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Cartilage

& Joints

Types of

Bones

Long bones which are easily identified because of their

extended longitudinal axes; an example is the femur of

the thigh and Humerus of the arm

Short bones are often described as cube- or box- shaped

structures, which are as broad as they are long; an

example is the carpals (wrist) and ankle bones (tarsal)

Flat bones are generally broad and thin with a flattened

and often curved surface; an example is the scapula and

the sternum

Irregular bones are often clustered in groups and come in

various size and shapes; an example is the patella (1)

What are the four

types of bones?

Diaphysis: main shaftlike portion

Epiphyses: both ends of the long bone

Articular Cartilage: thin layer of hyaline

cartilage that covers the joint surface

Periosteum: dense, white fiborous membrane

that covers bone except at joint surfaces

Medullary: a tubelike hollow space in the

diaphysis of a long bone

Endosteum: a thin epothelial membrane that

lines the medullary cavity of long bones (1)

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What are the

major parts of a

long bone?

Inorganic Salts: the calcified nature and thus

the hardness of bone results from the deposition

of highly specialized chemical crystals of

calcium and phosphate, called hydroxyapatite.

Organic Matrix: is part of the bone and other

connective tissues is a composite of collagenous

fibers and an amorphous mixture of protein and

polysaccharides called ground substances. The

ground substance of bone provides support and

adhesion between cellular and fibrous elements and

also serves an active role in many cellular

metabolic functions necessary for growth, repair,

and remodeling (1)

What are the

major constituents

of bone?

A bone fracture invariably tears and destroys blood vessels

that carry nutrients to osteocytes. It’s this vascular

damage that initiates the repair sequence. Eventually, dead

bone is either removed by osteoclastic resorption or serves

as a scaffolding or framework for the deposition of a

specialized repair tissue called callus.(1)

What is the first

step of Bone

fracture repair?

Vascular damage occurring immediately after a fracture

results in hemorrhage and the pooling of blood at the point

of injury. The resulting blood clot is called a fracture

hemotoma. As the hematoma is resorbed, the formation of

specialized callus tissues occurs. It serves to bind the

broken ends of the fracture on both the outside surface

and along the marrow cavity internally. The rapidly

growing callus tissue effectively “collars” the broken ends

and stabilizes the fracture so that healing can proceed. If

the fracture is properly aligned and immobilized and if

complications do not develop, callus tissue will be actively

“modeled” and eventually replaced with normal bone as

the injury heals completely. (1)

What is the second

step to bone

fracture repair?

A new synthetic skeletal repair material called vitos is now

available to facilitate fracture repair. It consists of a

calcium sponge like matrix material riddled with

microscopic holes. Vitos assists callus tissue in stabilizing

the fracture site and in movement of bone repair cells and

nutrients into the injured area. This new synthetic material

is useful not only in treatment of fractures, but also in

reducing the need for expensive and often surgically

difficult bone grafts. Unlike metal stabilizers, vitos

“patches” degrade naturally in the body after repair and

do not require surgical removal. (1)

What is the last

step to bone

fracture repair?

Endochondral ossification, is one of the two essential

processes during fetal development of the mammalian

skeletal system by which bone tissue is created. Unlike

intramembranous ossification, which is the other process

by which bone tissue is created, cartilage is present

during endochondral ossification. It is also an essential

process during the rudimentary formation of long bones,

the growth of the length of long bones, and the natural

healing of bone fractures. (22)

What is the

development of

endochondral

bone?

Osteoblasts: are small cells that synthesize and secrete

specialized organic matrix, called osteoid, which is an

important part of the ground substance of the bone.

Osteoclasts: are giant multinucleate cells that are

responsible for the active erosion of bone minerals.

They are formed by fusion of several precursor cells

and contain large numbers of mitochondria and

lysosomes

Osteocytes: are mature, non-dividing osteoblasts that have

become surrounded by matrix and now lie within the

lacunae. (1)

Which types of

cells are found in

the bone?

In intramembranous ossification, groups of cells in the

membrane differentiate into osteoblasts. They secrete matrix

material and collagenous fibers. The Golgi apparatus of these

osteoblasts secrete a compound called mucopolysaccharide, and

the endoplasmic reticulum secretes collagen. Large amounts of

ground substance accumulate around each osteoblast, and

numerous collagen fibers become embedded in the ground

substance. This constitutes the organic matrix. As the matrix

calcifies, the trabeculae join in a network to form spongy bone.

Eventually, the spongy bone will be covered by plates of compact

bone. (1)

What is the

development of

intramembranous

ossification?

Lamellae: Concentric, cylinder- shaped layers of

calcified matrix

Lacunae: small spaces containing tissue fluid in which

bone cells lie imprisoned between the hard layers of the

lamellae

Canaliculi: ultra-small canals radiating in all directions

from the lacunae and connecting them to each other and

into a larger canal, the Haversian canal

Haversian Canal: extends lengthwise through the center of

each Haversian system; contains blood vessels, and nerves

from the Haversian canal; nutrients and oxygen move

through the Canaliculi to the lacunae and their bone cells- a

short distance about 0.1 mm or less (1)

What are the

major components

of the Haversian

Sys.?

Bone-Bones grow in diameter by the combined action of

osteoclasts and osteoblasts. Osteoclasts enlarge the

diameter of the medullary cavity. Osteoblasts from the

periosteum build new bone around the outside of the bone.

(208)

How do bones

grow?

