CHAPTER 1

The Art and Science of Educational Management: Genesis and Development in the Indian Perspective

Education in general, and higher education in particular, is an activity

in which the interests of the individuals and of the society are intimately

intertwined. It is a unique investment involving the present and the future.

Hence, naturally the concern of the educationist is to build a dynamic

society through a well recognised educational process. This demands an

understanding of the nature and direction of change per se. Future involves

uncertainty and educational systems in future will have to operate within an

increasingly uncertain and even more complex environment than at present.'

But future offers endless opportunities and possibilities, though agreement

about the shape of things to come is rarely achieved. All predilections apart,

its component parts and their inter-relations will be bewilderingly numerous.

The changing environment will require an educational system which is able

to re-organise itself into varied "states" so as to constantly adjust to changing

needs.' An innovative system, capable of adjusting to, and in fact, creating a

variety of "states," must have the ability to process a growing volume of

information with greater speed, efficiency and effectiveness. It is in this

context of education that the novel concept of Educational Management

acquires an increasingly greater significance and a much greater relevance.

Educational Management is considered a comparatively new

discipline. It has come from an old discipline-Educational Administration.

When schools were established, the need for their administration arose.

There must be someone to organise educational activity and to ensure that

educational goals are realised. By and by the state recognised the

importance of education of the citizen to preserve itself and it assumed

partial, if not total, responsibility and control of educational institutions. Laws

were passed and rules and regulations got formulated. As education moved

closer to politics, a well-organised hierarchy of positions, like the minister,

secretary, director, inspector and principal was also established. The higher

positions were concerned with policy-making and activity-prescribing and the

latter with policy executing and programme implementing. Thus the

institution of educational administration was established.

Gradually there developed a strong belief that educational

administration was not different from general administration and that the

elements of the latter could very well be applied to the former. The

educational administrative procedure was based upon the practices in

business and industry. In industry the manager is solely responsible for

carrying out the policies of the board of directors. In education, the principal

was made responsible to the Education Department for all the activities in his

institution. Under this system, there was no opportunity for participation in

the administrative process and there was no question of sharing

responsibility. With the expansion of education, the inadequacies of such

educational administration became apparent. With the advancements in

educational theory and professional approach to education, there arose the

need for reorientation of educational administration with its own precise

techniques and procedures, which are technical and scientific in nature.

There is need for experimentation and research to arrive at correct findings

and conclusions instead of uncritical acceptance of opinions. There is also

the need for realising the limitations of such objective data and the

conclusions drawn therefrom to yield a clearer and better picture and

understanding of administrative problem^.^ All these resulted in the birth of a

new discipline, Educational Management, which is more scientific and

precise than Educational Administration. Since Educational Management is

the combination of two concepts education and management, this study

begins by defining the two concepts.

Education

The term 'Education' is derived from two Latin roots viz. "En meaning

"out of" and "duco" meaning "I l e a d or "draw out." Thus, education is a

process of drawing out the best in a man or a child.4

Gandhiji said "Education is the manifestation of perfection which is

already in a man or drawing out the best in a child."

The Webster's Dictionay clarifies-"Education is the action or process

of educating or of being educated at various stages where knowledge and

development result from an educational process."

The Dictionay of Education defines education "as the successful

learning of knowledge, skills and attitudes, where what is earned is

worthwhile to a learner and usually where it is learned in such a way that the

learner can express his own individuality through what he learns and can

subsequently apply it, adopt it flexibly, to situations and problems other than

those he considered learning it."

The Delors Commission of the UNESCO defines Education as "one of

the principal means available to foster a deeper and a more harmonious

form of human development and thereby to reduce poverty, exclusion.

ignorance, oppression and fear.""

'Education is the process of bringing desirable change into the

behaviour of human beings. It is also the process of acquiring knowledge and

habits through instruction or study. When learning is progressive towards

goals that have been established in accordance with a philosophy which has

been defined, and is understood by the learner, it is called E d ~ c a t i o n . ' ~

Management

'Management' is a comparatively new concept and is used in place of

'Administration'. This concept, which has been commonly used in business

organisation and industv is now widely used in other fields including

education. In simple terms 'Management' means "to get the work done."

Every educational institution has certain objectives. The head of the

institution needs to organise people, make use of resources in a systematic

and orderly way to accomplish the pronounced objectives of the institution.

Thus the primary task of the head of the institution-the manager is to get the

work done or to get the objectives accomplished in a pre-planned way.

This is what the concept of Management implies.

