Asa03 Proceeding 107565

8/8/2019 Asa03 Proceeding 107565

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RegionalDifferencesinGender-RoleAttitudes:

VariationsbyGenderandRace

J.JillSuitor*

DorothyMecom

SusanaGuerra

KimGusman

DepartmentofSociology

LouisianaStateUniversity

WewishtothankScottFeld,YoshinoriKamo,MichaelPatterson,KarlPillemer,andMonisa

Shackelfordfortheirhelpfulcommentsonearlierdraftsofthemanuscript.

PleasedirectallcorrespondencetoJ.JillSuitor,DepartmentofSociology,LouisianaState

University,BatonRouge,LA70803([email protected]).


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REGIONALDIFFERENCESINGENDER-ROLEATTITUDES:

VARIATIONSBYGENDERANDRACE

Abstract

InthispaperweusedatafromtheGeneralSocialSurvey(1977-1998)toexaminethe

effectsofregionongender-roleattitudes,focusingonvariationsbygenderandrace.The

findingscontributetoagrowingliteraturedemonstratingthecontinuationofadistinctive

southernculturewhichincludesmoretraditionalgender-roleattitudes.Further,thefindings

indicatethatregionplaysasimportantaroleinexplainingBlackwomensgender-roleattitudes

asthoseofwhitemenandwomen.Incontrasttoourhypotheses,bothsouthernBlackandwhite

womenheldsubstantiallymoretraditionalgender-roleattitudesthandidtheirnorthern

counterparts,suggestingthatthepersistenceofsoutherndistinctivenesscannotbeaccountedfor

entirelybythecontinuingconservativenessofwhitesouthernmen.


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REGIONALDIFFERENCESINGENDER-ROLEATTITUDES:

VARIATIONSBYGENDERANDRACE

Sociologistshavelongexpressedaninterestinregionaldifferencesinattitudesand

behaviorsparticularlydifferencesbetween"Southern"and"Northern"cultures.Studiesof

regionaldifferencesinactualbehaviorsandbeliefsabouttheexistenceofregionaldifferences

haveshownseveralconsistentpatternsacrossthepastthreedecades.Southernersareexpected,

bothbythemselvesandbynon-Southerners,tobemoresociable(Reed1972,1993),religious

(Reed1972,1993),traditionalregardingbothmoralissuesandgenderroles(Hurlbert1989;

HurlbertandBankston,1998;Twenge1997),and"fun-loving"(Reed1972,1993).

Whilemuchoftheliteraturehasfocusedontheexistenceofregionaldifferences,anew

lineofworkinthisareahasbegunexploringchangesinthestrengthofthesedifferencesacross

time.Thesestudieshaveshownwithgreatconsistencythatsocialattitudeshavebecomeless

conservativeacrosstimethroughoutthecountry,andthatregionaldifferencesontheseissues

havedeclined(DiMaggio,Evans,andBryson1996;RiceandCoates1995;Weakliemand

Biggert1999).Fourofthesestudieshaveincludedtheattitudesregardingwomensroles

(Hurlbert1989;HurlbertandBankston1998;DiMaggioetal.1996;RiceandCoates1995).

Usingconsecutivecross-sectionaldatafromtheGeneralSocialSurvey,allfourstudiesreported

thatSouthernerscontinuetoholdmoretraditionalgender-roleattitudesthandotherestofthe

country,butthatregionaldifferenceshavebecomelesspronouncedacrosstime.

Twoissuesthatthesestudiesdidnotexaminewerewhetherregionaldifferencesin

gender-roleattitudesvarybygenderandrace,andwhetherthedegreeofchangeinregionality

acrosstimediffersacrosssubgroups.Researchonsubgroupdifferencesingender-roleattitudes


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suggestthattheremay,infact,besuchvariationsinregionality(cf.Kozimor-KingandLeicht

1999;SuitorandCarter1999;Twenge1997),aswellasinchangesinregionalityacrosstime

(Kozimor-KingandLeicht1999;Twenge1997).Thepurposeofthispaperistoaddressthese

twoquestions,usingdatafromtheGeneralSocialSurveyfrom1977to1998.

Gender,Race,Regionality,andGender-RoleAttitudes

Theoreticalandempiricalliteraturesprovidestrongjustificationforexploringpredictors

ofgender-roleattitudesseparatelybygenderandrace.Thislineofworkarguesthatattitudes

varybyraceandgender,andthatsomewhatdifferentfactorsaffectattitudesacrossthese

subgroups,leadingtotheexpectationthatregionmightalsohavedifferentialeffectsbyraceand

gender.