Hyaline- Is the most common cartilage and has a glassy

appearance, it covers the articular surfaces of bones. Forms

the costal cartilages, cartilage rings in the trachea, bronchi

of the lungs and the tip of the nose. It forms from

specialized cells in centers of chondrification, which secrete

matrix material.(208)

Elastic- forms the external ear, Epiglottis and Eustachian

tubes. Large number of elastic fibers confers elasticity and

resiliency.(208)

Fibro- Occurs in symphysis pubis and intervertebral disks,

small quantities of matrix and abundant fibrous elements,

Fibrocartilage are strong and rigid. (208-209)

What are the types

of cartilage?

Cartilage- There is 2 different types of growth with

cartilage Interstitial or endogenous growth and

Appositional or exogenous growth. Interstitial growth is

when the cartilage cells divide and secrete additional

matrix, it is seen during childhood and early adolescence

while cartilage is still soft and capable of expansion within.

Appositional growth is when the chondrocytes in the deep

layer of the perichondrium divide and secrete matrix. New

matrix is deposited on the surface, increasing its size. It is

unusual in early childhood, but once initiated, continues

throughout life. (209)

How does

Cartilage grow?

Structural- joints are named according to the type of

connective tissue that joins bones together (fibrous or

cartilaginous joints) and the presence of a fluid-filled joint

capsule (synovoial joint) (275)

Functional classification- joints are named according to

degree of movement allowed. Synarthroses- immovable

joint. Amphiarthroses-slightly moveable. Diarthroses- freely

moveable (275)

Synovial joints- are freely movable joints

What are the

different joint

classifications?

Cartilage: Collagenous fibers embedded in a rubbery

ground-substance called Chondrin, which is a protein-

carbohydrate complex. The chondron is secreted by

chondrocytes.

Bone: mineralized connective tissue. Cells called osteocytes

deposit a matrix of collagen and calcium-phosphate which

harden to form crystals of a substance called

hydroxyapatite. Mammalian bone is constructed from

repeated units called Haversian Units.The process of making

new bone is called ossification. (23)

What are the

structural units of

Cartilage and

Bone?

Support- bones serve as the supporting framework of the body,

much as steel girders are the supporting framework of our modern

buildings. They contribute to the shape, alignment, and positioning

of the body parts.(1)

How do bones hold

us up?

Protection- hard, bony “boxes” serve to protect the

delicate structures as they enclose. For example, the skull

protects the brain, and the rib cage protects the lungs and

the heart.(1)

How do bones

prevent us from

injury?

Movement- bones with their joints constitute levers.

Muscles are anchored firmly to bones. As muscles

contract and shorten, they pull on bones, thereby

producing movement at a joint.(1)

Why are we able to

maneuver our

bodies?

Mineral storage- bones serve as the major reservoir for

calcium, phosphorus, and certain other minerals.

Homeostasis of blood calcium concentration- essential for

healthy survival- depends largely on changes in the rate of

calcium movement between the blood and bones. If, for

example, blood calcium concentration increases above

normal, calcium moves more rapidly out of the blood into

bones and more slowlu in the opposite direction. The result?

Blood calcium concentration decreases- usually to its

homeostatic level(1)

Where do our

nutrients go?

Hematopoiesis- or blood cell formation is a vital process

carried on but red bone marrow or myeloid tissue. Myeloid

tissue in the adult is located primarily in the ends, or

epiphyses, of certain long bones, in the flat bones of the

skull, in the pelvis, and in the sternum and ribs.(1)

What do our bones

make?

Hinge- elbow joint, spool-shaped process fits into concave

sockets, Flexion and Extension only

Pivot- Joint between 1st and 2nd cervical vertebrae, arch-

shaped process firsts around peglike process, Rotation

What are Uniaxial

joints?

Saddle- Thumb joint between first metacarpal and carpal

bones, Saddle-shaped bone fits into socket that is concave-

covex-cocave, Flexion

Condyloid- Joint between the radius and carpal bones, oval

condyle fits into elliptical socket, Flexion

What are Biaxial

Joints?

Ball and socket- Shoulder joint and hip, Ball-shaped

process fits into concave socket, widest range of

movements

Gliding- joints between articular facts or adjacent

vertebrae; joints between carpal and tarsal bones,

relatively flat articulating surfaces.

What are

Multiaxial Joints?

Mineral Storage: Normally this bone function is

responsible for maintaining the homeostatic level of blood

calcium. If there is too much calcium in the blood, calcium

is stored in the bone. If there is too little calcium in the

blood calcium is removed from the blood.

Hematopoiesis: This bone function is responsible for the

formation of blood cells. This function is carried out by

the myeloid tissue or bone marrow. (1)

Which two bone

functions are

interrupted by

osteoporosis?

Epiphyseal plates are areas of developing cartilage tissue

near the ends of long bones. The plates regulate and helps

determine the length and shape of a mature bone. Since

children’s bones are still growing, when the plate is

broken it is very likely that their limbs will be crooked or

of unequal length.

Why is a bone

fracture along the

epiphyseal plate

harmful to children

and young adults?

Make your wager

With aging comes bone loss, because the body produces

cells which absorb bones. They become thinner and more

porous. Two inches of height are lost for the reason that

compression of vertebrae, changes in posture, and

increased curvature of the hips and knees take place.

Osteoporosis is one which has the leading role to much of

these bone degenerations.

What are the

changes of the

skeletal system for

older adults and

how does it affect

them?