;,: leem

- t men,

:::l into:n rhe

' :- little

T r : O P O [ -

:fonu-

1-::a, the

l\ccan:: &omi ilom

! -'furv-

::i who

:: ::-nand

:: basic

:- of the

:.-atlon-

--,i dies

-..-. lut the--. ot tlre::ce the--ukyas,

- :itnova-

: earlier.--'llout a

CHAPTER SIXTEEN

Hindu Rock-cut Architecture of the Western Deccan

Er ro na (Raslnaxule Pua s n)

Control of the Deccan was taken from theEarly Western Calukyas around 75o1 by theRaptrakugas, who in this way began a hegemonythat was to last more than two hundred years,until about 973. Although the political might ofthis farnily has been widely acknowledged, verylitde is known about the artistic developmentsthat rook place during the period oi thcirsupremacy. The principal site associated withthese rulers is lllora, where several cave ex-cavations were carried out, appalently undertheir aegis. Without a doubt, the most ambi-tious and impressive of these-indeed, perhapsin all of South Asia-is Cave 16, the Kailasanethatemple. One of the last important Hindu ex-cavations, it represents not only the most strikingcave temple of the more than thirty at the site,but also the culmination of rock architecture inSouth Asia. Its boldness suggests centuries oftradition in which carving techniques and anunderstandine of the rock medium were de-

veloped, enabling craftsmen to push the archi-tectural type to its limits. The Kailasanathaternple is more than simply a building; itis a complex with all the essential elements ofcontemporaneous free-standing southern-typetemple units, including a main building, Nandishrine, gateway, surrounding cloisters, and sub-sidiary shrines.

It is difficult to say how long it took to createthe main temple and its surrounding elementsor the precise sequence of the excavations. Mostscholars today feel that the major portion ofthe monument, including the central temple andNandi shrine, as well as perhaps the gateway, be-long to the reign ofthe Rasrakota king Krsna I,who ruled from around 757 to 773. However,it is likely that the temple was planned andbegun under his predecessor, Dantidurga, sincethe excavation next to the Kailesanatha, Cave rj(the misnamed "Dai Avrtar"). bears an inscrip-tion of the earlier monarch who reigned from

341

J42 DYNASTIES OI THE MIDDLE PETIIOD

arouncl 73J to 7J7 and the tlvo cavc monuDlents

bear unr.nistakable stylistic ties to cach other.z

General conceptual rclations betr,vccn this monu-

rncnt and the Virfipaksa tcmple at Pattadaka]

(Figs. r5.3-9), rvhich datcs from approximately

thc fourth dccade of thc cighth century, further

suggc ' t a d . r tc ne" r fhe midd le o f t l re e igh th

centr,ry for the Kailasanatha, althougl.r thc

relationships betwccn the two teDrPles havc

been vastly overemphasized. Indeed, whilc thcy.hcrc cer r . r in fearurc , bcc- ,usc rhcy r re borh

ror r thcrn- . ry lc rnonunrcn ts d r t ing f ronr .Lp-

proximatcly the samc time, the dilTerences

bets'een thcm are at least as significant as those

):ctwccn any othcr two crcatioirs in thc sPectrum

of lndic art.From the exterior, thc templc compicx is

alnost complctcly screcncd by a rock-cut rvall

rvith a eateway in the centcr (Fig. 16.r). Al-

though now rnuch dantaged duc to surfaceabrasion, the gatcway was an important feature

. .o ' !;:.'f,,'u;r*i

16.r. Kailasanaths tcrnple corlplex tiorn rvcst shorvins cltrancewr1l rnd grtcrv:r,v. Ellori], Mahart:trr, L1dia. Rtitr:rku!e Pcriocl.Mainly ca. third qu;rrtcr cighth ccnturv.

hcrc, just as it is gencrally in latcr south lndian-stylc ternples. The southcrn dcrivation for theforn.r is clearly seen in thc piiastcred nichesbearing rcprcscntations of various dcities whoscslendcr builds, ornanentatioll, pointed crowns,and facial features furthcr indicate a southernsourcc (Fig. 16.z). Most of thc deities shorvn to

thc lcft of the entrAncc are Saivite while thoseto t l rc r igh t r r< p r im, , r i l y V . r i .nar i te . . rn r r -rangcment also carried oLrt in the gallcry atthe rcar of the precinct.

After passing through the monurncntal gate-way in the ccntcr of thc stone screen wall, thevisitor enters a pit, for Jike the Paldya ternpleat Kalugun.ralai (Fig. ra.37), thc Kailasanatha isa totally free-standing ten.rplc r','ithin a larsc Pitthat was excxvatcd to cleate a spacc around theccnr r . ' l rn . ,s ' (F rg . r t , .3 ) . Howcver . in (on t rJ . l

to thc un{inished Pendya example rvith lvhichthe Kailasanatha is approximately contempor-aneous, the RastrakDta monunlent is carvecl and

HINDU ROCK-CUT ARCHTTTCTIIRE Or THE r{/XSTERN DECCAN 343

r6.2. Detail, carvinsis to lefr ofcnirrnce to Kxiltsanatha tcmplecompourld. Ellore, Maherasrrx,India. Rastraknta period. Ca. thirdquarter eishth ccntur,v.

16.3. Vicw of Kailasanathx tcD-ple from lorthwcst. El]ora,Maharastn, India. Rrstraklta pc-riod. MaiDty ca. third quartcrcighrh century.

J44 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDIE PERIOD

o 1 o 3 0 6 0

o 5 l o 1 5 2 1 )

M i i

t:;1;llTil:l:'iil:::l$-?,iiiTff l#';'.*\lxlli'il:fiira quarter eighth century'

HINDU ROC(-CUT ARCHITICTURE OF THE WESTERN DECCAN J4J

0 r 0 3 0 6 0

0 5 l 0 t 5 2 a

J46 DYNASTITS oF THI MIDDTE PERIoD

completed both inside and out. Further, sub-sidiary shrines, chapels, and gallerres wcre ex-cavated in the surrounding rock wall, creatinga temple cor.nplex of ovcrwhelming scope andambition. Since thcse elements, as well as thctemple parts, occur on lrforc than onc level, itis best to study thc plan of the tenlple in twostagcs, the lower and upper stodes (Fig. rrS.a).

The lower srory greatly resemblcs a typicalsouth Indian ternple complcx in its rcctangularformat, yet it diflcrs frorn both the Rajasirhhc-ivara tenplc at K-iicipurxrll and the Virupaksatemple xt Pattadakal in that the surroundingwall does not contain cvenly spaced subsidi:rryshrincs. Instead, it has sevcral rather large shrincsand a gallery:ilong thrcc sicles at the rear con-taining huge sculptccl panels. The monumentalni;vo-storied gateway providing access to thetempic cor ) rpound on rhc wes( i s on ao ax iswith :r detaclrcd Nandi na4dapa and the ten.rplepropcr. The lowcr stories of both the Nandishrine and main tcmple are solid ancl cannotbe cntered. In plan, the lower story of rhcmain tcnlple seen-rs somervhat unusual, consist-ing of a rectangular form lvith projectionsat the sides and rear, but the shape is clarifiedin the upper story, for at dlat icvel, thc ten.rple,which mry be crrrered. brc.rks inro ir, corn-ponctlt parts: a. ldtrdapa rvith sixtcen pillarsarrangcd in four groups of four to create akind of cruciforn.r effect for the aislcs, a pro-jecting porch at the front (west) ancl one oneithcr side, and an antechambcr and srnallcubical slrrine cncased in in extremcly thickrvall. Thc shrine may be circumambulatcd byexiting at tlre rear of the nandapa atd snlkngalong an unroofed passagcway that has {ivesmaller shrincs "garlanding" thc centrrl sancturn.Except for the addition o[ thcse five shrincs,and thc fact that the circumar.nbulatory passageis not encloscd, the plan of thc tcmple is quitenorrllal and n-ray bc relatcd to nuncrous nrollu-ments, both in southcrn and northern Indir.On drc second icvcl, thc Nandi slrrine mayalso be entered. The excavations in the sccondstory of the surrounding wall do not reflectthose below, a {bature th:rt is fcasible in cavearchitecture when the relationship berwccn thetwo need not be stmcturrl. Ts,'o shrines occur

in the right wall of the pir .nd arorher templc,rivaling the Kailasanatha itsel{ is located at theleft. The latter excavationJ called the LankeSvaratemple, consists of a pillared nandapa entered bystairs at the wcst and a shrine with an enclosedcircumambulatory passageway. Like thc maintcmple, it is dedicatcd to Siva.

Stone bridges, carved from the living rock,connect the gateway, Nandi pavilion, and en-trance porch of the ter:rple so that separare stairsare not needed to visit the sccond story of eachentity (Fig. 16.5). The main temple has a south-e:rr-style flafld that is capped by a pyramidalsupcrstructure rising in clearly defined stagcs andcrowned by a. iikharc. 'fhe five smaller shrincssurrounding the fi:,ain dflafla arc also southernin form. Thc solid lowcr story of thc Nanditcmple and that o[ the main temple arc morethan seven mcters high and, iu the case of themain temple, has approximatcly life-size ele-phants carved around it. A pair of enornouspillars (stanbhas) flank the Nandi pavilion; anda pair of elephants (the one at the right isbadly damaged) were also rock-cut and musthave been part of the original schemc sincematrix had to be left for their crcatron.

Thc cxtcrior of the tenplc is riclJy carvedwith nichcs, pilasters, windows, and cornices aswell as imagcs of deitics, nithrnas, ar'd otherfigures. Even more elaborate than the monu-nents of thc Early Western Calukyas andPallavas, the richncss of carving suggests rapidmovement toward thc alnost totally filledsurfaces of n.rany late Indic temples. Althoughthe iconographic prograrn of the temple is not

f'lly ktto*tr, most of the depictions are ofSaivitc subjects, but a considcrable number arcVaisnavite. Interspersed with thc many reliefsand {igures of varying sizes on thc temple sur-facc are huge panels containing gigantic figuresor tableaus. Under the stone bridge between thcNandi shrinc and the ternple porch, on the eastside ofthe Nandi shrine, is a large pancl showingSiva in one of his angry aspects as destroycr ofrhe denron. Andhaka 'u ra ( f ig . r6 .6 ) . Cracc-fir l ly po'cd arrd rerr-armcd. Sivr hold. rhc skinof a slain elephant bchind him and is accon.r-penied by his consort, Pervati (at the right),whorn he fondlcs afl-ectionatcly with one hand,

IIINDU ROCK-CUT ARCHITBCTURT OF TIIB WXSTTRN DECCAN 347

: :4 f , ,

rE-::11--i.lrs

.: ::ch- - t

: .1

r- :ld

i:::=e5

:=::m'. =di-_ tre

: -re

:-e-=_ 'J5

-ad

=iJt

Eae

r6.J. Frollt cornponents of Kailasanatha ternple,fron south. Ellora, Maheristra, India. Rrsira-kala period. Mainly ca. third quarter eighchcentury.

16.6. Siva as Descroyer of Andhakasura, Kaila-sanatha temple. Ellora, Maharestra, India. Ra-strakuta period. Ca. third quarter eighth ccntury.

Ji48 DYNASTIXS OF THE MIDDLX PERIOD

and the saptumatrfrar (seven mothers), whoappear as small carvings in the round at the lowerleft. The origin of tbe saptamat/<as is tied intothe Andhakasura story as given in Puranicliterature, for when Siva attempted to slay thedernon, drops of blood from the wounds of thedemon created new demons as tlrcy fell toearth. The various gods sent their ir&tls to helpstop the blood, thus explaining the presence ofthe saptamafikas. Afurities to south Indian stylecarvings of the Pallavas and Early WestemCalukyas are seen in the elongation of Siva'storso with its typical roll of flesh beneath thehorizontal waistband. The very full hair styleis part ofthe iconographic convention, althoughthe rather rcalistic, three-dimensional treatmentof the locks of hair secms to bc a tie to stylcsof the preceding centuries of the Gupta andpost-Gupta periods.

Another important and huge relief shows themultiarmed, multiheaded demon Ravar.ra shakingthe sacred mountain abode of Siva and Pervati,Mount Kailasa (Fig. i6.7). Located under theporclr on the south side of the na4/apa of thecentral temple, this relief with its approxirnatelyhuman-size figures and three-dimensionallycarved details creates a highly dramatic effect. Itsstory, like n.rany other Hindu tales, rnay be readon two levels. The first is a sirnple account of theattempt by the dcmon Rdvana to wreak havocon Kailasa by shaking it and Siva's subsequentoverpowering of Revana through the use ofonly his great toe. On a more sublime level,the story is an expression offaith in the unlimitedpower of Siva and the reassurance that evil, nomatter how strong, cannot surpass the greatnessof rhe god. The relief shows Ravana in a cavirybeneath stylized mountain forms, Siva andParvati sit atop the central cluster of rocks andSiva's dwarves (garas), animals, and attendantsaccompany them. Parvati, leaning toward herlord, suggests the emotional drama of the storyand another female figure to Parvati's rightseems to be rundng in fright into the distance.In these figures, as in most adorning the temple,clear south Indian al{urit ies are seen in treatmentof the slender body forms, high hair styles,headdresses, and ornamentation. The subjectitself appears several times at Ellora in a number

of other Hindu caves. Possibly, the popularname KailSsanatha was given to this templebecausc of the association with Siva as lord ofKailasa in this relief.s

The dramatic efect of the tcmple, enclosedwithin the mountain inelf, is partly the result ofthe large and dynamic carvings, such as thosediscussed, at a number of key locations withinthe temple precinct. One of the nost compellinggroups is found in an excavated hall on thesecond level of dre right wall of the templeenclosure, which is dedicated to the saptamaqkasand popularly called the Hall of Sacrifice.Human-size, in thc round, deeply carved repre-sentations of the natykas, Galresa, aud otherfigures line three walls of the shrine, virtuallysurrounding the devotee who might enter. Threeof the best-preserved figures are on the westernwall, and show Durga at the right with her lionvehicle, a goddess seated upon a lotus pedestalin the center, and Kala, a male skeleton withthe bodies of two naked, dying men, one acrosshis lap and another below (Fig. 16.8). In thiscase, the robust, fullfigured forns ofthe westernDeccan that had been seen at sites like Ajanlaand Aurangabad seem to be present, and it isevident fiom other portions of the Kailasanathacomplex as well that artisans of both southernand western Deccan heritage worked on themonument, although the southern style prevails.A great degree of realism, probably exploitedfor dramatic effect, is seen in the naked iguresand especially in the depiction of Kala. Siva asdestroyer of Andhakasura, the story that ex-plains the origin of the saptumatkas, is fittinglydepictedto the left of this hall.Tlie assignment ofa separate shrine at a Siva temple to the sevenmothers is a feature that becomes increasinglycommon after this period in the Deccan andother parts of India, and is refective of thegrowing imporrance of f lemale imagery inHinduism. As in Buddhism, and seen alreadyin the rock architecture created for Buddhistestablishments in the Deccan, Hinduism of thepost-Gupta periods shows increasing use offemale symbolism, the female essentially repre-senting the jaAri that is a necessaly componentfor the achievement of release (rzo.Qsa), that is,a reintegration with the UniversrL Principle.

HINDU ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTURE OF THE WESTIRN DTCCAN J49

:.rlar. . - t ":-l of

r6.7. Ravana Shakir lg Mounr Kxi l ,sa,Kailasxnathr tc rplc. Ellore, Maha-rastre, Indi.r. Rislrakiita pcriod. Ca-third quarter eighth ccntury.

6.8. Matr[as, Kri]asan,dla tcm-

plc. Ellora, Mrhiragfra, Lldia

Ra;t rakr i t r Fcr iod. Ca. th i rd

quar!cr cigllth ceniLrry-

JJO DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDTE PERIOD

CoNct us lo l t

Although the Kailesanetha temple complex isnot the only monument of the RaggakOtadynasty, it is certainly the most impressive. Afew other caves at Ellora and some in&equentlvdiscussed structural temple, throughout rheDeccan are also ascribed to the Raptrakfta period,and all of these must be thoroughly studiedbefore the full implications of the Kailasanathatemple are understood. The motivation behind

the creation of such an extraordinary monumentis an intriguing issue, especially since a short timeafter it was made, Hindus virtually abandonedthe rock-cut technique in favor of structuralbuildings. Thus, the artistic tradition ended soonafter the production of one of its most remark-able achievements and never again was a rock-cut monument of such scope attempted.4

Elonumeff

a short timeabandoned

..i smrcturalended soon

nost remark-*as a rock-

P A R T F O U R

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

1 ;

a

\,-.',l

L:i+

Ei r+

*,*,0

T

ql

Y

Y

€

a

(naF=YN

-\ Li-l r

F d - f f ( n

, S r l F L r Ji \ l n i l l $Cr-t i-t < r t

\,/ <L\ * / t \ J 7t - J - l t t t I L L t t I>-F-Zi

Detai l af 17.23.

C H A P T E R S E V E N T E E N

Kaimrr and Related Schools

Although regional cultural variations havc bccn

discerniblc since the carliest begimines of Indic

civilizatiot, they bccane incrcasingly rvell

dcfincd over the ccnturies. Aftcr thc Gupt:r

pcriod in particular, regional art schools paral-lcling linguistic, cultural, and social patternsrnay be broadly defined according to the tlncc

major geographic divisions usually uscd todescribe the South Asian subcontincnt, that is,

northern, southern, and ccntral (Deccan). Thcsccatcgories should not bc viewed as absolutc,especial)y in thc casc of the Dcccatr schools,which often sharc characteristics of both north-crn and southem art, or in the case of the coastalrcgions, where on thc cast and on thc lvestcertain artistic ties may bc sccn from north tosorth, alnost seeming to obviate thc threcdivisions. Witl.rin thc broad sphcres of thenotthern, soLrtlrcrn, aud central divisions, thcreis a grcat dcal ofvariation arising from nuineroLlsfactors itcl,-rding strong local tr:rditrons, as secn,for exarnplc, in thc casc of thc art of Kaimrr,where the Bactro-Gandhera hcritagc pcrsistccl

long after the art tradition of the northwest wasviablc. Thc stucly of thc regional styles of art,t1ren, shoulcl be b"sed upon the premise thatwitl.rin cach region thcrc is sone conrmonality,as wcll as upon the recognition that a great deal^ f - . ' i " n ,

" " i . t " - , i r h i "

The Hinralayan valley of Ka(n.rir, althoughgcographically sccluded frorl the rest of SouthAsia, has bccn :r part of thc Indic culturel spheresincc thc timc of A(oka. lts geographic situation,bounded on all sides by high nrorrntains, has ledto an insularity that contributcd to the dcvcl-opn-rcnt of its rrniquc cultural characteristics.Kainriri art is nrainly dcpcndcnt on Indicidior.ns, modifieci by inllucnces from Bactro-Gandhera, Iran, and Inner Asia. Throughthese neighboring rcgions, inlluenccs from laterwestern Asiatic Hcllcnisn-r n-ray also bc traced.Howcvcr, for all these inlluences, the Ka6rniriidiom was unique and earned the region arcprltatiorl throughout Asia for its sophisticated,elegant, and technic;r)ly supcrb schools ofart.