GenderandRegionality.Thetheoreticalliteratureongenderhasarguedforseveral

decadesthatmensandwomensperceptionsdifferconsiderably,almostcertainlyproducing

differencesinattitudes.Acrossthepastthreedecades,discussionsrangingfromscholarly

discoursesbyChodorow(1978),Gilligan(1982;1990)andHey(1997)topopularbooks,suchas

Gray'sMenArefromMars,WomenArefromVenus(1992)andTannen'sYouJustDon't

Understand(1990)havesuggestedthatmensandwomensperceptionsdiffer,particularly

regardingsocialphenomena.Specifically,theyhavearguedthatfacedwiththesame

information,menandwomen,aswellasboysandgirls,developmarkedlydifferent

interpretationsofthesalientcharacteristicsandmeaningsofsocialsituations.

Consistently,empiricalresearchhassupportedthesetheoreticalargumentsbyrevealing

substantialdifferencesinwomensandmensattitudesandperceptionsregardingsocialissues,

particularlygender-roleattitudes(BeutelandMarini1995;DiMaggio,Evans,andBryson1996;


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Kane1992;Pratto,Stallworth,andSidanius1997;RiceandCoates1995;Suitor,Carter,and

Minyard,2000).Specifically,thisworkhasshownthatwomensgender-roleattitudesaremore

egalitarianthanaremensregardingfamilyroles,womensemployment,andwomens

participationinbroadersocietalcontext,suchasinthepoliticalarena.

Further,thefactorsthatexplaingender-roleattitudesvarysomewhatbygender.Some

factors,suchasage,educationalattainment,andreligiosityhavebeenfoundtobeimportantin

explainingbothwomensandmensattitudes(LiaoandCai1995;Willetts-BloomandNock

1994).However,maritalstatusandemploymentstatus,whichareimportantpredictorsof

womensgender-roleattitudesareofnoconsequenceintermsofmensattitudes(Kiecoltand

Acock1988;BleeandTickamyer1995).

Thisliteratureindicatesclearlythattherearegenderdifferencesinbothgender-role

attitudesandtheirpredictors,butthisdoesnotprovideaclearbasisfordevelopingspecific

hypothesesregardingdifferencesintheeffectsofregiononwomenandmen.However,findings

regardingregionaldifferencesinattitudescanbeusedasabasisfordevelopinghypotheses

regardingtheinteractionofgenderandregion.Inparticular,althoughbothwomenandmenare

exposedtothemoretraditionalattitudesgenerallyheldinthesouth,behavioralexpectations

regardinggenderforsouthernwomenaresubstantiallymoreclearlydefinedandmoreculturally

mandatedthantheyareformen(cf.SuitorandCarter1999).

Insum,themensandwomensgender-roleattitudesappeartodivergeandareexplained

byasomewhatdifferentsetoffactors.This,combinedwiththegreateremphasisof

traditionalismforwomenthanformeninthesouthledustoanticipatethattheeffectofregion

ongender-roleattitudeswouldbegreaterforwomenthanformen.


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RaceandRegionality.Theliteratureonraceandgender-roleattitudesprovidesafarless

consistentpicturethandoestheliteratureongenderandattitudes.Theoreticalargumentssuggest

thatBlacks,becauseoftheirlessprivilegedpositioninAmericansociety,aremoresensitiveto

socialissues,particularlythoseinvolvinginequality(HunterandSellers1998;KamoandCohen

1996;Kane1992).Onthisbasis,theargumentcouldbemadethatforbothmenandwomen,

Blackswouldbeexpectedtoholdmoreegalitariangender-roleattitudes.However,alternatively,

somescholarspresentingtheoreticalperspectivesongenderandracehaveemphasizedthatthe

lesspredictableeconomicstatusfacedbyBlackmenthanwhitemenmayleadthemtobemixed

intheirattitudestowardwomensrolessupportiveofwomensemployment,outofnecessity,

buttraditionalintermsofwomensfamilyroleswiththegoalofprovidingavenueinwhich

Blackmencanexertsomesenseofpowerandcontrol(KamoandCohen1996;Wade1996).

ThesomewhatcontradictorytheoreticalargumentsregardingBlackmensattitudeshave

beenwellsupportedbytheempiricalliterature.Consistently,Blackmenhavebeenfoundtohold

moreegalitarianattitudesthanwhitemenregardingwomensemployment,whilesimultaneously

holdingthesameormoretraditionalattitudesregardingwomensfamilyrolesthanhavetheir

whitecounterparts(BleeandTickamyer1995;KamoandCohen1996;Kane1992;Riceand

Coates1995).FurtherconfusingthepictureisthefindingthatBlackmencontributemoreto

domesticlaborthandowhitemen(HossainandRoopnarine1993;John,Shelton,andLuschen

1995;KamoandCohen1996;SheltonandJohn1993).