One of the most important human activities is managing. Ever since

people began forming groups to accomplish goals that they could not

achieve individually, managing has been essential to ensure the coordination

of individual efforts. As society began to rely more on group effort, and

organized groups became large, the task of managers rose in importance.

Management is the process of designing and maintaining an

environment in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently

accomplish selected aims.'

Management is an act of judicious use of means to accomplish

an end.'

Management is a process, a universal process by which an

organisation realises its objectives in a planned way?

In the words of Morel1 (1969), Management is that activity in an

organization, which consists in deciding upon the ends (goals) of an

organisation and the means by which the goals are to be effectively reached.''

Terry (1971) defines Management as a distinct process of planning,

organising, actualising, controlling, determining and accomplishing stated

objectives by the use of human beings and other resources."

The American Management Association defines Management in the

following words. 'Management is guiding human and physical resources into

dynamic organisation units which attain their objectives to the satisfaction of

those served and with a high degree of morale and sense of attainment on

the part of those rendering services."'

Educational Management

'Education' and 'Management' are large and complex concepts for

which many definitions are available in the international literature. But no

single definition in either field commands the acceptance of all. They provide

a basis for thinking about the management of a college as an organisation

and the education of young people which colleges are intended to provide.

Educational Management is the process of learning values, attitudes,

information and skills to achieve desired relations between resources

and objectives.13

Educational Management is the process of relating resources to

objectives required in organisations, which explicitly exist to provide

education.14

The Management in Education means deciding the goals of an

educational institution and the activities to be conducted to achieve

these goals.''

'Educational Management' denotes all those activities involved in

running educational programmes. The field of management does not include

planning activities (which take place before) or actual education and

instruction activities (which belong to the field of pedagogy) but refers to

operations process p ~ s s i b l e . ' ~

Tony Bush and John Burnham in their attempt to define Educational

Management says about three components in the process-nomenclature,

pedigree and content. 'The fact that each of these is problematic does not in

any way diminish the academic management as an academic subject or

body of knowledge. . . . A potentially powerful synthesis of disciplines

applied to a specific context can also be regarded as parasitism, expediency

and pragmatism. . . . Educational management is concerned with the

internal operation of educational institutions. It is also concerned with

execution, planning, organizing and deploying. . . . The pedigree of

Educational Management might thus be seen as a continuing tension

between the context (political, economic and social) in which management

strategies and behaviours which are adopted in response to that context

and the commentary upon the arguments used to justify those strategies

and behaviours.'"

Politics

The term politics is derived from the Greek words 'polis,' meaning

the city. 'Politics,' therefore meant to an ancient Greek, the science of the

city-state or pertaining to the state and the government. Thus, in ancient

Greece, the science, which dealt with the state and government or with the

political activities of the community, was called 'p~lit ics."~ Today politics

refers to the art of government, the art of directing or guiding the policy of

the government towards a particular goal. In recent times, politics as the

theory of the state or of the government is almost fading away. Instead, the

concept of power has become central to the study of politics. Politics in this

study is viewed as a tool of power.

The Need for Management in Education

The educational system all over the world is undergoing tremendous

changes in structure, organisation, contents and objectives. This has resulted

in very recent years, in the development of a distinct branch of study known

as Educational Management. This concept of Management is now widely

used in place of Administration. With present day complexity involved in and

ever widening peripheral ramification of the educational system, in the

process of other system integration, the educational administration needs the

use of relevant management theories and techniques to succeed in the line.

In this fast growing hi-tech, digital world, if the educational system is to

become meaningful and challenging, it needs professionally trained and

experienced managerial personnel to cope with the changing context of

educational system and its adminiskation. The Kothari Commission (1964-66)

has advocated that, "Education is one instrument and one instrument only to

bring change in the society and it is through managing the education process

in general. The realisation of the country's aspirations involves changes in

the knowledge skills, interests and the values of the people as a whole

through the sound system of education. This is possible only through

Educational Management."1g

Educational institutions provide valued services to their students and

aim to meet customer needs and expectations. Responsible institutions

always care for customer satisfaction. There are various techniques to apprise

service quality. Institutions that care about quality and produce quality, have

identified the critical processes to generate a high level of customer

sat isfa~tion.~~ This needs management tools. Hence, there is need for

management in education.

An institution is evaluated on the basis of its performance.

Performance in education occurs along three dimensions: (a) knowledge

(b) as a participating citizen to perform within the economy (c) able

participation in the cultural life of a society.21 Since an educational institution

is focussed on performance and results, it needs a clear definition of its

mission and it also needs a system to accomplish that. The mission will

remain as its guiding principle. The chief task of the management is to see

that all resources are used completely to achieve this mission. The resources

must be used in such a way that it provides for better management of the

educational institution.

