rendered and the pupils have been incised givinganimation and direction to his glance. Small,three-dimensionally carved ringlers arranged inridy rows comprise his hair. A kiltlike skirtl\'orn over his hips, armlets, and a necklacecomplete his costume. The necklace is of par-ricular jnreresr not only for irs prominence lndplasticity but also because two human facesappear as part of its structure, below which aretririttas representine the triple gem of Bud-tihism. A two-line inscription on the sculpruresates that it was "made by Kanhadasa, a gold-:mith,"zo who may have been either the patronor rhe craftsman who erecured the work. The

A number ofsites in the eastem Deccan resion ofIodia. corresponding mainly to modern AndhraPradesh, have yielded the remains of sculpturedBuddhi't srnpas. Some of rhese.carvings srionglyresemble those in evidence at Sunga-period sitesin other parts of India, suggesting that theservorks were also created in the second and firstcenturies n.c. Little is known about the early his-;ory of Andhra Pradesh, but eventuallv. this:egion beceme one ofthe rnosr renowncd;entcrsof Buddhism in South Asia, famous throushoutthe entire Buddhist worid for irs disrineui.hcd:eachers and important lnonastelies. Introducedat an early date by Aioka, as verified by thepresence of hir minor rock cdict and pil lariagments in thc region- Buddhism was fosiercdbv the parronage oC a weahhy lairy rhat f lour-Lhed borh because of dre inland rrade alone theKrrna River. where many of rhe impoitantBuddhist sites are locared, and the sea trade.Not only was the school of art produced in thisregion among the most productive of the earlyBuddhist schools, but its works must be countedamong the most beautiful as well, for thc sttpasrlere faced with marve]ous carvings in a distinc-rive pale green or whitish marblc-, which musthave made them dazzling in the bright Indiansunlight. Unfortunately, none of the stupashas survived intact, and the carvings must besrudied isoiated from their original contexts.

The early history of Andhra pradcsh is poorly

THr SUNGA PERTOD AND REIATID DIVELOIMTNTS g5

paleography of the inscription is similar to thatof the inscriptions of Caves 3 and 4 and on thisbasis it may be suggested that the dwarf wasmade at approximately the saurc time. Thissculpture is unusual among early South Asianstone carvings because it is free-standing andcarved in the round. Thc function of such awork in the iconographic program at pitalkhorars unknown. However, dwarves bearing bowlsatop their heads are depicted as if standing atthe entranceways to stupas ir\ reliefs fiom theAndhra Pradesh region (Fig. 9.24) and the pital-khora sculpture may document a similar tradi-tion in westem India.

Tnl XesrrnN Drccar . I : Trra Ar , ronra pnaorsH Rrcrox

h:-stra, India. Ca.t.! cm. National

::'-krvard figures*o more three-lEost appear tor --han form part)]l'er gafments,

F: ties to otherE:lOr they wearr-: lloral motifc: and "honey-k s-o elephantsr:: that is nowg:::e of Gaja-o: '--re elaborates::=ed that thisL:::qh its dam-:: its original

r-:.: {iom ther .,::lvledge ofr. .:i the site.r - n o J . , , , f

!c --:nl suPPoItr '-. carefully

understood, for there is a decided lack of spe-cific information that sheds light on the par6n-age and chronology of the monuments in theregion pdor to rhe second century,a.l. However,strong stylistic parallels wirh trends in otherparts of South Asia suggest that the srone carvrngtradition was initiated in the 6rst century Lc.This early sculptural style may be seen in anumber ofreliefs that have been recovered fromthc site ofJaggayyapeta, located along a tributaryof the Krsna River. Although the oiiginal formot the monuments, which included a larges.tupa, sevetal srnaller stupas, and other buildings,is not known, as the site was almost compl"telyin ruins when it was discovered in the nineleenthcentury, the style of the sculptures and paleo-graphy of some of the inscripiions found theresuggest that at least some portion ofthe establish_ment was built during the first century B.c.

A relief representin g a cakrauafiin, or universalmonarch, ,from Jaggayyapeta is stylisticallyrelated to Sunga-period sculptures from Saici,Bharhut, and otler sites (Fig. 5.30). The whitemarble-slab bears shallow carvings of a standingmale figure, the cakrauaftin,

"nd his sev.i

precrous possessions: a horse, elephant, wiG,minister, general, the dharma (represented bythe cakta ot wheel), and riches (represented bythc square gem syrnbol supporred by a pil lar)The main figure probably- iepresen rs rhe'raAra-uartin M?Jtdh?jj, the main character in the

85 pl lrol orr r l l l . LAlt. t DyNAsttrs

: ;6. Cdl : tarcrrur r r : l ic i . l ronr . laggrr\ i rpctr, Andhr,rl ' r rdtsb. hdir . C.r . l i rs t rcr tur , r ' Lc. \ i rh i tc murblc.H: r ro c l ] r . N4rdrrs Cirvcrrr rcrrr Nlr r \cLt . r . \ l i rdr i r \ .

MatdlLatn jafafta, rr.ho rvas cntlolvccl rvith rhcScvcr |recious Possessions lncl the Four Supcr-naturxi Po\\,crs" and rvho could crcatc a showcr, ' f . ' , I l i , . { . . . , ' , . t . r . , r ' 1 , 1 , , L v . . . r c l i r - . r r .l , f r r . r r , l . ' r r ' l r n r r ( r r ' r ' r i r ' . r i r l ' r r i r . g r r . I r r c

sqnere o\ccts fir l l irrg from eboi'c rn drc relicfnlal rcprcsent such x showcr. J{arhcr th:inglorifving tLrc rLrivcrsel nlorxrch, I lowever,t l l i - r \ i . . r . r l r , r ' r r i . r r , ^ . . i r . t j f 1 l . \ \ r . rwas thc cventllxl clounli l i ol Merclheta.

T\t crtknparth stlnds in ,r somc\1hrt angulxrposc thxt. along tvith his clorrq.rtcd ,rrnrs ald. . . : r r l . v . - i z , , l . t . r r r . i , r . . . r r o r \ r r r r r . , -pL:r' io.1 rcliels honi Slici lrcl IJharhirr. Thcfl lt iorms of his bod1. i i lr. l t ire othcr clanlcntsin thc conposirion ert also \uggestivc ot thisearrlv phisc of sculprrirc. Thc scvcn rrcilsurcs arcJ r ' . t r ' . . l . ' I . r t L t l t n r r t r . _ r - . 1 . . - . r , r t , . , ispiLt ial loqic en,l thcle is 11o rrtcnrpt to Lrlr i fvel l thc conrporrcrts oi thc sccne inro l logic:r lrvholc. Arr ulnbrel i l ,rborrc tbc hcrr l oi thc nrrr inf iqurc svmbolizcs his rrnk. bur rhis. too. is r: lc-pictcd rvrthout x1t i t t tcr l lpt to conr.cr. sp:rt i :r1

clrr i t l ' . Thc l , i lc is edornctl rvi th hcavy rnklcts,a bc:Lt lccl qircl lc, sqLLarc cxlr ir lqs, : lnd e scarfovcrhcr hcad, rccel l ing forr ls scen et tsharlrt t . Thc, r . , . . - l r . ' y n , . r r . r r l o r r l l ) ( r . , ! r l . ^ r l r ( l l q r r \ .is tenrinisccnt o{ e sirni l l r convcntion at l lh:Lrhut.Olhcr fe'xtLlrcs, such es thc cloublc-i lciscd l inesof rhc r lrr fcrv and i luccl hcnrs of thc d/rorts : imlhrqc rLrrblns of thc rnalc f igLrr-cs. arc erso secn

' :clsc\\ ' l rarc t1l Jungx-pcIlod stoic iut.

Onc o{ thc nrosr irDpolt l l l t l i rrclLl l i isr sircs inArrdlrr l l rr lJcsh is Anralevati . l .hich, in lncicntt i l rrc\, \ \ 'as part of Dhanylk.rtaka, thc clpitel oft l lc ietcl Sitevahanes, rvho rvcrc probably1 l , ' . ' l

' l ' r r r . u c l o l r h . . r r r i . 1 i 1 . 1 s 1 1 y j 1 1 .

tlrerc in tlic sccorcl ccntirry a.n. Hancl tools ofthc l:rlll Stonc Age and cvirlcncc ol. nicqalithicbrrr i :r ls fbLrnti xt Anlaralari indicatc, horvcvcr,thrt rhc sitc hacl lolg bccn inirabitecl. A flegmcntoi :r pol ishcd pi l lar bcarins rn A(oken cdicr

' ! " i

f:

l

*l11

::t€

.-,'.tr

) . :7 l ) . \ot ioD to tLc loJ/ i i r rcc l l d r , ,?/ ,aJ.rr , i i r r UodhCl.r r l . Fronr , \ , . r r i \ : r ! i , Andhr.r l ,ndcsh Indi : r . C:rhrsr .cdnlr \ r . . r . Whir . rn:r r :b]c. H: r t r6. j cnl l l r i r ish, \ ' luscLrr , , Loldor.

THE SUNGA PERIOD AND RELATED DEVFIOPMENTS 87

h hearry anllets,and a scarf overrr Bharhut. The[' oi the figuresrrion at Bherhut.Lble-incised linesri rhe /iorts ander. arc also seene art.Buddhist sites inshich, in ancient;a. the capital ofrsere qrobablyartistic activity

p. Hand tools ofnce of megalithicriicate, howevet,bited. A fragmentar Aiokan edict

discovered at Amarevati suggests a foundationfor the nrain stula at \east by Maurya times.Shortly after that time, a stone railing waserected, but most ofthe elements were left plaincxcept for donative inscriptions fiom around thesecond century B.c. In succeeding periods, thestrpa was enlarged, and carved stone decorationswere added. Some of the surviving stone frag-ments bear sculptures reminiscent in stylc toSuriga typcs. The.c

"culptcd sccncs sonrerirnes

have inscribed labcls suggesting a comparabledateto the Suiga materials (an assumption supportedby paleography) for the practice of labelling thesubjects seems to have been lost in later art.21

A panel showing devotion at the bodhi tree atBodh Gaya may have been made during thisphase, perhaps around the first century n.c.Fig. s.:z). tik. i-"ges ofthis approximate date,

-Jre work is conceived with lirnited pictorialcepth and is carved in a shallow-relief sryle.zzThe male devotees are similar to those seen atSanci and Bharhut, clothed in their turbans,bulky earrings, and heavy jewelry and withieir smiling faces. This relief is somerimes:jentified as the enlightenment sccne of Sakya-:roni Buddha and the absence of the figure ofSakyamuni hirnself is explained by the popular,iut perhaps incorrect, theory of aniconism in=rly Buddhist art. However, it is more likely--:at the scenc represents the ttrtr4 of BodhGava, the sacred bolh tree under which the Bud-:l-a sat to achieve his enlightenment, and his seat,--:-e uajrdsana, receiving devotions from lay'*orshipers at some time after the event itself.Ite uedika surrounding the tree, the platform:: "throne," urabrellas, and even the footprints

_-rhaps a carving) nay have been elements-ialled at the site during an early period as::corded here.

While the majority of sculptures fiom Andhra?:edesh during this early period may bc as-::ciated with Buddhist structures, especially-;:.:d,r, traccs of Hindu Eronuments are also:::jent. One of the n-rost irnportant documents:: early Saivism in South Asia is the famous.:;.a'a presently enshrined in a temple of a later:eriod at thc village of Gu{imallara (Fig. 5.38).K'hile estimates of the date of this inage have:anged from the first century n.c. to the seventh

.:.:. '

; : ; : : ;.,. .:, ., ,:. :

'-: : : .2-,d1td at Bodh-: -::: .:. India. Ca.: , : ' j cm. Brit ish

i\.,.' - , ! :

..:

t,( lnlrol or rlIE EAIIIY DYNASTIES

centur)' , l .D., stylistic:rl ly it relatcs so strongl,v

to u,orks of thc Sunga pcriod ancl, converscly'

bcers so l itt lc rescmblrncc to latcr sculpturcs'

that thc carlicr clate sccnrs alnlost ccrtain. In

f r r l i . t r l - r . t l r , : t r c r . r ' c t t L o l , l r ' o c r 1 . c ' u ' r i ' l 1i l ' " ' o l , l . . , , c lo t l r bc r r re , t t r l r c l cg . . rJ r , t , . i , l

end body fornrs, and thc ncthod of stxnding

xtop:r1-iothcr fiquretivc or aniural elen-rcnt sug-

c"ri .1"", tics io pillar figures fron.r Bharhut

Althor.,glt reprcscutxtions of the phellus are

known lron proto-histotic Soudr Asia (Fig.

2.7), and latcr. this syn.Lbol becottrcs the llaga

(literaily, "sign") of Siv", thc.e is a gap in our

k n o r r ' . r g , . ' . r o l r o r r r l r i . i , I n t i f i c r t i o n c r t t r e t . r

take place. Sincc, ult imetely, the singl"^ nost

a,lrrn-on tt-r"rtrta, of inclicating Sivl as the prc-

siding dcity of a temple is thc enshrinemcnt of

a llriga, tl-ris issue is one of the most ccntral to

tl.Le s-tudy of Saivisn. The Gudimrllaln lliga,

rvhich juxtaposes, thc anthropomorphic ancl

phell ic forns of Siva, may proviclc important

clucs to this problcm. The lii3a consists of a

fiirly nrturrlistically dcpicted phallr'rs bearilg

an ir.nage of thc ru:rle figr-rrc, prcsun.Lably Siva,

stancling atop a der-nonic-;rppcaring cllvarf, lvhtr

S u N G A - l ' E R l o D T E R n A

The sculpturc of tl.re Srrnga pcriod represents thc

f i r ' r c L r r r c c o ' i r r g o f r r t p | o d r r c t i r r ' i r r \ t o r r e I l l

ancicnt Inclia. Artists i l difercnt rcgions of the

subcontinent uray havc l orked in stone for thc

first t imc during this pcriocl, althoueh thcy mey

hlvc bccn traincd itr other trredi:r, sttcl-r as lvood

or clay, and it is likc1y tlur sttch craftst.ncn rvould

h,rvc dr,rrvn upon thcir knorvledgc of othcr art

forms rvhen conlronting thc nerv rlatcrial'

Nnmerons tcrra-cotta sculptttres lounLl at north

Inclian sitcs mly bc .1ate.l to thc Sungx Pcriodon thc basis of their stylistic relrtionships to

more sccurcly ciated stonc sctllptures of the

periocl. Thus, r'hile wc crlltlot be ccltein thet

m:iy bc Apaslnere, a drvarf later associated rvithSiv:r. In contrxst to his nsual rnultiarnrcd forms

of latcr date, Siva here h:rs only trvo lrlus ln

bis right har.Ld, Si-'a hoi.ls a ram (or an antelopc)

by its l.Lind lcgs arrd it his left, r rvrtcr pot, t'hilc

an xxe rcsts upon his lcft shoulcler. Thcsc at-

tributes, u'hilc not idcntical to thc Prirrarysymbols of Sivr in later iconography, have

gen eric , co ulrterpl rts, sitrcc in his various later

forrns, Siva ]rolds a clccr lnd nurncrous weaPons!rncludins the batde axe, antl various synrbols

associated rvith ritual and pttrification suclr es

thc rvater pot. Thc drvarf too relltes to laterSrivism, for rvhen hc perlorms solnc of his cosrnic

danccs, Siv,i is sometincs shown standing uPon

the bect of r drvarf rvho symbolizcs the evil ol:

ignorance (Fig. 2r.34). Posibly such a mcalring rs

r ' ' t . r r . l c , l hc rc . r l t l ro r rg l r ' i ncc LJrc i ron i . t r r r iguc

anong thc surviving clrly nonutncnts ofancientIndia. its full irnplications arc not kno\,vn. Yet,

it rcrneins onc of the most powerful imeges in

rl l of Indic art, juxtaposing thc cmblcn.r of the

total procrcativc cncrgies of thc universc lvirh

thc fisr.rre of a sr.iling god.

Co l r , {s

5.3 9. Fcmale frgure. From Tll iuk, West Bcng.t l ' lndi: t .

Sunga pcriod. Cr. scccird lirst ':entur-v B.c Tcrr:t

corta. I l : 2r crn. AshrDolcatr N' lLrscLrrrr. Oxford.

TI{E SUNGA PERIOD AND RELATED DTVELOPMENTS 69

r=:J formsFl : ]rms. In

-: rteloPe):: :.lL whilea - nese at-

:i lnmary- - - - - , L^ - .^

',*-::ed with

- 1_eaPons,' , n'rrbols

:r'. have' --, rus later

any given terra cotta predate-s a similar rockcarying, it is possible to view Sudga terra cottasas a source for stone carvings that no longer weremade only in the imperial ateliers, and had begunro gain currency as a valid medium for relig[usexpression. The terra cottas may thus refecr asource of styles ttar appear in stone sculptureseemingly without precedent.

A superb example of Sunga terra-cotta artoriginally thought to be from Kauiambi butactually from Tar uk.was mold-made, althoushcertain details seem to have been exe.ured Ll,hand (Fig. 5.39). Elaborarely omamented anidelicately executed, rhis female figure wears a

very thin pleared garmenr over her hips, left leg,and left. shoulder and a heary, .j.*.i.d grdllrom wtuch hang strings of beads or pearls,tassles, and plaques of human figures. Herbracelets are-heavy and full and hcr earqngs arelarge saucerlike forms with pendant bejs. Afull turb.an, also amply beade-d and bejeweled,is enbellished with a series of ornaments stuckinto the cloth like hatpins. These include anelephant goad, an axe, and two tridentlike forms.In many respects, the sculpture is similar tofigures seen at Bhaja and other Suiga-periodsites, indicating close ties between woiks invarious media at that time.