Thc history of Kaimir has been chronicled

353

354 LATEI< NORTHERN SCHOOIS

in an inportant and possibly unique text

relativc to Indic historiography, tlte Raja-

tarcigirl. W titten in about rr481 by Kalhana,

son of Ca4paka, a n.rinister to King Harga (ro89-

rror) of the first Lohara dynasty, it dcscribes

the history of Ka{mir uP to tlrc timc of its

writing, detailing the building of cities aud

temples, designating the Patrons, and giving

some of the undcrlying rcasoning behind thcir

actions. Howcver, Kalhana is lnainly accurate

concerning thc period of his life and the im-

mediately preceding periods, for which he sccms

to have been able to rely on contemPorary

documents. His accuracy decreascs the further

hc extends backward in tine until the chronicle

becomes a jur.nble of lcgends coupled with bits of

histodcaiinformation for the early periods. Using

this material as wcll as some collateral sources,

however, it is possiblc to providc an outline

of the history of Ka(n.rir fron.r the timc of ASoka

to rhc midd lc o I r l rc twc l f i l r ce t t r t t ry . . rg r in ' t

which the artistic dev€loPncnts may bc seen.

Iarly traditions indicatc that the Kaimlr

Valley was a part of thc Maurya empire and

that Aioka hin.rself founded the capital, Srina-

gara, at a location now lnown as Pendrerhan,zjust south of modern Srinagar. Howevcr, no

archaeological finds in Ka6rnir testify to

Maurya artistic activity in thc region. Only a

single monarch is mentioned in the Raiatndigittt

as intervening betwcen thc Maurya and thc

Kulana pcdods, but during Kusana timcs, the

history becomes more clear. Ka(miri cities

foundcd by thc Kus-a4as ar€ still known, such as

Kaniskapura (modcrn Kanispur) and Huvi5ka-

pura (modern U;kur). Of these, Uskur rcmained

an important Buddhist site for several ccnturies

,nd underucnt . r r le , rs t tuo tna jo r rcnov . ' t ions .

one in the latc fourth ccntury and anothcr in the

cighth. It is gencrally bclieved that Kaniska held

rhc fourth Buddhist council in Ka(n.rir, thereby

demonstrating its importance as a Buddhist

centcr by thc sccond century 4.o.3

P r r - K a l x o l a R x M A t N s

The earlicst sitc that has yielded important

artistic remains is Herwan (Harvan), a

Buddhist monastery a short clistance ftoln

Srinagar. It is situated halfway up the slopc of a

mountain bordcring a lateral branch of the

rnain vallcy. Founded under thc Kusenas, pcrhaps

at thc tine o[ Kaniska's cottncil, thc r-nonastery

was apparently active for a colsiderablc length

of tilDe. Constrtlction tcchniques found at

Harwan mngc fron-r carefully cxccuted "Kusdna

diaper" walls to a rather crudc pcbble and rrud

version usually assigned to thc middle or latc

Hola pcriod (mid-fiftb ccntLrry or later). Very

little has actually survivcd at Harwan, and

were it not for thc cottrtyard tilcs found in

association wrth tlte caitya irall, thc site would

have little to testify to its former inportance

Thcsc early remains, however, alrcady display

at least two strands of the an-ralgatu that is to

become thc Ka(n.riri school, as they bctray

both wcstern Asiatic and Gupta assocratrotrs.

Of the surviving lertulants at Harwan, the

caitya hall is the most intercsting. Its plan is

sinilar to that of the railya hall cavc at Kondivtc

(Fig.5.r9) cxccpt that therc is no survivrng

evidcncc of thc prescnce of thc -vr.rpa. WJrat

rcmaitrs is a low section of thc wall and original

floor of thc courtyard, which were faced with

stamped clay ti lcs (Fig. r7.r). Thc floor t i lcs

lvere arranfled to suggcst the form of an cnor-

mous open lotus, which lnay havc rcpresented

the transcenclcnt cosmic lotus, along with

borclcr and othcr motifs. The centcr of the lotus

has r lorv raiscd arca r,vith a hole in the middle

of it, as if it scrvcd as a stand or sttpport.

Ka(nir's associations widr both the northcrn

Indian art schools and thosc of western Inner

Asie lrc ,.viderrr frorn the ti lc', .rs .ccn in I

rather comnlon typc of Har*''an tilc that shorvs

thrcc seated ascetics in the ccntral band, with a

rorv of gecsc (iam-sa) bclow and a railing with

figures abovc (Fig. r7.z). The gccsc nlotif was

known in ancicnt Indic art sincc the Maurya

period (Fig. 4.ro) and thc portrayal of f igurcs

convcrsing above a railing rvas well established

by thc Kuslna pcriod at Mathrtra. Howcver,

KASMIR AND RXTATED SCHOOTS ?55

IS

3

hat dre Kaimirur,r'a empire andre capital, Stna-r as Pdudreqhan,2r. Howevet, nomir testify to' region. Only athe Rajaturaiginadaurya and theu!a[a times, the

Kaimiri cities. known, such as

) and Huviska-Uskur remainedseveral centuries

'jor renovations,LC another in therat Kaniska heldKa:imir, thereby

a Buddhist

avc at Kondivtes no survivingte -rlrpd. What'all and original;ere faced witht ire floot trles

rm of an enor-r1'e rePresented'- along withLter of the lotusr in thc middlesllPPort.h the northem\restefn Inner

. as seeI1 ln arile thac showsI band, with a: railing with

:ese motif wast rhe Mauryarval of figures.:l l establishedra. Howcver,

r 7. r . Section of tile llo or of caitya h^11, Herwan, Kaimir,India. Ca. fourth centrry. TeIIa cotta.

r7.2. Floor tile. Fron H,rwan, Ka5mir, India. Ca.fourth century. Stamped terra cotta. H: J3.4 cm. Is-tituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Romc.

the rather distinctive facial rypes of the convers-ing figures are probably derived from the morenaturalistic renderings of the Bactro-Gandhararegions of the northwest, here reduced to almostcaricaturelike renderings, and not the Mathurestyle. The ascetic type, too, might be traced tothe earlier art of the northwestem portions ofthe subcontinent. The numerals on the ti les.which may have been used to expedite rheproccss ofcorrcctly placing them in rheir originalcontexts, are in the Kharosthi scripr, which wasprevalent in tJre northwest. The use of thisscript suggests that the Kidara ("Little") Kuganas,a branch of the main family, were still in poweror had recently controllcd thc region. This wouldconfirm the usual fourth-century dadng for thctiles, a suggestion that is also supported by thetreatment of the foliate motifs in thc band otgeese, which resemblcs Cupra-period cxamplesfrom norrh and north-cenrral India.

Other important pre-Karkota-period sitesare Akhnur and Uskur, ancient Huviskapura,which was founded by rhe Kus5r.ra cnrpcrorHuviska in rhc second century ,r.o. Thc surrrivingsculpture heads from these sites,a such as thc

one illustrated (Fig. r7.3), have stimulated somedebate regarding their age, but their relationshipstylistically to materials from Hadda suggeststhat they were produccd in the late fifth orearly sixth ccntury. Slightly fuller facial featuresand a softening of the details distinguish theseworks frour Hadda examples. A few piecesshow a strong relationship to the Gupta idiomof the late fifth century, especially in thc softlyrnodcled facial fearurcs. alrhough a rangc instylcs suggcsts eidrer diffcrcnr periods of pro-duction. or. aiternatively. that artists ofseparatctraditions worked at rhe site. Thcse examplcs ofthe modeler's art may bc considercd representa-tive of a major art form in Ka6mrr during thcpre-Karkota period.

Very few. stone sculptures have been foundthat belong to the pre-Kerkota period, yet anisolatcd carving representing Karttikeya, fiomBijbchara, docuruents thc cxistencc of a maturestone sculpture idiom from that time (Fig. r7.4).Thc image is not a tentative experiment by ascr.rlptor reaching for forms half-realized in thecreative moment. On the contrary, it demon-strates a sense of sure cornpletion by a master

356 LA'IER NoRTHERN scHools

r7.4. K:rt t ikcya. Fronr Bi jbehara, Ka(mir, India. Ca.fifth or sixrh century. Grcy-black stone. H: roj.J cur.Sri Pratap Singh MuscuiD, Srinagar.

r7.3. Head. Frorn Akhnur, Ka6rnir, India. Ca. latcfrfth or early sixth century. Terra cotta. H: rr.5 cu.National Museum, Karachi.

r7.1. Brddha. Provenancc unknorvn. Frorr norrhwcstLrdia or Pakisran. Ca. mid-fifth ro nlid-sixth century.Mctal. H: 32.4 cru. Sri Prarap Sinsh Museunr, S.inaear.

. :

, India. Ca. late

ona. H: r t .5 crn.

From northwest:id-sixrh century.llus.um, Srinagar.

skilled in his craft and con-{ident of his technicaland visual solutions. Although the date of thepiece is uncertain, very late Sassano-Iranian ele-ments in the treatment of the streamers at thesides of the head and the detailing of the girdleand dagger with their pearl ornamentation sug-gest that this is a work from the H[na period,approximately fifth or sirth century, since theseelements are emphasized on Hu4a coins. Therelative\ Hellenjstic tteatment of the torso andrather muscular body, along with the deep foldsof the garment, are reminiscent of Kusa4a-periodworks from Gandhara and Bactria, revealingKa(mrr's arristic debt to that rradition. How"-ever, other Gatures demonstrate that the Kaimiristyle was also touched by the Gupta schools ofnorthern and north-central India. The huskv.stocky body build and detail ing of rhe anaromy.while ultimately based on the muscular body-type popularized in Kusana-period works, alongwith the full form of the now badly batteredface, suggest works ofthe fifth century like thoseat Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh.

A few rnetal images are also known fiom thisperiod, including a standing Buddha displaying

KASMiR AND RETATID ScHooLS JJ7

abhaya mudra in the Sri Pratep Singh Museum(Fig. i7.5). Although its findspot and place ofmanufacture are uncertain, it was collected at atime when the museum's attention was entirelyfocused on the provinces of Ka3mir, Jarnmu,and to some degree Ladakh, and it is reasonableto assume tlat it came from one of these threeregions. The features of the face, treatment ofthe robe, and proportions of the body arerelated to forms widely found in Bactro-Gan-dhara images. Further, the compressed statureofthe figure, the heaviness ofthe drapery (wlnchobscures the forms of the body), and the largesize ofthe hands and feet all suggest the Bactro-Gandhara sryle of around the fourth century.However, there is a fullness to thc features ofthe face, especially the cheeks and lips, that ismore appropdately identified as fifth or sixthcentury, and thus a date of 45o-55o may bepostulated. Although rather strictly in theBactro-Gandhera style, the image provides in.r-portant evidence of a stylistic source for laterKadmiri sculpture and painting, whether or notit was actually made in Kaimrr.

THE KARKoTA Pruot (ca .6z5 ro 855)

While there was undoubtedly a great deal ofartistic activity during the early part of theKarkota period, it is not until the reign ofLalitaditya (ca.7z4-5o) that monuments maybe assigned to a particular patronage. Accordingb the Rajatardigiryt, Lalitadttya conquered mostof north India to the Bay of Bengal. Thesemilitary adventures were probably massiveraiding and looting expeditions rather than tmeconquests. As a result ofthem, however, lalitadi-tya carried back to Kaimir inestimable treasure,mostly in the form of gold, silver, and bronze.The vast wealth accrued by Lalitaditya musthave been a major factor in stimulating large-scale art production during the eighth centuryin Kaimir. Some authors attribute virtuallyany eighth centLlry nonument or sculpture tothe period of Lalitaditya, but two monarchsbefore him also had long and prosperous reigns.Both Durlabhavardhana (ca. 625-6r) and Prate-

pedirya II (ca. 66t-vr) could have founded thcKerkota tradition of monument building priorto the rcigrl of Lalitaditya. Further, it is possiblethat several of his successors followcd in hisfootsteps by constructing ten.rples and patroniz-ing monasteries. The fact remains, however,that the eighth century was a major period oftemplc construction, using durable materials,largely attributable to the wealth and power ofLalitaditya.

The remains at Martaqda probably date fromthe period of Lalitaditya. 'fhc

Rajaturaigitt Lsquite explicit on the subject, for in the sectionon Lalitaditya it states that "That liberal [king]built tlre wonderftrl lshrine] of Matta4da, wrthits massive walls of stone within a lofty en-closute (prasarlantar)."s 1^1 r-O rt^, however,was not the fotuder of the site, for his workthere was a reconstruction of an earlier temple,perhaps of the sixth century, that is now com-

Ji58 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

r7-6. Phlr of Mata4rJa ternplc. Mertaqda,

Kr(rrrr, Indn. Krrkota period. probrbly rcign

of Lalitaditya. Ca. second cluarter eighth

r7.7. Martttda temple frorn wcst. Mtrtl4da'Kri rrrr, Indir. K,rkor.r pcr 'od. probabll rcign

of Lalinditya. Ca. second quarter eighth

ccnrury,

r7.8. North pcristylc, Mart,4da ler1rple. Mar-

t:nda, Kaalnir, India. Karkota Period, proba-

bly rcign of Lalit:ditya. Ca. second quarter

cighth ccntury.

pletcly lost. -fhe Rajataraigi1t further reveals

;hat tilc temple was dedicatcd to dre dcity of the

sun, S[rya, who is called Martanda in the tcxt 6

Thc tcnrp le i , rcc tangt t la r in p lan . cor rs i ' t tng

of a ttv4dapa and a shriue (Figs. 17.6, r7'7)'Two

double slrrincs frank the napdapa on the westcrn

cnd. It is enclosed in a vast courtyard by a

peristylc wall having eighty-four secondary

,h.io.s i.r it. The colunurs of this peristylc are

Ilutcd, and their bases and capitals are clearly

reminisccllt of Syrio-Roman typcs (Fig' t7 8)'

Thcrc is a gate to the colnPould on the west,

and major lccondary shrir-rcs in the center of

cach of the two side rvalls. Each of drc eighty-

four niches originally containcd an iurage, prob-

ably of somc forn.r ofsurya, and morc dePictions

of Surya werc placcd around thc plinth of the

temple. The iconography is Martanda/Snrya as

the Univcrsal, r'ith thc temple's ccntral image

conceivcd ofas en-ranating the secondary images.

Architcctr-rrally, thc tenPle and its successors

havc generatcd n.ruch discussion rcgarding thc

sorirce of thcir forms. Early writers, like Sir

Alexandcr Cunninghan.r, sarv the Ka(mlri style

as a nanifestation of Creek stylcs.? But such

relationships c1o not ncccssarily ir.nply new in-

fusions of influcncc. Hellcnizing elencnts arc

obviorisly present in tlle architccturAl details of

thc tenpl; such as the pcdiment motif and

tri lobate arches (Fig. r7.7), the surrounding pcri-

stylc, the var,ltcd arches, and tl.re cngagcd col-

[n-rns. The use of these fornls reflccts wcsterr

KASMIR AND RELATTD SCHOOTS JJ9

] ] :

1: -. . r , . : ' ' .

- a--:.r,' \ l r r r r r : rqr ,: : :labl,v rcign

: : . : icr e ighth

: '-,roba-

! . r : r r tcr

it-',.i:;,':... r,:. ..

: : - o f t h e, : , l f \ : . i as

i r lage

ir laqes.. - laccssors

: . : - : l t r g t hc

: , . l i k c S i r' . j r i r i stylc

l lLrt st lclr'. ncrv irt-

' - :ntnts arc

. letei ls of' :noti f and

::r, i inq peri-

: :glgecl col--. - . ts wesaern

. - a

e'..3&r.!l{ -

360 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOIS

Asiatic tastes, and especially idioms that had

been prescnt in Gandhara, Bactria, and other

regions of the northwest. The peaked roof and

pyramidal section of pediments were known in

Bactro-Gandhara art since the Parthian pcriod;

a good exar-nple of a n-ronument that bears this

motif is the Sttrpa of the Double-headed Eaglc

(Fig. 2.8). These later survivals in Ka(mir should

come as tro surprise, in light ofthe history of the

region and its association with adjacent areas.

Mertanda is one of the earliest and yer largest

of the Ka(n.riri stone tcmples known to have

cxisted. It is likely, however, that it was not

innovative in design but simply refected cstab-

lished architecturrl traditions, probably pri-

marily in wood. Sincc the Parthian-pcriod tradi-

tions at Taxila reveal sirnilar architectural orders,

it may be assumed that the basic style had bccn

present in the irnmediatc vicinity since the

first century of the Christian era and that it was

very much the local convention by thc eighth

century. Thus Martenda is an expression of the

contemporaneoLls trends in Kalintr, whilc at

the same time it clearly displays its heritage in

Bactro-Gandhara and ultimately other western

Asiatic sources.In the eighth centruy, Ka6tlrir was a ma1or

centcr of lluddhisn whose inllucnce was felt

widcly throughout north and castcrn Asia. At

the epicenter of Kaimiri Buddhism was the

site of Parihasapura, rvl-rosc nronuments, though

today barely knorvn, scrvcd as models all across

Asia from the Pat't.tir Mountains to Japan.Although n.Luch destroyed, Parihasapura still

gives thc visitor a sensc of its forrner grandcur,

for thc scele of the rcnrains is truly impressive.