ThepatterndifferssomewhatforBlackwomen.Blackwomenhavebeenfoundtohold

themostegalitarianattitudesofallfourgender/racecombinationsregardingwomens


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employment,butholdthesame,orinsomecases,slightlymoretraditionalattitudesthanwhite

womenregardingfamilyroles(Kane1992;RiceandCoates1995).However,despitetheslightly

greatertraditionalismregardingfamilyroles,Blackwomensoverallgender-roleattitudesscores

consistentlyplacethemasthemostegalitarianofallfourrace/gendergroups(HunterandSellers

1998;KamoandCohen1996;Kane1992;RiceandCoates1995).

Althoughtherearesomeinconsistencies,thisliteraturesuggeststhatBlackmenand

womenholdmoreliberalattitudes,overall,thandotheirwhitecounterparts,althoughtherace

differenceisnotconsistentacrossalldimensionsofgender-roleattitudes.However,thisdoes

notaddressthequestionofwhethertheeffectsofregionongender-roleattitudesvarybyrace.

Thetheoreticalargumentdiscussedaboveregardingsocialdisadvantage(HunterandSellers

1998;KamoandCohen1996;Kane1992)leadstothehypothesisthattherewillbea

substantiallygreatereffectofregiononBlackmensthanwhitemensgender-roleattitudes,with

southernBlackmenholdingmoreegalitarianattitudes.Thisisbecausebeingatasocietal

disadvantageincreasessensitivitytosocialissues,andBlackmeninthesouthareatagreater

disadvantage,relativetowhitemen,thanareBlackmeninotherregions(Kuklinskietal.1997).

However,classicrelativedeprivationarguments(cf.HegtvedtandMarkovsky1995;

SnowandOliver1995)wouldleadtotheoppositehypothesis.Relativedeprivationtheories

suggestthatindividualsormembersofgroupswhoareobjectivelynotdisadvantagedmay

neverthelessperceivethemselvesasdisadvantagedbecausetheirexperiencesarenot

commensuratewiththeirexpectationsorwiththeindividualsorgroupstowhomtheycompare

themselves.Thus,althoughBlackmeninthenorthmayfacefewerobjectiveobstaclesto

equalitythandotheirsoutherncounterparts,theirexpectationsmaybehigherthanthoseof


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southernBlacks,leadingtoperceptionsofgreaterinequality.Onthisbasis,wewouldexpectnot

onlythatregionwouldaffectBlackmenmorestronglythantheirwhitecounterparts,butthatthe

effectwouldbegreatestonnorthernBlackmen.

Takentogether,bothofthesetheoreticalargumentsleadustoanticipatethatregionwill

haveagreatereffectonBlackthanonwhitemen.However,theyalsoleadustotwoequally

plausiblealternativeargumentsregardingwhethersouthernornorthernBlackmenwillhold

moreegalitariangender-roleattitudes.Therefore,wewillexaminebothofthesealternative

hypothesesratherthanproposingonlyone.

Webelievethatthesameargumentscanbeusedtodevelopparallelalternative

hypothesesregardingtherelationshipsamongrace,region,andattitudesforwomen.Thus,asin

thecaseofmen,wewillexplorebothhypotheses,ratherthanproposingasinglehypothesis.Itis

importanttonotethatanticipatingegalitarianattitudesamongBlacksouthernwomenmight

initiallyappeartocontradictourearlierhypothesisregardinggreatertraditionalismamong

southernwomen.However,theexpectationofgreaterpressuretowardtraditionalismforwomen

inthesouthgrowsfromasouthernbelletraditionthatwasspecificto whitewomen;thus,for

Blackwomen,privilegeandsensitivitytoinequalitymaybestrongerthanregionalpressures

towardtraditionalfemininity.

DifferentialChangesinGender-RoleAttitudesAcrossTime

Thefinalissuethatweaddressintheanalysisisdifferentialchangesingender-role

attitudesacrosstime;specifically,dochangesinregionaldifferencesingender-roleattitudesvary

byeithergenderorrace?Twenges(1997)andKozimor-KingandLeichts(1999)investigations

providethegreatestinsightontheseissues,althoughtheydonotprovideanentirelyconsistent


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pictureofchange.Bothstudiesfocusedonchangesingender-roleattitudesacrosstime,one

usingtheGeneralSocialSurvey(Kozimor-KingandLeicht1999)andtheotherusingdatafrom

publishedreportsofcollegestudentsattitudes(Twenge1997).

Bothstudiesreportedthatgender-roleattitudeshadbecomemoreegalitarianacrosstime;

however,thesubgroupvariationsinchangeacrosstimewerenotmirroredinthetwostudies.