-' such as:,:: :o later

: _ ::-r cosmlc

::g uPon-:: evil of

I -,-a ng $

1 _: UDlqUe

:: anclent

:ages in,= of the

=:ne with

C o N c L u s r o N

With tk Sufrga and related regional develop-ments, an unbroken continuum of survivinsexamples of lndic art and architecture trulf,begins. Works frorn ear]ier periods, of course.are important because of their rariry and becausethey provide glimpses inro the foundarionsof Indic culture that would otherwise be lost.

Tbe art of this period displays a wide rarietyol torms and a vast repertoire o[ motifs, whichsuggests that they should not be thought of onlyas new invenrions during rhis phase, but in partas surviving examples documenting conceptsthat undoubtedly h"d be"n deveioping iorcentunes.

CHAPTER SIX

Regional Developments

(ca. Late First Century n.c. Through First Century a.o.)

By the end of the Suirga period, artistic tradi-tions in stone had emerged in various partsof the South Asian subcontinent and Dattemsof regional development that would prevailthroughout the rest of rhe history of Indi.

"rtbecame visible. In part, this was due to the rise oflocal dynasties that had come to power after thecollapse of the centralized Maurya govemmentand during the more limited Sufrga rule. Theseseparate kingdoms were not isolated, butoften interacted in such pursuits as trade,religious activities, and warfare. Thus, whilethis period is characterized by distinguishablelocal artistic traditions, these were often highlyinterrelated. The period following the collapseof the Sufrga monarclx and their short-livedsuccessors, the Kanvas, is often called the Andhra-Satavehana period, after one of the leading

dynasties of central India. However, Satavahanarule was not unintemrpted, the extent of theirempire is debated, and viral quesrions concemingtheir chronology are still unanswered. Thus,this name is inadequate to describe this periodin its entirety and will not be used here.

In many ways, the artistic trends of theperiod from the late first century B.c. throughth€ first century a.D. are continuations of thoseof the Suirga period. Stupas and rock-cut cavescontinued to be created, but these were oftenlarger and more ambitious than the earlierexamples, Sculptural decoration became moreelaborate and forms were treated in a morethree-dimensional .manner. Many of t-he samesubjects seen in Suirga art recur during thislater period, though others seem to appear instone for the first time.

6.r. Stipa I(crear Stupa). Senci, Madhya Pradesh, India. Ca. third Dcentury B.c. through first century A.D.

90

RXGIONAL DXVEIOPMXNTS THROUGH FIRST CTNTURY A.D. OI

T H E V T D T S A R E G T o N : S A f t c i

During the Suirga period, Vidiie had growninto a wealthy, important trade center. Some ofits residents seemed to actively patronize Bud-dhism, because a number ofBuddhist stupas thatwere erected or enlarged in the vicinity of thecity during the Suirga and subsequent periodshave yielded inscriptions recording gifts from laypersons of Vidi6a.l By the first century e.o.,Safrci, the most illustrious of these sites, hadbecome a flourishing monastic communiry.Refurbishing of older structures and buildingof new monuments was carried out at an activepace, supported by the lay community. Perhapsthe most important suwiving artistic produc-tions of the first century A.D. at Sancr werethe four stone gateways (tora1as) at St[pa Iand a single stone toreto at Sttrpa III.

Stfpa I is the largest stupa at Sai.cl, a f^ctthat has rightly eamed it its popular designa-tion, tlre Great Sttrpa (nahastnpa; Fig. 6.r). Itscore is believed to date from the tirne of A5oka.although it was enlarged to its present diameterof approximately thirty-six meters during the

Suirga period, at which time it was also givenits final stone casing and uedika. The irnportanceof the monument is indicated by dre presenceat the southem entrance of an Aiokan pillarthat bears a capital of four addorsed lions andan inscription virtually identical to that of theSarnath pillar. Although it is not known byinscription whose relics were containcd withinthc monument, it is highly likely that so majora monument at such an early date could onlyhave contained a portion of the relics of Sa-kyamuni, which were redistributed by A5okaafter their original division into eight portions.

Except for the addition o{ the tora4as and thelarger scale, the Great Stupa is similar to StDpaII at Senci (Fig. 5.0). In both cases, the uedikaand four entranceways form a sr.,asri&a plan (Fig.6.2) and there is a berm (nedhi) level attached tothe stupa fot circumambulation. At the GreatStupa, however, this upper passageway isguarded by a stone railing (uedika; Fig. 6.3),which was lacking in the smaller monument.In addition, the crowning elementd of the

-::qung

: : Thus,::riod

92 ?ERIOD OF TIIE EARIY DYNASTIES

capihg

0

0M L

5 1 0 1 5

Great Stopa are preserved, revealing much ofthe basic symbolism inherent in all such monu-ments. Above the dome, a smaller railing (lar-mika) encloses tfre most important symbolicelement of rhe stupa, the pole (lasd) whichrepresents the World Axis, and is thus concep-tually sirnilar to free-standing pillars, like thoseof Aioka. The use of the railins around thecentral axis is part of the ear\ itya tradition,

6.2. PIafl of St[pa I (crear Sttpa). Seflci, Madhya pradesh, India. Ca.third century l.c. through first centuty a.D.

( . /

for such a device was used to enclose a sacredtree, pole, burial mound, or othet caitya irrpre-Buddhist times. Above the central axis ofthe srya is a series of chatttas (rrnbrelTas), inthjs case, three, that are honorfic elementssymbolizing protection of the object below.In Buddhist art, they appear over stipas, ao:dlater, above {igureq, including Buddhas, withidentical meanins.

6.3. Statcase leading to berm, south side of Sttrpa I(Grcat Stupa). Seici, Madhya Pradesh, India.

The south tord4a is beheved to be the oldestof the four gateways of the Great Stnpa, notonly on stylistic grounds, but also because it isplaced at the principal entrance to the sacredcompound, where both the A(okan pillar andthe staircase leading up to the berm are located.Thus, it is likely that this would have been thefirst entrance to be adorned with a stone gate-way. This tora4a bears an inscription revealingthat at least a portion of it was.a gift of theforernan of the artisans of one Sri Setakar4i,zwho may be identified as one ofthe kings oftheSatavehana line. Since several members of thatfamily bore the name Satakarqi, .the identifica-tion is problematic, although it is likely thatthe inscription refers to Satakar4i I, the thirdking of the dynasry, who is thought to haveruled from about A.D. tt to z9-s Therefore,it is probable that the south torut1a was ercctedin the second or third decade of the first century,t.o., with the others being produced almostsimultaneously, or shortly thereafter. The in-scription is of further interest for it suggests thatSatakar4i employed a school ofartisans, althoughlittle more than this may be inGrred. Posibly,the artisans were not even stone workers.4

Each toraxa consists of two upright pillars

,REGIONAL DIIIELOPMINTS THROUGH FIRST CENTURY A.D. 9J

that are square in shape and suPport a suPer-structure of three architraves with volute ends(Fig. 6.a) Like rolled-up picture scrolls, thesevolutes seem to unfurl the Buddhist subjectsDictured in the architrave reliefs. Both sides ofthe a.chitr",r.s, as well as the various faces ofthe upright pillars, are sculpted, and it is possiblethat a fairly unified iconographic program wasintended. In contrast to Stlpa II, however, whichcarried its sculptural program on the vedika,or Bharhut, which had a sculpted vedika andtoraltas, the railing of the Great Stlpa is almostdevoid ofcarving, and the fora4as are the primaryvehicle for the depiction of religious subjects.Between the upright pillars and the superstruc-ture are capitallike elements consisting of verythree-dimensionally carved elephants on boththe north (Fig. 6.a) and east torallas; dwaweson the west gateway (Fig. 6.5); and addorsedlions, perhaps in emulation of the Aiokanpillar, on the south. The elephants seem to bepart of a royal procession, with flag-bearingriders, and the concept is carried out by otherriders on horses and elephants that are carved inthe round and are placed between the ar&itraves.Other animals in recumbent positions, somewith riders, are carved in panels at the junctures

between the vertical and horizontal membersof the gateway (Fig. 0 a). The ga4as or dwarvesof the west gate (Fig. 6.5) hold their arms abovetheir heads in the marmer ofatlantids, appearingto uphold a stylized step-pyramid design, prob-ably symbolizing mountain forms. Dwarves,

as supporters, are comrnonly seen in Indic artbut, like other motifs, are subject to stylisticchanses over time. Thus, in contrast to thePitalkhora example (Fig. s.35), the Sanci dwarvesare more fleshy, with rolls of fat around thepectoral muscles and at the sides of the rib cage.Their huge bellies bulge over the tops of theirdhotts and their legs are massive. While the

treatment of the turbans and jewelry, especially

the very bulky earrings, is typical of clothingand omamentation in carvings of the GreatStupa, each dwarf is individualized both in

costume and facial expression. One (Fig. 6.5,right) wears a Greek-type headdress and neck-lace.

Above the top architrave, auspicious emblems

94 PERIOD OF THE EARIY DYNASTIES

--:!:=g! t

*c "d7 |

@ - 6

E s;3! |

c@@ Itq:a!h-r uF&q3th

6.4. Outer face, Dorth tur,rrd, SrDpx I (Grcet Srnpa). Stici, Ma-dhya Pradesh, India. Ca. second-drird dccedc first ccntury e.o.

RTGIONAL DTVTIOPMENTS THROUGH FIRST CENTURY A.D. O{

6.j. Dwarves oD west lor4fa, Stupa I (Great Stupa).Saici, Madhya Pradesh, India. Ca. second-third decadefirst century ,t.o.

including the Buddhist triretfla appea4 alongwith cauri bearers (Fig. 6.4), while between thcouter ends of the architraves and serving asbrackets between thc lower cross bar and thevertical pillars are representations of vlksadevatasgrasping onto different types of trees (Fig. 6.4).The most celebrated of these is a figure on theeast toraJa (Fig. 6.6) shown seductively graspinga ll:'trgo (amra) tree. A considerable stylisticchange has occurred since the creations atBharhut (Fig. J.r3), for the suggestion ofsensuousness seen in the earlier example hereerupts into full voluptuousness as the scantilyclad woman hangs languidly on to the tree.The depiction is more sculptural and thrce-diurensional than the Bharhut example, for notonly is it carved in the round (although mostproperly viewed from the front), but theindividual forms of the body are also moredeeply cut, and less emphasis is placed on linearpattcrns in thc treatment of hair, jewelry, andother details. The figure is nude except forabundant jcwelry and a scarf,, again a departure

6.6. Vrksadcrata, east toft\d, Stnpa I (crerr Stupa).Sanci, Madhya Pradesh, India. Ca. second-third de-cade first century a.o.

fiom the Bharhut type.. Although thc specificurkydevafi is not identified, it may bc inGrredthrr her association with the frtrit ing rnangotree suggests the notion of abundance andfruitfulness as well as gcneral auspiciousness.5

An important feature of the gateways is thepresence originally of pairs of male figures onthe inner faces of the uprights of cach torana.An example from the north gateway (Fig. 6.7)and one from the west (Fig. 6.8) demonstratethe variety and individuality of these depictions.The rnorc usLral type is rhat sccrr in Fig. 6.7,which shows a figure dresscd in Indic garb,including a thir dhoti, a turban, and jewelry, ina manner sir:rilar to the numerous rnale figurcssecn throughout the reliefs al the torafios-'fhcclaborate headgear and jewelry are generallyinterpreted as indications that thc figures areof noble or royal birth. The individual standsin a rather relaxed posture, facing to thc side,with his lcft arm at his hip and his right handholding a fruit, as an ofi-cring or perhaps apersonal identifying symbol. Behind him is a

96 PrRroD oF THE EARI-Y DyNASTrxs

6.7. M.Jc;rttcnd:u., rlorfi tdrdfd, Srarpa I (Clreat Stupa).S.nci, Madhv:r Prrdcsh, IDdia. Ca. sccorrcl third de-cade tirst cenl rv A.D.

rnango tree. The other examplc (Fig.6.8) isatypical, as it shows a figure in Greek ratherthan Indic dress holding x spear end shield ota loreign type. A srnall notif inside the iorvcrcrossed straps on thc shield rlay rvell be the\vorn rcrrrrlarts of a lluddhist pir' witlt e, triratnanlotil likc that in chc Bhar'hut relief drat alsoclcpictccl a Creek (Fig. 5.rr). Ag:riu, behind drefigurc is a nango trce. Aldrough this individualis a forcigncr, thc stylc of the carvine, inclucLngthc dc :hy . so f t lo r r r r ' o f r l rc L 'od1 r r rd r r .diaphenous drapery, is typically Indian, anclcharactcrizcs thc art of rhe period, et lexst etSr r i r r . l t rs i r r te r . ^ t i r rg rJ r . . t r l ' c [ rg r r rc . r ,1 , i , r i rga wcstemel aPPcars On the lvcstem torola,

6.S. Male rtteDdrnr, west iofdlid, Starpa I (Great Srarpa).St i rcr , N{rdhl i ] hrc lcsh, India. Cr. sccond th i rd de-cade fitst ccrrrurv .r,o,

ofcring thc tantalizing suligestion of clirectronalsignificance of the type later to be seen both inBuclclhist and Hindu corrtexrs.

Usually, thcse pairs of f ierircs are iclentif iedts duarapalas (door guardirns). lndcccl, theirposition irt dre eDtrxnccs to tllc sacrcd prccinctis a strong argulrlent for tJris. Horvcvcr, in(!,rrtr.r\r r^ rlrc lutrnyala' rr Pir:, l l ,hor.r. forcxample (Fig. 5.33), thcse clo not rvear amror. rn , l . ' o t t l t c I r . . t L r . r r r . t l r c t , lo t 'o r a . r r r ) \ \e . rp -ons. Whilc thcy arc prob;rbly correctly in-terprctccl as attcndanr figurcs, theil precisciclenti l icarion is unccrtairr. One possibil i ty isthet rhcsc figurcs arc bodhisattves. or prototypesof thc bodhisattvss iclcntif iablc later in Indic

vl . nl ' )l .J| :/!

{t!-l' ' t

F.\

art' Bodhisatrvas are future u.u

^t"to*ot DE'EL.PMENTS rHRouGH FIRsr .ENTURY A'D' 97

-l: ft t,_,..11:tq a,.sentient o"tdoli'"*-1".:: @parhs ro Buddhihood They are "ri"ffy

J"-p.,.Jm art as. princely individuals who wear jewelryand turbans or other headgear, a conventlonthat contorrns to the representations of the

:::: i9r"", remaining of the original eight

nanJqng rhe cntranccs to the Grear Stu-pa.Though for.,h..To:, part the Sanci f iguiesare. not distinguished frorn one anorhei byrnerr. costuure. rhey are individualized to somcexrent by the objecrs rhey hold in their hands.

,t?.,r., *iy

.be arribures comparable to those

nero by- bodhrsatvas as symbols of their ico_notogrcal meaning as known from establishedbodtusarrva. iT._g_..y. Further parallels withconvenhonai bodhisattva iconography includeth€ arrangement of the figures in pairs and inalgnment wlrh the cardinal directions, forpaired bodhisattvas often serve as attendantsto.the directional Buddhas (joras).0

If confirmed, the identificadorl of the Senci ..r. *;;;ffi;il;:,ffi):figures as bodhisattvas would necessitate 2 sGp, r 1cr.ri siof4,san.i, Madhya pradesh, India.revision of the traditional interpretation of the Ca.-second-third d'"""o. ,,.rt..ocury a.o.:rr:: l

5tupa as a Hrnaydna monument, for

: : : Sri ipa).

bodhisauvas. , l."gh. j<';o; In Hrnayana

""iixff#';ffTrf i'i."fu;[il:: r ;Tjl"T.,'j,']ii:ffi:,""i:"'jit'J:!'ij,1.J:j[#,,-q;,':;,1.;ffi "..- *:,"i i,, p".h"p, -...t,I;;tr#{l,fb:li]i#beginning of the second centur.