Originally, there was mtlch more to the site

th:rn just the tlrrcc surviving bascmcnts of Br-rd-

dhist builclings would indicatc -ll\e Rajaturahgi,li

describes the town as "mocking the residence

of Indra" (in Treyastrirh(a paradise) and tells of

the imagcs madc by King lalitaditya for drc

various temples, including a rePresentation of

Vis4u as Ma&rake iata, one of Visnu as P,rrt-

hasakelaua (thc patron of the city), :utd a Brhad

Buddha (Great Buddha), thc thrce rnade respcc-

tively of eighty-four tholrsand rola/<as of gold

(about five tons), cighty-fottr thor-rsand polas of

silvcr (about twcnty-o11c tons) and cighty-four

thousand pras&as of copper (nearly three hundred

tons),8 the nurnber eighty-four thousand being

r convenrion used to design:rte a vtsr quantity

and not a literal mcasurement. Lavish expendi-

tures of this sort, evcn if exaggerated, can only

come when there is tremendous incomc to the

kingdom, suggcsting thc veracity of the clairns

of Lalitaditya's conquests.None of thcse imagcs survives today, but the

remains ofthe calt1'a built by Lalitaditya, which

would have housed the BThad Buddha, verify

the claims regarding the size of the Buddha

image. The plan of the structure (Fig. r7.9) is

known from thc surviving plinth, which had a

.eries ofeighr 'tairs on the east.ide giving access

to the top. A pradok5i4apatha around thc massive

block that originally supported the Buddha

would have allowed circrunambulation around

thc main figurc. The original appearancc ofthe

building may be infcrred from a Painting at

Alchi that is bclieved to depict this monunlent

(Pl. r9),e a suggestion suPPorted by the internal

evidcnce ofthe dimensions and form ofthe plan

as determincd by the foundations, the thickness

ofthe remaining wall, and textual evidence. The

height of the structure was probably between

thirty and forty meters, and in style, it may

have resen-rbled contemporaneous Ka6miri

structurcs charactedzed by a peakcd roof, like

that shown in the Alchi painting. The enormous

imagc of the Buddha, which may have stood

thirty n1eters tall, refected certain rcligious

concepts sweeping Asia during this period in

which the Universal Buddha (presumably

Vairocana) was scen as a B/ra,y' Buddha. That

the type must have been comDron in the Indic

sph"ie i, indi."ted by prcserved examples in

stucco, as at N5land5 in eastell1 India, or stone,

such as at Kanheri (Fig. rz,.z4) and Bamiyan

(F ig . lo .z5) . Howcver . tne ta l ex . rn tpLrs have

i , , * iucJ on ly oLr t : idc thc lnd ic conrex t . buc

a cornmon source in India for these traditions

can hardly be disputed sincc all of the regions

i r r uh ic l r rhc fuhad Budd l r , conrenr ion is

found wcre in contact lvith ancient India as

a source of Buddhological information. The

in.rage conn.rissioned by Lalitaditya rrrust havc

becn incrcdibly impressive-a ruetal figure,

probably gilded or of the yellowish color of

KASMiR AND RETATED ScHooTS j6I

h duee hundredthousand beinga vast quantity

[-adsh expendi-rared, can onlyl income to then- of the claims

r roday, but thehadirya, whichBuddha, veriS'd the Buddhar Fig. i7.9) isL l-hich had a

f. gro'ing ".cesni the massive

| &e Buddha:Lrion aroundp:rance ofther : lainting ath! monunentf,,r- :he internalre ofthe plan5 =e thickness| <.: ience. TheLl-,',- berweenL r-e. it mayfr:-i Kaimirile: roof, likef:. :norrnous

:il_e stoodr2.9. Plan of Lalitaditya's .aitl,a. parihesapura, Kaarnir, India. Ker_kola period, reign oflalitidirya. Ca. second quarter eighth century_

= reiigious, :eriod in::::umablya:: la. rna[

- :he Indicc=::rples in

,rr stone,

Saruyan

:-:s have

:,-:ditions

most Kaimiri metal work, larger than mostpeople had ever seen or conceived-of, resplendentas the morning sunlight refected frorr it. Onecan scarcely imagine the awe and overwhelmingsense oftf ie majesty ofthe Buddha thar a devoteemust have Glt as he srood at the feet of theBuddha and looked up ro the image "whichreached up to the sky."ro

_ Another monument at Padhasapura, the Jt pabuilt by Cairkuna, who was the Tokharian mini-ster of Lalitaditya, is also notable for its sizeand lavishness. In the Rajatffahginl it is describedas "loftier even than the mind of the kine."rlln context, rhe reference to rhe mind oitheking rnight actually beto the caitya ofLalitaditya,which would have been raised as an expressron

of Lalitaditya's understanding of Buddhism.Thus, Cafrku4a's stipa night have been bothtaller than the caitya of the king and superior toit due to Cariluna's implied understanding ofBuddhism. As in the case of Lalitaditva's caitva.little remains of the original *ootrrn"o,,

'"1-

though again, other evidence, including textualdescriptions, enables us to make inferences aboutits form. Speci{ically, a second structure depictedin the Alchi composition (Pl. r9) almost ceriainlyrepresents Cankur.ra's stipa, for tlrc f,wo monu-ments at Parihesapura must have stood as twinparagons of Kasmiri Buddhist architecture forgenerations after their creation. The stupa shownin the Alchi painring secms to rest on a complexbase suggestive of the cruciforrn p aficaratha plan

: =: have- r., ;tgure,

Fo- lL. - _-. qo

:rlor of

362 LA|ER NoRTHERN scHools

:l

, , . it! j

-i i l il

:, ' ,,, 1

revealed by thc surviving foundations (Fig'

r7. ro).A o.u't be, ofstone sculptures have been found

in association with Cankuna's srlpa, although

their original locations on thc monument arc

not knorin. Sevcral, including the one illustr:lted

herc i l ig . r7 . r t ) . r te reprc 'en t r t ion ' o f c rowncd

Brrd.'1h,ri. AlLhouglr cx:rt,rplcs of rhis srrbjcct

are known ^t le"rt f.om the sixth century, thc

crorvned Buddha had becorne a well-known

iconograpl.ric form in Buddhist art not only in

f"(rn"rr but in other parts of ancicnt India and

Asi.r bt rhc eiqhdr ccntury. I lte crorvtr' tteckl 'ce'

rnd cairings usu.rl ly fottnd otr rlte'c Ggure' do not

indicrrc .r contrldicrion of irscetici5nl or 'rn

adoption of a rnaterialistic vicw within the

reliiion. Radrer, thesc onancnts symbolize thc

hisilest achievencnt, Universality, and thcre-

foie, although thcse figurcs en.rbody the principlc

ofl.ristorical Bddclhas Qintaaakaya), they are also

,.lepictiorrs ol lnas (snt ,hognkaya) rnd es;'ccially

oI rhe Adi Brrddlr.r slri l /rali laAaya ('clf-origi-

nated). Crowned Buddha figurcs invariably

wcar the norn.ral robe of a Buddha and thus

crnnot be confuscd rvith bodhisattvas in art'

IIt-lr-,

-L"L'-:

I-r-'

r- -:'l

Stylistically, the figure betrays the Kaimiri

artist's dcbt to the ffaditions of the Bactro-

Gandhara region, which are espccially visible in

rlre toqdli le;armerrt wirh its cnrphasized folds

,,u", rl le tor'o. Thc rarhcr nturcr'thr fotms of che

body and s\ight coxtrapposto pose reveal furthcr

ties to thc traditions ofthe northwest. Howevcr,

rhc clinqing rn.rnn, r in u hich thc drapcry revcnls

rh" forir.tr of rhe body bcnearh clerrly demon-

stratcs an overlay of Gupta-period aesthetics.

Even the downcf,st eycs, albeit on a western

Inner Asian facial type, are reminiscent of GuPta

formulations. Thc crown, with its pcarl designs

and Sassanid-type strealners, suggcsts further

associations between Kaimlr and the westcrn

Asian realn-rs.Another irnportant site of thc Kerkota Pedod

is Pendrethan, where A6oka is believed to have

founded a capital, and that was often pa-

tronized by the rtling monarchs of Ka3lnir. As

at n.rany Kaimiri sites, both Buddhist and Hindu

rernains have cone to light at Pandrelhan. A

snall but nearly perfectly intact Hindu templc

at Pandrcthan was probably built in the eighth

or ninth century, although it is cornn.ronly

r7.ro. Plan of Cairkur.Ia\ ritpd.

Parihlsapura, Kainllr, I11dia.

Karkota pcriod, reign of Lalitadi-tya. Ca. second quarter eighth

r7.r r . Crowrlcd l3uddhr Fronr Prr ihasapure, Kr inr i r .India. Fron Cxnkunr 's - r / tpd. K.rkore pcr iod, rc ignof la l i tadirv; r . Ce. seco,rrd quartcr crsrru ccrmr. , .Stor lc . H r2S.2 cIr . Sr i Prrr jp SiDgh NluscLnr,Sr inagar.

KASMIII AND ltELAt H) scIIooLs t6J

r7.r2. H[ l . ]u tcnrplc, i ronl \ r ,csr . pandrcthin, Kr iDr i r ,india. Posib lv Kirkorr pcr iod. C.r . c ighth-ninth ccr l_rurv.

ascribed to rhc terlrh throlrgh trvcllth centudcs(Fis. r7.rz).1! The tcrnplc i l lLrstrarcs in rnoclcll ikesiruplicitv thc besic format of xrchirecturxlordcrs iclcnti6ablc in l(a(n.rir sincc rhe cighthcclltrlry! but th:it clerivccl fiorl I lone-stendingrvoocior lrchitccturc tradition. Thc peakccl,gablcd roof is cspccially suitablc for rhc snorvyH r r ' ; r ' ) . l r l r l c r . . W l ' i l . r / r c s p c . r l i . [ n r r . s . , r r .rnoclificcl over tinrc in fcaturcs such as thc u,idthof the ccntnl ercir or slopc of rhc roof. it is thisroof typc that is espccially charactcristic of rheKa(niri style. Thc tcnrplc rcsts on a ptlnttlbuilt in thc ceDtcr of a tarrk; rhc u.all of thctenk parallcls thc shapc of the plinth r.ith itsoFsct sidcs. In contrast to n-ran1. other tcrrplctraclit ions of thc posr,Gupra p",in.1,,. r1r" ,.uip-tural dccorlt ion of thc nonunrcrrt is sinpL.A rorv of c:Lrvcd elephants at thc basc of thccctrtral shrine anclthe clccoration ofthe doorrvay,pilastcrs, anrl a fcl. lceturcs ofrhc roofcoruprisethe nrejor c'nrbcll ishr.ncnt of thc strucrure. Tilcfigurc oiLakulria ebovc the l intel olithe Joorrviryinclicatcs tlut tl-rc rnonurucnt r,vas probebly aSive tcmple crectccl for the lralupata sect. Thcitrterior of the tcmplc is also sinLplc e-riccpt for

r . i . rnr 's r / , lPd.. : r : r , t r rc l ia.

: : : : o i Lal i radi-. : . l r rcr e ighrh

: :ir t!:lslnll' :.:. B:rctro-: r ' isible in

: : r-. izecl folds: :ms of the

: .'.r I further.:. Hort'evcr,r . -'j I lcve:lls

: i_ alenloD-

: -',cstl1ctics.

:: , \l'CSIeIn

, ::: of (ir.rpta

:- - .,. 11 clcsigns- - - .:. iilrthcr

:, \,cstern

- :,: -.ra Pc.riocl'-'-: to lt:rve

':tatr Pa-

i-rntir. As: ::r. l HindiL:::rhel. A

: :: :,: rcruple:: rr. cightlr

. r:runonly

J64 LA'tEk NORTITERN scHooLS

T --

r7.r3. Ceii lng parcl, Hindu te rPle. P.ndr€!hen,Krinlir, India. Possibl,v Karkola pciod. Ca. eighth

a beautifully carved ceiling panel (Fig. r7'r3)'

Clearly bascd on wooden Prototypesr -and ulti--

mately dcrived fron the "lantern-roof" type of

westcrn It.ro". Asia, this type of cciling becomes

a stlndard feature in n-rany northern Indian tellr-

plc sclrools. In tlris cxample, t'idyadhara couples

i."- to r".,r. as atlantids, supPorting the archi-

tectural bcams of thc recessed squares The

uitlyadharas stlPporting the ccntral square arc

r'r',.,.h smaller in scale than those at the four

exterior corncrs of the cciling ancl those around

the central lotus panel are still smaller' Thus,

the efcct of distance, or ratircr in.rplied heieht,

is providecl for the configuration. The uidya-

/laras in particular seerr.t to snPPort an eighth to

ninth ccnttrry date for thc ternple' for the softly

modeled, feshy bodics, simple jewelry, and

elaborate, curly coifrurcs suggest the imagcry of

thh period throughout northem ancl north-

central lndia.A numbcr of isolated stollc sculPturcs recov-

ered f.on-r Pindrctl-nn also scctu to datc fron

this period, around thc latc eishdr or early ninth-

cintlry. An imagc of lnclrlni, the consort of

r7-r4. Indr,ni. Fronl Pandre{han, Kaarnir, India. Prob-ably Kirkotx pcriod. Ce. iatc cighrh-carly ninth ceD-rury. Beigc stone. F{: ca. r5o cln. Sr1 Pratap SinghMuscuIn, Srinagar.

Indra, rcveals thc still visible amalgamatory

nature of tl.re Ka(n1iri style complex (Ftg' t7't4)'

The goddess is recognized by the njru tbat

,he holds in her lcft hand and by thc elcphant,

Indr:r's uahana, that aPPea$ behind hcr' Hcr

sharply dclineated anatomical structure suggests

stylistic associations with tl.re Bactro-Gandhara

idiom, as does the heavy treatment of the lolds

of drapery across her legs. The costumc, esPe-

cially ^the

tunic, is Iranian in type and the

animated posture is relatcd to north-central In-

dian post--Gupta modcs. In Particular, the figure

rr.r"v i" .on.rp^..d to other stylistic idioms that

.,,mbine thc Hellenizcd northwcstem and Indian

no.1es, srtch as those of the Post-GuPta Periodin Rajasthan (Fig. rr.r3). Yct, l ike them, it is

nlorc thxn thc sur-n of these associations and is

representative of a distinctive local idion'

KASMIR AND RELATED SCHOOTS ,65

Trrr Urrera Dvwlsrv (ce. 855 ro 939)

Avantivarman (r. ca. 855-83), founder of theUtpala d1'nasry, revived the moment of pros-perity that Lalitaditya had brought to Kaimir.While still heir apparent, he founded Avantipura(modem Vantipur), and built theie the templeof Avantisvamin. Later, as monarch, he builtthe Avantiivara ternole. The earlier of the twotemples, the Avantisvamin, dedicated to Vipr-ru,

was modeled after the Martanda temple, al-though it is on a smaller scale (Fig. r7.r5). Themore ruined condition of the Avantisvarnintemple makes close comparison difficult, but it iscertain that the later temple was more elaborate indetailing. Its iconographic principles are identicalto those of Martanda, except that the centralshrine contained an image of Viq4u, there called

;mrr, India. Prob--<arlv ninth cen-St Pratap Singh

amalgamatorylex (Fig. r7.r4).

th.e vajro that,r the elephant,:hind her. Her:ucture suggestsactro-Gandhdraent of the foldscostume, esPe-npe and the

)fth{entral In-rrlar, the figurestic idioms that$em and Indiann-Gupta periodlilie them, it isociations and iscal idiom.

r7. r5. Plan ofAvantisvamin tem-ple. Avantipura, Kaimir, India.Utpala period, reign of Avan-tivannan. Ca. 8JJ-83.

366 Lt'-tER NoRTHERN scHoors

r?.r6. Sculpturc to left of stairs to shrine' Avantisvtnin

,J-pi.. ,qtar"ipt*, Kailnir, lndia Urpala period'

reigir of Avantivarrnan. Ca. 8J5-83'

Avantisvami, instead of Martanda / Sfrya' Each

of th" ,h.ir.t", around the peristyle presur.rably

corrtaio.cl an imagc of Visnu in jdentical form

to,h" ""or."1

figite,.ath considercd to be an

cmanatioll and J reflection of the central deity'

N.i,i". -or. nor less than him but identical

io hi-, they represented in graphic form his

UniversalitY.The orieinal richness of ornamentatlon may

bc seen in"some of the surviving sculptures at

ih. ,ir". p"n.l, on the balustrades fanking the

stairs to the shrine demonstratc the exuberance

oi-,tr. ..,, tp,oru t 'ryle. Thc fronr face of the left

Urt,,.,r"a. ,t 'olv, .t frgtrre of Vi'ntr anended by

t-o f"*"1" .o.rro.t,,- p'"'o"-t"bly Laksmi and

Srrrrvarr (Fig. t 7.1o). wli le the imer face of the

,rnt. t,on. "rho*, r royal f igure or possibly

lndra, occomprnied by artendrnts Thc opposite

frl,o,r"d", toth" , ighi ofrhe stair"'berr" a similar

r7.r7. Villru Catrrnhrti. FroDr Avantipura' Ka3mtr'

India. Utpala period, posibly rcign o,f Avantivannan

C". sss 8':. Bi"ck .to"". H: 47 crn Sri Pradp Singh

M.,seu,,t, Srinrgar'

schcme. Abovc the blocLs rr trh figurrtive carving

is a cornice of geomctrized l1ower designs sup-

oorted bv in.itition brackets ornarnented with

iion, h""i, end intcrspersed witli bird and plant

designs. Each figural con.rposition is cornpletely

frllci by the figures, giving a crowded appear-

"nc. to ihc paoels. An overall flatness is suggested

by the arrangement of Iigures and the satneness

oi th" depth'of.rrving ai'ott thc entrrc surfacc'

Stylisticaily. th" l igurc' are fullcr in ltoln rh.rn

""ili", "*"-pl.r, h-ave shorter proportions, and

,.,r""1 "

o.ni stiffncss, denonstrating that the

Ka(mrri idiom, like many othcr Indic styles

of the ninth century, had abandoned the soft

modeling of the Gupta and post-GuPta hcritage'

Th" ttt"i" frg.,.", io parti;lar have fattened'

broad torsos with a taut, muscular aPPearance'

still reminiscent of thc Hellenized heritage of

the region.

r7.r8. BrahrDa. Fronr Avarlt ipura, K:rlurir, lrrdia.Urpaia pcriod, posibly reign of Aventivaruran Ca8j5-83. Blick sronc. H: Jr cm. Srr Pntnp SinghMLtscum, Srlnrgrr.

Sculpturcs from Avantipure exhibit both avaricty in iconosraphic types and a reiativelyr,ide rangc of stylistic corlvclltio[s. A rcprc-scntation of Visnu in a four-herded forur,rvhich may be callecl Caturnrhrti, shows hin1as a conpositc of four aspects (Fia- r7.r7).t iThe flont (cast) f:rce of thc deity is hunran,those on the propcr left ancl right sides (northancl south) are heacls of r boar and Jion rcspec-c ivc ly . rv lL i l c t l r . r t o r t l t c Ie , r ( rn , . r ) r ' t l ' . r r ' ' f . rdemon. Thc l ion lnd boar l laccs do not rcfer tothc Nrsirhha and Varaha auafirs of Visnu butrad:'cr to t)yihds (cn.Lanations) dcscribcd in thcPailcar-tra Vaisnavitc doctrine. The hunanface thus represents Vasudcva, lrom whorrern . r r ' . r r ( lhe t l r r , c ry r / i , rs r r . r r i rk . r r r . rn . . l r ,Pre-sented by the lion), Pradyurura (rcprcsentccl byrhc bo . r r ) .

"n , l An i r r rdd l r " ( repre .qnrq l b1 thq

derlon). Each lprla has tr,vo activitics, a creativc

KASMiR AND RELATED scHooLS ji67

and an ethical one, and each ofthcsc is.ssociatcdrvith one gri;ra (quality). Thus, Sarirkarsenebegins thc proccss of cre:rtion witl.r bola (porvcr) IPradyumna continucs it, at rvhich tinre theduality ofpralrri and p11flta appcar through thcusc of rrl-irarla (sovcrcignty); and Animddhacrcatcs iranifcst rratter u'ith Jalrl (crcativecnergy). The cthical activities inclLrdc the tcach-ing of uronotheistic thcory by Sarhkarsana,the trrnslrt ion of this theory into practicc byPradyumna, :rncl the l iberation achicvcd throughthe practice by Anirr-rcldha, with the rcspectivegunas of jiana (rvisdorr), r,ir7o (hcroism), ancltrjas (spiritual porvcr). In Keimrr, wherc thcPtiicar-ara doctrinc rvas poptlar, images of

\ ' . . . . . . . . . . . - i - i . . . l l l t ) t o n . l h t ,

exar.npic, finely carvccl :rncl polished, dcrnon-stratcs lDost clearly the sculptural styie in uscat Avxntipura, with thc fecial forms associatedwith lvcstcrn Imrcr Asian types end the torsostill rcvcaling tics lvith thc stylcs of the north-west regions.

Anothcr figurc fiom Avantipura r-nly alsohave been a proclnct of Avantivarn.ran's buildingactivity at thc sitc (Fig. r7.r8). Thc imagc, { c 1 i c r . r l r . g ' C R r . ' 1 ' r ' . r d r . . ' , 1 . ' ' . r r : r . c t i c .lvcaring a sin-rplc germeirt, an anirt al skin onhis lcft shouldcr, but no Je$'elry. Thc fullncssofthc torso, rounclcr l lcc, and less :rcce[triatedposture arc part ol a disccrniblc trcrrrl inKa(rutri scuipturc of rhc period, and againsnggcst afiinitics to wcstcrn Inncr Asian art. Aslcckness aud refinerucrrt of thc surfece of thcstorc pcrv:rc1es the rvork, charactcrizing thc clc-gancc oftcn associetecl rvith thc arr of t lrc l(aintirregion.