Kozimor-KingandLeichtsanalysis,usingdataonwomenonly,revealedasomewhat

inconsistentpattern.Changewasgreatestamongtwosubgroupsthosethatbeganwiththemost

traditionalattitudes,specifically,womenwhowereolderandwhoweremarried,and,conversely,

womenwithnontraditionaljobs,whobeganwithegalitarianattitudes.Twenges(1997)meta-

analysisusingdataonbothwomenandmenrevealedpatternsthatwerebothinternally

inconsistentandinconsistentwithKozimor-KingandLeichtsfindings.IncontrasttoKozimor-

KingandLeicht,Twengefoundthatmen,thegendersubgroupthatbeganwiththemost

traditionalattitudes,showedsubstantiallylesschangethandidwomen.However,Twenges

analysesofregionaldifferencessuggestedapatternofgreatestchangeamongthosewhobegan

withthemosttraditionalattitudessouthernwomenexperiencedthegreatestoverallchange,

beginningwithscoressubstantiallymoretraditionalthanthoseofwomeninotherregionsinthe

early1970sandmovingtoparitywithwomenfromotherregionsbythemid1990s.

Takentogether,thesestudiesdonotprovideaconsistentpatternofempiricalfindings

uponwhichtobasehypothesesregardingwhichofthefourrace/gendersubgroupswill

experiencethegreatesteffectoftheinteractionbetweenregionandtime.Thepredominant

patternshownbythesestudiessuggeststhattheinteractiveeffectofregionandtimewillbe

greatestamongwomen,however,itisnotclearwhethertheeffectswillbelargerforBlackor


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whitewomen.Similarly,wedonotfeelthatthereisasufficientlysoundempiricalbasisfrom

thesestudiestodevelophypothesesregardingdifferentialeffectsofthisinteractiononBlackand

whitemen.

Intheabsenceofclearempiricalfindingsuponwhichtobaseourhypotheses,wewill

returntothetheoreticalargumentsoutlinedaboveregardingtheeffectsofrelativeprivilegeand

socialsensitivity.Thisperspectivewouldleadustohypothesizethatthegreatesteffectofthe

interactionoftimeandregionwouldbeamongwhitemen,who,asagroup,wouldhavebegun

withthegreatestrelativeprivilegeandmosttraditionalattitudesin1977,followedbywhite

women,Blackmen,andfinallyBlackwomen,whobeganwithlowprivilegeand,overall,the

mostegalitariangender-roleattitudes.

SummaryofHypotheses

Tosummarize,wehavedevelopedthefollowingsetofhypotheses:

1.Theeffectofregionongender-roleattitudeswillbegreaterforwomenthanmen.

2.Theeffectofregionongender-roleattitudeswillbegreaterforBlacksthanwhites,regardless

ofgender.

3: H3a.SouthernBlackswillholdmoreegalitarianattitudesthanwillnorthernBlacks,

regardlessofgender.

H3b.NorthernBlackswillholdmoreegalitarianattitudesthanwillsouthernBlacks,

regardlessofgender.

4.Theeffectoftheinteractionoftimeandregionwillbegreatestforwhitemen,followedby

whitewomen,Blackmen,andfinallyBlackwomen.


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METHODS

Data

ThedataforourstudyweredrawnfromtheNationalOpinionResearchCentersGeneral

SocialSurveysfor1977-1998.TheGSSisacross-sectionalnationalsurveythathasbeen

replicatedalmosteveryyearsince1972.ThesurveyisadministeredtoEnglish-speakingpersons

aged18yearsandoverinthecontinentalUnitedStates.Oursubsampleincludesthe13,708

respondentswhoansweredthequestionsthatcomposethegender-roleattitudesscale.

Thesubsampleusedintheanalysisrangedinagefrom18to89years(_=45.17,

s.d.=17.3).Fifty-fourpercentweremarried.Ninepercenthadcompletedlessthanhighschool,

32%hadcompetedhighschool,23%hadcompletedsomecollege,and22%werecollege

graduates.Twenty-fivepercentoftherespondentswereCatholic,61%wereProtestant,and14%

weremembersofotherreligiousdenominationsorreportednoreligiousaffiliation.Thirteenper

centoftherespondentswereBlack,and87%werewhite.Fifty-sevenpercentwerewomen;

43%weremen.Fifty-twopercentwereemployedfull-time(37ormorehoursperweek),10.%

wereemployedpart-time,and38%werenotemployed.

Measurement

GenderRoleAttitudes.Weconstructedthedependentvariablebycombiningthefour

itemsspecifictoattitudesregardingwomensfamilyroles.Respondentswereaskedtowhat

extenttheyagreed(4)ordisagreed(1)witheachofthefollowingstatements:a)Aworking

mothercanestablishjustaswarmandsecurearelationshipwithherchildrenasamotherwho

doesnotwork;b)Itismoreimportantforawifetohelpherhusbandscareerthantohaveone

herself;c)Apreschoolchildislikelytosufferifhisorhermotherworks;andd)Itismuch


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betterforeveryoneinvolvedifthemanistheachieveroutsidethehomeandthewomantakes

careofthehomeandfamily.Thealphareliabilitycoefficientforthescalewas.70.Thescale

wascodedsuchthathighvaluesindicateegalitarianattitudes.