$#+.rr*i*l fr:xHlr*tffi[*5wt;:,';:*,:;t",,*::r,*ftr*l;:i*i;#*:i*:T,lTlri:,':, :ry'''*::lfr'trlfi:,#.{$ =tt"'*m**:"'n'::::u::'":;j::;1"T:'"',:",,:':,::l,;"1",,TTT;,'j"l'i."Tit# ifililii#J5:::"::'#1'*:l'Tff:;li*tit*irJnr#.'.i:ru1i.,""'i*i;t;;i*;iiit'iti:f,'"{,il,*'r,lrr,d$;,,,t}f{i,#j **.'j,i,'"'i,r,.T,;#ti.f,{,l,il,,$"*,}*

;'-:::d de-

s--:ctionalboth in

3 :J :nd f ied*::. theirE :reclnctbra.r,er, inl::ra, forfE-:: attl1or

E::_,_ lveap-

l:---:ly rn-

E- preclse

r.::iliry isF:r:otyPesr :r Indic

98 PERIOD OI THE EARLY DYNASTIESdcpict pilgrplace or ev

rvhich tookFor exao

architrave t

of figures a

erected alo

dha's eniigright, morgathered (F

-liokart'dartto the 6r',/l'btended r'.imilar oniesodonalmuli's enof the Bt:e,.rriction;,-nce of i-:i.r a ten:r::posedl'.::iring in:=qe GorG: r - l to ., -.c;-.. rt

: ti-!{ -e

=.g*r is 1

l : a o tU.. . O.,"" , eact rordfd. Stnpa | (Great Stupa) Sanci ' Madhya

irll".fr, ftair. Ca second third dccade fLrst cenlurv A D-

uoessential detail diminishes the visual import-

r""" of *t" main incidents of the story' For

""""tpf", ,ft" monkeys at the top of tlrc Sanci

."liefi"v. be"n teduced to a much tnore mrnor

,J ,i"" ft"a been the case at Bherhut' At the

same time. however. a ceruin logic of sPace

and time has also been introduced In tnat tne

;;;";,-;"y be read in a consistent order' begin-

;t;;";.;; lower left ' whcre the king and his

;;;.?i;";; enter. to the top right-vicw of the

wjldlife, and then ro the toP lett wlrcre tne

;;;6t "t" crossing the river and tl.re monkey

;;; ilil"" kings cJnvtrs" beneath the tree'

;^;;i;; of th! relatively consistent order and

*,""ii"-,. detail, however' the relief is still

g"""t*a by many of the same considcrations

pertinent to thosc from the Sunga period' The

in onristcnt vicwpoint in which certain elements

of the co,nporit ion are shown as- if from abo\e'

l ik" rlt. . iu.., and orher' ' including the figures

and trees, are shown ln profi lc' sti l l rcveals the

"tiirJ f.* of concern foi depicting the physical

*orta "t

i, appears. The scale of elements in the

""*p"ti."'it also fieely adjusted to suit the

needs of the narrativc.'^-i, ^inharhut, ,h" lack ofan anthroponorphic

represent:ltion of Sakyan.runi h tbe Mahdkapt

iiiri" ^"a other jatakas at Sanci is not difiicult

;-;";" since the episodes are concemed with

tir""li,.rr..t prior to his final birth' many of

which were in animal forms' Nor is his presence

"r-p*.a i" a number of scenes at Sanci that

: , : =: : !1

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:i ;=c--:: t i : : : i

:=:c ::=:.:c: _:

t!:c.L ::

:6r -:-;_;--s:-.

fu.;:=:f,lq --=

,r.$5 r

-':g',- 5 f

REGIONAL DTVELOPMTNTS THROUGH FIRST CENTURY A.D. OO

::nents'-. r 'Jove ,

rgures:: ! the:.--1_SiCal

- l , ' ' t h "

-: the

depict pilgrimages or celebrations in honor of aplacc or evcnt associated with his final liG, butwhich took placc afrer his l i ferinrc.

For example, the outside face of the lowerarchitrave on the east toraya shows an asscrnblyoffigures at the left procecding towards a shrineerected around the bodhi tree, where the Bud-dha's enlightenment took place, wlile at theright, more figures, horses, and elephants aregathered (Fig. 6.ro, lower). It is known from theAiokauadana that ASoka himself made offeringsto the bodhi tree, and such a depiction might beintended to show this royal event, or anothe!similar one. That this scene represents such adevotional subject and not the event of Sakya-muni's enlightenment itself (with the absenceof the Buddha explained because of aniconicrestrictions in the art) seems clear frorn the pre-sence of the temple enshrining the sacred tree,for a ternple was built only after the event,supposedly by A(oka hirnself. The practice ofvisiting irnportant holy sites (r;rtftas), which mayrange from major religious centers such as BodhGaya to single trees or rnounds enclosed widrinuedikas, was part of ancient Indic worship froma very early date. The emphasis on such pilgri-mages is probably refected by the fact that thesubjcct i" so popularly rcpresented in earlyBuddhist art, as shown hcre.

The outside face of the middle architrave onthe east torafa bears a relief that.is usuallyidentified as the Great Departure of Sakyamuni(nahabhiniskranana), when he left his father'shome to seek religious truth (fig.6.ro, upper).The absence of a depiction of Sakyamuni ridingthe horse has usually been interpreted as a resultof aniconism, wherein his presence is impliedbut not shown. However, several features oftherelief suggest that the scene is not meant torecord the actual event itselfbut rather a proccs-sional celebration ofit at a later time, perhaps atthe very site of its occurrence, the city of Kapi-lavastu. A horse with an umbrella (ria ttra) abovcdeparts from the city gate at the left and appearsfive times in tlre relicf, suggesring progressionalong a path. Part of the time, he is carried bymembers of the group. However, these figuresare apparently \ot the dercs mentioned in textswho supposedly held aloft the hoofs ofthe horsc

6.r I . Rel ief on north rorana, Srupa I (Crcar Stupa),\howrng c levocton r t a r , tpa. S.r ic i . Madhya pr. rdcsh.India. Ca. second-third decade {irst cenrury ^.D.

at the time of Sakyamuni's secret, nighttimedeparture in order to silence them and permitthe Buddha-to-be to leave witAout detiction.Instead, they are indistinguishable from themale figures generally depicted in thc Saffcireliefs in terms of their appearance and costumeand it may be suggested that these men are notdevas but actors in a pageant which recreatesaspects of the evenr of Sakyamuni's departure.The worship of a pair of buddhapala (Buddha'sfootplintt at the right of the composition andthe prescnce ofa sacred tree in tle center suggestthat the horse is being led to sites which werealready sacred, implying that the events in therelief are taking place after Sakyamuni's de-parture and do not represent the departureitsell

lOO PERIOD OT THT EARLY DYNASTIXS

A variety of other subjects also appears on the

Saficl tora4as. One scene shows a group ol

foreigners. pJaying drums. ffutes. and orhrr

musilrl jnrtrum"nts in front oF a stlpa which is

in fact quite similar to the Great Stnpa itself

(nis. o.ri). Heavenly beings of half-bird. halF-

hu"-",l for* (kiknarus) bring garlands above'

while the figures below bring oferings and play

music. The light curls on the hair of the figures

and the headbands are reminiscent of Greek-type

figurcs and the pointed caps arc similar to

P;thian wpes fiom western Asia, suggesting

contact wi;h rhe Parthians who were prominent

in the northwestem part of the South Asian

subcontinent around the time the torcltas werc

rnade. Possibly, converts are paying homage at

a srapa in this relief.A final example, a relief, from the north

tora4a of the Great St[pa at Seici, shows two

rows of male devotees at a rock-cut structure

(Fig. 6.rz) not unlike the Loma6 !.9i cave in

coicept. That the architecture is rock-cut rather

th"n iree-rt"nding is clearly indicated by rhe

rock formations to either side of the facade'

The facade of the building has an ogee-type

arch, a tie bar or perhaps a rolled and tied sun

shade across it, i rectangular opening. and

an altar in front of it. Since the Lomai $si cave

was not Buddhist but was most likely dedicated

to the Aiivikas, as were the other caves in the

Barabar "and

Nagarjuni hills that date from the

Maurya period, it is not likely to be a rePresenta-

On stylistic grounds. the two large caves at

Bedsa may bi dated to the same period as thc

carvings on the torc1tas of the Great Stopa at

Sanci, or approximately the second or third

dec"de of th!-fitst century A.D. Although both

caves have apsidal plans, one is cleaiy a caitya

hall; the otier se.ms to be a variant of the

vihara (Flg. 64).A"."r, io the caitya hall is gained through a

DJssageway that has been cut inro t]te flace of rhe

io.kil."uing a wall o[ rock matrix that Pre-.ludes

" goJd view of the veranda and facade

of th" c"ie from outside (Figs. 6.13, 6 ra)' This

6.12. Relief on north tota4a, Stupa I (Great Stupa),showing devotion at a cave. Sdici, Madhya Pradesh,India. Ca. second-third decade Iirst century a.D.

tion of that cave, but it must show a holy

place (perhaps the Indrasala cave, where Indra

visitediikyamuni Buddha). As in many of the

Seff.ci relieis, figures and other elements are

arranged as if r ising in-venical t iers rather than

placed to suggesr sPatial dePth.

B u D D H r s r R o c r - c u t A R c H r r E c r u R E o r r n r I V r s r r t N D E c c A N : B x D S I

matrix was probably not left fot re\igious or

other svmbolic purposes. Instead, the gradual

slop. oi tlre hillside must havc necessirated thar

the artists cut dceply into the rock wall beflore

reachins an elevaiion suitable for the vertical

f".rd" "of

the cave. The matrix was probably

Ieft in placc in order to save what would have

been an enorntous expenditure of labor to

remove it-Alonq the front of the veranda are four large

uoriehri, including two central pil lars and two

e,ler;ed pil l"rs ai the .ides. The pil lars have

o.iafon"l rh"ft, with l itde or no raPer to them

REGIONAL DEVELO?MENTS T}IROUGH IIRST CENTURY A.D. 101

i 0 , , 50

T

l-:

I

are

than

::5

6-14. Exteriot of caitya hall. Bedsa, Mahtr4lra, India.Ca. second-third decade Iirst centurv a.u.

6.13. Plan of caves. Bedsa, Ma-harastra, India. Ca. second thirddecade first century A.D-

6.rj. Detail, exteior of cdirya hall. Bedst, Mah,regfra,India. Ca. second-third decade {irst century ,r.o.

- - t^-- -

-:: rwo:, have-; -.hem

'02 PERIOD OF THE EARLY DYNASTIES

6.16. Pillar capital, veranda of caitya hall, Bedsa, Ma-harastra, India. Ca. second third decade first centuryA.D.

and bases in the form of vases (Fig. 6.15). Thetwo engaged pillars are not fully octagonal butotherwise resemble the free pillars. The motifofa vase as a pillar base is often said to have beencopied from a free-standing architectural practicein which wooden pillars might have been setinto ceramic vessels to protect them fromdeterioration by rotting or insects. The claytecbnology of this period as knom from surviv-ing examples, however, did not produce ceramicmaterials of such strength that they could with-stand the thrust and weight factors generated byfull-scale wooden buildings. Simply enough,the weight of the building would have crushedany vessel placed in such a position and anyupright supports inserted in such a pot wouldnot have had sufiicient lateral strength to createa stable structure. Furthermore, if the practicewas indeed widespread, it could be expectedthat the motif would appear commonly in thedepictions ofwooden buildings found so ubiqui-tously in early sculptural representations. In-stead, it is more likely that the vase motifsserved a symbolic purpose, and that they areearly depictions of pirrlaghapas (vases-of-plenry),which serve an important role in later pillariconography.

The shafts are topped by bell-shaped capitalswith higlJy accentuated curved profiles thatseem to be descended from Maurya prototypes.Above, the capitals consist of a boxed element

6.17. Entrance wall to caitya hzll ftollj' veranda. Bedsd,Maharalgra, India. Ca. second-third decade first century

and then a series of horizontal levels atop whichare recumbent animals with human riders (Fig.6.16). These figures are almost identical toexamples from the Saffci toreryts in terms ofcostume, pose, and depiction of the body, asis the motif of addorsed recurnbent animalswith riders itself (Fig. 6.4) and strongly sup-port the suggestion of a similar date for themonuments.

The pillared veranda, which serves as a transi-tion from the exterior to the inner apsidal hall,is an architectural feature not seen in the earliercaitya halls at Bhejd and Pitalkhora. However, itis not certain whether the verauda was an rn-novation of this period or not, since the facadesof the earlier caitya halls bave been lost. AtBedst, the lower half of the front wall of thecave serves as a screen, with a central doorwayleading into the cave, another door to the left,and a window to the right (Fig. 6.i7). The hugearched opening remaining in the ea,rliet caityahalls is thus visible only in the upper half. How-ever, it is clear from the architectural detailingofthe uprights of this arch that the veranda wallis merely a screen and not a modification to thearched structure itself(Figs. 6.r5, 6.r7). Eventual-ly, the arched opening evolves into atrue windowform (Fig. rz.3). This element, which commonlytakes an ogee shape, is often called a caitya archor raitya window, erroneous designations arisingfrom the practice of callir'g a caityahall simply a

REGIONAL DSVEIOPMENTS THROUGH IIRST CTNTURY A.D. '1OJ

t J:: : :r . Bedse,B:: '::i century

::,rP which

:.-rrical to6-\8. (abo1)e lel) Side wall, \eiand^, .1itya hall. Bedsa,Mahare;gra, India. Ca. second-third decade first century

6.19. (dbote ight\ kfte'iot rditya hall. Bedsa, Mahara-glra, India. Ca. second-third decade Iirst century r. o.

- : _rever, iti an in-

' -' Iacades

:, of the:torway:le left,

- --e nuge

:..rtual--, ::rdow

-,-ionly

- : l a r c h

6.20. Left side aisle, interior of cairya h,ll. Bedsa, Ma-hartglra, India. Ca. second-third decade {irst centuryA.D.

caitya. Lt the two ends of the veranda, the side

walls are carved in a design corsisting of arches

above the doorways to small subsidiary cells,

additional arches above, and railings imitative of

rvooden prototypes, giving the impression of a

four-storied wooden building (Fig. 6.18). Since

the use ofsuch arches and railings is so ubiquitous

as a decorative motif in early lndic rock-cut

architecture, it may be assumed that a symbolic

meaning was intended, although the interpreta-

tion is not clear. Except for the figures on the

pillar capitals, there is no figurative sculpture on

the veranda of the cave, although it is possible

that the empty spaces between the doors and

windows might have been painted with figural

designs at one time.The interior of the cave is starkly simple, as

it is also devoid of {igurative sculpture and

further lacks much of the architectural em-

bellishment of the veranda (Fig. 6.19). Plain

octagonal pillars with a slight inward lean to

them separate the central part of the hall from a

circumambulatory aisle around the Pedmeter(Fig. 6.zo). Wooden beams must have originally

1O4 PERIOD OF TITE XARLY DYNASTIES

6.2r. Apsidal "dhara.', Bedsd, Maharaslra, India. Ca.second-third decade first century a.D.

been attached to tJre curved ceiling of thecentral hall, as indicated by rectangulai holes inrhe soffit ofthe ceiling, although the beams havedisappeared. The side aisles, with their halfbarrel-vaulted shape, also seem to have hadarched ribs of wood as part of their originaldesign, and the plain walls might havq servJd asa supporr for paintings of Buddhisg subiects.In form, the tupa, wluch serve, as the -"inobject of veneration in the hall, is relniniscentof the stapas at Saici, although it has a doubledrum. An interesting Gature is the lotus pedestal,the top of which may have originalJy supportedthe chattra, or some other element.l

The orher important cave at Bpdsa, the so-called uihara, is unique among the survivingexamples of Indic rock-cut arihitecture (Figi6.4, 6.2r). Although its faca{e is lost, itsinterior is preserved and consists of a centralapsidal hall surrounded by rectangular cells. Itis _posibJe that this hall was begun as a caityahall and was later converred int6 a uihara, butthis seems unlikely since there are neither sideaisles nor evidence on the floor of there havinsbeen pil lars.8 lt is also possibie that rhis cave waian experiment in form, but the sheer cost ofexcavating such a project as this makes it seemunlikely that a purely experimental form wouldbe put forth so boldly. It may be suggested that

6.22. Detall, wall of apsidal ,,uiharu." Bedsd, Mehet_tttra, India. Ca. second-thitd decadc firsr centurv ,r.n.

the example documents a rype of woodenstructure associated with early motrastic sites,but otherwise lost to us archaellogically. Whilesuch buildings may have servej as monasticdwelling places, the proper name of this rypemay not be uihtira, a rerm that perhaps shouldbe reserved for rectangular halls. Such specificirvin the clasification oF early Buddhist

-buildings

is suggested from the enumeratioru of monasticbuildings cited in early Buddhist texts.

_ In addition to rhe puzzling form, there hasbeen some argument that the detailinq of theimitation wooden forms above rhe dooiways tothe cells was added at a later rime,

"nd w"i not

part of the original work (Fig. 6.zz). This sup-position does not seem tenable as there is ;oindication that there was more than one periodof carving activiry at the site; and cloie ex-amination shows that tlese conform exactly instyle to similar details in the caitya hall. Thelattice windows have interestins ietail in theflowers and other forms, whiih m"y reflectwoodcarving techniques of the times. ihe cellsare somewhat unusual in plan since most ofthem contain two benches instead of one, Sincethese cells are believed to have been dwellineplaces for the monj<s, the benches were probablistone beds and this might imply double oc-cuoancv of the cells.

REGIONAL DEYTTOPMENTS THROUGH IIRST CENTURY A.D. 105

Eas rxRN INo ra : Kna l t oa c r x r / I Joavac r t r

1tes,.i. h e

-_.: !uP-

: 5 n o

::: iod

The history of ancient Kalinga (modern Orissa)

is still obscure, as well as controversial, especially

in the centuries following A3oka's conquest of

the region. However, one king, Kharavela, is

noted for his military strength and his public

works. The princiDal source of informationabout this .rrl.i i, itt

" lengthy inscription in the

Hathi Gumph. (Elephant Cave) at the Khan-

dagiri / Udayagiri Hills in Orissa, where morethan thirry rock-cut caves were excavated. Oneline of the inscription reveals that Kharavela"causes lcausedl to be constructed subterraneanchamberi, cavei, containing Chaitya temples ar,.d

pillars."e Thus it is generally assumed that

many of the caves at the site are products of his

reign. Among these, the Rani Gumpha (Queeni

Cave) at Udayagiri is the largest and best pre-served (Fig. 6.23).

This two-storied cave. like other excavafionsat the site, is not easily compared to rock-cutexamples preserved in westem India, and may

indicate reqional characteristics, or even a dif-

ference in religious purpose since these caves are

believed to be Jain, not Buddhist. The plan is

distinguished by a large rectangular courryard,

with rectansular cells cut into the rock wall

on three sidis (Fig. 6.za). To either side of the

open coufyard, a sculpted cell projects from

the rock wall. Iach is fanked by a carved guard-

ian and bears reliefs on the exterior depicting

what appear to be narrative scenes (Fig. 6.25).