Thc Mtrttnda and Avantisv-min tctrrples xrei t r t p o r t . n r l , \ t . . l r r ( r r r s r o t l r ( p o \ \ ( _ . r n , l v i - . r l r t yof thc I{arkota :urd Utpala periods rcspcctivcly.l l t c i r r , . r r r ro rg r l e u r l i r r r \ to t ) r l cnLp 'cs

surviving in Kainir, yct they are arnongt r . l . ' 13 . . t cvcr b r r i l r i r ) f l ) . r r rc j ion . I l re l .ecnr

to havc bnrst uliprcccclcntcd on tlle scene atthe uromcnt in I{air-nir's lristory rvhen itsrulcrs rc:rchecl the summit of thcir powcr.'Whilc

nreny l:Ltcr Klinrri temples arc trrchsrt eller in scale and less grendiosc in conccptioll,they arc oftcn vcry linc cxamples of the archi-tectural traclit ion.

,

b,"F

I

I: Ki r i r r r i r ,

r :e Of

. iv lng

l : : S L I P -

. lvrth

: pl.rnt- -'rcly'r f cir-

- -'.\ted

:::atless

-:: l icc.

:: than

: . . and

- - L r t he

!tYles

: t : soft

. : : t age .- . : : ined,

j68 LATER NORTHERN sCHooIs

Tur Two Lonana DyNASTIES AND THE Lasr HrNnu Kr l rcs(Truru ro F o un . r r rNrs Crurunr rs )

In both architecture and sculpture, the art ofKaimir after the tenth century is primarily atradition of rather limited variation. Smalltemples similar to the example at Pandrethanwere built, some of which had compound wallswith nutrerous small cells, like those of thetemplcs at Martel.lda and Avantipura. Many ofthe sculptural fonns seen from the cighth cen-tury were codified into unvaryilg types, and,in general, the images became incrcasingly stiflshowing litdc of thc former vitality of thcKaSmrri tradition.

This is clearly seen in a number of sculpturesfrom Verinaga. Onc exanple, probably of thetwelfth century, shows Viqru Caturmurti (Fig.r7.r9) and thus can be appropriately conparedto the Visnu Caturnfrti from Avantipura(Fig. I7.r7). In the later example, the enphasison musculature lessens, the posture is straighter,the {igure is nlore colunnar, and thc face ismuch broadcr, with clongated eyes. A thick-legged, husky form and an overall stiffness ofthe figure characterize this latcr phase ofKa6nliriart. In tbis cxamplc, all four arms of the deityare preserved, providing a complete example ofthc iconographic type. The trvo upper handshold tlre lotus (padna\ and conch (3an,L/ra) whilethc two lower hands rest on tllc heads of rwovyudhapuru5as. the female personification of thcmace, gadadeuT (to Visnf s right), ancl thc malepersonification of the rvheel (tabaputusa) to htsleft. The dhott worn by Visnu, rvhich is shorter

r7.r9. Vignu Caturnlrti. Fronl Verintga, Kairnir,India. Ca. tweifth cerrtury'. Crcy stonc. H:67.5 cu.Sri Pratap Singh Museurn, SriDxgar.

on onc leg than on the othcr, is a fcature seenin a number of othcr in-rages from Verinagaand secms to have becn a local peculiarity.

K a S v i t r r I v o n r r s . t N n M r r a r l , n a c E s

Ahhough divorccd frorr definitivc associationwi rh any rno l l lu l ienr . s i rc . o r the rc ign o f aparticular monarch, the stylistic ancl iconographicdevelopments of ivories and metal images fronrKainir n.ray be seen to follow much the samepattens as those in stonc. The survival of thcseobjccts in sorne cascs has probably been dueto their having been exportcd fron Ka(rmrto thc ncighboring regions of rvestern Tibet,where they werc kcpt in monasteries r-rntil the

recent political disturbanccs, during which theywere brought out by refugees.

One splendid composition consists of acentral ivory dcpicting a seated Buddha indhyara nudra surrounded by a host of otherfigurcs, including bodhisattvas and emaciatedascetics (Pl. i3). Flanking the central group andsct into adjacent nichcs in thc wooden archi-tcctural fiamework are two standing Buddhas,carved out of separatc pieces of ivory. A slight

KASMIR AND RELATED SCIIOOI-S

I :

L

r

K:lin1ir,6 7 . 5 c n r .

,rh they

: : O f l

_: i1a ln

: other::.:ciated:: ') xnd

' -r.rcnl-

--Jhas,i lLgl l r

r7.2o. Indrr (left) and Brahnre.From Ka(rrrir resion. Ca. cighthcentury. Ivory, wirh painr. H:10.6 cnl ( lcft) ; ro cn (r ighr). Pre-scnt whereabosts unknown,

bcvel to the edge of the wooden frame andthc existencc of a second similar compositionlasuggests that this examplc was part of a sct ofBuddhist scencs that adorned thc drum of avotive stupa. The deiicacy and intricacy of drecarving, both ofthe ivory picccs and tbe woodcnframe, docun-rcnt the once rich carving traclitionthat 1tlust have existcd in fragile materialsalongside the Dlorc nonumcntal arts. Thcarchitectural orders of the woodcn fiamc, r,vhilcclearly reflecting those used in Ka6urir in theeighth century, also deruonstrate sorrrc othcrwiseunknown fcatures, for the stcpped arches anclpentafoil may rellect actuai architcctural types.

Two or i rc r i vory f igurc ' o [ rhe . "me appror i -n-utc period rcpresent Indra arrrl Bralrra asthey v'ould have appeared in attendance of accntral f igurc ofthe Buddha (Fig. r7.zo). hrdrais drcssed in thc manncr of an lndic monarchwhilc Brahna r.ears a robe very much likethat of a Buddha. Both arc attended by figurcswho turn thcir attention to thcm as opposed tothe location of whar rvould havc been the

central figure. Tire beardcd Brahma is rcn.rinis-cent of the Bactro-Gandhara artistic traditionof thc Kusata pcriod, visiblc especi:rl ly in thetreatrncnt of his drapcry and body. Indra'sdistinctive crown miy bc traccd to a Sassaniansource.

Thc metal imagcs of rhc Karkora, Urpala,and Lohara pcriods form a contillrurn ofs t v l i . r i c t rcn , r . ,L , rJ rconognph ic innor . r r io . r .that has yct to bc sttdied in clepth. It is gLriteevident that thc sruvivirlg metal pieccs arc onlythe slightcst tracc of a massivc, compJcx tradi-tion. In ternrs of qLrll i ty, it is casy to sce fromextant cxamplcs tlut Dtxny irnagcs rank an-rougthe bcst n.rctalwork produced in any cultureand that thcre vu'as an casc ud facility offabrica-tion that suggcsts a vast ancl activc produc-tion. Incleed, sincc thc technology to cast thcBrlal Buddha of Lalitaditya hacl alrcady becnachicvcd, therc can bc little doubt as to the tech-nical abil ity of thc artists. Thc particular alloy ofziuc ancl coppcr popular in Ka(r.r.riri nctalrvorkcrcatcs a yellorvish color and gives the imagcs,

: . :Jte seen

: : : \ ' .

370 LA-]ER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

r?.2r. Surya. Frorn Kainrr region Ca_ seventh cen_

ioru. B."ri. H: 48.6 cm. Clevciand Museum of Art'

Clweland (Gifi of Katherine Holdcn Thayer)'

r t . : : . Budd l r r ' f r o r r r Ka i r r r i r r eg i ' r r ' C r ' e i ghch cen -

ru r ) . B r r ss . H : o8 c r r r . C l c rehnd M ' r ' eu r r r o f A r t '

Cleveland (John L. Scverancc Fund)'

cven when ungilded, an esPccially bcautiful' soft

g lou . o f ren . in l . ry tn p r r rc coPl lc r o r s i l ver

!1111q11s. thc s,trfrcc of thc"c rr orks'1 he pri nrary

evidence available indicatcs that the main

stylistic thrust carlc out of the northwestern

Iidic rcsions as sccn in exampics of the pre-

Karkota"period (Fig. 17 5), as well as later Pieccs'

-iti.lt ,ft'.* stronf affinities to the afi of Gan-

dhara. Bactria, and associated regions'

An overlay of the Gupta style that wxs also

vi.iblc in rhe Kaimrri stonc 'ctrlpturc tr 'rdiri 'rn

fos tc rcd . . r d isc incL ive ' c r i cs o fs t rb t l c a r ld t l cganc

i rn" * . . , i " . t . ' ' a i tg rn ' rppror i r t r le ly scvcnt l t -

..n,i,ry ,.p."".ni 't ion of srtryr drc"ed in a

. " f t "n , 'boo t r . . ,nd l re i o fa type found in Surya

i r , "n" t i " A [gh . 'n is tan 1 l - ig rTzr ) Thot rgL

,t"niine in a rtricrly ftontrl posc the Strry..

i;;;; i",r"t. t l ,c g'a"ful [orrrr ' and "rbde

lod! tr"n'ir;out sttggestivc of I Gupta lrcritege'

Thc caftan clings to the body in a manner

reminiscent of Buddhist robes of the Gupta

oeriod, and likc then, the dr:rpery assumes

iron.rin.o." at the hem, bctween the legs' and'^t

thc colla, and cufi-s. In this case, thc linear

detail of thc bordcr pattcrn of the garment

and tl.re dcsign of the crown contrast sharply

with the snr"ooth surfaccs of the rest of the

in-rage. On the basis of comparison to works

nf ,il. ,",,"nth ccntury in other Parts of South

Asia, howevcr, the piece should be assigned

ro th.rt period.Or l rc r K ' i r l r r i r r t c tn l p icce ' d isp l r l r ' i rn r la r

amalganation of the styles. of the ancient

,rorrh"*a,,"tr1 regions and the traditions of

.,.,rthern and norilt-ccntral India after thc Gupta

pcriocl. Two rcPrcsentxtions o[ Budd]ras' one

i .na lne f f ; s . r7 . :z ) .nd one ' ca ted ( f ig r7 ' z j ) '

b",rry id, ireritagc, tho'rgh thel probably datc

r. Ca. eighth cen',\luseum of Art,

v ln a manner, of the GuptaraPery assumes:n the legs, andcase, the linear

rf the garmentcontrast sharPlyrhe rest of theLrison to works

parts of SouthilJ be asigned

h.oiav a sin.rilar.-: the ancient: traditions of, aner the Gupta: Buddhas, oneL ! u

\ r | 5 . r / . ? J , / l

r :robably date

17.23. Buddha. Frorn Ka{mir region. Ca. eighth cen-tury. Brass with silver inlay. H: 4r.2 crn. Los AngelesCounty Museum of Aft, Los Angeles (Nasli and AliceHeeramaneck Collection).

fiom the eighth century, perhaps the period ofLalitaditya, by comparison to the standingcrowned Buddha figures from Cairkur.ra's s/r.lpa(Fig. r7.rr). The metal figures are slightlyslenderer in build, however. The standing imagehas an accented bend to the hips, and the weightof his body is supported firmly by his stiff leftleg, while his right leg appears to be caught inmotion. The left arm swings out fiom his body,as if helping to balance the figure. The implicitmovement ofthe figure bears a striking similarityto the "walking" Buddhas of Thailand.l5 Agreat deal of wear on the torso has softenedthe details of the drapery, although it is clearlybased on the Bactro-Gandhara heritage. ATibetan inscription on the base of the piececalls this the "Respected image of ReveredNegaraja." Here, the term Nagaraja refers toSakyarnuni Buddha, in one of his rarely applied

I{ASMiR AND RELATED sCHooLs J7T

epithers.16 The presencc o[ a Tibetan inscrip-tion on an image of unquestionable Ka6mirimanu&cture suggests that the piece rray havebeen executed for a Tibetan patron, or that itwas made in Ka3mir, but transported at an earlydate to the adjacent regions of westem Tibet,where the inscription was added.

The seated Buddha figure is worked in avirtually identical style (Fig. 17.23). The positionof the hands has protected the drapery on thetorso from wear caused by its being touchedduring worship and it may be suggested that thestanding {igure might also have had such aclearly delineated robe. The gestLte is the mudraof the fourth level of the teachings displayed inexactly the same manner as seen in the laterwestem caves. Since this figure only slightlypostdates the latest of those images, it may beassumed that the iconography is the sarne,although it is unfortunate thar rnore informa-tion about the context of the image has notsurvived. The facial features are typical ofKaimiri rendcrings of this date and include thecharacteristic higli arching brows; wide, hori-zontal eyes; plump, curved lips; a markeddelineation of the chin; and a narrow chin butbroad brow. The fullnes of the face and treat-ment of the eyes and brows suggests strong tiesto seventh and eighth century Inner Asiandepictions.

One ofthe most elaborate of the known Ka6-miri bronzes is a represeutation of a crownedBuddha, Vairocana, seated atop a lotus, f,ankedby stilpas, and accompanied by numerous otherfigures and elemflrs (Fig. 17.24). Its inscrip-tion, which contains a date of the year 3 or 8,is of litde use in detcrmining the date of rnanu-facture since the era is unspecified and the twodonors, Sankarasena and Princess Devairiya,are unkno.wn.u The ligatures and style ofthe work, however, suggest a ninth-century date,Thc fact t lrat onc of thc donors was a prince.sindicates the level of patronage that the workrepresents, that of the nobility. The wholecomposition rests on a plain base that containsthe inscription, above which is a highly con-ventionalized rock mass in wfuch the Buddhistwheel, two deer, and two human figuresmay beseen. The rusticated rock mass is arranged

372 LA"IER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

ilr--V"rr..""' Buddhr' Frotl Ke(rnir rcgion. CA'

"l'/ n.*. *i,r, sl'er inlav- tl.3r cnl

:::1,'r ::l:l:tt ' Ne\1 York

iiti. *a no.' l"l,' D Ro;kcrcllcr 3rd collection)'

jf '=dr'l

At--***

I

in cavelike forms containing dresc clemcnts,scparated by pil larl ikc clustcrs of rock. Abovethe rock basc is e rvater surfacc or,rt of rvhicht }e lo t l s "n . l f \ r ^ , , , igdr r r r c rgc . rhc , , r l ,o lercprcsenting the cosmic oceu (that r-r-rr1st becrosscd to attain enlightcnment) supportcd bythc goros (drvarves) r'ho represent propcrtics orcatcgorics of tl.re rvorlcl in rvhich tire teachingsof the Buddha arc prcscnt (r.vhee1/decr). Out ofthis, thc lotus clncrgcs bcaring aioft tJre UnivcrsalB . r , . lh . r (s , a1 l ,a r iLaLayn l in r r l r i , h ' . e r lbo , i , , lthc essence of all Btdclhas (Tathayatagarbha),Dr \ r . r l r r \en l . . r l , l f i r r rc I l r , l , ' n r . , . ro C i thcrsidc of him bear sfrlpas of forner Buddhas rndsyr ' rbo l i zc thc . r r r . r inuent o f r l rc . " p . , . r v rc ror 'o f t h c q L t c r r f o r , n l i g h t c t r r l e r r r . r \ p , r t o f r l r cljniversai. Thc BLrddha is seeu as both rrirrrara-kayd ̂ id srabhaL,ikafrayo tlrroLrgh the rlcans of.a ' lhoqokaya. g r . 'p l r i c r l l l s l rown i r r r l r , " r range-rncnt of elemcnts in the composition. Thesec l , r | | c ' t . . r re .pcc i f i c r . . c r r rc , . ro c \o te r icinitiations (allisefta) that thc practitionerr rn . l c rgoe ' ro ( rcvc lop hr ' c l rq ioLr . . rb i l r ry .Thus, the cro\r'n rcprcscnts the five jtard andthe chasuble refers to the four quarters of thcr r r r rc r . . . In r l ro r r . rhe f ig r r r< rcpr , * r ' r . r l i cBuddha as thc Univcrsrl teecl.Ling rhc //ranrraof the lourth, csotcric level.18 This icorLogrephicform is also closcly rclatecl if not iclcntical tovotivc inages fbund throughoot the rvcstcrncavcs.re All of this errrichlicnt is relatccl to their.rcrcasingly cleborate ritual aspccts of RLrclclhisnancl eech of the elcmcnts is syrrbolic of variousinitiations, the implication bcinq that l'hcn thei - i , i . - : - ; . . . . . - i . . . - 1 . - . , c t i t i ^ n e r 1 r . . ,

bcconrc a lluddLa. Thts, thc' devotee seeshimself in drc image as thc fully cnlishrcncclBuddha.

A drantatic translo|merion of an earlierreligious conccpt is seen in a rcpr.sentation ofVajrapani, thc bodhisattva rvho crnbodies thcconcept of thc n-Lysticrl porvcr of trinsccn.lcntknorvledgc (P1. ra). In contrasr to pcacc-fir1reprcscrtatioDs, Vajrapani. iclcntified by the /ojraln his lcft hand, hcrc is sho*.n r,ith an angrycxprcssion orr ]ris face, creatcd by the archeclbron's end barcd fangs. His hair is depictcd in a"1lame-likc" convcntioll and tl-rc c,rnarnenrsthat he lvears arc serpents, gcncrally rcaarcled

KASilliR AND RETATED sclrools tZJ

r7.25. Avaloki leivAr3. Frorn Kx(r) ir region. Loharapcriod, reign of Qucen Diddi. Cr. 98o roo3. Bronzcrvith si lverinl:ry. H: iJ.4 cnr. Sri l ,ratrp Sjnsh Muscunr,Srn:rgrr.

as symbolizing the sub.jugation of thc hindranccsof tire practitioncr. His corpulcncy is alsoiconographically spccifi ed. These lcatnres dercr-minc tlrrt the fisure is the angry (kro,lha) fotmof Vajrapeni. Angry fornLs wcrc present in thecavcs of Aurangabad and in othcr earlier corl-r c x i . . b r r r b 1 l l r , c r ! l l l r . , r n i r r r l ' . c n r r r r ) r . r r r cprobable c1:Lte of this image, thc Lrsage had be-come rvidespread in lludclhist arl. Essentially,thcsc forms represeDt thc intcnsity rvith whichtirc practitioncr ovcrcoulcs his l-Lindrances andthe fcrvor widr I'l.rich he pursucs his task.

A mctal imagc of Avalokitc(vara datccl inthe reign of Quccn Didcle (98o-roo3) scrvcs asan ir-nportant clocun-rcnt of stylistic change inKa(miri scri lpturc (Fig. r7.25).20 The six-armedbodhisattva is llar.iLcd by Tara and Bhrkuti,who appcar in a rnuch recluced scalc. A greaterarrgularity to thc posc and treatncnt of thefornrs of the body of thc main figure lnarks a

374 LATE\ NORTHERN SCHOOTS

departure from the more softly nodeled formsof previous centuries, yet the still musculartorso, distinctive facial features with high

arching brows and large, half closedclearly within the broad definitronsKaimiri style.

eyes areof the

T n r A r r o F A D J A c T N T R l c r o N s : W r s r r n t H T M A L A v A NF o o r H r L L s A N D W E S T E R N T I B I T A N C u r r u n a r R r c l o N

The metal imagcs made by Ka6n.riri craftsnenand, often, the craftsmen themselves, frequentlytrayeled to neighboring regions, for Ka(mirserved as a cultural and artistic source for muchoF the surrounding area. Kaimiri rrrists areknown to have traveled throughout Inner Asiaand even into China, and a number of works ofart may be attributed to these individuals. Ofmore immediate interest are works found inthe neighboring hill states and the Tibetancultural areas of Himalayan India, which provideimportant insights into thc range of artistictraditions that llourished in Kaimir and itsneighboring states. In somc cases, as in tbewestern I{imalayan foothills, distinctive localstyles prevailed, while in others, as in Ladakh,a virtually pure Ka6miri idion was fostered.

