Ashley-Tim-Manuscript (3)

Gender Differences in Early Academics 1

Gender, Academic Achievement, & Early Childhood Experiences

Ashley Weimar*Tim Jahnke**

Undergraduate Students: Department of Human Development and Family Studies

Advised by: Susan M. Wolfgram, Ph.D.

University of Wisconsin-Stout


Abstract

“Currently, the goal that children achieve skills that seem developmentally significant at

certain ages has replaced and discounted concerns that children engage in developmentally

appropriate behavior, especially in ways of learning (Ranz-Smith, 2007, as cited in Ray & Smith,

2010, p. 5). This nonrandom piolet study investigated 74 male and female college students on

whether their early childhood education experiences impacted their academic achievement. It

was hypothesized that there would be a difference between genders in how their educational

experiences effected their academic achievement through literature and the Social Learning

Theory. Survey data was statistically analyzed using Independent T-tests and Cross tabulations.

Results indicated mixed support for our hypothesis where we found a statistical significant

difference between genders with the majority of males agreeing that sports related extracurricular

activities during elementary school positively impacted their academic achievement.

Implications for practitioners are that it cannot be assumed that academic achievement during

elementary school can be determined by gender based on the participant’s early childhood

education experiences. Future research would benefit greatly from a large national, randomized

sample that would be inclusive of participant’s lived experiences qualitative interviews to

provide helpful information on the relationship between gender and how early childhood

experiences could impact academic achievement.

*Keywords: academic, achievement, students, school, experiences, elementary


Kindergarten was once known as a place where students could use creativity, exploration,

and play to learn. As times have changed education has become less focused on these hands-on

learning opportunities and more focused on strict academic state requirements for students to

demonstrate their achievement (Ray & Smith, 2010). “The importance of early childhood

education cannot be underestimated. Students’ early educational experiences are of interest since

early deficits are difficult, if not impossible, to resolve” (Fradd & Lee, 1999, as cited in Stull,

2013, p. 53). Our research question investigated the relationship between academic achievement,

gender differences, and how they correlate to early childhood education experiences. According

to Ray and Smith (2010) "children's preferred ways of learning appear to be at odds with typical

school practices and structure" (as cited in Cullingford, 2007, p. 5) The conflicting problem

between how children learn best and a school’s way of teaching have been known to have a

negative impact on a child's academic achievement. We are hoping to contribute to our field by

investigating if there are gendered differences on how early elementary experiences have

impacted the surveyed student’s views on education in relation to their academic achievement.

We will be using our findings to provide information to school systems about the importance of

creating a learning environment where all children can thrive and learn the most effectively.

“Parents of the highest achieving kindergarten students expected them to go further than those in

the lower achievement categories, and girls are expected to attain more education than boys”

(Stull, 2013, p. 61). The current literature does not adequately address if there are gender

differences within academic achievement.


Literature Review

There is limited research investigating the gendered differences between elementary early

childhood experiences and future academic achievement. This review was restricted to the

United States and for articles published within the last ten years. The Ebsocohost database was

used to search for articles that related to early childhood experiences and academic achievement.

Many of our articles were representative of all children and how their childhood experiences

impacted their academic functioning. The purpose of the review was to examine the relationship

between the different factors in a child’s surroundings and how their surroundings affected their

academic achievement based on gender. The articles were consistent in reflecting the importance

of family and school involvement, but the authors did not investigate differences in gender.

Family and school involvement are the two themes which were most common within our

articles. Parents who have a relationship with both their child and their child’s school help to

create a thriving learning environment for the child. One study found children who receive

assistance with their homework typically can have a more positive attitude towards their

education. Another study indicates that parents who showed a lack of empathy for their child’s

emotions, had a higher chance of negatively impacting their emotional development. Issues

addressed within our articles were the child’s economic status, lack of parental involvement, and

availability of after school programs. The populations focused on in these studies were adults,

children, and families. Lastly, the studies included recommendations for the improvement on the

social and emotional development of the child while stressing the importance of family and

school involvement (Monti, Pomerantz, & Rosiman, 2014; Stull, 2013; Denham, Bassett, &

Zinsser, 2012; Ray & Smith, 2010; Cosden, Morrison, Gutierrez, & Brown, 2004).


The purpose of the research by Monti et al. (2014) was to evaluate parents’ involvement

in their child’s education and how insensitive parenting can effect a child’s academic

achievement. The authors found that parents’ insensitivity can be directly related to the negative

effects of academic functioning both in the present and future. Insensitive parenting was present

when it was evident that the parents were uninvolved in the child’s education which affected the

child’s classroom engagement and performance on tests. Throughout this study they measured

three forms of the children’s academic functioning which were classroom engagement,

performance on standardized tests, and teacher accounts of academic competencies. They found

that the earlier the mothers displayed insensitivity, the poorer their children performed in each of

these forms of academic functioning. Overall, the researchers discovered that the parent’s

involvement in their children’s early education directly related to helping children achieve

academically.

Stull (2013) studied how a family’s socioeconomic status (SES) affected a child’s

educational achievement. The research focused specifically on Kindergarteners in the United

States. They discovered that the desire a parent has for their children to get a Bachelor’s degree

increases with the family SES. For this a meditation model was used to indicate the direct effects

of the family’s SES score on achievement. Research found that the direct effects were greater.

When looking at parents’ expectations, they found minority student parents were more

ambitious. When comparing boys to girls, they found girls were expected to be more

academically successful. To conclude, Stull provided little information on why girls were

expected to achieve higher than boys academically.