These small chambers may have been intended

as guard stations. The carving of the reliefs is

extremely lively and freely conposed and there

is a great sense of crowding of the surface with

numerous elements such as elephants, mango

trees, and frgures. The guardian figures reveal

the same preference for rounded, full body

forms seen in many styles in ancient India,

although the legs seem elongated and the feet

enlarged. An archway over the door suggestsa pan-Indic use ofthis device, undoubtedly based

6.23. Ra4i Gumpha. Udayagiri (Kha4dagiri), Orissa, India. Ca. first

few decades of {irst century a.o.

706 ?ERIOD OF THE EARLY DYNASTIES

4

6.24. Pier of Rtqi Gumpha. Udavaeii (Khandaeiri), Orissa, India.Ca. first few dccadcs offirst celtury a.o.

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6.26 F:(rdc i , i Lrpprr tc |c l , l l in it l Lrnr ph.r . Ud:r . , rq i r i (K b.rnd,rq i r ; ) ,( l r rss:r . l ld i i r ( i r . r l rs t i . r l \ . d. -

drs o l i isr ( .nt t r r \ 1. r ) .

JO8 PERIOD oF THE EARLY DYNASTIIS

on wooden forms, although the treatment- ofthe arch, with its fower and vine motif, is dis-tinctive.

Another interesting feature of the cave is thesculpted friezes across the entrances to the cellson the lower and upper levels (Fig. 6.26). Theirsubject matter has not yet been studied, butthey may illustrate events in the liG of thetwenty-third J^in ti haikarc, Pdrivanatha. Instyle, they correspond closely to carvings fromotlrer parts of the subcontinent (Fig. 6.27).They are particularly suggestive of the stylethat appeais on the S-fici tora4ds. Tlis rela-tionship is more than coincidental, for Kharavelais known to have been a contemporary of one

6.27. Detail, carviug on facadeof upper level, Rini GumDha.Udayagiri (Khanlagiri), Orissa,India. Ca. first Gw decades offirst century e.o.

Satakar4i of the Satavahana line, who is almostcertainly Satakarni I, and thus it is likelv thatthe respective monuments belong to approxi-mately the same period. around rhe early firstcentury A.D. In particular, there is a great dealof similariry in figure sryle and cosruming. suchas the large. bulky, square earrings. icarveswom as headdresses by the women, and thetype of turbans worn by the men. Deeplycarved details are also characterisric of borh theSairci torapas and the Ram Gumpha friezes.aithough slighdy more irregular gioupings ofel.ements within rhe composirions is characrerisricot the eastern stvle.

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During the late first century B.c. and the firstc€ntury A.D., many of the forms and srylesdeveloping during the earlier Sunga periodcame to fruition. Relief sculptures tended to bemore deeply carved and less dependent on linearpattems,. suggesting that the artists had grownincreasingly comfortable in working the hardstone material. This conlidence is also refected

in the refined work done in the creation ofBuddhist caves, such as rhose at Bedsd. Thouehi t i s d i l l i cu l t roass igna name ro th is per iod , lsno single dynasry conrrolled the majoriry oftlre subcontinent at this time, it is cleai thai theSdtavdhanas must have played an important rolein disseminating art styles in the iegions of theirown rule and to neighboring kingdoms.

Detai l of 7.11.1 facadeGumph:.

, Orissa,:'=des of

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CHAPTER SEVEN

The Saka and Parthian Kingdoms in the Indic Sphere

(ca. First Century B.c. to Mid-First Century a.o.)

hvtnooucTroN To rHE BacrRo-GaNDHARA REcroN

Following Alexander the Great's expedition tothe Iadic regions in the fourth ..ot.rry .u.c..the westem Asiatic lands continued to be vitalarteries of trade and commerce between theIraniair plateau on the west and the Indus Riverregion. These lands, roughly corlesponding toportions of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan,were not uni{ied politically but instead weresubject to continual political upheaval as com-peting factions attempted to establish powerin the area. Culturally, the region was alsodiverse, reflecring the many participants intrading activities, including Greeks, variousnomadic groups from westem Asia, and Indicas well as Chinese peoples. Around r3o n.c.,a group of newcomers, the Sakas, entered theregion and came to control considerable por-tioru of it from Bactria to Marhurd for a sis-ni{icant period of time; The origin of the Sak-as

is a subject of debate, but it is likely that theywere a branch of the westem Scythians fromTransoxiana or an immediately adjacenr area,such as the Black Sea, wfuch had a stronslvHellenized Scythian populatioo. a.ound ihetum of the Christian era, Parthians movedinto this region from their Iranian homelandand also became influential, especially in thefirst half of the first century A.D. Thus, thecentury before and the first part of the centuryafter the beginning of the Christian era mightbe seen in this region as dominated by iheSaka and Parthian peoples. Each left irs markon the already heterogeneous society of thearea, which during this pedod became a trueconfluence of diverse peoples, evidencing cul-tural, religious, and intellectual aspects of theHeilenistic world and greater western Asia, aswell as South Asia. The effect of this rich

rf their

109

1'O PERIOD OF THE EARIY DYNASTIES

diversity on religious and artistic developments

was enormous.During the Saka and Parthian periods, the

westem Asiatic region was not a coherent whole

but consisted of a number of small states. Of

greJrest irnportance to rhe srudy of Sourh

i,i"n ".t

wite Bactria. wit-h its capital ciry of

Bactria (modem Balkh in Afghanistan), Kapi{a,

. with its capital city of Kapi3a (modern Begram

in Afqhanistan). and Gandhara. with irs capital

at rhc- ciry of Sirkap (at Taxila lTaksaii l i l in

Pakistan). An important minor state existed in

the Swat Valley of Pakistan, which was known

in ancient times as the kingdom of Uddiyana.

Vhile this entire region is popularly referred to

today as "Gandhara," it is more aptly described

as the Bactro-Gandhara realm, implying the

lands between, surroun&ng, and including

Bactria and Gandhara. The term Gandhara is

properly reserved for the kingdom centered at

I axr le-

The most important of these political units

was Bactria, but unfortunately, very little

archaeological excavation of this region, and

especially of Balkh itself, has been carried out,

le"oing its role in the artistic develoPments of

western Asia largely unknown. However, the

other centers are more well-known archaeo-

logically and some of the objects and monu-

mints found at them may be discussed, although

a coherent artistic overview of the period is

still lacking.In spite of the great imPortance of the reli-

gior.r, "nd

artistic developtents of the Saka-

Parthian period, many of the basic scholarly

oroblems ln art, such as the definition of local'schools, chronology, iconography, and cultural

context, remain unsolved. These matters are

subject to a variety of interpretations and much,

sometimes heated, debate. Some of the confu-

sion is due to the fact that the physical docu-

ments, that is, the cities, buildings, and works of

arr, have sufi^ered considerable damage at various

times since their creation, especially when the

region was overrun by new invaders. Destruc-

tion continued even into modern times as early

archaeologists often demolished the original

contexts of works of art or failed to make

orooer records of their discoveries. hr addition,

ihe- surviving monuments have often been

misinterpreted. The 6rst European investigators

to study the art of this region, for example,

were culturally biased in favor of the western

tradition and invariably attributed too much

debt to the Hellenistic heritage of the art forms.

What was invariably seen by early investigators

as direct Greek or Roman infuence was mainly

a product of the general Hellenistic milieu in

westem Asia during the first century B.c' and

the first century e.o. This "Asian Hellenism"

was in fact the result not only of a Greek and

Roman heritage, periodically affected by new

infusions fiom the Mediterranean world, but

was indebted to lranian, Scythian, and other

traditions as well. Combined with forms and

conceots prevalent in the Indic world, the

result was a truly international s1'nthesis, both

in ideas and stylistic innovations in art.

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The site of Begram, the ancient city of Kapiia

and the capital ofthe state ofKaPi5a, has yielded

imDortant archaeological materials. some of

*l i.h cl""rly b.lo,ig to the Saka-Parthian

oeriod. One hoard of obiects, either retired

ho- .,r" or perhaps secrJted from invaders,

contained late Hellenistic plaster casts of metal-

work designs, Syrian glass, Roman and Alex-

andrian sculptures, Chinese lacquerware, and

carved Indic ivory objects, among other treas-

ures. Although only the Indic objects will be

considered here, the others are imPortant

documents of the heterogeneous cultural milieupersisring in the region and as possible sources

of,"vtit,I i . and iconigraphic influences in South

Asian art. The building housing the objects

was apparently destroyed at the time of the

Sassanian invasions under Shapnr I around

A.D. 24T (providing a probable terminus date

for the production of the objects) and the room

containing the objects was not rediscovered

until modern times. The items found in this

"treasure room" are largely luxury goods of asecular nature, probably rellecting the cosmo-politan tastes and interests of a person of con-siderable means or rank.

The Indic ivories fall into several stylisticgroups, suggesting that they werc not allexecuted at one time. Instead, they scem toreflect a range in date from about the late {irstcentriry B.c. or early first century a.o. to aboutthe third century A.D., the presuncd terninusdate for all the objects in the roorn. A seriesofpieces that were once part ofa large ensembleshows architectural constructs within whichare pairs of beautiful women. These panelsprobably belong to the early group of Begramivories because they bear a great deal of resem-blance to sculptures on the Seffci toraflas. Oneexarnple shows a toruxa with tlvo womeninvolved in what appears ro be cosmetic pre-parations (Fig. 7.r). Architecturally, the torunorescmbles the structural exaraples at Saflci forit has tluee horizontal cross members. TheBegram depiction, however, bears figures ofgetos ald kltitxdras in the spaces between thearchitraves. Atop the highest architrave is aseries of auspicious emblems similar to thosethat originally adorned the top of the Saicitotatlas. Tlte central symbol is a triratna, astandard syrnbol of the Buddhist teachings,balanced on a lotus. The other emblcms are lesseasily identified. What are apparently trianglespoised on lotuses have no countcrpart amongBuddhist symbols until a much later period.However, the trefoil motif to either side of thecentral ttiratna is found in some of the westemIndian caves that date from thc second to firstcenturies s.c. and it must have been a well-known Buddhist symbol. Beneath the horizontalmembers and just above the heads of the twofemale figures, an cngraved pattern showingstrands of pearls or other gems irung in theentry that the tor.u!.| provides suggest auspi-ciousness. Although it has been suggested thatthese ivories served a secular rather than religiousfunction, a religious purpose must not be ruledotrt. Totatlasr while apparently not used exclu-sively in sacred contexts in ancient India, mayimply the entrancc to a religious structure.Furthcrmore, the theme of beautiful women

TIIE SAKA AND PARTHIAN KINGDOMS ''I

7.r. Panel with torctld design. From Begrarn, Afghani-stan. Ca. early first century A.D. Ivory. H:42.7 cttt.Kabul Museun, Kabul.

lavishly adorned with jewelry need not beviewed as secular since such figures had beenincorporated into religious symbolism at anearlier date.

Like many of the ivories in the Begran.rhoard, a depiction of a female {igure was prob-ably part of the decoration of a piece offurniture (Fig. 7.2). While the piece, which isone of the largest ivories found at Begram,has been greatly restored, much of its originalappearance may be determined. The womanmay be the goddess, Gaiga, the personificationof the Ganges River, whose standard uAhaxais the nakara,like that upon which this figurestands. She is dressed in standard Iadic garb.Her lower garment is incised with parallel

II2 PERIOD OF THE EARTY DYNASTITS

double lines to suggest drapery folds; she hasa thick sash and her garment has a heavy foldof rnaterial ar the w;ist. Across her chest shewears an omament held by cross straps andshe wears ample jewclry. including heavyanklers. The figure is rather

"long"ted "ndslender, perhaps partly a by-product of theoriginal shape of the ivory tusk, out of whichshe is carved. A slight animation is seen in herpose as she thrusts her hip to one side andextends her arm. While the figure does nothave a precise counterpart in the styles ofancicnt Indian art in the centuries around thebeginning of the Christian era, there is littledoubt that she expresses the basic notions ofIndic art of that period.

In addition to ivory objects that are clearlyof an Indic style, a Gw ivory pieces betrayingforeign associations have also b..o ,..orr.r.ifrom Begram. For example. several piecescarved wirh a disrincrivc doubleline techniquelound in Parthian artr suggesr associations ofstyle and subject lII",r.. lJi ih non-Indic tradi_tions (Fig. 7.3). The hunt motif in particularhas a western Asiatic rather than Indi source,as do the wiuged animals, the distinctive head_

7.2. Female, probably Ganga, the River coddess. FromBegran, Afghanistan. Ca. 6rst century A.D. Ivory.H: 47 crn. Kabul Museum, Kabul.

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THE SAXA AND ?ARTI{IAN KINGDOMS 1I3

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dresses, and t}le use of the profile view for theface. Such relationships indicate the culturalcomplexity of the Begram materials, for notonly do they represent a crossroads whereobjects from widely diverse regions rangingfrom China to the Mediterranean vrere broushttogether, bur they also suggest a blending-ofthese traditions. Portable luxurv obiects likethese were apparenrly widely tiansptrted (anivory of Indic manufacture was found atPompeii), although the place of manufacture ofmost of then remains unknown. Thus, whileit is possible that these Parthian-style ivorieswere indeed of Parthian manufacture. thevmight also represent the absorption of non-Indic styles and iconography by Indic craftsmen.

While the ivories found at Begram revealan inreresting crossroads of srylistic traditionsin ancient KapiSa, other objects recovered fromthe region crystallize what must have beenimportant religious trends. A gold reliquaryset with rubies was found at Bimaran. in ACghanistan, by Charles Masson, one of thepioneers ofSouth Asian archaeology in the nine-teenth century (Fig. 7.a, Pl. 4). As the containerfor relics, it was the most important element ofthe stupd in which it was found. Since itsdiscovery, the reliquary has generated muchdebate and controversy concerning both itsdate and the mcaning of its iconographicscheme. Four mint-condition copper coins ofthe Saka king Azes II (reigned ca. 3J B.c.-a.D.r) were found in association with it, suggestingthat it was buried (and perhaps created) in thilate first century s.c.2 This dating is furthersubstantiated by the paleography of the inscrip-tion on rhe srearire caske( in which it wasfound, which identifies the donor as one Sivar"k-gita, an otherwise unknown individual.

In spite of the evidence of the four mint-condition coins and the paleography of theinscription, the reliquary has generally beendated to a later period, about the first centurya.o. or later.3 Much of the argumentationfor this asserrion has been baseJ on archi-tectural and other motifs on the reliquarv itselfand on the conrention that the reliquarv musthave been buried at a later date, bur wlth theearly coins. However, a major basis for the

7.4. Detail of reliquary. From Bimarrr! Afghenisran-Ca. late 6rsc century t.c. Gold with rubies. H: offigure,ca. 3 cm. British Museum, London.

hesitation to accept this work as a product ofthe late first century B.c. seems to be the depic-tions of Buddha images as part of the vessel'sdesign. Traditional art historical scholarship onthe Buddhist art of South Asia has vieweJ thepopulariry of depicring Buddha images instone during the second and third centuriesl.n. as evidence for the initiation of such animage-making tradition at rhat time. This phaseis said to have supplanted an earlier aniconicphase during which Buddha figures were notshown in human form, However, textualevidence as well as the existence of a ChineseBuddha image dated 36 B.c. indicates that animage-making tradition occu(ed well prior tothe second cenrury A.D. (alrhough ir may nothave been as extensive as rhar oflater centuries).a

-: head-

I

I]4 PERIOD OF THE XARLY DYNASTIES

Therefore. rhe Bimardn reliquary need not beconydered

_a product of a period necessarilylater than the date suggesred ty the four coinsof Azes,lI and the paleography ofthe inscriptionon tne basls ot rts lconoqraphy.

The iconographic schleme'o[ the reiiquaryincludes eighr figures conrained within archedniches. A major group of three figures is re-peated twice on the vessel and consists ofa stand,ing representation of a Buddha, ilanked by twofigurcs in Lhe adjoining niches (pl. 4). Be;\ eeneach group of three is a depiction ofa fron t-fac ingindividual who seems to be walkhs forwariwhile displaying the aijati mudra, a

-gesture o(

rerpect and devotion, with his hands (Fig. z.+lThe figures flanking the Buddhas are Biahma,shown as a bearded ascetic, and Indra, dressedIike a king. Though these figures may be amongthe earlresr preserved examples of Buddhalmages, they have many of the features thatcharacterize Buddha figures throughout the

{evelgpment of Budchlst art. Thii suggeststhat by the time this work was .reat"J,- theiconography of the Buddha imase had beenweil formulated. If. indeed, this rieliquarv wascreared in the late first century B.c.r riris wouldfurther suggest that this phase'did not mark theiniriation of the image-making tradition.