Educational institutions have certain objectives to achieve.

Management is the organisational process of formulating objectives,

amassing resources and ensuring that the objectives are actually achieved.

It is a continuous and steady process in which members of an organisation

fulfill their tasks efficiently through coordination and utilization of resources.

Hence, Management has application in Education too.

To Peter Drucker, Professor of Social Science and Business

Administration, USA, 'Management is what the modern world is all about,

and management is the central activity of modem society.'22 The modem

world, characterised by sophisticated life styles, a high standard of living,

heavy industries, advance communication facilities and modern educational

systems, is absolutely impossible without proper, systematic, methodical and

sophisticated management. The much talked-about 'gap' between the USA

and Western Europe is not a gap in science and technology, but a gap in

management, as Robert Mc Namara, a leading economist has pointed out.

As a matter of fact, there are no "advanced" and "backward" economies;

there are only well-managed and poorly managed ones, there are n o "good"

and "bad" companies; only well managed and poorly managed onesz3 The

same premises can be applied to education too. The success of any

educational institution is that of proper and effective management. In short, it

is management, which makes all the difference.

Management as a theory and Practice

'Management' can be studied as a theory and as a process. 'As a

theory, Educational management includes the knowledge, the art and the

principles relating to the management of an educational institution. As a

process it includes human relations, managing material, physical and

financial resources, planning, organising, decision-making, executing,

directing and controlling people and other resources for accomplishing the

desired objective^.'^^

Management of education has two aspects - Internal Management

and External Management. Internal management covers classroom

transaction, library services, building and other physical and material

resources, human relations, financial transactions etc. External management

covers relations with the community, government and other agencies and

persons connected with the establishment and functioning of the institutions.

Management of education is an area where cooperative human

endeavour plays an integral part. In this system of human enterprise the

head of the institution is the manager. He requires the wholehearted

cooperation of the teachers, students, parents and the public for the effective

management of the institution. Though the manager is aided and assisted by

the advanced technologies like computers, it is the human element which lies

behind all effective managements. Educational management emphasises

democratisation in policy formu lation, decision making, implementing and

bringing improvements in the system. Though a manager, he is considered

as one among the staff.

Educational Administration

lndia is a democratic country. We have decided to follow democray

as a form of government, which means that we should have democray not

only in the political field but it should permeate in economics, industry,

social life and education. One of the functions of a modem state as accepted

by political theorists is the promotion of education to preserve and improve

the state.

Education is a powerful instrument of social change, so India has

accepted it as a social responsibility. This responsibility can be effective only

when there is control. If education is fully controlled by government, it is

likely to be dominated by economic, political and other pressure groups. In a

democratic country like lndia, there should be safeguards against state

domination and absolutism. In a democratic set up, the final control should

rest with the people, who are the real source of power. This applies to all

aspects of education including policies, procedures, organisation and

administration.

, , , , ,

324- . .

' , 11

Administration to organized

adivity. This application of rational thinking givei rise to the science of

administration and a search for basic principles. Administration is concerned

with values because it must encompass goals, purposes, and choices among

alternatives. In matters of control and governance educational administration

becomes intimately involved with politics as it applies to policy making and

policy implementation. Administration, as viewed here, exists in

organizations, and thus is concerned with people. The administrator, as a

person, brings to the administrative act a view of human nature and a set of

values and adion patterns that can be labelled as administrative style.

Concerned with the task of administering different stages and types of

education of the people, educational administration aims at enabling the

society to realise the desired goals of education, designed to suit the genius

of the people. Indian educational administration is a powerful governmental

instrument for administering education and improving instruction. Education

plays a vital role in the matter of socialisation and culturisation of all the

developing individuals in any part of the world. The social significance of

education is obvious from the fad that social good is nothing but an

outcome of the socially efficient individuals.

Education is as old as man. In early days, when there was n o

structured educational system, he reacted with his environment and acquired

experiences. Gradually, he converted them to some broad principles of

conduct and passed them on to the next generation. The result was the birth

of informal education and it was acquired through actual living with the

elders. Life was simple and so was education. Later men organised

themselves into smaller communities and then to larger ones to satisfy their

physical and social needs. When life became complex, jobs also became

complex and education growing into a complex activity had to be

institutionalised. Then it was entrusted to a separate institution, the school.