IndependentVariables

Region.Wecreatedavariabletomeasureregionofresidenceusingthevariable

REGIONwhichlistsnineareaswithintheUnitedStatesinwhicharespondentmayreside.The

regionscorrespondedwiththefollowingnineCensusdivisioncategories:NewEngland,middle

Atlantic,eastnorthcentral,westnorthcentral,southAtlantic,eastsouthcentral,westsouth

central,mountainandPacific.Forouranalysis,wecollapsedthesenineregionsintofour

generalregions:south(eastsouthcentral,westsouthcentral,southAtlantic),northeast(New

England),Pacific,andother(westnorthcentral,eastnorthcentral,mountain,andmiddle

Atlantic).

YearofSurvey.Akeyquestionofourstudyaddressesthechangeofgenderroleattitudes

overtime.InthebivariaterelationshipsshowninTables2and3wehavecollapsedtheyears

intofivecategories:1977,1985,1986-1989,1990-1995,1996-1998.Forthemultivariate

analysiswecomputedavariableofnumberofyearssincethefirstdatacollectionpoint(year

minus1977).Wecreatedthisvariabletoavoidthecollinearitythatwouldhaveoccurredifwe

hadusedtheactualyearsofdatacollection(e.g.,1977,1985,etc.).

GenderandRace.Genderwascoded0=man,1=woman.Todeterminerace,respondents

wereasked,Whatracedoyouconsideryourself?Forthepresentanalysis,racewas

dichotomizedinto0=white,1=Black.

ControlVariables.Weincludedseveralcontrolvariablesthroughouttheanalyses,


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Examinationofthemeangender-roleattitudescoresofmenandwomenfrom1977-1998

revealsanincreaseinegalitariangender-roleattitudesacrosstime,asshowninTable2.Forboth

Blackandwhitewomen,theincreaseinegalitarianattitudesiscontinuousfrom1977-1998,thus

alsoindicatingthatfurtherchangehasoccurredfromthemidtothelate1990s.Consistentwith

studiesofgender-roleattitudesfromthe1970sthroughthemid1990s,theattitudesofBlack

womenareconsistentlymoreegalitarianthanarethoseofwhitewomen.Further,consistent

withstudiesthroughthemid1990s,bothBlackandwhitewomensattitudesaremoreegalitarian

thanarethoseofbothBlackandwhitemen.

Changesinmensattitudesarelessconsistentfromthe1970sthroughthe1990s.

Examinationofthedataforthefullsampleofmenshowsmorerapidchangefrom1977through

themid1990s,andessentiallynochangefromthemidtolate1990s.However,thepattern

becomesmorecomplexwhenconsideringBlackandwhitemensattitudesseparately.Among

whitemen,attitudesbecamemoreegalitarianfrom1977throughthemid1990s,afterwhich

therewasnofurtherincrease.Incontrast,amongBlackmen,gender-roleattitudesbecame

increasinglyegalitarianfrom1977throughthelate1980s,butdidnotincreaseacrosstheearlyto

mid1990s;however,Blackmensattitudesbegantomoveagaintowardegalitarianismbetween

themidandlate1990s,representingtheonlystatisticallysignificantchangeinattitudesbetween

theearlyandlate1990s(p=.05).

Table2revealsnotonlythatwhitemenbeganandendedtheperiodofthestudyholding

moretraditionalattitudesthantheotherthreesubsamples,butalsothatthissubsample

experiencedtheleastchangeinattitudes.Incontrast,whitewomenexperiencedthegreatest

changeinattitudes,differingsubstantiallyfromthechangeexperiencedbywhitemen,while


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therewasnogenderdifferenceindegreeofchangeamongBlacks.

[Table3abouthere]

AsshowninTable3,gender-roleattitudesalsovariedsystematicallybyregion.

Throughouttheperiodduringwhichthedatawerecollected,respondentslivingonthesouth

continuedtoexpressthemosttraditionalgender-roleattitudes,whilerespondentsinthenortheast

almostuniformlyexpressedthemostegalitarianattitudes.Whileremainingthemosttraditional

intheperiodfrom1996-1998,thesouthexperiencedsubstantiallymorechangefromtraditional

toegalitarianattitudesthandideitherthenortheastorPacific,bothofwhichbothbeganand

endedwithconsiderablymoreegalitarianattitudes.