-The Buddhas *.ri -on"r,ii garb, consisting

ofa rather heavy robe thar coveriborh shouldersand falls nearly to rhe ankles. Such robes appearpopularly in rhc Buddha images of Bactria,Gandhera, Kapiia, Swdt, and oih.r regions ofwestem Asia. It is not known whether this tvpeof garmenr originated in rhe lndic ,."1-'o.was brought to the region fiom the Graeco-Roman tradition, although the emphasis on thefolds of the cloth seemslo suggesi a classicisticstylistic interpretation. The Buddhas wear nojewelry or headdresses. in keeping wirh theirascericism. tach has a halo behind his head.The halo, or aura of light, becomes a standardindication of transcendence in Indic art, and isnever. present in the depiction of ordinarymortals. Ir is generally called a prabhamandala(circle of l ight), a term thar may be usedto describe u aura radiating lrom rhe enLirebody or only the head. The term liralcabra,or iiralprabhacakra (headJight-wheel) is often

used to describe a halo restricted to the head.Both Buddhas on the Bimaran reliquarv

displayrhe abhaya nudra, a gesrure ofproteition,with their right hands. Though this handposture rs meant to grant the absence of fear,it is by implicarion a reaching gesture for it isthrorrgh the understandinq ofa buddha's teach-ings-that one is granted th"

"br.n.e of fear (of

death).The two Buddhas do not have distinguishing

features that clarify their individual idlntitieiand ir should nor be automatically asumed rhatthey (or any orher Buddhas shown in art) neces-sarily represent Sakyamuni Buddha unJess spe_cific elements of rhe work indicare thar thi; isthe case.s It is important to note that the over_whelming concern of the Buddbist relision inits many variant sects and Forms is no1 withSakyamuni, the Buddha who lived in Masadhaduring rhe sixth and fi frh centuries s.c. In somecases, he is seen as an example to be emulated;in others, he is considered to be only one ofmany Suddhas. and not even rhe moit imoor-ranr. Many schools of Buddhism barely iakenote ofhis existence; indeed. it would be possibleto practice some forms of Buddfusm withouteven a significant awareness of him and hisliG cycle. Among the earliest surviving Buddhaimages is at least one whose inscription revealsthat it is a depicrion of a Buddha orher thanSakyamuni,o indicating that more than oneBuddha was included in the early religious andartistic repertoire.

The belief in more than one Buddha iscommon to both Hinayena and MahayanaBuddhism. However, Hiuaydnists believe thatBuddhahood can only be attained by a Gwbeings, while Mahayanists accept the presup-posirion that all sentienr b.ingt fos.r, the ,.edo[ Buddha]rood

"nd ar. desrined to achieve it.

According ro Maheyana rheory. Sakyamuniwas or y one of a series of zaru;i (morral)Buddhas who represented what is known asthe npahaya (form-body), or, in later Bud-dhism,. the nimanakaya (transformation-body).Like all sentient beings, these Buddhas, accordingto Mehayana belief. conrained somerhing beyonJtheir human maniGstations that wai to berelied upon as the source of enlightenment,

::,.hing

:i that

which, in their cases, came to fruition. As fullyenlightened beings, these Buddhas are alsoconsidered to be manifestatioru of the universalcondition of order (dhama). which became

$9wn as the dhatmakaya (dhama-body). Bydefinition, all Buddhas are manifestations ofthe dharnabaya; however, nor all Buddhasassume a rupakaya lnirmanaka ya existence.

It is unknown whether the Buddhas reore_sented on the Bimaran reliquary belong to rherapahayalnhnaxakayo ot tlr. dLarmokaya or ^combinarion of the two. But a reference toa two-kaya system may be implicit; for thisconcept is already propounded in Buddhisttexts dating from the Saka-parthian period. Inthe Saddharnapun{ankd-sutra (The Suira of thel-otus of the Wonderful l_aw), a Buddhisttext believed to have been compiled by thefirsr cenrury r.c., Sakyamuni is said to ex-plain his owrt eternai nature. thus suggesringthat this dual concept of Buddhaho"J waialready developed by ihat time. It is more fullvexplained in the Astasdhayika praifiaparunitarexr of around the first century a.o., whichpropounds the conception of the two-kayasy-stem. The final development of thi. aspectof Mahayana thoughr is i thre.-body docrrine(rikaya) propowrded in later schoois of Bud_dhism such as Yogdcara.?

Some of these theories may be refected inthe- figures. on the Bimaran reliquary, for it isundoubtedly a Mahayana creaiion. This isverified by the presence of the front-facineindividuals placed berween the t*o groups o?three figures who may be identified

", Uoairi_

sattvas (Fig. 7.4). The concept of the bodhisattvais inextricably tied to the M"hayana belief thatevery sentient being contains the qerm ofBuddhahood and may. by becoming

-a bodhi_

sattva, a being destined to attain Buddhahood,ultimately realize his own Buddha-nature. Whilebodhisattvas are known in Hinayana Bud-dhism,s their number and functions are limited.Like Buddhahood in Hinayana thought, bodhi_saffvahood (that is, potential Buddhahood) ispossessed by only a Gw. ln Mahayana, how_ever, anyone can attain bodhisattvahood: in_deed. bodhisattvahood is seen as a mandatorystep in the progress towards Buddhahood.

THE SAKA AND PARTHIAN KINGDOMS IlJ

There are many kinds of bodhisatwas whonay represent many levels of Buddhist attain_ment in Mahayana Buddhism. On the simplestlevel, the practitioner may become a bodhisa-ttvasimply by taking the vow of a bodhisattva.However, ro progress through the ranks ofbodhisatrvahood, rhe indiviJuel musr takecertain, actions or must develop specific perfec_hons (such as compassion). Highly advancedbodhisartvas Jike Sakyamuni in fus pre_enliehr_enment existences, such as those recountej inthe jatuka tales, serve as models of behaviorfor all living beings. Bodhisattvas may also actas guides to devotees in their quesr to attarnB-uddhahood and as personificatitns of aspecrsoI the nature of Buddhahood.

,,Bodhisatrvas of this larer caregory are gener_ally known ^s mahasaftua bodlir"iruo, [r."t_being, enlightenment-being). The bodhiilttvason the Bimaran reliquary and in Mahayana artin general are of the mahd.sanua category.Though such bodhisattvas have indiv]dualidentiries, those appearing on the Bimarenreliquary,do not bear distinguishing featuresthat clarify which ones

"re biing represented.

The halos behind their heads indicate thetranscendent nature of all nahasattua bodhi_' sattvas and the jaqnukuta (crown of mattedhair) coiffure is not characteristic of one bodhi_sattva alone. The jewelry wom by the figuresls also a ieature common to mahasaftua bodli_sattvas who are normally dressed with all the6aery of secular kings, in contrast to depictionsof Buddhas, which show those figures as as_cetics. withour jewelry. and wearin'g monasticgaro,

The architectural forms that appear on theBimaran reliquary have also g.nerrted muchdiscussion.e The pointed arched elements ofeachunit are_ based on an Indic form, seen as earlyas rhe third century 8.c., for example. on thelacade ot the Lomai Rsi cave. However, thepillars that support the arches are commonlyfound on Hellenistic-inspired architectural con-structs ln western Asia and have no indigenouscounrerparr in rhe Indic peninsula. Like orherobjects recovered from Kapi6a, then, it refectsthe complex cultural milieu in thar resionaround the start of the Christian era.

of: : e

oneand

:'. Seed

,16 ?ERIOD OF THX EARLY DYNAS1IES

Tnl GeNonAna RrcroN

To -those already familiar wirh rhe arr rraditions

of South Asia. Gandhara is perhaps the mosrramous ot rhe wesrern Asiatic srates. This isparrly rhe result ofthe Gcc that many rmpoftantand revealing archaeological excavations havetrken, place..in Gandhara, specifically ar itscapital, TaxiJa. The familiariry of rhe nam.,

l:1.".""it, also parrly d_ue to rhe widespread

mrsuse ot the term Gandhara to r.Gr ti thebroader Bactro-Gandhara realm. Indeed, theterm is ofren mistal.enly used to bro"dly j.6n.rne arr srytes thar developed in the landi ro che

lortwe:r .gt whar is now the nation of ladia,

tnat rs. pak^isran and A fghanistan, in the earlvcenrunes of dre Chrisrian era. While it is truethat the art rraditions of Bactria, KapiSa, Swar,and orher associated loca.les often shire certaintroad characteristics wirh the arr of CandhAra,rley were also disrinct enrit ies wirh their ownsctroots ol artisans. [n narrow terms. then, theterm., "Candheran" should be used onJy todescnbe rhe

_arr ofthat specific region, while the*:t.

l-"gJy_ based sryles of westem Asiamrght be called Bacrro_Gandheran_

The largest urban cenrer of Gandhara is morewe -known by irs Greek name. Taxila, rhan itsmore proper Sanskrir name. Taksaji la. One ofitsrmportanr early cenlers was Sirkap, a city wfuchappears,to have been builr by Bactrran Greeks

fl.-,n:,. o.g,-l,oi"C

.of. the second cenrury a.c.,l

ne clcy foilowed the grid panern prevalenrrn ureek.crty planaing. a feature ihat wasmalntarned even during the course of several

,11l"11uont by

,various invaders, presumablyrnctudrng the Sakas and parthiarrs.

" The apsidal

.temple on Block D, which datesrrom the pa_rrhian period. is the largesr sinelestructure atrle.sire (Fig. z.s). Cle"rly a" auddii.t

:::lT:".it the plan of the apsidal tempte is

unusual rn the screening of the caitya "ra"

-fro_

tne assembly area. although it suggesrs ties toearly Indic.apsidal halls stih as rhe Lomaj Rsicave, or early caitya halls such as rhar ar Kondivte.

lmong ,ffre frnds at the now almost torally

desrroyed. apsidal temple *.r. "

nr.b.. ofscurpred heads- some o[ which showed Indicpnysrognomic types (Fig. 7.6) while otherssuggest strong ties to Hellenistic models (Fig.

M

b,Plan of apsidai temple on Block D. Sjrkap. Taxi la, pakisran.rar$lan period. Ca. firsr halfoffirst centur y a.o-

a

a

;

:

Fo;

Structure Foundat ion

:r1]11 itsr.- ofitsrr'hich

f.rceks: i B , c ,

r-.1':rlent

-._i w:lsicveral

, : n r a b l y

--l (1:ltes. \ r ng le

::Jclhist

. : : lp1c is

. 1 I t o l n' i ias to

:.r l i Rsl

:r. l ivte.

:or.rl ly: -.ar of: Inclic

. r t ] teIs

' ( F i g .

7.6. I ' Icrd, possib ly of r bodhisetrva. Fronr apsid,r ltcmple, Block D. Sirkap, Tar ih, Prk ist ] r1. i r robeblyParth ian pcr iod. Ca. f i rs t hal f of f i rs t cenury A.D.Stucco. l l : ca. 13 crn. Nat ionel Muscrrm, Kerachi .

7.7). Thus, artisxns xt drc sirc rr 'crc lpparcit lyfirliliar rvith both lndic ancl non-Indic stylcsancl fornrs. The Indic-type hc:rd (Fig. 7.6) maybc a rcprcsctrtarion ofe bodhis:rttvr, xs suggcstedby thc.idtanttAuta coifi l i irc, a standrrd lcature ofnrlny boclhisartva im;rges. If i ts dare ofcreetionrvrs intlced during the Partl.rian pctiocl, as sug-l . , L r ' , r b ) r r ' l ' i n d ' p ' . r r r r r . , ; , ' r I | r ) u r r l r ', f i , r . , l r c r r p l c . t l r i ' s o r r l C f . r t l ' . r v e r i f l . ' r 'r lready rvcll-devclopcd lconoeraphv for bo.lhi-

. , - . - , - . . , t - . , J . ^ | r i , - . . -

AltlLough sonletiules Ilellenistic : incl hclicclcrrlr-nts appeu scyrlratcly in clisrinct rvorks of. , r 1 . l r \ , t l ' c t u u I ' r - . 1 . f i o 1 r r I e ' r . r ' ' r r ) ̂ l r J r "apsirlai tcnrplc, othcr molrum.rlts at Sirk:rp. l . t ' r ' t l . t r . ' t . . , r l t o r . , J r o r o . l - ; 1 ' q ^ i l ̂ . ) l \ r c l i . l I

c I r d r t . ' r . l l l i l l , r ' r . r r , , l , r r r , . r r . . l l . . - , . r 1 ."Slrrirrc" of thc l)oLrblc-hcadccl Eaglc in BlockF at Sirkep (Fig. 7.8) shorvs j"st such xrl intcgrr-tion of sccningly clisparatc clemerrrs. Probablycleting from tbe letc hrst ccntur,v r.c., all thatrcrlains of thc structurc is thc bascmcut, r,vhich

TII I SAK' \ , {ND pARTHIAN KINCDOMS t t7

7.7. Hcad, posib)1 o1-a setvr. frorn :rpsidrl tcnrplc,J31ock D. Sirkap, Tll i i l i , l lakisr]n. l 'roL.rbly Prrrhianpcriod. Cr. f irst hrlf oi f irst trDtLrrv A.D. StrLcco. H:r9.J.ur. Natir)r1:rl Muscun, Krrrclri.

ollce sripportcd a -rt lr1a. (The rnonunrcnt is rhcrc-forc probablv rrore properly callccl e Jtrpd rarhcrthan a shrinc.) Thc rvall surl: ice of thc basementr , u r r . r r r , n r , , l ' r ' i r l r r c l i e ' .

" i , n ; . , , ' " . 1 p i . " n

ancl pilasrcrs r','ith acanthus leaf capitals betrvecnr r l : , l r . ' r c r ' p . , . ' r l . . r " r r . " t r - c c r ) p . ^ , , fcn trilnce \'!'a) s : rhc Inclic torana, thc Indic oscc-archctl doorrvay, and a clessicistic pedincntcclfacade. Thc ogL^ccl xrclhvxys bear rcprcscntationsof cloublc-l.readed eagles (or pcrhaps a nore

" c n , r . , l i - , ' l , . l n , r l - c r ' : ' 1 . ' h ' r , I \ ' r . , , r l , l r a i

b " . , r ' r l r l , - l r c . ' d . d b i r ' { . o f . , i r r r i l r r r ) p ( . . \ \ h r l .the pcclinrcntcd strLlcturcs bcer no bird at all.In Hcllenistic nrytholory, caslcs rrc oftcn as-sociatecl rvit l-r derth, irs transportcrs of thc dcadto hcavcn. Thc origin of thc doublc-hcaclccle . . c l c i . t r r ' k r r o r v t t l l r r r r , r . r . r r p . r . i ' r \ . r . . r n. r r r . r L n . u r i f i n \ o , l l r q . i J . r n J . i n r c r c . r i r r g l y .i lppcars rathcr lrcqr-rently in iate southern Indianart. In combinatiorr rvith thc roraaa ancl ogee-. r i l t , I , t r t r . r n ' , ' r . ' 1 ' . b " r l r

" f " l ' r , r r i r r p l y

aclrlittancc into l J/rpd or raitya arca, the birds

ij, J*'.F'

1]6 PERIOD OF THF, EA]ILY DYNASTIES

, t

suggest clear funerary associations. Such svm-bolisrn rvould, of coLusc, bc appropri:rtc to thcnlonunent as a rvholc, sincc it rvas a stu7pa. Thistypc ofsyncrctisrli, itr rvhich non-Indic and Indicsynbols arc combined, clenonstratcs lnorc thxnsinrplc cocxistctrcc of r':rrious culturll strandsand indicates the integration ar.rcl assir.nilation ofconcepts xncl lornrs arising oLrt of distinct tradi-tions irrto a nelv rvholc.

An important typc of objcct found at Sirkapis thc so-crl led toilet tray (FiS.z.s).Whilc thisappcllation has bccn usccl sirrcc thc lirst cxcava-tion of these objects, therc is no intcrnal cvr.lencethet they served a purpose in the prcparation ofcosnlctics. I-Iowcvcr, t ircy apparcntly hacl sonefunction in the lvet nixing of substances as isdetermined by thc prcscncc of as lnany as fivesmall rl-cl ls in an easily distinguishcd forru innany of tl-ren-r, Thc iconographic content ofL l r . . e . ' r . ' l l d i , l ' , ' r . r g 3 c ' r ' r J r . . r t l r c y r n i g l r t 1 r . , v eserved a .eligio.rs ccrcmonil l function.'fhc sub-jcct, in this casc, is the driDkins of rvine by a' r ' o r r r . . r r i n P . r ' r l ' i . ' r 5 . ' r b r . c l i n i n q i r r . L I r J n l r , rfrecluently sccn in figurcs on funcrary representa-tions at Peimyra, r,r'ith en attei-rcllnt holding a.v rc . , r l r nc . , r l r c r h , "d . l l In Hc l l c r r t ' t r c r r ) . t i c r \ r ) .the rvreath is symbolic ofvictory whilc thc n'inc

. '& . f .

mav bc associated rvith Dionysiac rites ancl thcattairncnt of transcendence. Thcsc rnotils, along, , , ; . T ,

" T , . . T , . . , , , . . i - , t i - . . . . - . . . , i -

victory ovcr thc porvcrs of deeth (that is, thexttxinnrcnt of ir lmort:rl i tv). While indiviclually.thcsc trxys may not bc tsuddlList, tl-re transccn-clentei rnysticisrn thcy apparcntly reveel r 'nayhavc been a significent inHuencc on clcvelopingM:rhayanr Buddhist beliell abour dcatb and tl.Leaftcrl ifc.

Although the real burgcorrirg of thc sroncscuipturc idiom in Gandhala and relatccl rcgionsdicl not takc place unti l the Kusanr period,. , , , , , 1 , , , t , . - . ^ , , . t , , , , J , 1 , ; . , t . ^ -. , . , , . , . . , . n l f l e \ q , D , . I

fcu' storic inugcs found at Taxila r,vcrc rnaclecluring the Sakl-Penhian periods. One intrisuirlgcxarlplc sl-rorvs a stending nrale figurc that islrnfi)rtunxtcly brokcn o1{ at thc ncck ancl rnkles( l - ig . ' . ro \ . l l r . p icce rv . ' . foLrn . l in r ' r c v i . i r r i r l, ' f r l r , f l l r . r . ' . ' r r j r l , r r | p d . o r ! r r t l r . o l , l " . r . . r r . lnlost i lnportant stlLlctules et Tarile. Flarrcncd inlorrr and rvith an uncarvccl blck. thc sculpturenuy lrrvc orrcc served as part of the surfaccdccoration of rhc -*ripa. Horvevcr, since theDlrarr-rrrrajikl stipa tnd associated mollr-rlncntsurdcr \ \ ( ' r t re fL r rb is l r i r rs . JnC r ( . ^n . t ruc l ion . J tvarious timcs in history, the association of thc

7.8. S/tpd bxscncnt ("Shrnrc" oi thc Doublc-hercled Eagle) atBlock F. Sirkrp, T:rr ih, Pakistrn. Plobrblv Sak;r-Prrthian period.Ca. latc lirst ccnturv l.c.