The establishment of schools caused the need for their administration. The

need for someone to organise educational activity and to ensure educational

quality was also felt. Laws were passed for this purpose and rules and

regulations were also formulated. In early times the administrator was

generally independent of the state and named his successor. But when the

State gained control of education the senior-most teacher was appointed as

the administrator. 'Early in the history of educational administration,

operations were largely on a personal and practical basis. Men were selected

not because of their technical training, but rather because of their success

with the public, teachers and students'.25

In the early stages educational administration was considered an

ordinary job requiring the teacher's qualifications plus something more. This

'something more' was equated with experience, personality, capacity to

enforce discipline and loyalty. Gradually, various positions were introduced

and the people in those positions began to give the lead in educational

activities. Thus came into vogue the institution of educational administration.

With the passing of time, there developed a strong belief that

educational administration was not different from general administration and

that the procedures of the latter could v e y well be applied to the forrner.

This style of administration is autocratic with imposition from above. There is

also no opportunity for participation in the administrative process and no

question of sharing responsibility with teachers, students and the public.

As education expanded with the rise in the number of educational

institutions, the limitations of the existing educational administration came to

the surface. It is now abundantly clear with the development of educational

theoy and professional literature that there is need for reorientation of

educational administration with its own precise techniques and procedures

which are technical and scientific in nature.26 With the growth of

Management as a distinct subject, administration became closer to

Management and consequently Management theories and functions came

applicable to administration.

Educational Administration Versus General Administration

'All administration is the same. When one looks at administration

from the standpoint of its purpose, its task, its situational milieu or its process,

one will find much that is common in the management of Business,

Government, Army, Education and other organ is at ion^.'^^ Every group

activity requires some sort of administration to organise and direct the

group's effort towards some previously decided goals. The common features

of all types of administration are that their scope extends to production of

goods and services of public utility, control of finances, recruitment, training

and placement of personnel, and coordination of all the forces and resources

in order to realise the goals. Educational administration includes most of the

general administrative functions such as appraisal of the organisational

purpose and co-ordination of all the forces; staffing, training, public relations,

community service, raising funds for institutions, maintenance of accounts

and a score of other things to achieve the

Despite these common features there are significant differences in the

administrative process.

1. The central purpose of industrial administration is t o produce and

distribute material goods to meet human needs. It is more profit

motive and less service motive. Whereas, educational administration

is a non-profit making enterprise. It is mainly welfare or sewice

oriented. It is a welfare enterprise.

. . 11. Unlike business administration, educational administration deals with

men. The former is more or less rigid, static and mechanical, while the

latter is dynamic and pragmatic. Education is a human process v e y

much influenced and controlled by various factors and disciplines

without being any one of them. It has to look after the whole span of

man's life from "cradle to grave," its main concern being man's

continuous growth and inner development. To other types of

administrations these are areas of least concern.

iii. Education is a powerful instrument of social change. National

development can be brought only through universal education. The

ve y survival of a democratic society is possible only through

education; as such education aims at cultural growth whereas,

business aims at material growth.

iv. The main concern of educational administration being people and

their welfare, the techniques of educational administration are mostly

persuasive while those in other kinds of administration are mostly

coercive, dictatorial and authoritative. Power, authority and control

are indispensable for all administration but in the case of education

these have to be exercised continuously in a thoroughly democratic

manner, whereas, in other types, the administrator can, and has to be,

authoritative quite frequently.29

v. Educational administration is different from other types of

administrations in staffing. The teaching staff of a college is more or less

equally qualified, sometimes more qualified than the administrator.

vi. Evaluation of results is an important part of all activity and it is the

function of administration to measure and evaluate the outcomes to

improve the activity. Education is also concerned with standards but

its efficiency does not lie in standardisation. The purpose of all

education at all levels varies from literacy to critical thinking,

intellectual leisure and facilitation of social mobility. Preparing and

standardising personality tests, interest and attitude inventories and

other psychological measuring tools is a complex and costly affair.

Apart from this, education is a long-term process and its results are not

available immediately and in a material form. But in business and

industry the end product is immediate. The results are objective,

material and outwardly clear.

vii. The educational administrator in a college has to perform two major

functions. Primarily, he is the principal of the college, and secondarily

he is the administrator of the college. The Principal has to be an

educational statesman too. He has to work in the present with eyes in

future. The future development of his institution must be his priority.

He is not only to implement the educational policies framed by the

powers that be, but is expected to suggest the changes in the policies.