The temples and sculptures of the westernHimalayan foothills region have been largelyoverlooked in studies ofSouth Asian art. Becauseof this, many of the monurncnts remain largelyunknown, and those that have been identifiedhave not been placed within the general historicalcontext.2l However, these regions fostered artschools that werc not only relatcd to those ofnearby centers, such as Kaiurir and other partsof northern India, but that were also distinctivein their own right.

This can be seen in a large image of DurgaMrh i .es r r r . rmard in r . ca l l cd La l ,sana in i rs in -scription, rvhich is in a temple namcd for thegoddess, the Laksana Dcvi unndir at Br:.hntorin thc Chanrb.r Hil l rracts (Fig. r7.26). ls in-scription further reveals that it was dedicated inthe reign of Mcruvarman, a king whose capitalwas at Brahmor, and who is believed to havelived in the mrddle ro ldrc sevenrlr ccnrury.22This datc falls in the pcriod ofgeneral turmoil innorth-central India and is just after the es-tablishn.rent of the new Ka6n.riri dynasty of theKarkoLas. fhus . i r fo rm. a r r i rnpor rdn t miss ing

link in the development of Hindu sculptureand numbers among the very few survivinglarge-scale metal inages fron any early period.Although the image has not been chemicallyanalyzed, its yellow color suggests tiat it isprobably an alloy primarily of zinc and copperrather than tin and copper, strongly suggestingties to the work of KaSmiri craftsmen. Possibly,a local artist using Kaimiri tcchniques producedan image of a stylistic type that was heavilydependent on the post-Gupta traditions of west-em India in particular. The slender waist of thefigure contrasted against the full hips and thighsespecially characterize thc sryle, although theelongation of the form and the richness of theprccisely rendered onlalnents is a prelude tothe known metal works of Ka6mir. The facialfeatures lack the highly emphasized arched browsand elongated eyes found in KaSmiri sculp-tures that were heavily dependent upon Bactro-Gandhara traditions, and instcad, the face maybe associated with thc post-Gupta styles ofnorthern and wcstern India.

Another image in tbc sarne ten.rple showingNgsirhha has been judged by somc to be of asorncwhat later date (Fig. t7.27)- However, inspite of its unuslral appearance, espccially thepose, the inage probably dates from the sameapproximate period as the Durga. It cxhibitsmany of the same ciraracteristics of qualityand materials of fabrication, although it showsan cntirely dillerent anatomical strrlcture, onewhich n.rore heavily depcnds on the classicistictr.rdirions of G.rndhara and rclarcd regions. Tlrefullness of the arns and legs are part of thc at-tcnlpt to denonstratc graphically the power oftlrc deiry. . lt lrough 1re is shown in r qrriescenrposc, simply scated on an arbitrarily definedlandscape supported by two lions. Again, thehigh quality of craftsmanship, as well as theiconographic ingenuity of the work, suggest

KASMIR AND RELATED SCHOOTS J7J. -.t ..,.. ...

: :: ions of the

- - i , , c r r r l n t l r e

=u' surviving- - . . 1 . , ̂ ^ , ; ^ l

ri':n chemically::rrs that it is- - - , . , J . ^ . ^ " "

' . : . \ ' suggest ing:!:rr.n. Possibly,. . . . . h , ^ , t , , . . , 1

::: \1'as heavily.r::irrlls Of west-:.: ( aist of the

- . r n , l r h ;d l .. i , h ^ , , . 1 . r l . "

:,-iness of the, .'. prclude to: - i t I I le Tac l ; l l

: r rrched brows

t: -: !on Bactro-I - \ . - A - ^ - . ^ . ,

-:::r sryics of

. ..1-. .L^.".,.-

-:-: ro be of a:lo\\'evcr, in

.t:.cially the:-- r:rr the same::. It exhibits. - t ^ , , " l i f - ,

: :::h it sirows:::,tctute, one:-:: classicistic

.: :;gions, The: . : i o f the a t -

. : i :; porver of::- : qulcsccnt

::-::h defined' , . l q a l D ! t n e

:, .... '11 as thc::i. suggest

r7.26. Durga MahisAsurarnardini. Ar Laksant Dcvima4lir. Btahnor, Chanba Hill rracrs, Him,chalPradcsh, India. Reign of Meruvamran. C:. urid-to-larc scventh centu.y. Metal. H: r24.r clD.

the richness of the traditions of thc region.In the western Tibetan cultural arcas of

mNga'-ris (Ndri), La-dwags (Ladakir), andlahul-Spiti to thc east and southeast of Ka6nir,Buddhist monasteries frorn the eleventh centuryand later have survived ro the present day.While the original buildings have oftcn beensr rb jcc ted to la rc r a l te rar ions . they conra in menyobjccts and paintings produced by Kaimiriartists duing their original pcriods of construc-tion. An approximately eleventh-century mctalimage of a bodhisattva from Lahul-Spiti is suchen exampJe (F ig . r7 .28) . Ne; r l y human-s ize . i cdecisively demonstrates that major metal imagesofa Kaimiri idiom were in use in the rcgion. Theattenuation of the figure, relative still-ness of thepose, and harshncss of the rnodeling, as well asthe forms of the claborate jewelry, especiailythe crown, characterize the later Kajmiri and

r7.27. Nrsirhha. At Laksand Dcvi rrraalr'r. Brahrnor,Chamba Hill rracts, Him.chal Pradesh, India. Ca. rnid-to-late seve[rh centruy. Mctal. H: 9r.) crn.

related forms. It is especially useful to comparethis figure to the bronze from thc rcign of QueenDidda (Fig. r7.25) as it provides an understandingof the stylistic direction and an idca of the rela-tive treatmcnt of largc-scale imagcs as opposedto smaller versions. The anatomical stllcture ofthe figures is vcry much thc sarae, diIl^cring onlyin minor details, although there is lcss of aGeling of flesir in the largcr figure. Because ofthe scale it has becn possiblc to develop thejewelry and textile design in much greater de-tail, although this greater complexity is also acharacterisric of rhe larer dare. An inrcre"tingstylistic Gature is the dctailed elaboration onthe navel ofthe latcr image in contrast to earlicrexamples, which has becomc a very stylizedremlant ofthe cmphasis on a muscular anatomyseen throughout Ka6miri sculpture schools. ThisGature occurs in painting as well.

J76 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

r7.28. Bodhisattvs. Frorn Lahul-Spit i rcgion, Hirn'chal

Pradesh, India. Ca elcventh centurv Metal H: ca-

rzo cn . Natiot lal Museull , Karachi '

Probably thc nost abund:rnt evidencc of tl.re

e\tension of Kain:iri art styles beyoncl thc nuin

polit ical ccnters of Kaimir is found in the ancietrt

kingdon of Ladakh, norv in thc state of Ka(nir

in Incli:r. In recent ccnturics, the region has bccn

almost couplctcly uder thc cultural srvay of

I rbc t . . ln . r rnd( ( ,1 . L . .oeK I l s aPr l ) (cc r l . r (

esscntially an outpost of Tibetan culturc. Horv-

ever, through thc eleventh ccntury, thc rcgion

was greatly influenccd by the cosmopolitan

culture of thc capitals of Kaamir. Such associa-

tions lnd thc transurission of Kaimrri culture

to Ladakh is suggested by scvcral isolatcd

sculptures and inscriptions.Arnong r l re .e . ; , r ' rh .Lp . rhe mosr imprc 's ivc i .

an enornoLls rock-cut represenhtion of the

Bodhisattva Maitreya carved on the face of a

solitary rock pinnacle at Mulbck, an ancient

stoppillg point on what is now the road betweenSrinagar and Leh, thc main netropolis ofLadakh(Ftg. r7.zg). Standing in splendid isolatiorr, the

pimracle rmrst have bcen an important beacon

for ancient travellers. The nonunental imagenray hrvc been cre.,ted :rround tlte eiglrrlr .rr

ninth century, a clatc suggested by both feeturcs

of the anatomy and face of the Maitreya figure.

Although at filst glance, thc somewhat stiff

posture suggests a latcr clate, the rather firil body

r.vith its l1eshy appearance reveals tics to cighth-

ninth-ccntury Ka6mtri conventions, Thc attcn-

tion to the abdominal and pcctoral muscles is

standard for Kaimiri works of that tirne, as are

tl.rc high arching brows and full cheeks of theface. The general simplicity of thc omar.ncnta-tion andjewciry fruther suggests an earlier rather

than a latcr date.The irnage is about nine rneters in height

and is onc of the few surviving Brlal sculpturcsin thc Indic spherc. It is likely thac the creation

of the sculpturc was related to the Vairocanacult, which was responsible for other giganticin.rages in thc Kaimir region, such as the now-

lost fuhad Vairocana of Parihasapura.The history of Ladtkh becones increasingly

clear around the elevcnth century for it was atthat timc that the great Tibctan translator (Tib.

/o-rs--la), Rin-chen bZang-po (qs8-ro:s), andthe Indi.ar pa4dita, Drperirkara Atiia (982 roJ4),r re re ac t ive in rhe sprerd o f Buddh i . rn in we5tc r t l

' i i ,' ' io; :r ' -

:,

KASMIR AND RETATED SCHOOIS Ji77

\

r7.29. Bodhisattva Maitreya. Mulbck (Ladakh region),Kaimir, I11dia. Ca. eighth-ninth cetltury. H: ca. 9 nr.

u

378 LATF"R NORTHERN SCHOOLS

Tibet and Ladrkh. Rin-chen bZang-po is saidto have lourded one hundred eighi iernplc" inLad;,|h. spiri. and Ctr-gc.

"ni *"ny ,nor.

bulldlng en(leavors arc arrributed to his fol_lowers.

Thc f i vc rc rnp lc " cornpr is i rq rhe C l ros- ' k j ro r\Skr. dharna u,anlala) ai Alcli i irr tadakh arcclearly thc result of such building activity, forthey may be attributed to the mid_to_lateeleventh century on the basis of stylistic andcpigraphic evidence (Fig. r7.3o). Although theexact drre lor the foundirrg oI Aichi is unc-ertain,inscriptions at rhe 'Du-khang,

the earliest andmain building o[ the Chos-'khor, rcveals thatit was built by one Alchi-pa sKal-ldan Shes-rabof the'Bro fanily, who hacl studiccl at Nyar-main Ladakh under immediate followcrs of Rin_

chen bZang-po, and had returncd to his fanilyestates with the desire ro share his Buddhistexperience with those in his home vil)age. AsJn exprc r \ ion o f l r i s r rndcr " rand i r rg o f tLe Br rd_d l r i s r teachrngs . rnd " ro in , r r r rc r peop lc in rheessenr i , , l l r y o f re la r iv i rv \ i tu tya f i ) . " e r rhe dcd i_cator)- rnscdption states,23 he built the 'Du_

k l ' r r r * . t , , . i conogmpJr ic p rograr r o f rhcDu- lhang rc f re . r r BuJd l r i . r r rac l r ings prop-

agated by Rin-chen bZang-po prior to hisconvcrsion to forms of drc religion beingpreached by Ati(a, $,'hich occurred in eitheiroJo or roJ4. This scrggests that thc structurcwas.erectccl by the to4os or 1'erhaps early ro5os.

The enclosed courtyard in fiont of thc 'Du-

khang makcs it dif i icLrlt to photograph in itsentirety. but dctails shon that thc entrancc to

t he r : : ,

exal l ] :

sryl!-.

bcars :inhab::: :

thc l i : ;

t t-aditr. :

rescmf .nenls :

\l'orkl]:-

that rh.tion, cc-had anc:

Thc :lntcf lot

for ther

t l l Laoa\

,i

s..1"-.f ,

? l NJU | l ^ - -: l / . / L t l ) | ) r ^ | a

L: '/ '/^ lz a | o L D f l . l r ; E

_

! l

" ; / " . ' . / , . '! i

!5

.'!IN:

. ':/

)',1-,1

F

L:

r7. jo. Plarassociatcd t

f . l4

,:.1n

.y

:i Bud-! : i t h e::: iedi-: " : Du-

:: the

- - - i l - ,

r:ltctufe

l::ihist.-:. As

PIOP.:o hisbemgeither

the interior of the hall is decorated with fineexamples of wood carvings in the Ka6miristyle. The toralla ovet the porch of the buildingbears rampant lions and other composite animalsinhabiting semi-roundels (Fig. r7.3 r), suggestingthe vitality of the ancient Kaimri woodcarvingtradition. Details of the ornament3tion closelyresemble the stoncwork of surviving monu-ments in Kaimir proper. However, the wood-working is much more detailed, suggestingthat the renowned Ka{miri woodcarving tradi-tion, celebrated for its exquisite workmanship,had ancient roots,

The paintings that decorate the walls of theinterior of the

'Du-khang are truly remarkable,for they, along with a Gw other examples alsoin Ladakh and neighboring Himalayan regions,

KASMIR AND REIATXD SCHOOLS 379

constitute tte only extant examples of complexMahayana Buddhist painted mqf.|olas in the

Indic context. This astonishingly well preservedcollection of ma4dalds documents both major

oortions of the Ka(miri Buddhist pantheon and

ilrtu"lly the whole Brahmanical pantheon asoerceived bv the Buddhists. hrtended as techdcal*"dit"tiotr"l devices for the use of the monks,

ttrc ma4/alas rcpresent the S arv adurgatip ari ! o dhanaTantra cycle, in which Vairocana, as Sarvavid(Universal Knowledge), appears in many differ-ins manifestations. All forms, which includeSaivavid Vairocana

", Sakyamuni, Mafiju3ri,

Prajnaparamita and others, are composed into

these huge ma1dalas, each with thirty-sevenprincipal deities and many ancillary figures.

One of the best preserved examples (P1. 15)

(K ] CHOTENS

1il.J r':--,/

/, ' :\ l\UI

o 2 a 4 o 6 0 1 0 0

0 5 l 0 l 5

r7.3o. Plan of Chos-'khor, including original temples and laterassociated buildings. Alchi (Ladakh region), Kaimrr, Iirdia.

;

shows thc hierarchic scheme of thcse meditative

c1evices. In thc outer ring arc the exterior' ' r ' a i r , rs . ' de i t i cs o f var io t r ' non-Buddh is r pan-

.h"'on, wlto, oncc converrcd to t]rc BLrddhisr-dh-oru-, prouid. a safe haven for thc practicc of

g.ld,lhisi ,r.r".litotions Thc outer portion of the

,rondalo ,.prrscot, tl-rc four contincnts of Bud-

d l r i s r co ' rno logy .?a Thc cent ra l Por t lon ls

..rr."it"a ", ""i i . lr ly

pil l 'rrcd "nd chnrnbered

t,"it pt"."a ,lirectly on tle centcr of the pinnacle

of lt,,io,,,nt Me.r.t, ti.tc axis of the univcrsc ln thesc

vast hxlls residc the thirty-seven urajor deities

of the nv4lala, who reprcsent the thirty-seven

wings (or aspccts) of enlighten rncnr (bodhiPaksi-

Lo).Each fisurc is rendered in exquisite detail and

h", "tt

elJg"nt, attenuatcd b-ody with a nar{ow

-aist ao.l ihe in.rpression of musculature in the

torso, characteris;ic of tirc Ka(miri idiom (Pl'

16). Certain fcaturcs, such as the practice of

deuicrine rhe f:rrlLer eye in ' t lrrrc-qu'rrers-

vieu frie .rs i[ der.rcbed fro'n the l 'ce' tugge't

tics to other rcgional schools of South Asia

(Pl. 3z). Often only abottt- tcn centlmcters ln

ireigt.r,,,tt"," fig.,,es "t"

clearly the work of

,rriii",otit, xrtis;. h other nural traditions of

South Asia, xs at Aja+t' (Pls 8 rr) ' patnters

worked on a lareer s-ale, but hcre the elements

ofth" .o,ttpori iJos xPPcar to have bccn litcrally

tra,rrf".t.d'fro,tt a manuscript tradition to the

murirl contcxt. Cornbined into extren-rely com-

plex and enormous cornpositions, however' the

tiuy figurcs do not seem at all inappropnate on

the wall surfaccs.TLc co lo rs o f t l r c DL ' -khrng pr in t ings ' t re

confined to muted hues of the prinary colors

o l t r , b l rck rnd wh i te . thc l in r i rcd t tse o f g rcen

l , ,d r . l lo * rnJ t l rc p rcv . r l cncc o f red rnd b luc

g iver 'a re .c rved " t ld - ,o " lb " '

ton l l i l y to r l ie

ioo-, t l.,i.h was perhaps deerned suitablc for

meditational purPosesThc Surrr-isek (gSrrnr-brt ',cg'1 Fig r7 3':) ' a

tlrrcc-riercd structi lre ncxr ro thc Du-klI 'rng'

w. , r , l i ke t l rc 'Du-k l rang. b r r i l t by r t t rcmber oF

tlLe influentirl Bro family T'lrtrl-klrrims- od'

the founder of thc Sum-tsek, may havc con-

structed this building not long after the'Du-

khane was built, as may be inGrred from stylistic

,nd ipierrphic evidcncc l ike otltcr strucrures

^, nl.hi , i ' t" Sutn-t,ek rcverl ' hou tlte native

architectural tradition of Ladakh, characterized

bv oiled-up rock walls faced with mud plaster'

hlib""n ,1""ot"t"d with delicate wood carvings

of thc Ka(rniri style Triangular pedimcndike

fonns are combined widr pillars, pilasters' and

other arcl.ritectural elemcnts, all of which find

corlnteltrarts in the itone monun-rents found in

the Srrnagar region o[ Kaimtr proper' The

flgur", 'et ' into ttre rrchitecturrl tottlcxl ' (some

oi which rnry be latcr rcplacctnenr')25 rlso

conforn-r to the stylistic Paraineten of cosmo-

politan Ka(miri art.' Th" ol"n of the building is unusual, perhaps

cven un iq t rc , in Buddh i ' t r r t ' fo r rhc qs 'enc ia ) ly

squrre cenlr.rl 'plce is cxrcnded by niclret on

,1i" *"rr, ,torrh,'"nd east sides (Fig' r7'3o) The

interior of the Surn-tsek is dominated by three

sisonric bocllrisattv, itttagc' rhat sr'rnd in thcse

ii lh.r, r.pr...n,ing rc'pectrvcly Avalokiteivara

(Pl. r7). lr i. ' i treyr. ind Manjtrsri Thc niches are

ir"o rioti"t in Leight, as are the figures' whose

heacls arc visiblc to visitors standing on thc sec-

ond-\torv l loor' A dcdicarory inscription to rlte

Ie f to f M, i t rey . , ' f cerexp l r rn ' rha t 1 ' l ' r r l - khr in rs -

bd 'e r up t i rc 'e r l r rcc ' reccp t rc le " o f Body '

Speech. rnd Mind.26 The M'rnjuiri im 'ge u rs

. .e r t . , i in o rder to re t ' touc bod i ly in rp t r r i r ies and

to obtairr a human Buddha body (nbnarakaya):

the Avalokite(vara was made to temovc vocal

impurities, as a Buddha-speech image' and to

obi"i,t "

.glo.io.r, body (so'nbhogakaya); ar.d

J8o r ATEI NoRTHERN ScHooL\

rr.rr. Wood carving on facadc, 'Du-khang Alchi

(iaiakh region), Kainir, India Ca mid-eleventh cen-

XASMiR AND RELATID SCHooLs JEI

: : ' : r oP r l x te on

-' -_ _,1nrlngs arc

: : : : :1i l Iy colors

::\!- of llfeen: r. l xnd bluc

: : . . i tv to thc

: . i r i tablc for

: . t 7 .32 ) , a

)u-khang,::rcn-rbcr of

-,::rrims-'od,' - t i lve con-

: : : : the 'Du-

1 - . t ' , l i " r i .

a !tructules

:t1e natrve' : : i . r x c te r i zed

: : : .rJ plaster,

: car-vings- : . . tmentl ike

I , i !CrS, and. .ich firrd

: :, ioutrd in_ - rDer. lne

: : : : \ t s ( some

: . :- :- t)25 also' : cosrro-

.. perhaps: :\-ientixlly

:: iches on.: o). The

. :r ' thrcc: r in thcse

- _ irrcsvara::ches are

- : ' ,. rvhose: : tIIe sec-

: : . n t o t h e- i nr t ts-

: Body,: :qc lvas

: . : i r i e s a n d: . : i1 ta4yi)"'.'l vocal

i - . a n d t o

. ; i : a n a l

.1d*

, . . t,'::..,t'.ta

, ; { . - . - .' . ?

