Dichoso 25

Daniela Givero 24

Raycian Marie Garrados 14

Frite Garrido 23

Krisna Durian 25

Chelsea Garcera 24

Venus Gardon 16

Kim Yambao 19

Kim Ferreras 24

Tintin Sofia Durian 22

Maricar Garcera 17

Aldrin Cabrera 21

Ma. Joannah Besorio 26

Ryan Garrido 21

Normenah Padate 17

John Kennedy Gillego 24

Ronna Mae Infante 22

Justin Garcera 21

Jera Rodriguez 19

Glydel Mirabel 12

Arnel Parlage 15

Ruth Gayo 27

Key to Correction

1. C 2. B 3. A 4. D

5. B

6. B

7. C

8. A

9. B

10. B

11. B

12. A

13. C

14. C

15. B

16. A

17. D

18. B

19. B

20. B

21. A

22. C

23. B

24. B

25. B

26. B

27. B

28. C

29. B

30. D

31. C

32. A

33. B

34. C

35. D

36. A

37. B

38. D

39. B

40. C