A general administrator is bound to plan and operate a programme

designed to implement certain policies. He has to work within the

given steel framework, without much freedom. Whereas, a n

educational administrator has the freedom for innovation and to walk

through the off-beat tracks.

Educational administration, though of recent origin is an important

area of study to be developed by trial-and error, as well as experimentation

and research. It is fast developing into a profession in its own right, because

it requires a certain standard of competence, additional professional training,

significant service to society, long hours of work and intellectual study of a

high order.30

Nature of Educational Administration

Educational administration is the management of educational

institutions with a view to fostering teaching and learning. It is a practical

field of operations and also a field of study. As a discipline of study,

Educational Administration developed only in the present centu y. It

emerged first at the Teacher's Training College of Columbia University and

was followed shortly by the graduate programme of Stanford University,

University of Chicago and other institutions in the USA.31 Since the 1950s,

educational administration has become a field of study in its own right. It is

an applied field which draws out its strategies, methods and techniques from

sociology, psychology, political science and other behavioural sciences.

With the beginning of 1970s a new era has emerged in the field of

educational administration. Vast changes have been taking place in all its

aspects both conceptual as well as operational. The whole concept and

nature of educational administration has radically changed in recent years

due to the impact of conceptual changes that took place in the fields of

educational philosophy, educational psychology, social psychology and

educational sociology. New terms, constructs and approaches are being

introduced and used at the conceptual level. Even the very nomenclature of

the field seems to be changing. In the place of educational administration,

the terms educational management and educational organization are

frequently being used. Terms such as administration, management and

organization are used very loosely in the field of educational administration.

Many use them synonymously, while others obsewe very fine distinction

between them. The subtle distinction between the terms administration,

management and organization has been highlighted below.

Management and organization

Management is a specialized activity required for the running of all

those social institutions, which are composed of a group of human beings.3z

In business and industry this activity is called management, in other fields it is

largely called administration. Organization refers to the structure or the form

of the organization, the vertical and horizontal lay-out of the power positions

in the organization. However, the term 'Organization' has been used,

occasionally, by some writers to refer to the process of management.

Administration and Management

These terms though used synonymously, have some differences in

certain fields. The phase of business enterprise which is concerned with the

overall determination of the major policies and objectives is, generally, called

administration. Management is the executive fundion that carries out the

administrative poli y laid down by administrators. Thus, in certain

organizations, including business organizations, administration is the policy

making sector of the organization. The management part consists of all those

functions and people who have to work for the achievement of the objedives

planned by the administrators. In an organization, where these two functions

remain separated, administration refers to the force which forms policies and

lays down objectives, while management is the force that leads, guides and

directs the organization in the materialisation of these goals. In the industrial

field policymaking is the administrative fundion and execution of the policy

is the management function. Management is often considered as a social

process. It is held responsible for the effective and economical planning and

regulation of the operations of the organization.

In theory, there exists a difference between management and

administration, but in practice, in most organizations this difference doesn't

exist. Quite often, these two terms are used interchangeably. In all other

fields except in indushy, administration and management are synonymous,

both mean the same. Both mean getting things done through people, both

imply coordination and supervision, both use knowledge and beliefs that

supply a broad basis for determining solutions to organizational problems.33

When it comes to actual practice, in most organizations it is not possible to

separate the administration and management processes. Many writers on

these topics do not consider it feasible and advisable to have this separation.

They consider Management as a term preferred in writing outside Education.

But in recent years educators have come to accept Management as a

desirable term.

0. Sheldon was, perhaps the first management expert who initiated the

controversy regarding the distinction between administration and management.

He regarded 'administration as that function of the industry which was

concerned with the determination of the corporate poliy, the coordination of

finance, production and distribution, the settlement of the structure of the

organization under the ultimate control of the executive? About management

he observed that it is that function of the industry which is concerned with the

execution of poliy within the limits set-up by administration and the

employment of the organization for the particular object before it. Spriegel,

another Management theoretician says that adm inisbation is the 'determinative

fundon' and management is the 'executive function .'

Literally 'ministration' means caring for someone or something. It

suggests doing things-useful, needful and helpful. The prefix 'ad' simply adds

emphasis to what is meant by ministration literally. Hence, administration

can be interpreted as a complex set of interrelated helping functions, serving

activities, caring responsibilities and facilitating operations. Educational

administration, when interpreted in this context would mean getting things

done through following and enforcing the rules and regulations in

educational organisations. It is instrumental in the realisation of goals,

policies and purposes of education. It is action-oriented in the sense that

to realise educational goals actions are initiated and controlled by

educational administration.