17.32. South lacc of Sum-tsck. Alchi (Lad.kh region), Kalmir,India. Ca. rnid-eleventh century.

362 LA'|ER NORTHTRN SCHOOLS

the Maitreya image was made to obtain an"absolute" Buddha-body (dharnakaya) and as a.

Buddha-mind image.Manju(ri, Avalokite6vara, and Maitreya are

the thrcc Great Bodhisattvas of the Sarvavid

cycle. In Mahayana Buddhism, all characteristics

of existence are divided into "families" (ftr.rla),

usually given as live or six in number. These

bodhisattvxs represent rcsPectively the Vajru,

Palrra, and Buddha families and may document

a holdover from an early tradition that empha-

sized only three major family divisions. In

contrast to the wooden sculptures on the ex-

terior ofthe building, these enormous figures arc

made of mud phster that has been painted with

the sarne cxquisitc detail found on the walls of

the buiiding. Each bodhisattva's /ftofl displays an

array of forms, including figures and buildings,

and each has its own iconographic theme.

In contrast to the paintings of the 'Du-khang,

which were somber and reserved in their colora-

tion, the paintings of the Sun.r-tsek virtually

shinner with warnth and color through the

gcnerous Lrse of ycllow and green, in addition

to red, blue, black, and white (Pls. r7-24).

It i . unlikcly that the differcnce in paletre

between the two buildings was due to a chrono-

logical difference since the buildings were

aparently built within a short time of each

other. Instead, a religious reason may have

accounted for the differences, for while the'Du-khang was apparently built fqr the nedita-

tions of the nonkhood, the Sum-tsek was

probably intended for the laity.A smal1 painting of Amitayus, Part of a

scherne showing Sukbavati, the western Paradlseover which he presides, from the lower story

of the Sun.r-tsek, demonstrates the full richness

of the Sum-tsek coloration (Pl. r8). The crown

worn by the figure clcarly indicates that he is

Amitayus, and not Amitabha or Ardtabha/

Anitayus. The throne configuration in this

composition is less than half a meter in height,

so, as in the case of the 'Du-khang, the artists

essentixily worked in a miniaturist stylc, com-

bining tiny elcnents to achieve a mural design.

Thc central {igure of Amitayus is garbed in a

robc decorated with elephant-riding warriors,

rnany of rvhom are shown performing the

"Parthian shot," that is, thcy are tumed shooting

backwards over their elephants in the manner

charactedstic of alcient Parthian horsemen.

Tlrese deadly warrion uould seem incongruous

as ornaments on the robe of a Buddha whose

very name nreans "Etem,rl Life." It may be

suggested, however, that such a design, wl.rich

may bc traced back to much earlier Iranian

sources, rePresents a late survival in the Ka(miri

context and is indicative of the cultural cross-

roads that define Kaimir itself. It is possible

tbar such Iururiou" fabrics were the prerogativeof Ka6miri nobility, and that the clothing as

worn by the Amitayus indicates his royal pre-

rogative as the king of Sukhavati.Unlike the paincings ofthe'Du-khang, where

color was applied in a flat, gcnerally unshaded

nanner, the Sum-tsek Paintings arc notable for

the richness oftheir coloristic cffects. Often, two

colors are used to suggest a kind of glowing

surface to the skin offigures and also to provide

the impression ofdepth and three-dirnensionality

to the forrns. Such "shading" may be an out-

growth of a long distant ancestry in the Hel-

lenistic-Romanized art of the Indic northwest,

for the forms of the bodies seem to be the

painted equivalents of the sharply defined, often

muscular physiques seen in Ka6miri sculpture.

One of the most interesting painted composi-

tions at Alchi shows Prajfiaparanrita, identified

by the book and rosary that she holds, which is

also on the lower story ofthc Surn-tsek (Pl. r9).

She is attended by for.rr emanations of herself

and is the object of devotion ofa noble woman

and a priest, who are shown just below her. To

either side is a depiction ofa tall structure. Given

the archaeoiogical remains at Parihasapura and

the renown of that site as a Buddhist center,

along with the forms depicted in the painting,

it is likely that these represent Laliaditya's caitya

at ??dhasapura with its towering form and

gigantic metal Buddha irnege. on the ic[t. and

Canknr1a's stupa, at the right. Thc practice of

depicting important Buddhist shrines and monu-

-.nt, ""o

be traced to thc earliest pcriods of

surviving Buddhist art. In the Sunga period, for

example, depictions of the Mahabodhi temple

and other shrines, were alrcady representedThat these monuments are shown with Prajia-

' t

: : a i

peramite suggests that she was the primarydeity of Parihasapura and that the site mayhave been an inportant center for her worshipin Ka6mir.

The shading of the anatomy of the central

figure is done with meticulous care. As is thepractice throughout the Sum-tsek paintings,

each element of the shading is a single pointil-listic stroke, so {inely executed that this feature

is observable only at great enlargement. Prajfia-

peramita's garments and those of her attebdants

and worshipers are also finely painted renderings

of the luxurious textiles that may have beenused by the Ka3miri nobility. Her diadem, withits very linear forms, may be a descendent of

the "hair net" type of crown seen occasionally

in Bactro-Gandhara sculptures of the Kugar.raperiod. Her hemispheric breasts, attenuated'waist and animated posture are feninine char-

acteristics that appear widely in South Asianart; however, the extreme narrowness of thewaist and the attention to anatomical detail and

musculature in the abdomen and torso typify

the KaSmiri idiom.Although the identification of this {igure as a

form of Prajfieparamite is confirmed by theattdbutes she holds, her green color does not

conform to the usual iconographic descriptions

ofher. Further, the presence ofthejfua Buddha

Amoghasiddhi at the top center in the group of

five j iras rbove her suggests that she may also

represenr Sydnrarart (Green Tara), and therefore.mlght be rdentll led as rrajnaParamlra- 1 2r2

This suggestion is strengthened by the presence

of a second painted figure in the Sum-tsek that

more clearly combines the features of Prajfra-

paramita and Tara (P1. zo). Although this figureholds Prajfiaparamita's characteristic attributes,the book and the rosary, she is surrounded bydepictions of peopie affiicted with the eight

perils and their salvation by means of devotion

to Tara. T'his figure is thus a dual goddess,symbolizing not only the salvationism of Tara

but thc suprene salvation dbtainable throughthe knowledge symbolized by Prajf,aparamita.

This representation, which is on a wall of the

second story of the Sum-tsek, is one of the

few major scale irnages ren.uining in the Ka6miripainting style; the figure alone stands about a

KASMIR AND RI I ATED SCHOOIS J8J

meter in height. Yet, the techniques ofmodeling,the coloration and extreme attention to detailare comparable to these elements of the minia-

tures more commonly seen at Alchi. In general,the paintings of the second and third stories ofthis three-tiered building are painted less finely

and with more limited use of the expensivebrighter pigments used on the first story. The

second story was not a public area (and can onlybe reached by climbing a notched log ladderto the right of the veranda on the exterior ofthe building) and the third story is in fact totallyinaccessible because it has no floor at all, and

can only be viewed from below. These storieswere painted for the completion of the icono-

graphic program rather dran to be seen upclose, a fact which may have infuenced theartists to use larger scale depictions for theirwalls, as in the case of the Prajfrtperamita-Tera.

Over the door on the south side of the Sum-tsek and visible to the viewer as he exits thebuilding is a representation of Mahakala, an

angry, protective form ofAvalokiteivara (Pl. zr).As a dharnapala or "protector of the Buddhistlaw," Mahakala is charged with overcoming the

enemies of the faith, namely, those who are

difl iculr to convert. hence explaining in parthis fierce appearance. His name may be translated

as "The Great Time," (that is, the Great Destroy-

er [Death]) or "The Great Black-One." He is

characteristically shown as blue in color, though

can be other colors as well, depending on the

specific form of Mahakala being depicted. His

position over the entrance/exit to the building

befits his protective role. Thc triangle bcneathhim represcnts Lhe

' iail" of mctcoric irnn

intended to imprison all evil-doers. Ofparticular

interest among the figures who surround Maha-kala is the depiction of an angry female who

may be Sri (sometimes said to be dre Buddbist

hypostasis oi the Hindu goddess Sri; Pl. zz).

The iconography of this figure is generalized

so that it is dificult to determine which of the

several manifestations of the Sri-type goddesses

she represents. She is characterized by her angryappearance, skull ornaments, and the mule(aluatara) she rides. Like Mahakala, deities of

this class are also dhatmapalas. The shading on

her skin and that of the animal she rides creates

,'E4 TATTR NORTHTRN SCHOOLS

the sense of an intrer glow, which, Iike the

skin tones ofthe other figurcs as well, is strikingagainst the f,at, dcep blue of the backgrouud.

The ccilings ofthe Sur.n-tsek arc also painted.The dcsign, which consists of painted replicas

of lcngths of cloth, accomrnodates the strlrcturaldivisions of the ceiling with its wooclen beams(Pl. z3). Today, many Ladekhis suspcnd lengthsof cloth as faise ceilings in their: honcs and

sirrines, suggestitrg that the Sur.n-tsck paintingsdocun-rcnt an early nanifestatior-r of this prlctice.It is likely that thc cloth clesigns painted so

carefully by the Alchi artists \.vere close rcplicas

of somc ofthe luxnrious texti lcs available durirgthe clcventh ccntury. Rcflccting thc Ka(n.riri

position as part of the crossroacls of Asia, the

textiles revcal a broad cross sectiou of whatmust l-ravc been popular techniqucs thct in use,including dying, tie-dying, printing, brocrding,and enbroidcry. Thc varieties ofpattcrns further

be t ray t l re . rn , i c t t r lLer i t rgc o f tJ re reg io t . fo rdcsigns which werc cLlrrcDt frorI lnner Asia to

India and China are reprcscntcd. One popularrno t i f . r sc r ic5 o f roundc l r t i r t t t r ru , l rv i t l t pc . r r l . .is known from Iran to Japan and is ultimately

based on Sassanian designs of the sixth century(Pl. z4). Thc exanple i l lustrated bears a pair of

dancing figures of clearly Indic origin, thusrcvcaling the blcnding of traditions tbat is chxr-actcristic of much of l(ailuri art.

A tbird building in the Chos-'khor group, a

modest building known as the Lha-khang-so-ma(Fig. 17.33), bears paintings of a sl.rarply con-

trasting style. Its siurplc construction i11 the

typical Ladrkhi rnud ancl rock tcchniclue cloes

not prcpxre the visitor for thc surprise of the

paintings within, which arc in a style thxt is

clcarly clcrived from the painting idiorn devel-

opcd i r r B i l " r

,n , l Bcng l l i t r r l t c c .L ' t c rn p . , r t ion

of the subcontinent during tl.re Pala and Scna

per iods . T houg l r t l ' e d . r t t o f rh i . . l r t t c l t t rc i '

not fixed by inscription or historjcal documcn-

tation, its traditional namc, Lha-khang-so-ma,Iirerally "thc ncw ternple," suggcsts thxt it was

built aftcr at ieast thc original buildings at thc

site rverc already in place. Yet, tl.rc strong favor

of the Pala idioln in thc paintings suggcsts drat

it might have beeq creatcd not long aftcr the

great castern lndian patlrlita, Atisa, had come to

17.33. Sourh facc of Lha-khang+o-rna from southeast.Alchi (Ladakh rcgion), Kalnrr, India. Ca. third quartcrcleventh centrry.

Ladakh from the east and had exerted his in-fluence on Rin-chen bZang-po around ro5o-54.The Lhe-k l rang- 'o -nra . thcn . and i t s pa in t ings .are vcry propably products of about thc third

quarter of thc clcventh century.The style of paintings in this building is ex-

emplified by a represcntation of Vairocana/Sakyarnuni in thc center of the north wall(Pl. z5). Though painted on a much granderscalc, lvith thc central figurc almost a meter 1n

height, thc composition may be comparcd to

examplcs knorvn from Pala-pcriod paln leaf

m:rnuscript painting. Notable amolrg the distjnc-tive P-la clcments arc the lockcd knecs of the

standing bodhisattva attcndants, their arched

backs, and badring-suitlikc dlorls. The use of a

biack outline to defilc thc contours and formsofthe elcments in thc con.rposition is also typical

in rnany Pala paintings. Yet, whilc the Buddharnd his attendent bodhisattvas are strongly basedon Pala types, the figures are "modcled" in amanuer not seen in Bihar and Bcngal printings.Instcad, the attention to anatomy and shadingallics the figures to thc KaSmiri stylc and thepainting traditions presumably derived from thcnor r l r ! \ c ( te rn t r ld i r ion . . ln cont ras t to pa in t i t tg .strictly of thc Kaimiri mode, howcvcr, Iike theexamples in thc Sur.n-tsek, the shacling of theskin, particularly seen in tl.rc two standingboclhisattvas, does not crcatc the sense of a

;

I

it'1

I

I

KASMiR AND RrrATrD scHoors jid5

glow or sheen but rather appears monled, which"-ieht

,uqg.rt that arrists of the easrern school

h"J .o.i to Ladakh and had added some

misunderstood "touches" of the KaSmrri idiom

to their works. Such hybridization could, of

course, be the rerult of many factors; it is also

Dossible, for example. that artists trained in the

kaimiri sryle had modified their works bccause

of a desire to emulate the paintings in manu-

scripts brought to this region from the east'

A second-composition from the Lha-kharg-

so-ma shows Kalacakra, a tutelary deity of the

Vairayana/Tantric Buddhist pantheon whose

name literally means "time-wheel" (Pl. zo)'

He is shown as blue in color, multiarmed, and

in tlre pose of sexual union (yugaxaddha) with

his female cowterpatt (yajfi6) while surrounded

by a na4dalic arrangement of subsidiary figures.

Tiough the style of the painting clearly shows

ties to the eastern Indic traditions, we can only

infer thar such complex painred compositions

wele once produced in Bihar and Bengal, for

large-scale wall pajntings have vani'hed almost

wiihout a trace from the castern regions and

the extant miniatures on palm leafdo not display

the intricate arangements of forms seen here.

However, later Tibetan and Nepali paintings,

which are clearly bascd on Pala prototypes,

offer some documentation of the earlier Indic

compositions, and from surviving texts and the

known teachings of great religious masters, it

may be inferred that such iconographic arrange-

-"nt, -"r" in use during the Pala pcriod. The

paintinqs of the tha-khang-so-ma. tlren. are

erp.ciaiiy important. for they provide a glirnpsc

of th. i"rtein rradition. tf iough modi6cd by

Ka{miri form, at an early datc and testify to the

imponance of the Ladaklr rcgion in transmining

the beliefs and art of the Buddhist religion from

the Indic regions to those of the Himalayan

realms.

iron southeast.

3:- third quarter

xened his in-ound ro5o-54.lia paintings,bout the third

building is ex-ot Valrocana/re north wallmuch granderlost a metef In

-' compared toiod palm leaf

rng the distinc-d knees of the

. their arched!- lne use or a

rurs and formsn is also typicaliie the Buddha: suongly basedmodeled" in a

ngal paintings.rv and shadingi sr,vle and the

erived ftom theast ro paintings's'ever, like the

shading of thets'o standing

the sense of a

C o N c t u s l o u

The Buddhist and Hindu art of Kaimir came

to an abrupt end when the Muslims bccame

the dominant political force in the region

around 1339, when Shah Mirza, a Muslim

adventurer, overthrew the Lohara dynasry end

maior patronage was no longer avail:rble.

ffo*.u"., rhe traditions of Kaimiri art l ived

on in other regions, most notably Gu-ge in

western Tibet, wbere it remained the dominant

style for some time. There is still much to be

learned about the movements within and in-

fluences uDon Kairniri artistic traditions, as

well as the impacr of Kainttri art on orhcr

oarts ofAsia. Clearly, Kaimir served as a source

of i*"g"ry and influence for the northern and

eastem movements of Buddhist art. The Yun-

kang caves in China, the wall paintings from

several sites in Inner Asia, especially Qiziland Tun-huang, the paintings from the cache

at Tun-huang, and some iconographic manu-

scripts from Japan. for cxamplc. should bc

evaiuared with Ka6mir in mind as a possible

source. Kaimir's position relative to the rest

of South Asia and its geographic isolation

allowed the Ka6n.rrris to maintail a kind of

independence. Yet its role as a trade and cul-

tural center berwccn ancient India, Gandhara

and related regions, western Tibet, and Jnner

Asia left it subject to intcrcoune with a vast

variety of artistic and cultural sources. A full

understanding of the transmission of Buddl.rist

art through Asia is dependent on dcveloping a

greater knowledge of Kaimlri art.

rn r'\ -1-

uzFF { r n N

a <t;F --'! O .", i'7 <-= -L Y.'', 9 r

ao-fii:= sEr , . = j . ) ! Y

x+< )\F 1sY-z Yz 3 e=LLu l = t ! ; aZ , / ' ' \ r t i ' ( \ ( ' \- \_) \t t \_,, \J

P; s

!^9o

;;