The purpose of the research by Denham et al. (2012) was to explore the different roles

teachers have in the classroom, contributing to the development of young children’s emotional


competence. In addition to the main research the author presents results from previous testing of

the effects of positive role modeling from the caregiver at an early age. This study presented

how important an emotional competent caregiver is. This leads to the positive effects it has on

children’s understanding of proper emotional behavior throughout their pre-school and

elementary school years. The author also explores the teachers in training and how there is a lack

of preparation to encourage emotional competence in the classroom. According to the article

there needs to be more coordinated efforts to understand how teachers can contribute their

knowledge to support children’s emotions.

Ray and Smith (2010) studied a day in kindergarten from the perspective of the whole

child which according to the article is defined as a child’s cognitive and emotional development.

The study reviewed current research on the best practices used in the classroom to help enhance

a child’s academic performance as well as the impact that family and social experiences have on

the child. This study relates how teacher student relationships have positive effects on children

in both their spelling and grammar during their preschool and kindergarten years. The article

concludes with information about the movement to remove an atmosphere filled with play and

exploration such as recess, and instead incorporating more of a learning type of environment.

This research also shows the possible negative outcomes children may face if their early

education is spent on learning instead of exploring their thoughts and becoming more socially

active from childhood play. This is due to strict educational policies that have been put into

place which limits teachers’ freedom of incorporating play into the classroom.

Research by Cosden et al. (2004) studied the effects of homework programs and

extracurricular activities on a child’s academic success. Studies have shown children who

participate in an organized after-school activity have a higher educational outcome. They have


found after-school homework programs provide students with the necessary structure and

direction they need. Students also are provided with assistance in their academics as well as

learning the importance of studying. In conclusion, Cosden et al. (2004) shows through his

research that after school programs can help children achieve academically, build relationships

within their school, reduce stress, and help them to achieve academically.

The literature (Monti et al., 2014; Stull 2013; Denham et al., 2012; Ray & Smith, 2010;

Cosden et al., 2004) has established the importance of the relationship between the child’s

surroundings and the different factors which impact their academic success. One of the

problems these studies have not addressed revolve around these experiences and how they are

different based on the child’s gender. This can affect how successful a child becomes as they

advance through their academic and professional career. This quantitative study examined the

relationship between academic achievements according to early childhood experiences based on

gender in a sample of college students.

Theoretical Framework

The theory used to inform this study was the Social Learning Theory. This theory shows

us that modeled behavior for an individual is displayed by the primary caregiver. These

experiences the child has from the caregiver and/or their family can display either positive or

negative effects depending on how direct or indirect the caregiver and/or family is (Weis, 2005).

This can affect their academic success in their future by not having specific coping mechanisms

because of stress and negative attitudes towards another individual. Children who experience a

disturbed attachment usually have poor supervision from their caregiver and have a lack of

opportunity with basic problem solving skills (Bengtson, Acock, Allen, Dilworth-Anderson, &

Klein, 2005). According to the Social Learning Theory individuals learn from one another by


observing other’s behaviors and attitudes. Through an individual’s observations they in turn

learn how to behave through modeling by the primary caregiver.

Social Learning Theory would be applicable to the early childhood experiences that

affect the child’s academic success either negatively or positively depending on their parent

involvement, social and emotional development, extracurricular activities, and their social class.

Children learn through social media and their relationships with family and peers through

modeling within their society (Bengtson, et al., 2005). Teacher and child relationships can be

viewed as being constructive or destructive in relation to their academic achievement. Gender

differences may have different effects on the child’s academic achievement based on their

relationships with individuals who play an active role in their life. According to Aidan Sammons

(2009), a child is likely to behave more like those that are similar to themselves and it is also

more probable to imitate behavior modeled by people the same sex. Throughout research it has

been known that individuals learn, react, and develop differently and that girls and boys have

different punishments and reinforcements for their behavior. For example Dweck et al. (1978)

found that “teachers reinforced boys for getting things right but reinforced girls for working

neatly” (Sammons, 2009, p. 2). According to Aidan Sammons (2009), there were a number of

studies in US during the 1970’s where the findings did not reflect gender socializations.

Although the studies showed variations, a child’s achievement could benefit their academic

accomplishment while in college if their experiences in their childhood were modeled

appropriately by those who were significant and constant in their life.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this study was threefold: 1) to examine the gendered relationship between

academic achievement and early childhood elementary experiences in a sample of college


students; 2) to develop a reliable survey instrument which measures college students’ attitudes

towards their early childhood elementary experiences and academic achievement; and 3) to

increase awareness on the issue of gender differences in connection with academic achievement

and an individual’s early childhood experiences so school districts can further enhance a child’s

academic achievement.

The question central to this study was: “Are there gendered differences in how early

childhood experiences during elementary school have impacted academic achievement?” We

predicted we will find a relationship between gender differences and academic achievement in

elementary school based on early childhood experiences. This hypothesis is asked upon evidence

from theory. The Social Learning Theory (Sammons, 2009) states children observe behaviors of

the people who surround them, which some relate to gender. Theory has found that “at a later

time they may imitate the behavior they have observed” and they may do this regardless of

whether the behavior is “gender appropriate” or not but there are a number of processes which

make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behavior the society deems appropriate for its

sex” (Sammons, 2009, p. 1).

Methods

Participants

This study was conducted at a small Midwestern University. Below is a table of our

demographic information for the participants who completed this study.

Demographic TableGender Males: 47 Females: 27 Total: 74

Age 18-19: 5 20-21: 29 22-23: 22 24-25: 10 26+: 8Level of Study Junior: 26 Senior: 43 Sophomore: 5

Major: Human Development & Family Studies: 27

Electric Engineering Technology: 23

Other: 24


Research Design

The purpose of this non-random survey research was to evaluate college male and female

students on early childhood elementary experiences and academic achievement. We used a

cross-sectional research design in order to examine the attitudes of the participants on their

experiences in elementary school and how that has impacted their ability to achieve academically

at one point in time. Paper survey questionnaires were used for data collection. The rationale

for using this method is that paper questionnaires were best suited for meeting strict coursework

deadlines due to the rapid nature of our research course, sample data availability, and

convenience.