Educational administration may be conceived as a type of

organizational set-up by virtue of which administration of different branches

and stages of education is carried out efficiently and effectively to the

satisfaction and benefit of the public, striving to realise the national goals

set-up for the purpose and straining itself to foster international

understanding and co~perat ion.~~

Educational management can be looked at as the process which helps

through educational institutions for the development of human personality. It

is the process that aims at maintaining the educational institutions and

making them function effectively and efficiently. This is mainly the task of an

educational manager. An understanding of his roles and functions is an

integral part of this study.

Role and Functions of the Educational Manager

Maty Parker Follett defines 'Management as the art of getting things

done through people.' This definition stresses the fact that the managers

achieve organisational goals through others. This definition perceives

managers as organisational planners, organisers, leaders and controllers.

Every manager, from the teacher to the chief executive of a company has a

wider range of roles to move the organisation towards its declared objectives.

'Role' is behaviour patterns expected of an individual within a social unit.

For the purpose of managerial thinking, a 'role' is the behaviour pattern

expected of someone within a functional unit. The managers, in their task of

achieving their objectives play a series of interpersonal, informational and

decision-making roles.

Source: Adaptation of 'The Nature of Managerial work' by Henry Mintzberg, New York, Harper & Row, 1973.

Decisional Interpersonal ( Roles

Figure head

Leader

Liaison

1. Interpersonal Roles include:

1. The figurehead role: As the head of an organisation the manager has

to perform certain duties of a ceremonial nature. Eg, Inauguration of

teaching aids exhibition, arts festival, attending the wedding of a

teacher etc.

Information

ii. Leader: The manager's actions which ensure smooth functioning of

b

the organisation constitute his role as a leader.

, Roles Monitor

Disseminator Disturbance hand Ier Spokesman Resource allocator

Strategy maker

iii.

1.

. . 11.

iii.

iv.

1.

ii.

iii.

iv.

Liaison role: This role deals with gathering information from

subordinates and through his network of contacts. This will help him

to assess, evaluate and alter his method of functioning. In an

educational institution, he gets inforrnation from the staff, students

and the public. The processing of this inforrnation is a key part of the

Manager's job.

Information Roles include:

Monitor: As monitor, the manager is in constant contact with his

environment for information.

Disseminator: As disseminator he has to pass some information that

he has gathered to his subordinates.

Spokesman: As the spokesman of his institution, his words are official

about it. He must give some information regarding his institution to

people outside his unit.

Strategy maker: Having all the information, it is the manager's role

to decide the strategy for the institution. He takes decisions for it to

move forward.

Decisional Roles include:

Entrepreneur role: The manager must initiate change.

Disturbance handler: The organisation will have occasional

disturbances. The manager must handle these effectively.

Resource allocator: The manager decides the allocation of resources

in his organisation including his own time.

Negotiator: The manager has the authority to commit organisational

resources towards productivity and only he has the information to

carry out important negotiation^.^^

Functions of an Educational Manager

The primary function of an educational manger is to ensure that the

goals of his organisation are clearly stated and understood. 'Purpose-

defining' is his central function. This must be followed by continuous

attention to review and revise goals.

The second major responsibility of education manager is the

acquisition of both human and material resources and the necessary

allocation of them to the defined goals and objectives. Just and equitable

distribution of resources is a major function of the manager, Designing an

effective and efficient arrangement of human and material resources

constitutes a critical responsibility of educational management, which

includes an obligation to integrate individuals with organisation and to match

their talents with the tasks so that the most effective mix of individual needs

and organisational purpose is achieved.37 This responsibility coincides with

the organisation of technological resources. Along with this he also has the

responsibility to see that everything is going according to plan. This can be

found out by evaluation. Evaluative responsibility of the educational

manager means that he must design and implement an effective follow-up

and feedback system.

The Manager is responsible for the total organisational communication,

which includes both external and internal communication. He plays the role of

a 'gate-keeper' in controlling and influencing the flow of information. In the

communication jargon, a 'gate-keeper' is a person who decides what

channels will be used for the dissemination of information and what kind and

how much information may pass through those channels at any given time.

But sometimes the information they receive is too confidential to pass along,

so managers find themselves the possessors and entrusted keepers of a

store-house of information.

An Educational manager deals with human beings and it is his

function to develop people. Along with them he has to develop himself by

improving his skills and performance through self-evaluation. As Peter

Drucker, the celebrated management guru says, what a manager needs to

do, can be learnt, but one quality cannot be learned or acquired, which he

must bring with him-it is character, and integrity.