THT SAKA AND PARTHIAN KINGDoMS ,,o

- . t -

-r is-:rles

- 1 . . a

::ade

: : a n d

7-9. ShaJlow dish. From Sirkap. Taxi la. pakisran. prob_ably Prrthian period. Ca. f i r* half ot f i rst ccnrurv A.D.Srearite. D: r3.5 crn. Narional Museulr, Karachi.

piece with the site does not provide a firm clueto the date of the image. On stylistic grounds,the stone sculpture may be dated to the lateirrst century B.c. or early first century 1.o,12The muscular torso, arms, and legs of the figurereveal artistic associations with the Hellenisticworld. However, the flattened forms relate toParthian carvings from western Iran of thefirst century 1.c.13

ln spire ofthe fact thar the sryle ofrhe scuJpturereveals l ltr le association wirh Indic trends. thefrgure is dresed in typically lndic royal garb.His lower garment has a series of he"vy ioldsfalling between the legs and a scarflike length

Tr r r Swar Var r rv (ANcr r r r UpDTvANA)

7.Io. Male figLrre. Lrorn Dlrarnrarejika :t itpa. Taxila,Pakictan. S:ka-Parthran perrod. Ca. lrre firsr cenruryB.c.-early {int ccntury A.D. Greyish stone. H: 4r.j cm.Taxila Site Museuu, Taxila.

of cloth is draped over his arms. He also wearsjewelry, including bracelets and a necklace.The deliberate mudra Eeing displayed by therjghr hand along with the piinceiy garb suggeststhat.this figure is a bodhisatwa,ri ,iot -"i.iy

"secular figure. This mudra, a variant of vyabhyinamudrd, persrsts in the art of Gandhara ani reltedregions and in later Buddhist art and is displayedsolely by individuals of bodhisattva ra-nl< orabove. This sculpture, then, seems to offerfurther evidence for the appearance of Maha-yana Buddhist subjects, spefifically bodhisattvas,in Indic art at a date much earlier than is usuallythought.

Recent archaeological excavations in the SwatValley ofPakistan have revealed that this resionwas an important. fourishing center of Bud-dhism and Buddhisr art at lea.r since rhe Saka-

Parthian period. Some of the sculptures found inSwat are closely Iirked in style to the broad-based Bactro-Gandhara idiom r}rat becamepopular during the Kusaqa period of the second

- : l l n

120 ?TRIOD OF THE EARLY DYNASTIES

?,rr. Buddha, with Brahmd andIndra. From Swet region, Paki-stan. Parthian period. Ca. earlYfirst century a.D. Grey stone. H;

43.2 cm. lstituto Italiano Per il

Medio ed Estremo Oriente,Rome.

and third centuries a.D. However, a number of

imaqes from Swat reflect rehat aPPea! to be

orev-iouslv unidentified idioms that are more

closelv ti.d srvlistically to rhe Parthian art of

l."o ihan to tire more Hellenized works more

wpical of the Bactro-Gandhara regions. These

wirks suggest that the Swet Valley may haveplayed an-ixtremely important role in the for-

Li"tion of stylistic and iconographic pattems

in the Buddhist art ofthe Indic northwest during

the pre-Kusana period and that the debt to

Parthian art was considerable.One such example from Swat shows an un-

identified Buddhaleated on a fowered pedestal

flanked by Brahma to his right and Indra to his

Ieft (Fje. i.rr). Unlike the majoriry of Buddhisr

,.ulptoi.t created tl:roughout rhe regions of

Afslanistan and Pakistan during the first few

cerituries ofthe Christian era, this work does not

reveal stylistic ties to the Graeco-Roman world'

In contrast to more Hellenized examples, the

musculature of the figures is not emphasized,

nor even well defined, their drapery does not

fall in classicistic folds, the standing figures are

not in the cottttllposto pose of many Hellenized

fieures and the facial features are not the idealizedfo-rrn generally attributed to a Graeco-Romansource. Furthermore, although the figures ofIndra and Brahma wear Indic garb, the sculp-tural sryle is not strongly related to In&c idiomsInstead, the work displays distinctive ties toParthian art. Significant Parthian characteristicsinclude the large, wide-open, drilled eyes, thewrin*led forehead (of Brahma), the rosettemotif on the platform (which is ultimately basedon an Achaemenid design from the Iranianregion), and the evenly striated lines of thedrapery and hair of the figures.15

Since Parthian political influence died out inthe Indic northwest by about the mid-frstcentury A.D., it is unlikely that such strongParthian iniuence would be Glt in Buddhistimaserv created much after that time' It is,tn"rifol. orobable that this work was createdin the first part of the first century a.o. duringthe period of Parthian domination of the region.Sinci several sculptures bearing similar stylistictraits have been found in Swat, it may be sug-gested that Pardrian artistic in-fluence was especi-ally prominent in this region.

TIfi SAXA AND PARTTIIAN KINGDOMS '2I

i and?aki-.2rlY

. : . H :

,:er il

Assuming that the dating.of this sculpture--is

correct, i; iconography becornes .especiallysiqniGcant. For. l ike tbe Bimaran reliqu:ry,--it

dfiplays iconogr"phic features tbat are trsually

.o*ii.t.d to h"u. "o*"

into existence only

after the Ku954as, and specifically King Kaniska,

became powerful in westem Asia and northem

India. Iriparticular, it depicts a representation of

a Buddha-in an*ropomorphic form' This image,

and others of this apparently early date, indicate

that the initiation of the tradition of carving

Buddha images in stone took place prior to the

Kusdna Deriod.16 Furthermore, since the image

r ooi itt any way a tentative formulation, it

suqqesB that an even earlier practice o[ making

Bidih" i-"e.t eisted, although not necessarily

in durable riterials. Many of the standard ele-

ments that aPPear in later Buddha imagery are

already p.esint, including aspects of the pose

of the'B;ddha. his clorhing and omamentation,

the distinctive characteristics of his body, and

his relationship to other figures in the composi-

flon.ln this case, the Buddha stts it vajrapatyaikd-

sana , that is, with his le gs crossed with Get

upturned while resting on the opposite thigh'

Tiis oosition is a formal posture that is often

used'during meditation. th. Boddh"i tight

hand is in a-specific mu&d, in *is case the abhayd

mudra. The i"" o{ atonot ar.d mtfuas was not

new in Indic art at this time; both may be traced

back to Harappa dmes. Just when these ele-

ments were incorporated into Buddhist Practicesand thence into Buddhist art is untnown; how-

ever, the Act that abhaya mudra alrd vajraparyair

kasana ate retairled as two of the most important

poses in Buddhist art suggests that their ap-

l.aran.e her. reflects an already wel)-formulated-patt.m.

The Buddha's body is characterized by

auspicious marks (laksana) These include an

ira'a, depi*ed as a circle in the center of the

forehead, and ^rL uttlttl. This latter is sometimes

mistakenly said to be a protuberance at the toP

of the skuil, "camouflaged" in art by a clump of

hair. However, the term refers to the knot of

hair itself, probabJy a turban knot signifying the

orincelv heritase Lf rh. Buddh". The Buddha'*."r,

" *otkt, robe and an r'r;4isa tie in his

hair, but no jewelry. As in later standard icons

7.12. Fragment showing devoree within a lordra From

Butkara i Swat region, Pakistar' Parthian period' Ca'

earlv f i rst century ,r-o. Greenish schist H: 176 cm'

Istiruto ltaliano per il Medio ed Esrremo Oriente'

Rome.

of a Buddha with attendants. the representations

of Indra and Brahmd are executed on a srnaller

scale than that of the Buddha, for the Buddha,though seated, is about the same height as the

othei two figures. Still smaller figures, zirlya-dharus, arc depicted flying at the two uPpercomers of tlre relief. Thus, a three-tiered hier-archy is established in which the most imPoltant{ieure is largest, the least important are smallest'Sich Gaturl together indic;te that by the time

this imaqe was ireated, a well-established tradi-tion of irnage making already existed, or thatrhe iconography of the Buddha image had been

thorouqhl; -Foi*ol"t.d

in Buddhis literarure,or, of.-oo.r.. that both posibiliries in fact were!rue.

Other sculptures discovered in the Swat regionhdicate further associations with Parthian art.

A relief showing a devotee standing within a

tora4a alrd carrying a small reliquary features

remarkably similai elements to some of theBegrarn ivories (Fig. lJz), and a similar date

122 PF.RIOD OF TI I I ] ]AI ILY D\NASTIIS

: . I t . l \ l . r lc dcvotcc. Fror l I lLr tk i rm i , S\at rcqioD,Prkist iLn. Paf th i r l pcr iod. Cl . f l r l . , t i rs t ccnrurv ^.D.C;r . \ -stur)e. H: ,g.5 crrL. Is t i turo l ta l i r r , . r pcr i i Mcdiocd Estrer lo Or icntc. Roure.

might be srggcsred, perlups rhc exrlv firstce[turv A-D. Thc open-petelccl llorvcr edjusrcdwirhiu a squarc tlr:lt appc:rrs hcrc es rvcll :rs in

thc l3egr':rnr ir-olics rs e conlnon rrrotil l;uilclin Part l .r ian lrr ( l l rhoirgir drc Parthians cl icl nororieinatc i t) . The subjccr nl i l tcr of t l )c tordf iais clcrr ly Int i ic althougLr t ies to P:urhieir sculp-r lrrr i style. irc sccn i tr thc str irrcc], inciscci forn-rsof thc clrepcry.

A rcprcscntation ofe dcvotee, l lso fronr Sr.r,at,furthcr suggcsts Perthiu stvl isr ic inl fucncc irrr[c lr t ofthc rcgion, thorqh bcrc the fbrrns elsosecDr inrlcbtccl to thc l t torc r loDrirrent Grlcco-l l .onrln st l lcs (Fiq. 7.r j) . fhc fLqLrr:c is t l resscrlin hLdic garb. but thc hcei- iLy incisocl l i rrcs ofhis drapcry eqain rcHcct t ics to Prlthixn rrt .Thc l ' i r1c-open eycs u' i th s'cl l-dcf inccl cvcbrl isilL-L- l1\o ii major cher:rcter.istic of Pxrthiirn art.I lol 'cvcr. hcrc, the torso is nlorc trr lscl l l i l r in i tsclel inc:rt ion lncl thc bouc srrucrLrrc. of thc l lccruole sharpJv clcf ir icd than is usual iu Pelthian-lnf lrLcuccd rvorks of thc Indic r iorthwcst. I trurel bc suqgcstccl, thcrcforc. that the iru:rgcrcl lccts Gli lcco-I{olul l l t ;1rt i ls ircl l . Ftrrrhcrntorc,thc l iqLrrc st lrrcls i l r l cl lssir: isr ic , l , t tr t l l lo\ta,

suggestl l rg t ics to thc Gracco,l lonu11 tredit ion.TlLe sirrrpl i . jc l 'c lry, comp,ur:d to the r11orccl:rboratc l i rnrs o1 thc Kusanr pcriocl. sLlggcsta prc-I(u9tql cllte for dre cerving. A cletc irr thcS;rk:r-Prrt lLirn pcriocl is furthcr sugg$rcd be-cxlLsc oi thc rchtionship of this rvork ro otherpicces that in othcr rvevs slrqgest t l l r t thcv arcpr, lr lucrs oh this eppro-t imatc pcrior1.r?

N o r r n r n N I x l r a ( 1 H l M a r s u r - r R r c r o x )

Saka rule cxtcncled xt lers! :rs fer into the Incli l tpcninsula es Mldrura. A nlltrbcr of sculptur.csfbLrrrrl in drc vicinity of Methura rnay bc c1:rreclto dlc periocl of Sakl clominerion, rhoLrqh thenl.lJor corpora o{ Matlnrc rvotks beiong tcl thcKusanl and hter pcr.iods.

One such inugc shorvs a sc:rted BLrclclhe (Fig.7. r4). Thc flamcned srylc ofthc reliefancl princel,vcostlrlucs $rom by the ttt('n(l:tnt liqurcs rccallrvorks oi thc first ccntury B.c. cr-c:ltc(l :rt othcrt s t r d , l h . r . i r . s i n , . i ( 1 r l r r o . r . | . , r r l , c r r . u . c ,thcsc charectcristics di1lcr lro1li liirturcs norn1ill11,associirtcd rvith Mathura scLrlptur.es oi theI(trsana pcriod, x1r.l sugqest a prc-Kusina pcliodd:rrc. The cxistencc of sLrch rn irrxqc. xlrd ir

le.rst onc otlLer- !Lrc1.lha trqLuc that rnly bc:rscribcrl to thc Seke pcriocl l ionr Mlthura,t8dcmotlsttltc\ ther thc plecticc of'creeriug IlLrcl-clhe iurlgc-s et xn clrlv rlatc r-,,,rs rot l irrritcd tothc nottln est rcgions.

Icouotrrrphicellv. t lrr. ' inregc is quirc sirnilerro clcpictions l iour thc norrlrl-cst. f-or thc Bntl-cllre sits iu 11 prcscribcd posc-, hcrc dtc rdirapmy-ar?lr-rnria, encL clispleys l spccr c hlnrl gesrLrrc,hcrc thc al/raya lrrlrc. hr aclclit ion, hc rppc:rrs t, ll r . . ' . r r . . , r r . , . ' r . . r . . | . ' , . . . l r l . L r . , i r i , r r r I , , . -sib]r' to r]etcrruiuc rvhethcr hc elso hlcl en ririrtbc'ceusc oi t irc conclit ic-ur ofthc rcjicf. fh,: s6'jc. t l , r . . . . 1 ( o r - . \ r \ r . . 1 1 , 1 . r , . r o - r 1 , r . , . . , 1 . . rclcpictions. I ir i t is strictlr.b;rsccl on earlicr lnclic

modes and shows no influence from westernAsiatic or Hellenistic sources. The four devoteeswearin the art of Sanci, Bharhur. anJ other relatedsites, while the clinging garment of the Buddhareveals the lndic preference for ernphasizingthe forms of the body rather than the folds ofthe drapery. The garmenL, which is wom overthe left shoulder onJy, is Jike the rypical robeworn by Buddhas in Kusa4a-period depictionsfrom Mathura and related sites. Therefore, itmay be presumed to represent the specfic styleof garment popular in the region, as contrastedwith the more usual costume of the northwestthat covers both shoulders.

The iconographic similarity among the Math-ura-sryle Buddha images and those of an ap-proximately similar date from the Bactro-Gandhara region is a strong argument for theexistence of widely disseminated texual descrip-tions of Buddbas, and perhaps even earlierimages, upon which these works were modeled.For, in spite of the obvious stylistic distinctions,it is clear that an accepted, standardized accountof the appearance ofBoddh"t was in effect.le

The Mathura sculpture has an important butunusual feature in that the throne on which theBuddha sits is an iaverted, {ive-stepped MountMeru plarform rhat rests on a bli.. ben."thwhich are two reclining lions. Meru is thecosmic mountain that is located at the center ofthe universe, according to Buddhist cosmology.Seated on the

'World Axis, the Buddha becomes

a symbol of the adamantine nature of theuniverse. In this way, he expresses the univer-sality ofall Buddhas and Buddhahood, a meaninsthat goes teyond any mere idendfication of thifigure as Sakyarnuni or another specific Buddha.

THE SAKA AND PARTIIIAN KINGDOMS '2?

?.r4. Seeted Slddha. From l6apur, Mathurd, UttarPradesh,India. Saka period. Ca. Iirst century r.c. Red-dish sandstone. H: 48 cm. Mathura Museum, Mathuri.

The depiction of this concept at such an earlydate is significant, for it is often thought torepresent a late addition to the iconography ofBuddha images.

Colc rusro l t

: i o

Regardless of whether an aniconic phase ofBuddhist art ever existed or when the "first"Buddha image was created, it is evident thatby the Saka-Parthian period, Buddha imageswere being produced, apparently in accordancewith already codfi ed iconograpbjc requirements.While the existence of Buddha imases from this

period has been noted by earlier autJrors,zo itis still commonJy believed that Buddha imageswere not created until the Kusana period,primarily in the lare firsr cenrury e.o. oi earlysecond century e.n. Yet the burgeoning of astonecarving tradition in the Ku;ar.ra period,which has left visible evidence of Buddha im-

,15-

124 PERIOD OF THE EARIY DYNASTIES

agery, should not be mistaken for the inceptionof the practice of making such ic<.rus any morethan the lack of examples of extant ancientwooden buildings should lead to the conclusionthat the ancients never built in wood or that .the Suiga-period rock-cur monasreries werethe first architectural creations of the Buddhists.It might be noted, in fact, that there are nomajor icons of any Indic religion remaining inthe early art of South Asia. Yet, rhe absence ofsuch images of Hindu deities, for example, isnot usually interpreted as being the result oft}te absence of an image-making tradition.