The population for this study was male and female college students that attend a small

Midwestern University. The sample consisted of 47 males and 27 females. The sampling design

used in this study was non-random and purposive; therefore, we surveyed using a particular

population (college male and female students) at a small Midwestern University that possessed

the relevant information regarding a student’s ability to achieve academically because of their

early childhood elementary school experiences. We did not randomize given that we had a small

sample size and needed every participant as well as being inclusive in the classroom. Secondly,

the study used the snowball sampling design; therefore, we networked through our research

supervisor, previous class instructors for our female dominated courses, and used the university

staff directory to contact two professors with male dominated courses. This study has been

approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB). The ethical protection of human subjects was

provided through the completion of the IRB’s Human Subjects training.


Date Collection Instrument

The survey was designed to examine college male and female student’s perspectives of

their early childhood elementary education experiences and the impact it had on their academic

achievement. The survey included a brief description of the study, definition of any terms not

commonly known, risks and benefits, time and commitment, confidentiality, voluntary

participation, our contact information as well as our supervisor’s contact information, and

instructions for completing the survey.

The survey consisted of four demographic questions regarding the participants’ gender,

age, level of study, and major, as well as eleven closed-ended statements based on a 6-point

Likert scale. The Likert scale was used to measure the intensity of the participants’ perspectives

ranging from one (strongly disagree) to six (strongly agree). Statements and questions for the

survey were developed by reviewing early childhood experiences, academic achievement, and

theory. For sample questions, please refer to Appendix A.

The survey instrument had both face validity and content validity. Face validity refers to

the concept that there is a logical correlation between the survey statements and the research

question as well as correlation between the survey statements and the reviewed literature. The

survey demonstrated face validity since the statements and questions on the survey were

produced from having reviewed the literature; thus these questions evaluated college male and

female student’s perspectives on their early childhood elementary experiences and how they

have impacted their academic achievement. Content validity refers to the extent to which the

survey statements and questions address the concepts reviewed within the literature. The survey

statements and questions addressed early childhood elementary education experiences including;


value of education growing up, positive experiences in the classroom, extracurricular activities,

parent involvement, socioeconomic status, and overall satisfaction with their academic

achievement. The survey was piloted to our research supervisor to assess the clarity and

relevance of the statements. The supervisor cleared the survey for distribution.

Procedure

The survey process began when we emailed the four professors to explain our research

and ask if they would be willing to collaborate with us and allow their students to be surveyed.

The four professors responded to our email with permission to survey their students and we then

set up specific dates and times to distribute the surveys. We did not attempt to randomize our

sample because we were inclusive in the classroom and we needed every participant. Data

collection began November 10th and ended on November 17th, 2015.

The survey questionnaire was distributed to the classes and was administered to the male

and female students by us. After introducing ourselves we gave a brief description of our study

and its purpose, making it clear that their participation in our survey was completely voluntary.

The implied consent was thoroughly read by us and included; a description of our study, risks

and benefits, time commitment, confidentiality, right to withdraw, and IRB approval. The

students were then given time to complete the surveys after the professor and ourselves left the

room giving the student’s time to complete the survey without any distractions or influence

which may impact their responses. After completing the survey, the students placed them

directly into an envelope that was then sealed by us after all of the participants were finished.

The completed surveys were kept securely in one of our homes until data analysis could be

completed.


Data Analysis Plan

The data was first “cleaned” and checked for missing data. The “cleaned” surveys were

then coded using acronyms for each variable. All demographic questions were given a three

letter acronym: Gender of the participants (GEN); age of the participants (AGE); level of study

(LOS); major (MAJ). Each survey statement was also given a three letter acronym: My early

childhood elementary school experiences have impacted my current academic achievement

(EXP); Growing up education was valued in my family (EVF); My academic achievement was

high in elementary school (AHE); My experiences in a classroom during elementary school were

positive (ECP); I have positive experiences overall with my elementary school teachers (PET);

Sports related extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted my

academic achievement (SPA); Non-sports related extracurricular activities during elementary

school positively impacted my academic achievement (NSP); My parents or members of my

family were actively involved in my academics during elementary school (PAI); My parents or

members of my family encouraged me to achieve in elementary school (PEA); My

socioeconomic status affected my academic achievement in elementary school (SSA); I am

currently satisfied with my academic achievement (CSA).

The data was analyzed using computer program Statistical Package for the Social

Sciences (SPSS). The individual was used as the level of analysis. Since we will be comparing

groups, our research will involve descriptive statistics: frequencies, cross-tabulations, mean

comparisons and Independent T-Tests, as well as Cronbach’s Alpha reliability analysis.

Results


The investigated in this study was: Are there gendered differences in how early childhood

experiences during elementary school have impacted student’s academic achievement? The

computer program Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the

descriptive statistical data. We will report the results for hypothesis testing in this section and

include the review of other results in the Discussion. Independent T-tests were conducted and

reliability testing was also completed.

All variables were subjected to frequency distribution analysis. Results indicated that

there was no missing data.

Hypothesis #1: We predicted we would find a relationship between gender and academic

achievement in elementary school based on early childhood experiences in all of our variables.

We found mixed support for our hypothesis in that we found a statistically significant difference

between the genders with the majority of males agreeing with the statement: sports related

extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted my academic

achievement. The mean comparison for this variable was 4.36 for males and 3.30 for females.

This support is provided in the Individual T-tests, Table 3 below. Mixed support was also found

for our hypothesis showing gender differences in six of our variables (EXP, SPA, NSP, PAI,

SSA, and CSA) in the Cross-Tabulations table. These will be further discussed in our discussion

(please see appendices for Cross-Tabulations, Table 1 and Compare Means, Table 2).