MultivariateAnalysisofEffectsofRegion

Theanalysesjustpresentedsuggestthat,infact,thereareconsiderabledifferencesin

changesingender-roleattitudesbygender,raceandregionality,atleastatthebivariatelevel.

Thenextquestioniswhethertheserelationshipsaremaintainedwhencontrollingforother

factorsthatarerelatedtoeitherregionalityorgender-roleattitudesinparticular,educational

attainment,maritalstatus,religiosity,religiousaffiliation,andage.Becauseourinterestisin

examininghowtheentiremodelvariesbygenderandrace,weconductedseparateregression

analyses,ratherthanrelyingonrace/genderinteractionterms.Itisimportanttonotethatallof

thepreliminarymultivariateanalysesindicatedthattheeffectsofregionexceptforsouth/not

southwereofneithersubstantivenorstatisticalsignificance;forthisreason,weuseda

dichotomoussouth/not-southvariablethroughouttheremainderoftheanalysis.

[Table4abouthere]

AsshowninTable4,themultivariatefindingsusingthefullsamplecloselymirrorthose


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reportedintheliterature.Thebestpredictorofgender-roleattitudesisage,followedcloselyby

gender,education,yearofdatacollection,andtoalesserextent,employmentstatus,race,marital

status,andfinally,region.Inbrief,respondentswiththemostegalitarianattitudesareyounger,

better-educated,Blackwomenwhoareemployedfull-time,andliveoutsideofthesouth.

TheonesurprisingfindinginTable4istheabsenceofanyeffectoftheinteraction

betweenregionandyearofdatacollection.Infact,weexaminedtheeffectofthisinteractionon

alloftheseparatesubsamples(men,women,Blacks,andwhites)andalsofoundnoeffect.For

thisreason,weomittedtheinteractiontermfromalloftheanalysesthatwediscussbelow.

[Table5abouthere]

GenderandRegion.Asdiscussedabove,webelievethatitisimportanttoexaminethe

modelseparatelybyraceandgender.Webegintheseanalysesbycomparingthefindingsfor

womenandmen,controllingforrace.AsshowninTable5,thereisagreatdealofconsistency

betweenthefindingsformenandwomen.Ashypothesized,regionhasagreatereffecton

womenthanmen,butthedifferencefallsshortofreachingstatisticalsignificance.Asexpected,

beingemployedfull-timeandbeingsinglearemorestronglyassociatedwithegalitariangender-

roleattitudesforwomenthanformen(p


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interestingfindingisthatregionwasafactorinexplainingwhitemensgender-roleattitudes,but

thattherewasnosucheffectforBlackmenafindingcountertoourhypothesisthatBlack

mensattitudeswouldbeaffectedmorestronglybyregionthanwouldwhitemensattitudes.

DifferencesbetweenthefindingsforBlackandwhitewomendonotmirrorthosefound

amongmen.WeanticipatedthattheeffectofregionwouldbegreaterforBlackwomenandwe

proposedalternativehypothesesregardingwhethersouthernornorthernBlackwomenwould

havethemostegalitariangender-roleattitudes.Whileregionhasasomewhatgreatereffecton

Blackthanwhitewomensattitudes,theeffectisinthedirectionofsouthernwomenholding

substantiallymore traditionalattitudesthanthoseheldbynorthernwomenforbothBlackand

whitewomen.

Itisinterestingtonotetheeffectsofreligiosity,laborforceparticipation,andmarital

status.ForwhitemenandbothBlackandwhitewomen,thosewithhighreligiosityheld

substantiallymoretraditionalgender-roleattitudes;however,religiosityhadnearlynoeffecton

Blackmensattitudes.Further,consistentwiththeliterature,laborforceparticipation,whichwas

unimportantamongmenofeitherraceandwasassociatedwithsubstantiallymoreliberalgender-

roleattitudesforbothBlackandwhitewomen.

SUMMARYANDCONCLUSION

Thefindingsrevealedbyouranalysesdemonstratetheimportanceofexaminingthe

effectsofregionseparatelybygenderandrace.Supportforourhypothesesregardingthe

differentialeffectsofregionbyraceandgenderweremixed.Wehypothesizedthatforbothmen

andwomen,theeffectsofregionwouldbegreatestonBlacksgender-roleattitudes.However,

inthecaseofBlackmen,therewasessentiallynoeffectofregion.Inthecaseofwomen,the


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effectprovidedsupportforHypothesis3b,thatnorthernBlackswouldholdmoreegalitarian

attitudesthanwouldsouthernBlacks.