The use ofBuddha images may not have beenuniversal to all forms of Buddhism nor to alllevels of religious practice. Ir is likely, for ex-ample, that the use of images was more com-mon among the laity rhan the clergy. (Mahayanaliterature claims that an image-making traditionwas in effect at least since the time of SdkyamuniBuddha, though it was apparently mainlyconfined to the laiw.)zl

Bodhisatwas too'were represented in the artof the Saka-Parthi"n perioi. These apparentlyreflected well-developed notions about bod-hisatwahood and the underlying concepts ofMahayanism wherein all living beings aredestined to attain Buddhahood.

Some of tte ideas regarding Buddhahood,bodhisatwahood, and other aspects of Buddhism,particularly in Mahayana, may have grown up

in the western Asiatic and north Indial resionsruled by the Sakas and Panhians. perhaps i. anoutgrowth of conracr with non-Indic peoples.Indeed, works of art from the Saka-Parthianperiod reveal a wide range of foreign motiG,styles, and ideas and a willingness ro synthesizethem with lndic elements into new artisticexpressions. Because of this, it is often dificultto distinguish elements that were the result ofthe natrral processes of artistic and religiousevolution within the Indic world and those thatcame about due to the impact of foreign tradi-tions. Some of the concepts often said to havebeen influenced by non-hrdic models in factmay have existed prior to this period and mayhave been the result of natural develoomentswithin rfie Buddhist religion. These include theinitiation of a Buddha-image tradition, thetheories of bodhisattvahood, the two-lald system,and many other aspects of Mahayana Buddhismas well.

Nonetheless, the regions ruled by the Sakasand Panhians must have served an imDortantrole in providing a setting in wfuch ri l igiousspeculation could take place. From these regions,particularly those ofwestern Asia, the developingBuddhist ideas and art forms y/ere transmittedalong busy trade routes to China and In-nerAsia, where they left distinctive marks on thosecultures as well.

-LccorYneL-iBFresidechtoryq!;rlurs+eIirgK._lr:lirlasr!*tesrsSEIIL

SuaaerangercgiorKani:errenbasericooc{

Detail oJ E,24.

:egrons:! as an:eoPles..:rthian:aotifi,

- --'ie size:ftlstlc

::,iicult:-ult of::lgious

-- aadi-: :.e that

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; .l-item,

t::rusmCHAPTER EIGHT

The Northwest and Northern Regions Under the Kqaqas

(ca.Late First Century to Third Century a.n.)

According to Chinese historical sources, theYiieh-chih, onebranchof which called themselvesthe Kuei-shuang, or the Ku;aqas (Kushans), wereresidents of the Kan-su region of northwesternChina when they were forced westward by theexoansionist oolicies of the Chinese Former Handynasry. Arriving in Bactria about r35 r.c.,the Kusa4as had little effect there until thefirst century a.o, when one of their rulers,Kujula Kadphises (Kadphises I), founded thedynasty that was ultimately to dorninate thelands from the Aral Sea in southem U.S.S.R.eastward through much of Afghanistan, Paki-stan, and northern India to Bangladesh. Hissuccessor, Vima Kadphises (Kadphises II), ex-tended the Kusa4a holdings into the Indus Riverregion, while the third member of the line,Kaniska I, developed the empire to its fullestextent and founded an era, the Kanigka era,based on his accession to the throne. Estimatesconcemins the date of the era in relation to

modern calendric systems have ranged frornA.D. 78 to r44, but probably a date of rzoapproximates the actual founding of the era,1being an average of tlte reasonable dates thathave been proposed and allowing for someoegree or error.

lJong with political expansion went thespread of Buddhism, and in fact, one of thenotable achievements of the Ku;54as was thenurrurinq and dissemination of Buddhist cultsthroughout their own realms and adjacent

areas, including China. Kaniska I in particularwas a gleat patron of the Buddhist religion, al-though he may not have been a practicing Bud-dhist. The stzpa built at his capital, Kanigkapura(near modem Peshawar) was one of the largestever erected, he is reputed to have convened aFourth Buddhist Council in Ka3mir, and he isrenowned in Buddhist literature as a ma.;oro"tron and orotector of the Buddhist faith.iJnder him. Buddhist art production was given

125

126 PIRIOD o] THI;ARLY DYNASIIES

a siglific;rnt stirnrlllls and thc carving of costlv' i ' l t c i r r . r g c ' ( . . t ) c i l . t o . p r c i r l r . r , r . r i r r c n c c, l r r r i l q l r i s r ( i 1 r . H c i , . , 1 ' , k r r , r r r r r o l r , r ,patroll izcL]. or at lcast rccognizcd, othcr rcligions,such as Zoroxstl iarisnr, but such xctions nightclenrolstratc politicll expediclcc

"r r.r-r.r.h

"r r"li-

qioLls toler.nce or fcrvcnt bclici.Trvo nuin sphercs of Kusane art are gcnerally

rccoqnizedr the broedcr lJactro-Gandhara rcgionin the norrhr.cst whcrc strongly Ilellcnizerl anclIranicizecl l'orks u,erc produced, lnd nor*rcrnlnclie. parricularly the Madrura rcgion, theso tircrn cipitil of the I(uslnas, rvhcre rvorksin the Inclic style l'cre proJucctl. Thc art of thenorthlvest is distinct liom rhat of thc northernIndi:ru sphelc, largely duc to thc :rlreedy cxistingart traclit ions in each ar.ca prior to the,r.lvcnt JK . r . . r r . r . r r r r l . . l l o r r , r c r . l l ) ( - \ i . . r . r r . . t ) g i n " c r -r , l r i ' r r i ' i p i r r r t o n o . l r p l r y . r r r , 1 . , r , e x c l . , r r g cn ' . r n r J , . u r d e v i r r . l l l i s r i c f c . r L r r c , b c r r v c c r r r ' r "t \ \ u . l t ( . r \ . l t l r , . r r r l t t l r , s p . a t l . c c i r , r , . l l \ r . t c c sof this i l terchinse rre yct to bc tLrl ly crplored.

A nunber of cssential probleuls rc1r 1n tobc solvcd beforc the clevclopincnts of thcKLrsanx pcrio.l cen bc hrlly dcfincd. Thc r.nostnot:rble o[ thesc is chronologv, for t]re virtr-raileck ot xqrcclttcDt conccr.trirrq t]rc clate of thccrr l irun.lccl by I{rniska alloi,-s only rcl:,t ivestvlistic sequcnces to bc cstlblishcd_ Evcn a

R o v a r

An lnportrlnr aspect of Kusana art is the crrr_phlsis on thc crnpcror himsclf as :r cLiviuepersorllgc. This is visibie in a number of colr_tcrts, including the coinagc of tjre l{usan:rnrlcrs, rvhich is basccl on Ncar Eastern ancl(Jreck n'pcs, in epithcts in Kusane tnscr.rpuons!encl in inrportant surviving sirrincs froru rvhicha cllt of thc clivine' enrperor mav be infirrecl,silch rs thosc;rt Mat rlci ir Mrthur, aucl at SurkhKot.l in Aflhalistan. This r.oyrl rpothcosis,rvell dcvcloped br- drc period o1-Kusanr l lorcs-ccnce, nlrlst h:rve h.icl its sourcc in Irenien arrclothcr r,cstc r Asian cLrlrurcs, incluclirrg rhose ofthc Hellcnizcd1'copics. t lLc l lourarrs, ancl prrtic_nlerly tlre Pertlirns. Thc Inclic tentt, loaptira(Son of ()od), l-as given a ncr.v mcaning by the

relativc clrronoiogy is oftcn dillicult to recon_strLlct. cspecially in thc northrvcstern regions oft h . , r r r o i r , r r r r L r c K r r . r n . r - p , r r u d r e r r r : r i n , , . v . r , .sub;cct to n-ruy of,thc same clestructivc forcesas the art of thc Saka ancl parthian periocls,md so have yicldcd l itt le rcliablc archaeologic:rl, 1 , t . , . t l , r r r ' . t l r , . r r r d 1 o f K r r w r - p , r i o d . . r , l p i 1 r r q, l n r 1 . r , ' ) t [ c ' 1 . t a \ l J l p t - s c l ] t \ t r t . r t r ) . t r , r | l , , . v c r . c , lqucstions, including whether or not thcre is aclisrinct change in ert clue to the iccessiorl ofthe I{usanas or lvhcther thc Kus-uas mcrclyc . r r r . d 'u r \ . r r . l . pc r l , . rp , . , r , r . , . . .1 " r . ted u .ce ., t 1 v p l ' p 1 r r , n r : . , f r l r e r . . ( . r - P . r r r l , i . . r r p c r r n o .

Kus-nir art a11d pitro[age 1]orrrished forapproxirnatcly nvo ccnrurics, fbr l{aniska l,sslrcccssors, Vasiska, I{uviska, end Vasudcva I,r r . r , r r ' . r i l c . l L U . l f r o l o . . o n . e K r r . i n . , t , . r r i r o r i e ,ancl continued to sorDc extctlt thc policies ofthcir prcdccessors. I-Iorvevcr, the northlvestcorridor, rhich l.racl allorved the Kusanas andearlic'r cl:rirlants into thc rcgion, also aclmittedc l t . r l c r r : c - s r o l ( r r - . r r . r . . , . r r i , o r , r 1 . r . r . l r r . l i r g r l , e5 s . r r . j . r r . . C / r r ' n j r c . . , , r r . l K i , , . r r . , K r r . t n . . . r r , da periocl of tnrbulcncc in thc northlvest cnsr.rcd.In Indie propcr, :r strong new dvnxsty, tlmt ofthc Guptas,-was cstablishecl by 3.2o, ushering ina. ncr,"-crr oflndic unity ancl culturel end poli i ic:rll lorcscr'nce.

S n n r l r s

KLisana kings, rvho nscd it to rcftr to thenr_sclvcs. rethcr th:rn clivine agents rvith no neces_sary clrthlv existencc. "fhis pxttem, \\,lilc1 ' . , J t . ' p , . n e ' c r . ' . f l . r r . , r , r ' ) d i . y , l , , r c . r I , r l . , r e rt r r ' t . k I r 3 . . r r . r y L r c . r . o r r ' , c f . , r n o r o n . o fclivinc kineship treccablc in aocrent llrdiir fronthe Cuptl pcriod onrvarcls.

Thc slrrinc at the villesc of Mat, sorlc fourtcenkilonlct.rs north llrorl MxthLua on the clstb:rnk of rhc Y:irmrna Rivcr, providcs ilnporrantrniornrlt iorr rcgarding the l(rlsan:l cult of divinekingship. Locelly knorvn as Tokrr Trld, bascdon a variation of one of thc nanrcs for thcI{nsanes (Tokhari), the slrrinc rvas probably accrcnrollial site, rlthcr than ouc of daily use, assugqcsrcd by its distancc fion drc nairr city.

I :r recon-t a:jons ofEr:':j wererE-:: folcesI _:.riods,L:.=:logicali ---:ipturel.t-,,.rvered

:s ion ofx -er.lyE:: Pace,pc:-od.E:l forir::<a I'sli:::r'a I,t=!orlesr-:ies ofr-hvest

F;- andr-rittedr:- E theL-. andI :-5u€d.g --:et ofle-.rlg inlr ':- it ical

NORTHTRN REGIONS UNDER THE KU$A}TAS I2Z

o 1 0 A n 6

L , ' , , , r Y r o 0

,9 ? 19 t,s zp zF sg

I

4

8.r. Plan -of Kutarla shrine. showing f indspors ofsratues of . .Vima.,

l l l l : l*o,^c deiry (2): KeDj(ka (. :) : sLanding prjnce (4): an in_

sc pron preJurrrcd ro be from porrraic of Huviska (5): aud rarueo_t standrng temrle (6). M;1. near Marhure, Urrar praderh, l dja.Kusdrta period. Possibly begun during reign of Vima.

) _-rem-

t ::ces-

I -'hile

f . ,a te rk= of

t =om

Poor documentation and less than perGct archae_ological practices have led to the l-os ofvaluabledata regarding the original structure and itscontents. Therefore, it is not known whether apre-Kugal.ra phase existed at the site or whattype of modifications the shrine might haveundergone during successive periods. ihe largerectangular structure was built on a plinth aridwas orienred to rhe east (Fig. 8. r). Ar rhe westernend. and shghtly toward the northem wall,there was a sanctumlike structure consistins oftwo concenrric. rounded walls sorroundeJ bya number of small cells. The affirities to alreadvpopular architectural forms of ancient Indij-particuiarly aitya halls, can hardJy be ignored-However. it is unclear whether rhi association isstrictly formal or indicates similarities rn meanng,

.Only. one sratue was apparenrly crndisturbeiwhen the shrine was destroyed, perhaps at theclose of rhe Kusana period. io.tunrt.ly, rhis on.

was probably rhe main object in the shrine asrs.derermined by irs placemenr near the centerot the clrcular structure and along rhe longiru_dinal axis of the shrine, as well a;ts l".ge icale(Fig. 8..2, no r on rhe plan). The rn\cnprron onrrus starue his.been tenratively read as givingthe dare o[_rhe year six of r]e Kanjsi<a erl(ca. rz6) and the identification of the figureponrayed as Vemaraksumasya (who was piob_ably Vima Kadphises). and accords h;m rhe rirlem.d ha,raj o tAj Aridj o de u aput ro K u lit7apult lrlo sol,i. 'Crear

King, King of Kings. So" oi 'Coa,the Kusena Scion, rhe Sehi."t As rhe cenrralobject of devotion, it is fining that this re-pres€nratlon sho\Ms a seated figure, while theother major statues found in the shrine depictstanding persons. Nearly every element of thecostume, posture, and throne must be identifieda; beilS

,of foreign rather rhan Indic rype, al_

rhough rhe workmanship and sculprurai sryle

Z1{-io^fl- ( ;),. \T '[..tt-'jr'

1?6 P.ERIOD oI TI IE IAI iLY DYNASI]ES

8.2. Vclnrr . rksrurr : rs ' , . : r (ViDr I { rdphiscs?). Fro, , r M.tshr i lc , M:t lLrra rcs ioD, Utt l r Pr . ldcsh, I rd i i r . Kusanapcr ior l . Possib l r .v . r r 6 of Kiu) i !L. r cr l (ca. ,1.r ) . r26).I t .ddish srndstor lc . H: :ot cn) . Mrrhuf . \ . {uscLrr l ,M.r thun.

bcspcek en In,:l ic crrftsrnanship. hdic fiarurcsinclLrclc thc trcallrent of thc body forrrs in ascncr.Llizcd olxnncr. rhc fir l lncss of the bodylornrs, enrl tjrc usc of linear cl:tril ro inclicatethree-cliurcnsional clcnrents, such as thc lbldsor1 thc boots. Local producrion is furthcr indicatcd by thc charxctcristic Sikri sanclstoncuscd in thc Mathuri r,vorlishops. Thc figurc isrlrcssccl in the Scythian rathcr tharl llldic n1xntrcr.,wirh high boots and a ruticl ikc sarlcrlt. Thcscatcd pose rvit lr lcgs penclclt (pralattth,ryadawra)coDtr:rsts with typical Ildic poscs irr rvhich thr:lcss nrislrt be foldccl Lrp in a vxriery of lnxnnersancl i lstcacl is probably x\soci.tcd rvit]r l,csternrnoclcls.

' l hc thronc accommodatr:s thc pcndenr

l c q 1 ' o . r . r r r r r . l i . . s . r i r r r . l ' r ! c l l , , t \ , , , t . r r r , r ' lIndic typc. lts l ion supports m:rr bc ,o)al syDl-bols, thouglr rvhcthcr thcir usc nrxv be traccdto carlicr trlcl it ions silc]r as Mirurtf, art or tvcrcduc to e nclv infirsion is unkrlown. Thc lrcurcis conceived in r lrontal end stiff rrrlnncr,crcati[g en in1posiDg ci]cct on thc vtc$'cr ln

S.l. ] i : rr iskr. Fr(), ,r i \1.r shr;u. t \ ,1;rrhrr r rcqi. , , , Urtrrl ' jmdcsh, Irrrt i :r . I iLrsrrr:r pcriod. l tciqu r ' f Kruiskr orhrcr. Cr. sccond corrru,r. i l .ddi-(h sandsronc. Ll: r7o.lrr. Mrrhur.] Muscunr, \4xrhrr.a.

lccping u' i th t l ic rcgal status ol ' thc personegcclcpictccl.

Thc porrrait \rarrrc of Kxniski l ( i :- ig. S.3) iselso idcnti f tcd bv i ts inscriprion. r,hich qivcsthis Krlsanir rulcr thc t i t lcs tnahAfi jd rAjaif i . i ifunyuiro Kaxisko,t (ircet I{inq. thc ICnc ofKirrqs, thc SorL of C;otl , Keniska. l t rvas found atlocetiorr unmbcr t lrrcc on thc cl iaqrlm. but t j r isrvas nor l ts original posit ion in dtc Mat slLrinc.Althoush r ir is i i f i ' -size statuc is onlv sl ightlvshortcr tlrln that thouqht to rcpr-escnt VitDa,ir is on l uuch smallcr scale srncc the f igurc isrn a stendi g rethcr th: i [ scatcd posc. Kaniskai . c t ' . . r . ' . \ c ) r l r ' r , r ' . , b l c r r r . , n , u i ' 1 , b . , . , r .enc] a sri l f tul ic t ]ret crcetcs : ln xrlqLl ler, l ]1r lost. . o r r r . r " c l l , , r . l l r , r l , . 1 . , , t r l , 9 . r r . , r r t i .not dctcnDir lcd Lv thc iorns of th,: boclv] r r r , r . ' t r L , . t r * . . r r . I n . t . v c r , o * n , , 1 , , : .contrasti l rg strongly to thc cl iaph:rnous anclcl incuq st) lcs thrt pcrvaci.- Inrl ic arr. Most ofthe surlacc of rbe sculpturc is plain end smooth,ehhough sorne surfece dctei l is prescnt, such as

l . : - : .; : , . '

)il

t]]lt{

l

t

:,.