Table 3

Independent T-tests

Gender

Variable

Males Females t df Sig.

SPA 4.36 3.30 3.032 72 *0.003


(1.36) (1.61)Note. (SPA)=Sports related extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted my academic achievement. *significant @ p<=.05, two tailed. Standard deviations appear in parens below means.

A reliability analysis was run to indicate if the eleven variables (EXP, EVF, AHE, ECP,

PET, SPA, NSP, PAI, PEA, SSA, CSA) were a reliable index to measure the major concept: The

relationship between gender, academic achievement, and early childhood elementary

experiences. Cronbach’s Alpha is a measure of reliability and in this analysis was 0.798. This

value indicated that the survey questions were a reliable measure of the major concept.

Qualitative comments were received at the end of a few of our surveys. The qualitative

comments were not substantive and will not be further analyzed.

Discussion

Existing research has established that education and early childhood experiences have an

impact on the students’ academic achievement. Preceding studies have revealed that “Parents of

the highest achieving kindergarten students expected them to go further than those in the lower

achievement categories, and girls are expected to attain more education than boys” (Stull, 2013,

p. 61). Research on early elementary childhood experiences and a students’ academic

achievement has not gone in depth with whether or not there are specific gender differences. Due

to this, the relationship between gender and the effects of childhood experiences in relation to

academic achievement is a question in need of more exploration. Our hypothesis, stating that

there would be a difference between genders in how their past educational experiences have

effected their current academic achievement, found mixed support through our data. Analysis

across the variables will be evaluated using Independent T-tests and Cross-tabulations. Out of the

eleven questions in the survey we found only one of them to have a significant gender difference

within our Independent T-test tables and six variables within our Cross-tabulations. Limitations


to this study; implications for practitioners and future research; and the conclusion will be further

deliberated.

Our hypothesis, predicting that males and females would differ based on their past

educational experiences and how that has impacted their current academic achievement, was

developed considering a review of both the literature and the Social Learning Theory.

Considering that past research can only tell us so much regarding gender differences in relation

to their academic achievement, our assessment of literature was a start to understand how early

elementary childhood school experiences can affect each child in a positive way. Seeing that our

data presented mixed support we were not surprised by our findings that with some experiences

males and females differed when asked how their early elementary childhood experiences

impacted their academic achievement. We found support for our hypothesis through our

Independent T-tests that shows there was one variable with a significant statistical gender mean

difference. This variable was (SPA), which evaluated whether or not the participant’s sports

related extracurricular activities during elementary school had a positive impact on the

participant’s academic achievement. A higher percentage of females strongly disagreed that

sports related extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted their

academic achievement when compared to males. The mean difference between genders was an

average answer of 4.36 for males and 3.30 for females. The Social Learning Theory states that

“the main way that gender behaviors are learned is through the process of observational

learning” and “men are consistently found to be more aggressive than women, regardless of

culture” (Summons, 2009, p. 1-2). In the past sports-related activities have been dominated by

the male population. Although times have changed and females are offered similar opportunities

in sports-related activities, biases still exist. Sports-related extracurricular activities can have a


positive effect on a student’s overall academic achievement. Cosden (2004) mentions that

students who are a part of extracurricular activities, which include sports, service clubs, and art

activities are less likely to drop out of school and more likely to have a higher academic

achievement than their peers. Students who are participating in sporting activates learn these

skills at a faster rate than their peers, which helps support their academic achievement and

ultimately changes how they view their educational experience.

We found gender differences in six variables through our Cross Tabulations. The variable

(EXP) assessed whether or not the participants’ early childhood elementary school experiences

impacted their current academic achievement. Our data from this variable did support our

hypothesis showing differences between genders. Denham et al. (2012) reported that

encouraging responses from teachers would help children become more tolerating and regulating

to emotions. This literature suggests that teachers put more emphasis on responding to children

in the classroom in an encouraging way. Teachers in general have diverse relationships with

each of their students’. Through our data we see that there was a higher percent of females who

strongly agreed with this variable. This may be due to the type of feedback that teachers give to

female students when compared to male students. According to Social Learning Theory, research

has shown that for different behaviors girls and boys do not receive the same reinforcements and

punishments (Sammons, 2009). “While it is clear that teacher-child relationships in kindergarten

should focus on fostering warmth and trust to support all children’s early school adjustment and

subsequent long-term academic success, it appears that this is easier with some children than

with others” (Ray & Smith, 2010, p. 9).

The following variable (NSP) assessed whether the participants non-sports related

extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted their academic


achievement. Our data from this variable did support our hypothesis as a difference between the

genders did exist. It shows that a higher percentage of males slightly disagreed that non-sports

related extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted their academic

achievement when compared to females. “Participation in after-school homework programs can

help students maintain their academic standing, feel more bonded to their school, reduce family

stress, and develop attitudes and skills that would facilitate their success in school after the

program is over” (Cosden et al., 2004, p. 224). These structured activities illustrations how being

involved helps students learn the techniques of budgeting time between classwork and other

activities. Having a difference between males and females shows how both genders have

different viewpoints on how non-sports related extracurricular activities can impact their

academic success. Our data also shows us that the time spent outside of school with sports and

non-sports related extracurricular activities differs by gender.