Ourhypothesisregardingtheinteractionofregionandtimewasalsounsupportedbythe

data,bothforthefullsampleandforeachofthefoursubgroups,althoughyearofsurveywas

importantacrossallfoursubgroupsandregionhelpedtoexplainattitudesforthreeofthefour

subgroups.Theabsenceofeffectsmaybeexplainedbythefactthatwecontrolledforvariables

thatgreatlyaccountforregionality,andthatalsoconvergedbyregionacrosstime,suchas

educationalattainmentandwomensemployment(cf.DiMaggioetal.1996;Weakliemand

Biggert1996).

Takentogether,thefindingswehavepresentedregardingthedifferentialeffectsofregion

byraceandgenderareimportantbecausetheydemonstratethatregionalityisconsequentialfor

Blacksaswellaswhitesattitudes,atleastforwomen.Webasedoneofouralternative

hypothesesregardingraceandregiononrelativedeprivationtheory,whichwouldsuggestthat

northernBlackswouldholdmoreliberalattitudesbecausetheirsensitivitytosocialissuesis

heightenedbytheirinequality,relativetotheirexpectations.However,thefactthattherewasno

supportforthishypothesisamongBlackmencallsintoquestionwhetherrelativedeprivation

accountsforthefactthatnorthernBlackwomenheldmoreegalitarianattitudesthandidtheir

southerncounterparts.Perhapsthefindingofmoretraditionalgender-roleattitudesamongBlack

thanwhitesouthernwomensuggeststhatwomenofbothracesreceivepressuretoconformto

southernnormsoftraditionalism.Inotherwords,whilethetraditionofthesouthernbellemay

havebeenrestrictedtowhitewomeninearlierdecades,bythelate20th

century,thegreater

pressurestowardtraditionalismexperiencedbywhitesouthernwomenmaynowexperiencedby


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Blacksouthernwomenaswell.

Thissetoffindingsfurtherreinforcestheargumentthatscholarshavemaderegardingthe

persistenceofadistinctivesouthernculture,despiteregionalconvergenceonsomeattitudes

(DiMaggioetal1996;Hurlbert1989;HurlbertandBankston2000;Kuklinski,Cobb,andGilens

1997;WeakliemandBiggert1999).Further,ithasbeenarguedthatpersistenceofsouthern

culturaldistinctivenessisprimarilyduetothecontinuingconservatismofsouthernwhitemen

(cf.Kuklinski,Cobb,andGilens1997),aconclusioncalledintoquestionbyourfindingsof

effectsforregionamongBlackwomen,aswellaswhitewomenandmen.

Webelievethatthefindingshaveimportantimplicationsforfutureresearch.Inparticular,

wehopethatthefindingspresentedherewillspurscholarstogivegreaterattentiontothe

relationshipsamongrace,gender,andregionality,sinceourfindingsrevealthattheeffectsof

regionmaybemaskedifgenderandracearenottakenintoconsideration.


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Table1.CorrelationMatrix,Means,andStandardDeviationsofAllVariablesIncludedinMultivariateAnalysis

*Malesareabovethediagonal,fe

Variable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)

1.Genderrole

attitudes

1.00 -.326** -..100** .273** .001 -.117** -.160** .171** .207** -.049** .025

2.Ageof

respondent

-.386** 1.00 .225** -.205** -.033* .124** .138** -.388** .007 .006 -.020

3.Maritalstatus -.047** -.084** 1.00 .005 .002 .076** .133** .126** -.091** .007 -.088**

4.Education .330** -.276** .066** 1.00 .012 -.110** -.025 .243** .142** -.093** -.123**

5.Catholic .012 -.036** .015 .022 1.00 -.670** .157** .015 -.001 -.193** -.125**

6.Protestant -.098** .112** .003 -.117** -.765** 1.00 .339** -.030* -.070** .234** .138**

7.Religiosity -.190** .191** .049** -.066** .074** .259** 1.00 -.014 -.068** .061** .062**

8.Employment .297** -.306** -.033** .264** -.004 -.032** -.083** 1.00 .024 .004 -.026*

9.YearsSince

1977

.216** .004 -.078** .180** -.010 -.046** -.059** .074** 1.00 .012 .012

10.Region -.062** .002 .016 -.105** -.198** .244** .085** .041** .022 1.00 .108**

11.Race .054** -.078** -.164** -.091** -.181** .192** .064** .023* .042** .126** 1.00

12.Sex a a a a a a a a a a a

Note:Standarddeviationsarereportedinparenthesesbelowthemeans,n=

*p


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Table2.Gender-RoleAttitudesbyGenderofRespondent,1977-1998

YearofSurvey+

GenderandRace

1977 1985 1986-1989 1990-1995 1996-1998

ChangeinScore,1977-98

Men 8.92(613)

9.97(581)

10.39(1271)

10.67(1819)

10.69(1587)

1.77

WhiteMen 8.89(549)

9.95(522)

10.36(1134)

10.69(1619)

10.63(1404)

1.74

BlackMen 9.19(64)