Added to this the Educational Manager has the following important

functions: i ) Planning, ii) Organising, iii) Decision making, iv) Leading and

v) Motivating.

1. Planning

Planning in education is a seminal activity as it forms the basis of all

programmes of quantitative and qualitative improvement in education. As a

democratic county India is concerned with the social, political, economical,

cultural and educational development of the national life in an orderly

manner. This can be materialised only by adopting techniques and

approaches of planning. Planning is the managerial process of deciding in

advance 'what' is to be done and 'how' it is to be done.38 By an educational

plan we mean the efforts on planned and deliberate systemic changes to be

brought about in the field of education for achieving targeted definite

objectives. Planning actually means the process of setting out in advance a

pattern of action to bring about overall changes as viewed by national

policies by the closest possible articulation of means and ends.

The Need for Planning

I. Planning is necessaly to ensure success of the enterprise. It makes

clear the goals and the means to achieve them and thus eliminates the

chances of failure, and ensures success of the activity.

ii. Effective planning saves time, effort and money. Because of the clear

objectives and strategies, it is a time-saving, effort-saving and a

m on ey-saving activity.

iii. Planning is a good method of solving problems. Through the best

utilisation of available resources, it checks wastage and failure and

contributes to the smoothness, ease and efficiency of the

administrative process.

iv. Planning is necessary to keep pace with the time. This is an age of

rapid and far-reaching changes in all spheres of life. Educational

process has to keep abreast of these changes and mould it

accordingly; otherwise it will become misfit for this age. Miller says, "in

reviewing the quality of any administrative agency, the analyst today

usually begins with these questions. What steps are taken to define the

purpose and objectives of the agency? Is there a plan of action? Is the

programme reviewed from time to time?"39 These questions are clear

pointers and hence, the need for sound planning.

Characteristics of Educational Planning

With the growth of Management as a specialised field of study, the

science of educational planning has also tremendously grown. Following are

some of the most important characteristics of educational planning.

1. It is being realized more and more that decisions regarding changes

in the field of education must be well-planned. In view of the

well-thought-out objectives, one among them may be selected and

implemented. This choice of the best is made after considering the

discussions with many people at various levels.

. . t i . Planning should not be regarded as a single person's responsibility.

Rather, it should be considered a responsibility of all people

concemed with the desired change.

. . . 111. Modem educational planning stresses that the aims of a democratic

society shall be social and economical, concemed with the welfare of

all and not of some special interest groups. The expected needs of the

community and the needs of the students should be the broad frame

of reference to be used for educational planning.

iv. Cooperative planning, which includes the involvement of the

representatives of most of the concemed sectors of the society in the

process of planning is an important feature of modem educational

planning. .

v. Modem educational planning foresees future developments and

needed changes. This is done in advance so that proper facilities,

supporting media and required resources for implementing the

planned change can be secured.

vi. It also identifies educational problems and suggests suitable solutions.

Instead of suggesting temporary solutions to problems, modern

educational planning carefully and objectively collects data, interprets

and analyses inter-relationships between present and future needs and

suggests solutions to existing problems.

Principles of Modem Educational Planning

Many have attempted to enumerate the principles of good planning.

These principles should be followed for both national education plans as well

as annual institutional plans. Eugene Elliot a n d Earl Moisefo have laid down

the following principles of educational planning:-

1. Educational planning must be one aspect of general national

planning.

ii. Research is basic to planning.

. . . 111. Planning must be a continuous process.

iv. Planning should take into consideration resources and establish

conditions of work,

v. Planning must be realistic and practical.

vi. Planning must involve active and continuing participation of all

interested individuals a n d groups.

vii. Planning should utilize the services of specialists

viii. Planning should provide opportunity for all persons and groups to

understand and appreciate the plans.

ix. Planning should provide for continuous evaluation.

x. Planning should have opportunity for modification for further action.

Planning in the cycle of management activity

Planning constitutes an important position in management activity.

It is also a preliminary to decision making and implementations.

Cycle of management activity

Source LindaEUisonandBrentDavies, Education Managementforthe1990k (Essex: Longman, 1991) p.32.

The cycle demonstrates that before specific activities may be planned

it is necessary to plan aims and objectives. Once these have been planned,

the means of achieving them, in terms of defined programmes and activities,

may be considered.

The educational system should create a planning cadre to 'undertake

all planning activities for the system, including the establishment of

educational goals, the development of educational programmes, reflecting

the goals, the identification of resources needed to implement programmes,

the allocation of physical and human resources in implementations, and

finally, the evaluation process, necessary to continued plan development?'