T

Detail oI 18. r3-

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

Bihar and Bengal

Under The Ptla and Sena Kinss

From the eishth to the twelfth centuries, the

.astern resioi of the South Asian subcontinent,

roughly equivalent to the modem states of

Bihar and West Bengal in hdia and the nation

of Bangladesh (East Bengal), was host to a

florescence of artistic activity.l Under the Pala

dvnasw. which ruled large portions of this

,Jeion'for nearly the entiri Four-hundred-year

sp""n, as well ",

oth.t -or" limited ruling fami-

lLs, such a, the Senas, and, to a lesser extent, the

Candras and Varmans, vital centers ofBuddhism

and Hinduism fourished. In Bihar, which derives

its name from the many Buddlist viharas that

once dotted the land, and particularly in the

region of Magadha, the homeland of Sakyamuni

Buddha, Buddhism reached an apogee. During

this period, Buddhist monks and pilgrims from

near and distant parts of Asia, including China,

Southeast Asia, Nepal, and Tibet, came to

Bihar and Bengal to study Buddhism and

ultimately to transmit to their homelands.much

of the religious, cultural, and artistic heritage

of this region. Indeed, the art of the so-called

Pala-Sena period is as notable for its influence

abroad as it is for its rolc as a major art school

in the Indic sphere. Hinduism, particularly

Vai5r.ravism, also reached a peak during this

period and became especially prominent in the

cuhural region of Bengal (West Bengal and

Bangladesh) during the eleventh and twelfth

centuries.The Pala dynasty came to Power around 75o,

when the first king, Gopala, is said to have

ended the "reign of fishes,"z that is, the Practiceof the larger principalities swallowing up

the smaller ones that had characterized the

politics of Bengal after thc collapse of Sa6airka's

empire in the seventh century. Taranatha, the

Tibetan historian writing in the seventeenth

century, claimed that the school of Pala art,

however, was not founded until the reigns of

Dharmapala and Devapala, the second and

362

J86 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

lli'iiir'*t+t*'ff;.';tir:q:*!Sttlli:l-i.*:;'*ifi i**r11 J:'.rFi{t*;tti'i"''1ffi t;.,.'ru'lr*"''* tr1J",ffil'i,f:tr*J"j' w#'*ffi :; ffi'?::"ffi *r#'*ml:*[x:T.::::i:'::::ri.l;:';.l;:l";]liii':'.ffi **:l'::11"u"'l"lillii'l"iiill'*3";

l':';i,:l'lT[=t;it1;;;*.;';4ip;,i5*y#$*X*r*ff r*'.'.g,;;i;:r ;{:''#tiiirq jtt*t*i:{ }*l:ffi :l: rxr**T:, :i#[[:t'd,*:**;]i::r,*;iiili'';il"t:-iqi:{}},,:",J*#:i,"}lili"';;**Hlfr::ffi i':?:,i";il'-Tj'ij+:;:i::'+,r-:^:1'i;.3li;i:#d*"j,illfi f*,if;:"3h:";:pliTiii"a# li3'#:-11; ;**1:n;u.;r ""a ,he nois, c,irna,e

ill*{ji;Tftiff;#}ffi r-r'xlit:**i :#,r""**i+*'$l.;ilJ:j:L}n1

i# T"l'"yllfi "'':"iT't -i*t

t = rack or archi'lcc'lurar exampres'

mru:x1'i:il:i:r1;:,::l; =i,t[ l**,",':mg*thlE#1',:fi

f#*a*lt$, **l*ijtrffiri*"'*#',*liq*'','ffi [i}F5*t+**ii':]".":H'1,'"'ffit*T,;*T$*t:,iffi ;;$t5gi':ffi*iu$fl*gl*,t+ur s**$*J*ry* *i+Lt1[l*:tfi$i,,;ffi'.:'iii.Xiii"il,"l"i'il1,'llli"i,'Iil"i:il ;jrl:-:::::ii:T,ffT';l*t'li'::|:.:l,#"",r*,- s "ial,,u'r,, iilji,i,j;fi i',.,.,*, :::'J,TL1# ::**1 1' ;:tf '"",'J,":1this cxodus causcd the Buddh

crion ascribedhe practiced

urndred yearsLlmost to thelgin, althoughe religion inrt and culturem incursions,rially under-rital force in

rcriviry of themlctures wererese buildingsg alrnost nod and makingEt a systenatic:lopments.6 In

may be ex-ot stone, wasI other fragiler. and thatch,rhe continualmoist clirnate

,hich organicbuilt of theseive over the

ural examples,ferv paintings

' rhe sculptures

a ferv woodenn the case ofnaterials wereirere generallyitic stone localallr: created in

t itould h"ve

a, part of the

r might haves of devotion.aqes from this

: -specific

alloy

r ro rvorkshoPa high copper

e\ls, the alloy

\a:tadhntu),1 ^llr rirual correct-: gold or silver,

and many exanples made of bronze had gildedsurfaces. In general, metal images fiom thisregion are hollow cast, except in the case ofthe smaller works, which are usually solid.Mctal sculptures served alone or in groups asobjects of meditation and devotion and manymust have formed part of three-dimensionalflal!{alas.'fhe varieties of wood sculpture inthis region can only be imagined, but survivingexamplcs suggest that wood carvings wereused as part of architectural decoration, and forthe creation of objects of veneration as well.

Although works of art from Bihar andBengal of the eighth through twelfth centuriesshare a number of features, many distinct work-shops wcre responsible for the vast artisricoutput. Some atelier., I ike thosc at majorreligious centers such as Nalande or BodhGayt, wcre sustained over the centuries andtheir lengthy histories r.nay be traced for thefull four-hundred-year span of this period.These rnajor centers served as sources of stylisticand iconographic inspiration for smaller, lessprominent establishmcnts. Thus, within thebroad geographical range of Bihar and Bengal,regional subschools, largely based on the stylesof the main centers, may be discemed.

Along with regional developn.rents, veryprecise cLronological distinctions may be madefor thc arr of this period. Such refinemenrs arepossible bccause several dozen sculptures, in-cluding cxanples in both stone and rnetal, withinscribed dates, survivc fiorn this period. Thcbasic tendency ofthe sculptural style over tlis ex-

UNDER THE ?AIA AND SENA TfiNGS J69

tended period was toward increased elaborationof detail and complexity oficonography, greaterstylization of forrn, stiffening of body posturesand facial features, as well as increased emphasison the detailing of the back-slab or surroundingelements at the exoense of the orominence ofthe central figure

-of the composition. These

features suggest that the developments in Biharand Bengal were part ofthe overgll cultural andartistic pattems of South Asia during the post-Gupta periods.s

As i-po.t"ttt ".

th" regional and chronologicaldistinctions of Pala-period art is the fact thatthis corpus of images displays a tremendous rich-ness of iconograpbic types. Some of the fonnspreserved in this artistic tradition may refectreligious concepts that had been formulated inearlier periods. Others undoubtedly indicate thevitality of the Buddhist and Hindu religions inBihar and Bengal from the eighth through thetwelfth centuries and are innovations resultingfrom the keen insight and advanced religiousunderstanding of spiritual masters who livedat that time. The present discussion, whiletouching on some of the stylistic developmentsof the period, primarily focuses on the religiousand iconographic developments. The Buddhisticons demonstrate the vigor of the Buddhistreligion at this time and comprisc a point ofdeparture for studying the Buddhist art ofmany other regions of Asia. The Hindu sculp-tures document the intensity of Hindu belief inthe eastcrn regions, in spite of a rathcr delayedadvent of Brahmanism there.

B u o o n r s r A r r

During the Pala pcriod, a number ofmonasteriesand relieious sites that had been founded inearlier periods grew into prominence. At thesarne time, the intense religious activity andapparent wealth of the region fostered theestablishment of many new centers throughoutthe regions of Bihar and Bengal. In spite ofthepaucity of architectural monuments survivingfrorn this period, it is evident that ambitiousand impressive structures were built. The largecu,clform stula at Pahelpur (ancient Somapura)

in Bengal, for cxample, measures more thanone hundred meters fiom north to south (Fig.r8.r). It is set within a vast quadrangular court-yard that contains a number ofsmalier structures,suggesting that the main conpound may havebeen a product of more than one building phase(Fig. r8.z). It is believed to have been foundedduring the reign of Dharmapala, the secondPala king, around the latc eighth or early rrinthcentury, though other objects from thc siteciating fiom later periods suggest that xrtistic

J9O LATFR NO]]TI ]ERN SCHO'L\

tury'

. rc r rv i rv conr inu(d i l t ro t rg l to r r t lhe P l r l t Per ioJ '

i i " " t r r i . i i , . . " . ' ' ' 'y" j tont ' in r ,77 i r rdi \ idtrr l .

j i ' i r ' r i t . t ' . . " . ,1 a t ' l r r i t rc ' ln t l re cer t tc r o f

,;"'";;,i' .o,"pound,"..l] :l l:,i ::iliTi';:(ntr.rDce. ind cnl ' Irged ccl l bLocKs

. - . , " , o i t hc so t r t l t ' c J ' t r nL l \ \ e \ l 5 l de \ ' s l l g -

O .5 , * *

- . a . " " ' ' ' ' t y g ' t e \ \ ' l ) s l l l i ' J r r ' r l ) gc l r l ( n l

i " r , , t . l 'Lr ' . , t " t l i ' " i -d i " tcn ' ion ' l ' r ra ' r /a / ' r ' rv t t l t

, t r " t , t . , t , t r . t i 'p t " cct l tercd u i t l t i r t sr tc l t r for r t r r t

, , , . , t f r " a i , , t t t1 cot r tpr red u i t l r t l te n ' ' r r r l ' : r ' ' t t '

t . , i ; , ,1 , , , r t 'ar i i , r l t r r ' t r rv ivc, f rorr r Ncp' r l r r rd' r ib" ,

i r ' " . , r i i . ' ,1

, , . in whrc l t t l r ' cc t r r r ' ' l tentp le

i " " t ' ; t . , l t ' . t t "a 'a b1 " corr rp ' - ' t rnd rv i rh 3 ' re ' '

ii-'pir*ro* temPlc is cruciforn in plan' rvith

e.c1r'it1c bci"g off'er su r\'rr t,r is ol rltc pd4(aratna

0"" t"tltrl ui'itty t*t"p' the north' u'hich is

"til:if l;..IlJJ"ill,",..,''.,,,onun,e'r. \\ a,n .ob " l r i v on " o f t he r r l o ' t e l r bo ra l c o l t l t c t n ' t t c

Lr" . . i . . r 'u t ' ' " t " ' * 'n ' l i r ^ o f " r r c i rcd Js ' t

:::;;;;; ior the tcrr"ced edirrccs or

{ ' i " , " , "a t . " t f t ' r ' r As i r ' Yct rhc Pr l r rpur

, t l l '1 , , ' t " ' ' ' " "< l ' t t iqr r< i r r B i l r r r ' ' r rd l i ' " rgJ l

iit '"' ,t-ti"t '.t"ttr.'r.t

plan.orlp'et the sitc of

^"ri.f*t- ttt eastern Biirar (thought to bc--t}.rc

,,,-, "f

rt "

encient Vikranairla n-ronestcryl

',,-0"'L' ,t''" 'rrch brril'lings 'l'I lril:,i:,1::;

,.it-"d . popui"' rnd cl.r'rr:iclerts

tIPC.

Thc rvrils of thc plinth and lorv"r tcrraces of

,h"';;t1t;;;, -""ti-tt' *"t" decorated rvitlr

;"-.;;;i' ;kr*' (Fig r8 3) aod :r rorv of

sirrr-rlrrce ,rone in'^get on tlre l l inrh firrrlrcr

."; iJ ;;, r lrc 'crrlpi 'rr"l <rnbcll i ' l tr 'cnr' An

rcor,-,tr.rplt ic progr"rn for thecc dccnr'rttotts n1'

"", i", ft*tt . i trbliJrcd' rhotrgh drc

.terr,nco t r . r . r .pcc i r l l l

"s q f tcn c l r 'L r rn t l lg ' l r cc ty

.-"."*.f '*-ft

shorving ninor clivinities' rni-

rn . r l s . , r rd o t l ren t rb je ' t ' '

l r r cor t t r " ' t to t l rc p r r rc i ty o f r rc l l l t cc t l l r ' r l

-"-,"t"^i..-

',lti' p""td' ihe thousirnds of

'u r . iu inq ' c t r lp t ' r rc ' Pre \c1 l ! Jn l l l l Lo \ t ov ( r -

; i ; i " ; i ; . ' , " ,1 or fo"" ' A bl ' | ( | srorrc sculP-

, ,u . i ron i N i l . ,nda 1 l i3 r8 4 ) -an i r r rPor t rn t

Bucldhist nionastcry and onc of the prtncrpu

."-"r. oi Pal. '-pcriod 'rrt d rrcs fr"rn 'pproxt-

t".r"n, ,f,. 5cvcntl l cenrlrr) 'r ld cl ' 'rr ly dcrllon-

:;;,;.1 ,1'. p,"-Pil "n'l

caril P:' lr-pcrio'l stylisic

Jcpcn, lcnc< or l c r r l i c r Br 'd ( l l r l s t ' c r r lP t t r rJ l

: ; t i : ' . ; ' .1 , . t ' t r t ' t [ ronr \ ' ' rnaL l r ' lhe ' l c t tder '

; j:;;. ' ;;..1 fiq"'e or r) ' i ' bodhiutrvJ' 'vho m"v

i l ' . ' ; i l iu. ' lokir . .u. , r . ' or \ ' '11r ' rnt Lbhrdr" e

;, .;;;tit.""t of lete Gupta-period carvi.gs'

iJ trt*rt,ro rclxxecl Postttrc' trcatmcnt of the

i"tt, "tT""tJt 'i"tplitity in particular recall

rhc .. ,r l rcr rdolt . Horvcver. . l ErcAte-r cr l \Pncqs

rn t l t c c r r v i nq rnd rhe dc r ' L i l i ng o l t he l o t r l \

fedestri anci jeweiry indicate a dcParturc trom

UNDER THE PALA AND STNA KINGS ?01

cStupa

oStupa

n-er tgrraces oflecorated withmd a row ofplinth further

llishment. Anlecorations hasgh the terraLrming, fieelydirinities, ani-

f architecturalthousands ofalmost over-

:k stone sculp-an important

' rhe principal

&orn approxi-:learly demon--period stylisticrist sculptural. lne slenoer,n'a. who mayrunantabhadra,9riod carvings.2rment of theardcular recall:eater crlsPness

1 of the lotusleparture from

0 32 64 96 124 16A 192 221F ' , ' , ' ' ' , ' , ' ' ,

1 5

r8.2. Plan of Great Sr[pa. Paharpur, Bangladesh. pala period, prob-ably reign of Dharmepela. Ca. late eighth<arly ninth century.

JJt F-:i i;=-l -'--.{

tEEIffiM a n y

S u b s l d i a r y

S T T U C I U T E S

392 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOTS

r8.3. Tena-cotta plaqucs on Great StaPa Pahalpur, Bangladcsh.

Ptla period, probably rcig11 of Dhrrmap:la. Ca. late eighth-

early nirth ceiltury.

the early style. Accompanying thc bodhisatrva

are two femalc figures. Tl.rcc iila Buddhas

appear on his l.ralo and a fourth, perhaps the

spiritual progenitor of the bodlrisattva, aPPcxrs

in his headdress.Another inage from Nalanda, this tirne identi-

fiable as the Bodhisattvlt Khasarpana Avaloki-

te6vara, was probabiy carvcd in the late elevcnth

centLrry and sl-rows luauy of the charactcristics of

the fully dcvelopcd Pala-Sena tradition (Fig.

i8.5). Tl.re ccntral {igure and his attendants stand

in the accented tribhaiga, or thdce-bcnt Posture.Not only is this positiolr collllr1only seen in

imagcs from this datc, but the anguler transitions

between thc sections of the body are typical of

this pcriod as well and imPart a stylizcd, rather

than naturalistic, effect to the figurcs. In contrast

to the earlier inage frorn Nalanda, thc back-slab

is now pointed at the top, rathcr than rolrndecl,

and it has been grcatly elaboratcd upon in

its dccoration as well as in thc iconographic

additions of the various attendants and other

figurcs. Even the clothing of thc bodhisattva is

more detailed than that of thc earlier fignrc.Also typical of this later plnse of Pala art, the

lotus pedestal upon which the ccntral figurc

stards is l.righly ciaborate xnd is carvcd in a

scries of thrcc-dimensionally conccivcd layers.

Khasarpaqa Avalokite6vara is attcndcd by his

usual con-rpanions, Tara and Sudhanakun-rara(Very Rich Princc) to his right and Bh;kurr and

Hayagriva (Horse-Ncck) to his lcft, while above,

ures. In contrastla. the back-dabr rhan rounded,rrared upon inr iconographichnrs and othere bodhisattva is: :arlier figure.o: Pala art, thc' ;cntral figurei. carved in a

::r;cived layers.---- r.t L., h;.

S:ihanakumaranj Bhrkuli andr-. rvhile above,

r8.4. Bodhisatwa. From Nelanda, Bihar, India. Pre-P,laperiod. Ca. seventh century. Black stone. H: 2oo cm.Nelanda Site Muscum, Ntlandl.

all five of thejinc Buddhas are represented. Likemany other Pala-period sculptures, the imagemay have been painted in its original state, ac-cording to the iconographic precepts of thesadhanas, theBrddhist textual ritual guide. Thus,Khasarpap might bave been white; Tara, greenor white; Sudhanakumera and Bhgkuti, gold;and Hayagriva, red. The {ivejiza Buddhas mightalso have been painted their respective colors.The arimal-headed, skeletal figure at the extremebottom left of the stele is the preta Socimukha.Pretas are a form into which beings who havebeen lustful and greedy are born. This preta,whose destiny it is to be insatiably hungry, isbeing saved by the bodhisattva, who lets himsuck the nectar that falls from his hand. Bud-

UNDER THT PALA AND SENA KINGS J9J

r8.J. Khasarpa4a Avalokiteivara. Frour Nalanda, Bi-har, India. Pela pcriod. Ca. late eleventh century. Blackstone. H: r2J cnl. Ndlarde Site Museum, Nalandt.

dhologically, this is an exarnple of the compas-sion exhibited by the bodhisattva of conpassion.This specific aspect of Khasarpa4a Avalokiteivarais known as Prctasarhtarpita Lokeivara, thepr e t a-satlsfying Loke6vara.

Numerous other bodhisattvas and forms ofbodhisattvas are also represented within thespan of Pala-period art. A repres6ntation ofSadakgari Avalokite6vara found at Colgong, ineastem Bihar, was probably carved in the latceleventh or twelfth century as indicatcd by thcelaboration of the various elernents in thecomposirion (Fig. r8.o). Ir is inrererring to notethat the foliate motifs are suggestive of theNepali painted designs of the thirteenth andfourteenth centuries tlut are based upon Pala

394 LA'|ER NORTHTRN SCHOOIS

r8.6. $adaktari Av:lokitelvara. From Colgong, Bihar'

Indie. Pala pcriod. Ca. lxle elevcnth or trl'clfih centurt.Black srone. H: t43.3 cm. Patna Museunr, Pxtr la.

prototypcs. Iconographically, this figure is yet

anothcr nanifestation of the ubiquitous bod-

hisattva Avalokiteivara. Thc two principalhands, now lost, would have bccn in aiTjali

tndra, d:'e second right hand should have

carried a rosary, and the sccond left, a lotus.

The central figure is accor.npanied by Mani-

dhara, the n.ralc on the figurc's proper right, and

by $adaksari Mahavidya, the Gn.rale to his

left. These two attcndants exhibit the sameattributes as thc central figure, that rs, thc anjali

wdra, the losary, and the lotus. 'lhe five jin

Buddhas are represented along the top of the

stele and the irnagc of Amitabha probably aP-

peared in the headdress of Sadaksari Loke(vara.

Sadaksari (Six Syllables) reGrs to tl.'e tdtitra ofAvalokiteivara, Oth naqi padne hutir, ',vhtch

consists of six syllables. A trarr,"a is a phoneticsyrnbol that both evokes and vivifies thc diviniry

r8.7. Sirihan,da Av.lokitc(varr' Frour Sultangafrj, Bi-har, lndiA. Pala pcriod. Ca. late elcvclth or earlyrwelfih ccntury. Black stone. H: ca. r8o cDl. Birming_ham Museum and Art Gallery, Birrningham.

being propitiated, and this sculpnrre therefore

reprcsents a personification o{ the maxtra of

Avalokitc(vara. -fhe

padna or lotus held in hishand signifies the lamily (Arrla) of this figure and

is his principal emblcm. The rosary (rriala) is thc

ritual tool used in reciting rhe ruanha the

ncccssary number of times (usually one hundrcd

eight) in thc propitiation of Avalokite(vara.