The next variable (PAI) assessed weather or not the participant’s parents or members of

their family were actively involved in their academics during elementary school. Our data from

this variable did support our hypothesis as a difference between the genders did exist. It shows a

higher percentage of males slightly agreed that the participant’s parents or members of their

family were actively involved in their academics during elementary school when compared to

females. Monti et al. (2014) describes that parents who were not as involved in their child’s

education between 1st and 5th grade were more likely to not be as engaged in the classroom. This

problem has implications for the child’s academic achievement because the literature shows

having a lack of parenting decreases positive test scores for their child. We were not surprised

by our findings because any child who is not getting the assistance from home is not going to

perform as well during their early childhood preschool and elementary school years than what


they are capable of. Even though males slightly agreed more than females on this statement,

there was a higher percentage of females who strongly agreed that their parents or members of

their family were actively involved in their education. It is important to consider why these

gender difference exist. We must look at the different relationships that both males and females

have with their parents or members of their family. Males may feel less obligated to have their

parents or members of their family be actively involved in their academics during elementary

school and females may feel that it is vital for them to achieve academically.

The fifth variable (SSA) evaluated whether the participant’s socioeconomic status

affected their academic achievement in elementary school. “In a nationally representative sample

of students enrolled in grades 6 through 12 in US schools, Lippma et al. (2008) found that the

higher the parental income, the greater the percentage of parents who expected their children to

finish college” (Stull, 2013, p. 57). Our data from this variable did support our hypothesis as a

difference between the genders did exist. It showed that a higher percent of females slightly

agreed that while in elementary school their socioeconomic status did affect their academic

achievement when compared to males. “Parents of the highest achieving kindergarten students

expected them to go further than those in the lower achievement categories, and girls are

expected to attain more education than boys” (Stull, 2013, p. 61). It is important to consider the

differences in the male and females responses to this variable. Females often put a great deal of

value on education, which could be due to the negative views in the past of female achievement

in education. “Until the middle 1970’s, when other scholars sought to extend the Wisconsin

model to females and/or minority (largely African American) populations, researchers tacitly

assumed that their findings, based predominantly on white males, could be generalized to all

students at all grade levels, not just those white male students attending high school” (Stull,


2013, p. 54). It is important to be aware that by assessing one population, that assumptions must

not be made for other populations. As a result researchers began to express concern that there is a

lack of understanding the different patterns of achievement of different populations such as

females (Rigsby et al., 1997, as cited in Stull, 2013). Women have proven that education can be

highly important to them as well as achieving academically to show the world that education can

be valued by all, which brings us into our next variable.

The sixth variable (CSA) assessed whether the participants were currently satisfied with

their academic achievement. Our data from this variable did support our hypothesis as a

difference between genders also did exist. The data showed that a higher percent of females

strongly agreed that they are currently satisfied with their academic achievement when compared

to males. “Regardless of the form of intervention, it is clear that students at-risk of reading

difficulties who receive intervention in kindergarten tend to be more successful in literacy in the

future, achieving better scores at the end of the year and becoming better readers by the end of

first grade” (Simmons et al. 2007, as cited in Ray & Smith, 2010, p. 7). From our literature our

understanding is that when comparing girls and boys, girls are expected to attain more education.

This in turn shows us why females may be currently satisfied with their academic achievement.

The high expectation is a source of motivation to females and we can assume that our results

reflect this expectation.

From the elven variables that we provided within this study there were five from our

Cross-tabulations that showed little difference and in turn did not support our hypothesis. The

following variables explain their relation to the research study and why the variables may not

support our hypothesis. The seventh variable (EVF) assessed if education was valued in the

participant’s family when growing up. “In a study of early adolescents, 84 percent of whom were


economically disadvantaged and 42 percent of whom were African American, Guttman and

Mcloyd (2000) found that parents of high achievers used more specific strategies to help with

homework and had more supportive conversations” (Stull, 2013, p. 57). According to our data

this variable did not support our hypothesis as it showed little difference between the genders

existed. While this variable did not support our hypothesis, it is important not to overlook the

value of education when growing up and how that can impact academic achievement. “Dearing

and colleagues (2006) found that achievement disparities between children of less versus highly

educated mothers were moderated by parents’ involvement in children’s education” (Monti et al.,

2014, p. 860). It is crucial to consider the factor of the parent’s education and what type of

education they have received. It is important to note that both genders can likewise be impacted

by this variable.

The next variable (AHE) evaluated whether or not the participant’s academic

achievement was high in elementary school. Our data from this variable also did not support our

hypothesis showing little differences between genders based on their academic achievement in

elementary school. It is still imperative that we not overlook the importance of our participant’s

views on their academic achievement in elementary school. “Currently, the goal that children

achieve skills that seem developmentally significant at certain ages has replaced and discounted

concerns that children engage in developmentally appropriate behavior, especially for ways of

learning” (Ranz-Smith, 2007, as cited in Ray & Smith, 2010, p. 5). When discussing

participant’s academic achievement during this time in school there can be many influences

associated with high attainment for both genders. “To understand how experiences not directly

related to the classroom impact kindergarten achievement, the transition to kindergarten, parent

involvement, and retention also are analyzed” (Ray & Smith, 2010, p. 6). Not only are


experiences outside of the classroom imperative to academic achievement for both genders, so

are the experiences that one has in the classroom environment.

The following variable (ECP) assessed whether the participant’s experiences in the

classroom during elementary school were positive or not. Our data from this variable did not

support our hypothesis showing that there was little difference between genders based on the

participant’s positives experiences in a classroom during elementary school. . “Positive

kindergarten teacher-student relationships can make the transition to formal schooling more

constructive and promote social and emotional health in young learners” (Murray et al., 2008, as

cited in Ray & Smith, 2010, p. 9). Experiences in the classrooms when it comes to academic

achievement is significant even if little gender differences were found. From our data we found

that large percent’s of both male and female participants agreed or strongly agreed with this

variable. “As children work and play together, they create their own culture. This culture is a

results of sharing materials and routines, as well as forming values and attitudes about their

environment” (Ray & Smith, 2010, p. 9). The classroom environment for all students’ can play a

vital role in specifically both gender’s abilities to achieve academically.