,

::rd

::+

8.4. Head. From Mathura, ljttar Pradesh,India. Ku;a4aperiod. Ca. second century. Reddish sandstone. H: 43.2crn. National Museum, Nevr Delhi.

incised drapery lines or the beadlike hem of thetunic. A strict fiontality pervades the statue; itseems to be almost totally two-dimensional inconception and is awkward when seen ftom athree-quarter or profile view, suggesting thatthe work would have been placed against awall. The splayed feet further contribute to theflat efect of the image. Kanigka's militaryprowess is clearly implied by his weapon at-tributes, a mace resting on the grouad balancedby his right hand, and a sword firmly graspedin the left. As {itting symbols of a Kuqaga ruler,they suggest his power and his ability to enforcehis control. Although religious or other abstractsymbolism has been inferred from these items,it is yet to be determined if the presence of theweapons indicates more than a normal part ofthe formal dress required for state portraits. Aninteresting feature of the mace is the depictionof the Indic mabarc carved near the bottom.

Both the "Vima" and Kani5ka statues wereapparently willfirlly damaged at some time and

NORTHERN REGIONS UNDER THE KUqANAS 129

the original heads are now lost. However, ahead of a man found at Mathura is similar todamaged examples from Mag and demonstratesa possible head type for the figures (Fig. s.a).The face alone is not remarkably different fromthose to be seen on typical Jain and Buddhistsculptures of the period from Mathura, as maybe noted in the large eyes, slightly smilingmouth, projecting eyebrows, and smooth,rounded contours of the face. The distinctivefeature is the hat, a pointed variety associatedwirh the Scythians and not native ro ancientkrdia. The strings of beads or pearls, whichdecorate the hat, and which also appear on thehem of Kanigka's garment, probably reflectactual costume styles of the period. The pearlmotif eventually takes on symbolic significancein the Indic and Irlrler Asian context, where itoccurs commonly in architectural designs andas oart of halos and other elements in later art.

ih. Mat rhtitr" probably underwent at leasttwo periods of construction, although it isunclear which elements of the shrine belons towhich phase. One period of consrrucrioi ishinted ai in the inscripdon on the "Vima" statue,which reveals that the shrine was built by oneBakanapati, an individual who is otherwiseunknown. The inscription does not indicatewhether the monument was begun during thereign of Vima, or whether the work wasstarted later, for example, during the reign ofVima's son and successor, Kaniska. A refur-bishing of the shrine during the lifetime ofHuvigka, the son of Kani;ka and grandson ofVima, was related in an inscription on a nowdestroyed statue of Huvipka that was also foundat Met (no. 5 on the plan).a Therefore, it islikely that much of the shrine was built withina period of two generations, or less. Becausethe nature and puroose of the shrine is un-known, it is unceriain whether new statueswere continually added during the reigns ofnew rulers, or whether the monument took anunchanging form after a certain tjnre.

In spite of the apparent importance of por-traits and the cult of the god-king in Kule1raart, the vast majority of architectural andartistic remains from the period were createdin the service of the Buddhist relieion. As in

lJo PTRIOD OF THI XARLY DYNASTTTS

the case of royal portraiture, certain similaritiesbetween the art of Mathure, and other Indiansites, and drat of the Bactro-Gandhara regionin the northwest may be cited, However, tleseare often similarities of subject mater ratlerthan style. It is useful, th.refor., to study eachartistic sphere in its own context as has beendone traditionally. It should be noted that aside

Although SakyamurLi Buddha never visitedthe northwestem Indic regions, the Buddhistreligion was introduced into the area as earlyas rhe reign of A(oka. By the Kusana perioj.rhe region had many llourishing .enters ofBuddhism. The rich cultural mixture of thearea may have greatly stimulated developmentswithin rhe religion and arr. though as in thecase of rhe Saka-Parthian period. it is dif l lcultto assess the impact of non-Indic infuences.

In spite of the fact that thousands of rnonksand numerous monastic establishnents werespread throughout this region during theKugaga period, little remains architecturally totell of this former prominence. The stipa andvihara at Gvldara, Afghanistan, *"r" p"rt of

"small, isolated, but typical monastert of ap-proximately the second century a.o. Largeiyas a result of its isolation, the srnpa has surviveirelatively intact, although the st,,cco th"t on.eadorned its surface has been lost (Fig. s.5). Thus,it provides a splendid cxanrple of what musrhave been a fairly typicol

"rrucrrrre as well as

Kula4a masonry at its best. The sructure rsoriented to the east, as indicated by a stairwayon that side, and consists of a square base anjrotnd stupa above. Pilasters, niches, and arch-ways comprise the main surface decoration ofthe monument; in the center of the south,west, and norrh sides of the plinth there areniches_ framed by pilasrers and iappcd by ogee-shaped arches (Fjg. 8.6). Socket holcs in rhcniches, and in blind arcades on the plinth, wouldhave been used for wooden brackets to supportstucco sculptures. Although none has survived,it is probable that the images would have beenof considerable size, judging frorn the sizes of

T H E B A C T R o - G a N D H I R A R E G T o N : A n c n r r t c r u n r

lrom any srylistic or iconographic disrinctionsbetween rhc rwo traditions. sculptures of eachschool are clearly identifiable in general by thestone out of which they are carved. Mathurasculptures are characterized by their reddishpink, often mottled, sandstone, and the north-western_stone pieces are notable for their greyishor bluish schisr.

the niches. The uppermost level of the stapaas it is preserved today has a design of altematingogee and truncated triangle arches. The pilasterior the st pa suggest an ultimate source in theclassicistic Corinthian capital, and with the useof the Indic ogee arch, an obvious amalgam hasbeen achieved. However, such a product isundoubtedly generations removed from a directwesteln source.

The diaper-nasonry technique used to con-struct the stnpa was brought into the region bythe Parthians. It consists of flat slabs of sedi-mentary rock piled in even, horizontal rows,with such elements as the pilasters and theircapitals protruding just slightly from the mainsurface of the structure. Each element has beencut to the appropriate size and has been carefullyset in position, giving the impression of a hugemosaic. The larger blocks of irregular shapegive support and stability to the wall. Theinterior of the structure was rubble fill, andthus, the masonry seryed primarily as a facing.

Thc sire o[ Takhr-i-Balit in pakisran, once aflourishing center in Gandhara proper, revealedextensive monastic remains during archaeologicalexcavation, including several coutyards withcells, stupas, and monastic dwelling units (Fig.8.7). Numerous sculptures have also been foundat the site, but most were removed withoutproper documentation. Situated on the spur ofa hill, the monastic complex, built on a series oflevels, commands a drarnatic view of the valleybelow. The main area consists of a sfilpd covrt(courtyard A on the plan), which is comectedby a considerable flight of stairs to a lowercourt (courtyard B) and is opposrte a uihAra(courtyard C). Courtyards A and B are com-

S.j. Sir/p,rdara, Afgriod. Ca.

S.6. De-r i

Ca. secon:

NORTHERN RIGIONS UNDIR THT KUSANAS I ' I

: i t Ic !10ns

ri cachby tire

l, L.rlhlrrarcddishrorth-

:rcyish

. nupd::1:ltilrg

-_ rirstersr rn thc

tc Llse

i . : r1 hxs

:.rct is. . l i r cc t

con-,n byscot-

drerrulxin'occn

:tu1ly

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The. :ln cl

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Fig'L rnd

: rou t: t o f

: -'s ofL lcy

- r l t r t

-rcr-1',re r

, l r1-

8.1. St, lpr, from rrortheest. Gul-d:rr:r, Alghanistal. Kuian,r pc-riod. Ce. secolld centlrrv.

E.6. Dctr i l . Jr tpa c\rcr ior . GLr l -derr , Afeh:ur i r t i l l1 . Kusinr per iod.Ce. second ccr turr ' .

Fll I '1uLLrLrI:trIFtr

I t r rE I -

m::l: j ElF = t t -

: r--l -ll ll I r-rI l!:l- t:l !-r [Jlr EiEloo -

| | r- --rLl!lll!!l

m t__JlLlE[Jl

132 PERIOD OF THE EARLY DYNASTIES

pletely surrormded by niches in which imageswere placed. However, since virtually none ofthe sculptures was found in situ, the origilital

i f - - - - t

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i i - ,a -'--- ,-'. -.i-

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Addi l iona l Minor S l ruc lu res

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iconographic program is lost. The arrangement

of the elements of the monastic complex isdetermined to some extent by the topography

A d d i t i o . a l M n o r S l r ! c l ! r e s

trtrtr

r=rl f l

i - i ii i . l

i - i l_ - - - - i

r li !-- l

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oa

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- i c iS r cth :-dqrlrra @ c

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8.r. PIan of rnonastery. Takht-i-Bahi, Pakistall. Kusarla pc od.

of the mountain, but in any case, is distinct fromthe arrangements to be found in contemporaryschools of Indic monastic architecture, such asthose in Andhra Pradesh (Fig. 9.27).

Although the rolrail stupa iD the stupa courtat Takht-i-Bahi is destroyed except for its base,it is possible to infer something of its original ap-pearance by studying smailer votive stilas thathave been found in the Bactro-Gandhera region,such as a stone example from an unknown site(Fig. s.t). It consists ola square base upon whichrests a round stupa risirtg in several stages. Theharmika has five stages, each slightly largerthan the one below, and the whole is topped bya series of chattras, apparently originally sevenin number. In later Buddhist iconography, thelevels of the hdrmika ar'd chattra rcfer to thevarious stages. called bhunis, of rhe practitioneron his path to enlightenment, though whethersuch meaning is implicit at this date is unlnown.The exterior o{ the stupa is adorned withsculptural representations, inclu&ng a series ofeight scenes from the life of Sakyamuni on thebase, a row of seated Buddhas on the first levelof the stupa, and cherublike figures and plantforms above. These are surmounted by ageometdc friezejust below the rlse of the stipadome, which is decorated to resemble a lotusfower. The so-called false dormer on the frontof the stipa contains three scenes arrangedvertically, two depictions ofa Buddha (probablySakyamuni) with attendants and, at the top, arepresentation of the Buddhai begging bowl.The overall shape of the stira is much more

NORTHERN REGIONS UNDER THX KUIANAS 1"

8.8. Votive rttpa. From Bacrro-Gandhara rcgion, paki-slan. Ku9,na period. Schist. H: ca. r4o cm. IndianMuseum, Calculta.

elongated and vertical than earlier examplesin ancient India, such as the monumen$ arSaici, and this seems to be characteristic of theregion and period.

T H E B A c T R o - G A N D H . A R A R E G I o N : S C U L P T U R x

Although most sculptures from the Bactro-Gandhara and related regions share certain stylis-tic and iconographic features, a tremendousvariety may be seen in these works. Not only dochronological factors and workshop traditionsaccourt for these variations, but also, the handof thc individual anist musr have been resoonsi-ble For differences in sculptural Fornr. OnJy aGw sculptures from these regions bear inscribeddates, and those that do are not easily inter-preted. The archaeological contexts for works

of art have often been destroyed. further com-pounding the problem of delineating thechronological developments in the art. Manyworks have been removed fron.r their orieinalsites without proper recording oI Lheir f ind.pors,and thus it is even difiicult to define what musthave been regional schools witlfn the broadcontext of the region. It is likely that each ofthe major kingdoms, inclu&ng Bactria, Kapiia,and Gandhard along with others like Swet, haddistinct and recognizable schools of art, within

1J, I I ' IRIOD OI THE [ARLY DYNASI IES

r,r4rich ur:r y l-nvc bccn metry subschools, though

th"r", rtr"1: ncvcr bc fulll' knorvu lrr geuerel,

sculptr.lrcs aIc chirecterizcd by naturelisnr tt l

bo.\ fnrn,,. drepcry, encl pictorial sca1c, revc:rl-

ing e clebt to Hcllc'nistic, lLour:rrr, aud otl-rcr

wcsterll ilrt 1l1()ales.'fhongh [crv nlct:l] works sllrvivc frour thc

Kusarnir petiod- l l lctrl l l lust luvc bccll e1I l l lrPor-

,"rri , ' tt"di.,u, of ertistic ploclrtction rs suqgcstcd

bl thc col,ious coinegc of thc Ku\an;r klngs'

ou. l",ttnu, bLtt highl)' colrtrovcrsi:rl r l lctxl

piccc fi-oru thc Kus-Di perio.l is the so-celled'K"r.risk^

reliq,.rrry (Fig.8.9) This small nrctel

o h ' . . r r ' . ' , o , l ' | 1 ' , ' , l r ' ' L c r l r r ' t o { " r ' t ' r

i r f , e n , ' \ . l c l r o ) . . 1 " K , r ' i k , . r , r i o r r S l r ' - r l -

i i-ki-l)hcri, xt xtlcicl1t I{eniskrptrrr, Kaniska's-capit:ri,

iust otrtsirlc of Ino(lcrn 1]csl-r'\\'xr" 'fhc

v,4rn, .uitl, it, ,1.""t tolvel lnd huge size (urcesttr-

ir,l ."".1-.. one h.,rr..lrc.l nletcls itl (iilllucter)'

,rrirt 1tnu. bectr a significetrt echievctrent oF

h r . . r r . r r r r . I r i r , . r . I _ ( r l l l \ \ " ' ' l l r r n ' t L l l l t l l i c r

alicr its creetion, ls indicatcd in eccoutrts trs l l te

xs aboLlt A.D. rooo. Llsiian-tslug, thc (ihincsc

travelcr l,ho visitccl thc site itr thc scvcnth

ceirtulv, dcscribecl rhc -rftiln ncl rcllteci I ner-

retivc couccrtring horv it had conc to bc b''tilt i

Thc sizc end inPortxllcc of the srrucLtlr-e sng-

scst tlmt it ur',ri lr,riLt by Kaniska himsclf, a

inqg"rtiott stlfPort.d by thc ner.uc of Krniska

ir.r,.- i ib"d nn tLc..l iquerv oncc contriuc'l l ' i thin

ald the frntling o1 rlnc of his cottrs rvith thc

rcliquxr\'.6 Hot'cvct. thc rcletivc crudcttcss

of the '

rcliquarv, along with dre tlct drrt

thc kinclv tlgtirc dcpictcci otr it clocs trot

,"r.-m1rl.:- ' ."p-t"nt:rt ion! of Krnisle on his

coinegc, heve lcc'l to tLe splcttLatiotr th:lt x! lc'st

th" r..:1iqu"r1' bclougccl to thc rr: iqn ' l f cither

l{aniske Il .or

Krtrislr l l lr- l{ccclir (lt-tri lccl

stu, l ics of rhe r. ' l iqLLerv : lnd t l lc l l lol lLl [ lcr1ls

at Sh:h-1i-Li-phcri , holvcvcr' , P!-cJcJlt -str-orlqlYcotrvitrciuq lrgurllallts thxr thcsc rcnlxlns \v('rc

proclncts of the rcitn of Kenisl 'a ( l) B

On thc 1i.1 of t l i . vcsscl ere t lrrcc f iqu.cs rtr

Ll-Litlcutificd BLtdclha sc;rtc.l o11 11 ProtrtlLlilrg

lcrtu. llo.t't,, ln.1 Itrclrr 'rncl llrrrhnri 'rs his

ettcl . leuts. l loth ludre erd Brelrtua cl isphy

ai ial i t tudra rvidr thcir luntls l t lche rvcars his

, l i . t i lct ivc crol ' t l lud t l l l l lmir is drcssecl iu

escctic 's gerb t i t l i hir heir l r i :rnqcd 111 x, l4ta-

s. t . "Kxnisktr" rc lLqLur! . FroDlrr t ld : r ! Shah-Ji -k;Dher l

( rn. icr ! K ' rn iskrprr t r ) , ncrr Pcshar i ' r r , P: tk ist : rn KLrg' f l

pcr iod. Jtc lgn of K:r t r iskr I or l r rer . Cr ' sccond centurr"

l lc t i l . I I : r9 cr l . Peshng:u i \ luscLlr r r , l 'cshr\Lrr '

nn*uta. All three {igurcs irc uiurbuscd, ilthouqh

thc Burldha's halo is much largcr than thc

otlrers. i l ld bas pctel-form rays cnlnating froln

thc ccnter. Thc drapcrv rvorn l:y r11 tlrrce

hgulcs is hcilvi ly l inccl rvith ridges to rcPrcscnt

,li f,,1,.1, of the cloth in i malncr typical of

I(usane-pcrio,.l lvorks fionr thc Blctro-Clxn-

,lhrr:r rcsion. On thc bod,v of t lte cT skct, "

e^.1"n.1 ."t. i.d by erotclikc uirlyadharas beats

i,, 'ur", of thr.c st'ateLl Ruddhas onc of them

is-ll,rnkccl bv clcpictions of Inclrr rncl Bral.rn.ia

in posturcs of r.Lrrtior.r nc:rrly idcntical to the

fi l:rLrcs :rtop the vcssel, although tl ic positions

oi' , l t" t.o'n qcrds ere rcvcrsccl opposite tlu

BLr.l.1lt" [sur-; is a rcpr-escntatiotr ol a stantling

K.'sart" piinc", pcrlilps l{er.riska, rvho elso