Thc trvo principal hands were rt aiijali nudrd to

signify the deep respcct and devotion that the

practitioner is supposed to feel whilc performing

tl:'e fidt1trq. In csoteric teachings, $adaksariholds between his two hands drc gem of en-

lightcnment that, while concealed from the

casual viewer, is promised to tlle devotee who

visualizes himsclf as $adaksari.A figure of Sirirhanada AvalokitcSvara, also

found in eastcrn Bihar, at Sultangaiij, and prob-

ably of the san.rc approximate date, further

:tr :i1 his

a :: :a and

- - : ; t h e

h:. 'r ' :ra. alsolc- . =ad prob-;::. further

r8.8. Avalokitelvara. Frorn Tapandighi, West Bengal,India. Pale period. Ca. late eleventh-early twelfthcentury. Black stone. H: ro5 cnr. State ArchaeologicalMuseum of Beugal, Calcutta.

exemplifies the great iconographic variety of

this school (Fig. r8.7). This stele was found in

association with the famous, larger than human-

size metal image of a Buddha (Fig. rr.6) and two

elaborately carvcd black stone pillars that were

unearthed in r87z during the course ofconstruc-tion of a railroad, The nearby ruins suggest

that these sculptures belonged to a monastqry

and might have been hidden when the establish-ment was attacked by Muslim invaders. The

carving is again highly refined and the figure

and back-slab are detailed with the precision and

care found in the finest of these works. The ac-

cented posture, sharply outlined Gatures of the

face, and detailing ofthe back-slab indicate a date

of the late eleventh or early twelfth century forthis sculpture. The name Sirhhanada is a directreference to the teachings of the Buddha, the

Buddha being the lion or sithha and nada refetritg

UNDER THE PALA AND SENA KINGS J95

to its roar, or his teachings. Thus, Avalokite6-

vara-of-the-lion's-roar leiterates the complete

body of dharna that the Buddha Promulgated.The analogue of the lion's roar stems from the

fact that the Buddha was considered a lion

among people as well as a menb.r ofthe Sakya

clan, which had the lion as its totem. The voice

ofthe lion is, ofcourse, a roar, as befits one of the

mightiest animals Lnown in India. The Buddha's

teachings among people are thus likened to the

roar of the lion among animals. There is a

trident with a serpent entwined about it to the

right of the bodhisattva and the remains of a

lotus bearing a flaming sword aloft may be seen

to his left. The sword is equat ed with ptajna , the

Buddhist concept of transcendental knowledge.

An unusual Gature of this stele is the Postureo{ the jixa Buddhas above the central figure,

with their legs akimbo in the manner of flying

gaxdhoruas or uidyadharcs rather than their usual

uajr op aryahkdsano.The full richness of the srylistic develoPments

of Buddhist art under the Palas or Senas may be

seen in a figure ofthe Bodhisattva Avalokite6vara

of about the late eleventh or early twelfth

century from Tapandighi in West Bengal

(Fig. I8.8). While clearly deriving from the

same stylistic milieu as the Colgong $adak-sari, this sculpture is more elaborate and three

dimensional. The fowers and jewels are not

simply incised, but have become deeply carved

forms rising out of the surface of the stcle. Themain figure occupies only a relatively small

portion of the total space of the stele and the

viewer's attention is captured by the variety of

other features. In contrast to thc KhasarPalp

Avalokite(vara image from Nalande (Fig. r8.5),

this bodhisattva is attended only by Hayagriva

and Sudhanakumara; Tare and BhJkuti are

absent.Buddha images also abound from the Pala

and Sena periods. Typically, Pala-Sena depictions

show seated Buddhas displaying bhanisparla

ruu&a.lrst as tlte prevalence of dharnacakra mudrd

and the prominence of Samath (where Sakya-

muni Buddha first preached) during the Gupta

period are undoubtedly correlated, a rclation-ship seems to exist between thc PoPuladty ofthe

bhunisporla mudra ar.d the importance of Bodh

396 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

r8.9. Victory over Mara, ard other Lifc Events ofSakyanuni Buddha. At Jagdilpur (Neland.), Bih.r'India. Pela period. Ca. late tenth century. Black stoneH: over 3oo cm.

Gaya (the site of the Sekyamuni Buddha's en-

lightenment) in Magadha during the Pala-Sena

periods. The Pala-period image within the

Mahabodhi temple. at Bodir Gaya shows a Bud-

dha, trndoubtedly Sakyamuni, ln tbe bhimispario

mudrd in contrnernoration of the Buddha's defeat

of Mdra at that very site. This image must llave

scrved as a model for nruch of the imagery of the

art of this period, not only in India but in other

Buddhist lands where Bodh Gaya was looked to

as a spiritual center. Often, a represcntation of

liaky"-"ni Buddha in bhrtntispaia mudra served

as the central image in a stele, around which wcre

depicted sevcn morc events from his life. A

paiticularly fine and cxplicit cxaurple of such

an "eight scencs" stele is enshrined at JagdiiPur(a modern village at thc ancient sitc of the

Nalanda monastery), which dates fiorn around

the late tcnth century (Fig. r8.9). Not only is the

moment of calling thc eath to witncss depicted

by thc bhamispaia milra and the prcsence of the

bodhi leaves above the head of thc central Bud-

dha, but also, immediately surrounding him, the

armics of Mdra arc shown in the act of attacking

him with stones and other weapons in thcir

attemDt to swav him from his resolve.

Io iddition to this event in the life of Sakya-

muni Buddha, seven other ircidents are depicted

in the stele. From thc botton left, along the

perimetcr. the sceues are: t l)e offering of rhe

monkcy: the 6rsr sermott; t l te dcsccnr from t]re

hcaven of the thirty-rhree gods: rft pariniruana;

rhe taming of rhe wild elcplratrr; the miracle of

Sravavi; and the birth of Salyrmrrni Buddha.

Each of these scenes bears at least one distinctive

featurc that identifics it as a specilic event in the

lifc of Sakyamuni Buddha. Thus, in the offering

of tlre nonley, the Buddha rs tn dhyana tuudta

holding a bowl and is ofi-ered another bowl by a

mork.y. Th" first sernon is indicated by the

two small dccr ilanking the wheel of the law

bencath thc Buddha's scat and the Buddha is

showrr in dharnacakra nudra.'flrc descent Gom

Trayastrirh6a, the heaven of the thirty-three

gods, is also easily idcntified because of the

ores.oce of the Brahmanical deities, Indra and

b."hme, -ho accompanied thc Buddha on his

rctnrn to eartl.I, and by the un.rbrella being hcld

aloft ovcr tl.re Buddha's head. The reclining

Buddha at the top ofthe stelc, with the mourning

attcndants, thc strtpa in the sky, and the pair of

hands beating hcavenly drums is a standard

reprcsentation of the grcat deccase (pariniruatla)

The gcsture of the standing Buddhe in the next

scene and the rcprescntation of the clephant are

asain spccific referenccs to a well-known subject

iti luailirt literaturc, that is, thc taming of thc

wild clcphant, Nelegiri, who had becn releascd

by thc Budclha's evil cousin Dcvadatta with the

intcntion of killing the Buddha. The second

representation of a prcaching episodc may be

identifred as the n.riracle ofsravasti because ofthe

secondary Buddha figurcs occurring to cither

side of the n.rain figurc, indicating the occasion

when the Buddha muitiplied himself in order

to confound tl-rc schisr-natics. Thc scene at the

lower right rcpresents Sakyanuni's birdr, with

Qr-reen Maya grasping the branchcs of the jal

UNDER THE ?ALA AND SENA KINGS J97

i

I--:eir

tree while the child is bom fiom her risht side.Numerous other versions of these eigf,t scenes

togethe.r appear in stelae of the pa[ period.A small devotional image from Nalanda ofabout rhe renrh century offers an abbreviated,but more typical version rhan the Tasdiipurrelief (Fig. r 8. r o). The order o[ rhe,..n"id;fi..,trom the previous example and the weahh ofspecific derail has nor been included. The armyof Mera attacking the central figure is impliej,not shown, and in each of the o-th., ,.""o, ,t

"identifying characteristics have been limited toonly the barest necessities. In this version. thepresence of rhe drree Buddhas benearh the mainimage adds a new dimension to the alreadvcomplicated iconography. Indeed, the nu-.ror',stela-e showing rhe eighr scenes of the Buddha,sli le trequently have addirions and variations rharamplify their

- iconographic meaning. Thesesuddhas. togerher with the central f igure. mayrepresent four of the five Buddhas of-the aaAri_jitta na4dala. The three figures alone mavdepicr rhe three srages oIBuddhahood: the or.i-present, and furure. Speci6cally. rhe Buddha onthe lett. who5f uarada mudrd offers the gift ofenlighrenmenr. might represenr rhe prediclon ofenjrghrenmenr; rhe central Buddha. mediratingt:. dh!*! nudrd wirh a serpent. p.csurnrblyMrrcaiinda. who prorectcd Saiyanrrrni Bucldhalrom rhe rains during his post_enJighten mentmedrratlons. could indicate the achievemenr ofenlightenment; and the Buddha at the dghr,whose a[haya mudra grants rhe abscncc ofiearrhrough lnowledge oIBuddhahood ma y indicatcthe teaching o{ thc dharna and therefore thepostenlightenment activities of a fullv enlisht_cned Buddha. As has been seen in other .1n_terts. mulriple lcvels of meaning are ch.rracteris_ric oI Btrddhist inragery. end during this pcrio<1or Increased rconographic complexiry rhey arernvanably present.

While' ernphasis on Sakyanrunr Buc{dha(and rhereby the nirnnnakayaj renrainccl greatrhroLrgirour Pala-.rnd Sena-pciiod Brrddhisi art,growrng cxplicitness and anenrion ro rhe j iaaBuddL,.s (anbhogaAaya) is also apparenr. Anapproxlmatety elevcn I h_centr try representarionof a seated Brrddlra. again in bhunisparia nudra,tron Bareya, in West Bengal (Fig. rS.rr), is

a : , . -

::cted: rhe

r j rl'"

fc= theb-. ana;i::,e ofk:dha.n:--:tiver :r theof:ringa ' : , { l f a

s . b y at,.' the[e ]aw

lciu islt fromr-tlreeof thera andon hisLg heldcliningurrungoair ofutdard

atla).e nextIlt AIC

ubjectof theleasedth the-'condrt beoithe:irher4510n

orderr rhes'ithre J4t

r8-ro. Vicrory over Mera and orher Life fvenr of'r*IrIr ] , r ,uddha. From Nai. lnda. Biher, India. pala

ffiiff ""iiil'.|,lT,K,i:::" stone H:47.5 cm.

such.an example, for it does not depict Sakya_muni. bur.rather Aksobhya. recognized by ihebhumisparia mudra as well as the elephant uihanabeneath his lotus seat. A lotus vrne emergesfiom the point of the halo and issues lo"tusflowe-rs upon which the five j ina Buddhas areseared.. The. cenrrrl f igLrrc is again Ak.,qbhys.tndrcatlng that he is in thi. casc rhc centcr ofthe matllala and as such is sfibhauikqkaya-Vajras depicted along the sider ofthe srele, abouthalfway up. are further references ro Aksobhyasincc his

.[ala is known as irc vojra hmtiy aid,

as such. rhl\ eJemcnr syrnbolizes borh his ownexrstence as well as that of thc bcings who arehis progeny.

- Another stele of about the eleventh centuryshows rhc j ira. Rarna.ambhava. recognized bytus characteristic uaruda nudrd and lLis horscuahana d,eptcted beneath his lotus seat (Fig.

398 L^TER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

r8.rr. Akgobhya. Frorn Bareya, Nadia distlict, WestBengal, India. Pala period. Ca. eleventh century.Black stone. H: 70 cln. Siate Archaeological MuseumofBengal, Calcutta.

r8.rz). Iconographical ly. the. format is quitesimilar to representations of Sakyamuni foundtluoughout Bihar and Bengal and, stylistically,it rellecrs features both of central Bihar (mainlyMagadha) and of Bengal, as miglrt be expected,since it was found in the Bhagalpur district thatis situarcd between Bengal and central Bihar.The arrangement of the stele with its centrallyplaced Buddha, the coniguration of the throne,the treatment of the halo, and the position ofthe vidyadharas can be rraced to the earliestexamples of the Pala school in Magadha, al-though the elongation of the head and buoyantfeatures of the face impart a special livelineis tothe image. While the fo.,n"t of the stele followsninth-century examples rather closely, thepointed top suggests an eleventh-century dateand indicatcs that this sculpture is an intentionalcopy of an earlier mode of representauon,

r8.r2. Rahasanbhava. From Bhegalpur district, Bihar,Indie. Pala period. Ca. eleventh century. Black stone.H: 67.4 cm. Bangiya Sahitya Parisad, Calcutta.

except for a few features that clearly assign itto its own time.

More typically Tantric in nature are a numberof images that show angry forrns of deities(krodhahaya). Heruka, a name given to a specificdeity as well as to a class of angry deities thatare euunations of Aksobhya, was undoubtedlyknown in Buddhist theory long before hisimages became cornmon in art. One examplefiom Subhapur, in Bangladesh, of about theearly eleventh century shows a specific formof Heruka that stands in the irdhaparyaika(half-squatting, that is, one-leg-folded)

- pose

atop a- lo rus pedesra l 1F ig . r8 . r3 ) . H is bu lg ingeyes. bared langs. and ornamenral details,including the garland of severed heads, allsuggest his krodha natrlre. While frighteningperhr.ps ro rhe uninitiared. worship of rhe deiryby advanced pracuirioners is intended to destroy

UNDER THX PETA AND SENA KINGS Ji99

r8. r3.. Heruka. From Subhapur, Bangladesh. palapenod. Cr. e.rr ly elevenLh cenrurl . Black stone. H:I65.2 cm. Dacca Muscum, Dacca.

I8.r4., HevJjra,-_FroDr prhirpur, Bangladesh. pi lapcnoo..La. t \ el irh cenrury. Black stone. H: ca. 7.5 crn.Indlan Museum, Crlcutta.

all Maras and confer Buddhahooo on oevorees.In his left hand, Heruka holds a now damagedkhatvaiga wnh a bejl and srreamers; rt ls norknown what the right hand held as it has beendesrroyed. A khatuitipa is a typc of staff orclut. rhar symbolizes victory iou.. d"mons).While surviving representations of Heruka andHeruka-class deities are relatively rare in theIndic.sphere, images such as thi; undoubtedlyserved as-the basis for rhe nrany dcpicions o[the god found in Nepali and Tibetan art of aslightly later date.

Heruka+ype deities sometimes appear alone,as in, the case of the example from^subhapur,but they uray also be shown with a female inyuganaddha

,(ssxLt union). In this case. rhc dciryrs oJten callcd Hcv;rjr.r. I he femalc representsP:aiia or, knowledge

_and the malc symbolizesrne methods of achieving rhi. knowledge

(upaya). When the rwo are combined, differen_tirt ion-ceases to exisr. By means of the rcaliza_tron ot rlus nondifcrentiation through a Jcngthyritual, the Buddhist practitioner hopes to achlevelanyata, wlu,ch is somctimes defined as neitherbeing nor nonbeing. In this state, hc has ceasedto have desires of any kind and rhus. by defini_uon. carurol bc concerned wirh rhe erotic aspcctsof the representation.

^ A very small imagc of Hevajra was found at

P,aharRur..rndicaring thar advanced Tantric Bud_dhologrcal

_rheory was known and apparenrJyprac iced therc , (F ig . r8 . r4 ) . p robab iy dar ingrrom,thc rwelfth cenrury. as suggeved by thecomPlcxlry,ol the rrnage, and rhus represenringrhe lare5r phase of Buddhist arr in rhe .r,te.iportion of the subcontinent, the deity is shownwith a profusion of arms and heads, in inter_course with his female companion. The standing

40O LATEII NORTHERN SCHOOLS

posture shown hcrc is most commonly found

in Ncpali and Tibetan paintings and sculptures

of . r l - re r J r te . r l though aga in . i r i s apparent

rirat (]rc source [or t]rosc tradlrions was.rncicnt

India. Lnagcs such as this were reservcd for

thosc initiated to the highest level of Anut-

tarcyogifti-ta tra, The proponents of Anuttara

yoga recognized that the initiations and their

prictices should be kept secret in order to avoid

misreprc.cntation. mi'underscrnding. and per-

secrtion. Indeed, such images have often been

misread in modem timcs by those who ascribe

an crotic aspcct to them and who viewcd the

sexual syrnbolisn.r underlying many of thc basic

concepts as degcnerate. Rather than being

intcnded as erotic works, such images express

the basic principle of the duality within the

unity of the universal that is a basic themc of

much religious symbolism in India. Sexually

explicit images and the rituals associated with

them were kept secret to Protect from danger

thosc individuals who might bc ill-prepared to

runder takc these practiccs wil]rolrl ProPer trrinilrg

and initiation. The incorrect usc ofthese practices

held thc very real possibility of severe psycho-

logical or rnoral damage and many would

ers i l y lose thc i r wry . r long th r ' Pr t l r i f no t

deterred.An itrage such as this would have been handed

down from mastcr to disciple, fiom generation

ro generalion. as cach tcacher [c]t -r ncw init iate

was ready to acccpt thc teachings. It is ofinterest

that in the Buddhist context, an imagc that had

belongcd to a series of iilustrious teachers is

consicicrcd to bc of tntrcll grcrter importance

than one that has only aesthctic appeai. This

vicwpoint does not dcny an interest in tl.re

visual n.rerits of a work, for it is known that

artists were sought out arrd praised for thc

quality of their creations. Yet it can be inferred

fiorn the traditional histories associated rvith

devotional objects in countries whcre Buddhisn.r

is still practiced today that the illrportance of a

rcligious image cven at an early dete in ancient

Lndia was bascd primarily on its sPiritual $'orth.

Parqa(abari, t fcnale ktodhdkaya deity, is also

an enunation of Aksobhya. Gencraily, she is

depicted as a stout, dwerflikc figtte. An in.rage

of Parnaiabari of the eleventh century from

rs.rj. Parnaiaben. From Vikramapura, Bangladesh.Pala period. Ca. eleventh ccntury. Black stone H: rrzcrn. Dacca Museum, Dacca.

Vikramapura, an ancient capital city and rnajor

art center near present-day Dacca (Dhaka) in

Bangladesh, closely follows the textual descrip-

tion of thc goddess given in the Sadhanamala in

her six arms, three faces, garment rnade of leavcs

and the attributes held in her hands, including

the 'ajra, cluster of leaves, and bow (Fig. r8.r5).

She tramples on personifications of uighnas

(obstacles) and holds her front left hand in

tarjanT nu&a, a threatening gesture, as if ad-

monishing other t'ighnas. In spite of her own

terrifying appearance, suggested by her bulging

eyes, bared fangs, and flan.relike l.nir, worship

of Parna6abari is said to remove the Gar of the

terror stricken.

Judging frorn the abundant remains of metal

ilnages dating from the Pala and Sena periods,

the Bihar and Bengal regions rnust have been

important centers of metal image production.

.:.r:

t:;i r '

a ' ;::i