The succeeding variable (PET) weighed the participant’s feelings about whether they

have positive experiences overall with their elementary school teachers. From our data

associated with this variable we see that it did not support our hypothesis showing little

difference between genders. Once again although we did not see any relation with gender

differences and having positive experiences overall with the participant’s elementary school

teachers, it is still imperative to not overlook teacher-child relationships. Males and females look

to their teacher for support and guidance. “Teacher-child relationships in both preschool and

kindergarten were found to have small but significant effects on all aspects of children’s 1st grade


academic competence except vocabulary development (Pianta and Stuhlan, 2004, as cited in Ray

& Smith, 2010, p. 9). From our data we found that for both males and females the percentages

for agreed or strongly agreed were both high for this variable showing us that teacher-child

relationships were important during elementary school.

The final variable (PEA) considered the parents and members of the participant’s

family’s encouragement for them to achieve during elementary school. According to our data

this variable did not support our hypothesis showing that there was little difference between

genders. Our data shows us that there are high percentages that agreed or strongly agreed that the

participant’s parents or members of their family encouraged them to achieve in elementary

school. “In particular, family positivity seems to promote emotion knowledge, perhaps through

affecting children’s receptivity to learning. Although exposure to well-modulated negative

emotion can be positively related to emotion knowledge” (Garner et al., 1994, as cited in

Denham et al., 2012, p. 139). Although this variable showed little difference based on gender it

is still vital to know how this variable impacts our research. From our literature we see that when

there is a high percentage of parent involvement and encouragement this can lead to a higher

percentage of academic achievement no matter the gender. Parental “involvement may highlight

the value of learning to children, which may heighten their engagement in school, thereby

enhancing their achievement” (Epstein, 1988, Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994, as cited in Monti et

al., 2014, p. 860).

Participants were asked if there was anything else that they would like us, the

investigators, to know. We asked them to right their comments on the back of the survey. The

qualitative comments did not show a consistent theme, so therefore we were unable to use them

in our research.


Limitations

The greatest limitation to this study was the nonrandom sample where we used a

particular population which prevented us from generalizing our findings to a larger population.

This study was conducted at a small Midwestern University where we primarily focused on four

courses and two specific majors dominated by male and female students. Additionally, this study

shows a limited variation on a 1-6 scale. This shows that when the participant’s responded there

was a boundary to how clear their response could be. Furthermore, our results showed mixed

support for our hypothesis. Due to this, we believe that by having a larger sample of students it

would have made the support or non-support of our hypothesis more evident to the gender

difference in early elementary education experiences. It is important to consider the amount of

male and females that participated in our study. From our data we see that the genders were not

balanced and had a higher number of male participants. We believe that if there was a more

balanced number of genders then our study might have shown more or less support for our

hypothesis. One last lamination is that this study was conducted over a fifteen week university

course. This meant that research had to be conducted within a strict timeframe that did not allow

much flexibility.

Implications for Practitioners

Practitioners must be aware, first and foremost, that it cannot be assumed that academic

achievement during early elementary school can be determined by gender. This is due to our

results which showed mixed support for our hypothesis. The mixed support for our hypothesis

shows that with specific variables there is gender differences. Our data shows us that gender


differences exist in sports related extracurricular activities, non-sports related extracurricular

activities, parent involvement, and socioeconomic status. Despite gender academic expectations,

awareness of these positive effects of early elementary school childhood experiences needs to be

addressed to the school systems as well as the student’s parents/care givers. It is important that

the school systems are aware of a positive learning environment where each child can thrive and

their needs are being met. Practitioners, specially school administrators and educators should be

informed about the importance of their students achieving academically while they are young,

but also being aware of how their elementary school experiences can impact their future

academic achievement. Many students who learn best by the experiences such as social and

emotional needs, parent involvement, extracurricular activities, and social class will be able to

use these experiences to help themselves and enhance their future. Additionally, it is crucial to

conduct further research and present statistical data on this subject to increase the awareness of

other professionals in the Family Studies field. More training for the school systems on how

these experiences can impact student’s while in elementary school could result in higher

academic achievement for both their present and future students.

Implications for Future Research

Future research on the topic of gender differences in early elementary school experiences

and how that impacts a student’s academic achievement would benefit greatly from a large

national, randomized sample that would be inclusive of participant’s lived experiences

qualitative interviews. It is recommended that future research is continued on this topic as there

is little to no research on the gender differences that may exist in academic achievement while in

elementary school. Additionally, it would be necessary to explore this topic further by

broadening the age range of this study. This would allow researchers to learn effects of early


childhood elementary school experiences and the impacts they have on academic achievement

throughout the history of education. This could examine this research problem longitudinally and

explore the evolution of these experiences throughout the lifespan of an individual. One other

way to get a larger perspective would be to do a universal study that would be culturally diverse.

A study of this extent would help to generalize whether or not there are gender differences in

early childhood experiences that impact academic achievement around the world.

Conclusion

Our research is just a building block within our field for future research on this topic to

provide more data on whether or not there are gender differences between elementary school

experiences and academic achievement. The mixed support for our hypothesis leads us to believe

that this is a complex issue that needs to be studied from countless angels and perspectives. In

order for a more clear view of this subject to be established, a mixed methods approach of both

qualitative and quantitative data would be most beneficial. The addition of qualitative responses

would help researchers understand what important experiences during elementary school are

vital to a student’s academic achievement. The need for education and training when it comes to

the student’s academic achievement must become a priority for those who educate our future

students. Education is the foundation of an individual’s career. This being said it is important to

put great value on early elementary school experiences knowing that they can affect the future

academic achievement of our students.