10.10(59)

10.61(137)

10.51(200)

11.13(183)

1.94

Women 9.40(745)

10.80(748)

11.00(1747)

11.43(2415)

11.52(2846)

2.12

WhiteWomen 9.33(648)

10.78(671)

10.93(1502)

11.39(2170)

11.46(1722)

2.13

BlackWomen 9.86(97)

10.97(77)

11.44(245)

11.69(245)

11.79(1124)

1.93

+Changeacrosstimewassignificantwithineachgroup(p


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Table3.Gender-RoleAttitudesbyRegion,1977-1998

YearofSurveyRegion

1977 1985 1986-1989 1990-1995 1996-1998

ChangeinScore,1977-98

South 8.99*(473)

10.25(499)

10.48**(1100)

10.91**(1618)

11.00**(1389)

2.01+

Northeast 9.72(57)

10.57(84)

11.17(178)

11.50(233)

11.53(204)

1.81+

Pacific 9.54(182)

10.69(183)

11.04(406)

11.28(649)

11.21(551)

1.67+

OtherRegions 9.18(646)

10.50(563)

10.81(1334)

11.17(1836)

11.24(1523)

2.06+

+Changeacrosstimewassignificantwithineachgroup(p


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(n=12,985)

Model1 Model2(withinteractionterm)

Variables

B

(s.e.)

Beta B

(s.e.)

Beta

Age -.039**(.001)

-.259 -.039**(.001)

-.259

Married(=1) -205**(.041)

.039 -.205**(.041)

-.039

Education .156**(.007)

.184 .155**(.007)

.184

Catholic -.007(.077)

-.001 -.008(.077)

-.001

Protestant -.066

(.072)

-.012 -.067

(.072)

-.013

Religiosity -.283**(.027)

-.100 -.283**(.027)

-.100

Employment(1=empl.ft)

.518**(.044)

.099 .518**(.044)

.099

YearsSince1977 .073**(.003)

.169 .072**(.004)

.166

Region(South=1)

-.206**(.043)

-.038 -.245**(.100)

-.045

Race

(1=Black)

.369**

(.062)

.047 .370**

(.062)

.047

Gender 1.032**(.042)

.195 1.032**(.042)

.195

YearxRegion -- -- .003(.007)

.008

Constant 9.804**(.140)

9.820**(.145)

AdjustedR2

df.253**

11.253**

12

*p


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byGender

Men WomenVariables

B(s.e.)

Beta B(s.e.)

Beta

Age -.038**(.002) -.260 -.041**(.002) -.272

Married(=1) -.067(.064)

-.013 -.285**(.055)

-.053


.188 .172**(.010)

.185


-.020 .053(.109)

.009

Protestant -.191(.102)

-.039 .009(.102)

.002

Religiosity -.226**(.039) -.089 -.309**(.036) -.101


.105(.070)

.020 .769**(.059)

.14

YearsSince1977 -.070**(.005)

.176 .074**(.005)

.165

Region(South=1)

-.134*(.063)

-.027 -.262**(.058)

-.047

Race(1=Black)

.393**(.097)

.050 .325**(.081)

.042

Constant 10.107**(.195) 10.688**(.198)

AdjustedR2

df.1991**

10.2701**

10

*p


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byGenderandRace

Men Women

WhiteMen BlackMen WhiteWomen BlackWomenVariables

B(s.e.)

Beta B(s.e.)

Beta B(s.e.)

Beta B(s.e.)

Beta

Age -.038**

(.002)

-.258 -.040**

(.006)

-.278 -.042**

(.002)

-.272 -.038**

(.004)

-.261

Married(=1) -.110(.068)

-.022 .278(.175)

.061 -.268**(.060)

-.049 -.358*(.146)

-.067


.182 .145**(.026)

.233 .175**(.011)

.185 .165**(.026)

.200


-.022 .082(.375)

.011 .017(.116)

.003 .324(.367)

.032

Protestant -.195(.109)

-.040 -.067(.291)

-.013 -.050(.110)

-.009 .529(.277)

.075

Religiosity -.237**

(.042)

-.092 -.153

(.104)

-.065 -.309**

(.039)

-.100 -.308**

(.087)

-.108


.097(.075)

.019 .139(.192)

.029 .823**(.064)

.148 .466**(.144)

.095

YearsSince1977 .069**(.005)

.173 .073**(.014)

.196 .077**(.005)

.168 .058**(.011)

.142

Region(South=1)

-.155*(.068)

-.030 .017(.168)

.004 -.225**(.064)

-.039 -.457**(.135)

-.094

Constant 10.195**(.208)

9.831**(.538)

10.628**(.216)

10.982**(.482)

AdjustedR2

df

.195**

9

.240**

9

.273**

9

.251**

9*p

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