Reference List

Bengston, V.L., Acock, A.C., Allen, K.R., Dilworth-Anderson, P., Klein, D.M., (2005). Sourcebook of family

theory and research. Sage Publications, Inc.

Chibucos, T.R., Leite, R.W. (2005). Readings in family theory. Sage Publications, Inc.

Cosden, M., Morrison, G., Gutierrez, L., & Brown, M. (2004). The effects of homework programs and

after-school activities on school success. Theory Into Practice, 43(3), 220-226.

Denham, S., Bassett, H., & Zinsser, K. (2012). Early childhood teachers as socializers of young children's

emotional competence. Early Childhood Education Journal, 40(3), 137-143. doi:10.1007/s10643-

012-0504-2

Monti, J. D., Pomerantz, E. M., & Roisman, G. I. (2014). Can parents' involvement in children's education

offset the effects of early insensitivity on academic functioning? Journal Of Educational

Psychology, 106(3), 859-869. doi:10.1037/a0035906

Ray, K., & Smith, M. (2010). The kindergarten child: What teachers and administrators need to know to

promote academic success in all children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 38(1), 5-18.

doi:10.1007/s10643-010-0383-3

Stull, J. C. (2013). Family socioeconomic status, parent expectations, and a child's

achievement. Research In Education, 9053-67.

Summons, A. (2009). Gender: social learning theory. Developmental Psychology. Retrieved on

November 8th, 2015, from

http://psychlotron.org.uk/newResources/developmental/AS_AQB_gender_SLTBasics.pdf

Yelgün, A. a., & Karaman, İ. i. (2015). What are the factors reducing the academic achievement in a

primary school located in a neighborhood with a low socioeconomic status?. Education &

Science / Egitim Ve Bilim, 40(179), 251-268. doi:10.15390/EB.2015.2331


Appendix A

Title: The Relationship between Gender, Academic Achievement, & Early Childhood Elementary Experiences

Investigators:

Ashley Weimar [email protected] Tim Jahnke [email protected]

Description:

We are currently students in HDFS 420: Family Research and Methodology at UW-Stout, supervised by our Professor, Susan Wolfgram, Ph.D. As part of course requirements, we are doing a research study on the relationship between academic achievement, gender differences and how they correlate to early childhood education experiences. According to Ray and Smith "children's preferred ways of learning appear to be at odds with typical school practices and structure" 2010 (as cited in Cullingford 2007, p. 5). There is a body of research which studied the impact of early childhood experiences in relation to academic achievement, but there is a lack of information focused on gender differences. The purpose of our study is to observe the relationship of gender and early childhood elementary school experiences that affect their academic achievement.

Academic achievement- the skills developed in courses taught in schools and determined with the scores given by teachers and the expression of the acquired knowledge (Carter & Good, 1973). Academic achievement can also be expressed as behavioral changes in all program areas falling outside the psychomotor and sensory development of individuals” (Yelgun & Karaman, 2015, pg. 251).

Risks and Benefits:

The risks of taking our survey are minimal. You can withdraw from taking the survey at any time. If support is needed, please contact the Counseling Center on campus: X2468, 410 Bowman Hall.

The main benefit of taking the survey is that you will allow us to gain the knowledge of what the relationship is between gender and early childhood elementary school experiences that affected your academic achievement. With this information we will be able to increase the awareness of

mailto:[email protected]



creating an environment where each child can thrive to their full potential academically. Our research will contribute to the educational field by applying the knowledge we find to help school administrators and curriculum directors take further action to prepare teachers for how important it is to create the best learning environment for their students to achieve academically.

Time Commitment:

This survey should take no more than 5-10 minutes of your time.

Confidentiality:

Your name will not be included on any documents; each survey has a number only. We do not believe that you can be identified from any of the information that is obtained.

Right to Withdraw:

Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary. You may choose not to participate without any adverse consequences to you. However, should you choose to participate and later wish to withdraw from the study, there is no way to identify your anonymous document.

IRB Approval: This study has been reviewed and approved by The University of Wisconsin-Stout's Institutional Review Board (IRB). The IRB has determined that this study meets the ethical obligations required by federal law and University policies. If you have questions or concerns regarding this study please contact the Investigator or Advisor. If you have any questions, concerns, or reports regarding your rights as a research subject, please contact the IRB Administrator.

Investigators: Supervising Professor:

Ashley Weimar Susan Wolfgram, [email protected] 715-232-4091

[email protected] [email protected] IRB Administrator

Elizabeth Buchanan, Director, Research Services 152 Vocational Rehabilitation Bldg. UW-Stout Menomonie, WI 54751 715-232-2477 [email protected]





Statement of Consent: By completing the following survey, I am agreeing to participate in the study entitled:

The Relationship between Gender, Academic Achievement, & Early Childhood Elementary Experiences

*PARTICIPANTS MUST BE 18 YEARS OLD

The Relationship between Gender, Academic Achievement, & Early Childhood Elementary Experiences

No. ___

Gender: ___ (Male) ___ (Female) ______________ (Self-identify gender) Age: ___ 18-19 ___ 0-21 ___ 22-23 ___ 24-25 ___ 26+

Level of Study: ___ Junior ___ Senior

Major: ________________________________________

Please respond to the following statements by circling the number that BEST represents your attitudes towards early childhood elementary experiences and academic achievement.

Strongly Disagree-1 Disagree-2 Slightly Disagree-3 Slightly Agree-4 Agree-5 Strongly Agree-6

My early childhood elementary school experiences have impacted my current academic achievement.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Growing up, education was valued in my family.

1 2 3 4 5 6

My academic achievement was high in elementary school.

1 2 3 4 5 6

My experiences in a classroom during elementary school were positive.


1 2 3 4 5 6

NEXT PAGE PLEASE

I had positive experiences overall with my elementary school teachers.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Sports related extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted my academic achievement.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Non-sports related extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted my academic achievement.

1 2 3 4 5 6

My parents or members of my family were actively involved in my academics during elementary school.

1 2 3 4 5 6

My parents or members of my family encouraged me to achieve in elementary school.

1 2 3 4 5 6

My socioeconomic status affected my academic achievement in elementary school.

1 2 3 4 5 6

I am currently satisfied with my academic achievement.

1 2 3 4 5 6


For Everyone: Is there anything else that you would like us to know? If so, please add your comments on the back.

*Thank you so much for participating in our research studyAppendix B

Table 2

Compare Means

GEN EXP EVF AHE ECP PET

Male:Mean: 4.00 5.15 4.55 4.89 4.85

SD: 1.37 1.22 1.18 1.07 1.10

Range: 5.00 4.00 5.00 4.00 5.00

Female:Mean: 4.48 5.26 4.74 4.56 4.93

SD: 1.28 0.94 1.20 1.31 1.04

Range: 5.00 4.00 5.00 5.00 4.00

GEN SPA NSP PAI PEA SSA

Male:Mean: 4.36 4.13 4.64 5.11 3.64

SD: 1.36 1.26 1.29 1.11 1.55

Range: 5.00 5.00 5.00 4.00 5.00

Female:Mean: 3.30 4.30 4.22 5.07 4.00

SD: 1.61 1.32 1.91 1.24 1.36

Range: 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00


GEN CSA

Male:Mean: 4.89

SD: 1.01

Range: 4.00

Female:Mean: 5.19

SD: 1.14

Range: 4.00

Note. (GEN)=Gender; (EXP) = Early childhood elementary school experiences impacted my current academic achievement; (EVF) = Education was valued in my family; (AHE) = Academic achievement high in elementary school; (ECP) = Classroom experiences were positive in elementary school; (PET) = Positive experiences with teachers in elementary school; (SPA) = Sports related extracurricular activities during elementary school positively my academic achievement; (NSP) = Non-sports related extracurricular activities during elementary school impacted my academic achievement; (PAI) = Parents or members of family were involved in my academics during elementary school; (PEA) = Parents or members of family encouraged me to achieve in elementary school; (SSA) = My SES affected my academic achievement in elementary school; (CSA) = Currently satisfied with my academic achievement.


Appendix C

Table 1

Cross-Tabulations

EXP GEN SD D SLD SLA A SA Total Male 8.5% 4.3

% 17.0% 29.8% 29.8% 10.6% 100.0%

Female

3.7% 3.7%

7.4% 37.0% 22.2% 25.9% 100.0%

EVF GEN SD D SLD SLA A SA Total Male 0.0% 8.5

% 4.3% 2.1% 34.0

% 51.1% 100.0%

Female

0.0% 3.7%

0.0% 11.1% 37.0%

48.1% 100.0%

AHE GEN SD D SLD SLA A SA Total Male 2.1% 4.3

% 10.6% 21.3% 42.6% 19.1% 100.0%

Female

3.7% 0.0%

7.4% 25.9% 33.3% 29.6% 100.0%

ECP GEN SD D SLD SLA A SA Total Male 0.0% 4.3% 4.3% 23.4% 34.0

% 34.0% 100.0%

Female

3.7% 3.7% 11.1% 22.2%

33.3%

25.9% 100.0%

PET GEN SD D SLD SLA A SA Total Male 2.1

% 4.3% 0.0%

21.3% 44.7% 27.7% 100.0%

Female 0.0%

3.7% 7.4% 11.1%

48.1% 29.6% 100.0%

SPA GEN SD D SLD SLA A SA Total Male 4.3% 8.5% 6.4%

29.8% 29.8% 21.3% 100.0%

Female

18.5% 14.8% 14.8% 37.0%

0.0% 14.8% 100.0%

NSPGEN SD D SLD SLA A SA Total


Male 4.3% 4.3%

19.1% 34.0% 23.4% 14.9% 100.0%

Female

7.4% 3.7%

3.7% 37.0% 33.3% 14.8% 100.0%

PAI GEN SD D SLD SLA A SA Total Male 4.3% 2.1% 8.5% 25.5% 29.8% 29.8% 100.0% Female 14.8

% 11.1% 7.4% 7.4% 22.2% 37.0% 100.0%

PEA GEN SD D SLD SLA A SA Total Male 0.0

% 6.4% 2.1%

10.6% 36.2% 44.7% 100.0%

Female 3.7%

0.0% 7.4% 11.1%

29.6% 48.1% 100.0%

SSA GEN SD D SLD SLA A SA Total Male 10.6% 14.9% 19.1%

25.5% 14.9% 14.9% 100.0%

Female

3.7% 11.1% 14.8% 40.7%

11.1% 18.5% 100.0%

CSA GEN SD D SLD SLA A SA Total Male 0.0

%2.1% 8.5%

17.0% 42.6% 29.8% 100.0%

Female 0.0%

3.7% 7.4% 11.1%

22.2% 55.6% 100.0%

Note. (GEN)=Gender of participant; (EXP) =My early childhood elementary school experiences have impacted my current academic achievement; (EVF) =Growing up, education was valued in my family. (AHE) =My academic achievement was high in elementary school; (ECP) =My experiences in a classroom during elementary school were positive; (PET) =I had positive experiences overall with my elementary school teachers; (SPA) =Sports related extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted my academic achievement; (NSP) =Non-sports related extracurricular activities during elementary school positively impacted my academic achievement; (PAI) =My parents or members of my family were actively involved in my academics during elementary school; (PEA) =My parents or members of my family encouraged me to achieve in elementary school; (SSA) =My socioeconomic status affected my academic achievement in elementary school; (CSA) =I am currently satisfied with my academic achievement.

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