The planning team should consist of the financial planner, the curriculum

planner, the facilities planner and the evaluation specialists. The educational

programmes of the institution must be based on the outcomes derived from

the planning effort. It is the responsibility of the planning staff to suggest

changes and modifications and to evaluate the programme effectiveness.

The educational system must develop a planning capacity of its own and

should appoint specialists from the field to supplement and complement its

own staff. In this way, expert advice on particular problems can be made

available; at the same time local personnel can give continuity to the

planning process.

The era of planning into which we are now entering will demand for

greater capacity to conceive, to conceptualise and to compromise on the part

of the educational administrator. It will also provide a great opportunity to

contribute, to affect and to participate in the growth process.

2. Organising

Education is the process of deliberately guiding the development of

pupils by the communication and manipulation of knowledge. When an

educational organ isation is function in g with this objective, each operational

level of the organisation, from the classroom teacher to the Board of control

must know what performance is expeded of them. At each operational level

we must formulate statements which specify expeded performance.

Organising is the mechanism through which objectives listed in a plan are

accomplished. In short, organisation is a man made system designed to

combine a complex of men, materials, machines and other resources into an

efficient, effective and variable enterpri~e.4~

According to Harold Koontz and Heinz Weihrich," organising is i) the

identification and classification of required activities. ii) the grouping of

activities necessay to attain objectives. iii) the assignment of each grouping

to a manager with the authority (delegation) necessaly to supervise it and

iv) the provision for coordination horizontally (on the same or similar

organizational level) and vertically in the organisation structure.

Organizational Goals

While organising is the mechanism through which goals set in a plan

are accomplished, organisation is the structure for that purpose.

Organisations are created to achieve the goals of society. They stand for the

function of societal goals and provide the agency for accomplishing the

desired performance. The main role of an organisation is to provide the

management control n ecessay to attain societal goals.

Many of the goals of education are product-oriented. In a democratic

society like ours, there is also a commitment to certain process-goals, based

on process-oriented values. There are two major organisational goals in a

democratic society. (a) Each learner is a unique person. Individual

differences must be taken into account when programmes are chalked out.

(b) Learning how'to learn may be as important as the learning itself.

Decentralisation of Authority

Decentralisation is a major element of organising, 'Decentralisation is

the tendency to disperse decision-making authority in an organised structure.

It requires careful selection of which decisions to push down into the

organisation structure and which to hold near the top, specific policy making

to guide the decision making, proper selection and training of people, and

adequate controls.44

3. Decision Making

In an educational institution most decisions are taken by groups i.e.,

by a number of different people at different points in time. Five factors in

group decision making can be either assets or liabilities to group

effectiveness. First, conflicting ideas within a group can promote both

creativity and innovation on the one hand and resentment and ill will on the

other hand. Effective leaders use differences to generate creative solutions,

suggesting a solution that incorporates both. Secondly, conflicts must be

converted into assets than liability. Thirdly, groups often take riskier decisions

than individuals do. Fourthly, in groups it takes prolonged time to reach a

decision. More manpower and time are involved in it. Finally, in order to

agree to the group decision, some individuals will have to alter their original

viewpoints.

Group Decision-Making Techniques

The very nature of an educational institution demands decision-

making both at individual and group levels. An understanding of the group

decision-making techniques will help all those involved in the educational

process to take decisions freely and firmly. The most common from of group

decision-making in a educational institution takes place in face to face

interacting groups. But there is a danger in this. The interacting groups often

pressurise individual members to toe their line of opinion. Several methods

like Brainstorming, the nominal group technique, electronic meetings and

committees have been suggested as ways to limit many of the problems

inherent in the traditional interacting group. This will help to improve the

educational atmosphere in the institutions.

i. Brainstorming: This is an important method for generating ideas. It

also ensures the participation of many in the decision making process.

Brainstorming also helps to overcome pressures on the people and to

get the feeling that they are heard.

?,*I .,\, SL ., ;' ;; ,

\\,v. , ' ii. Nominal Group ~ e c h n i ~ u e : \ $ h h a method in . ,,which ... the nominal

-\--- -, 1, group limits discussion or interperkon@- com@rrication - .,... during the

decision making process. As in the traditional committee meeting, the

members are physically present and each member independently

writes down his or her ideas on the problem. This is followed by the

individual presentation of ideas. Each member presents a single idea

until all ideas have been presented and recorded. Then discussion

takes place. Each group member silently and independently ranks the

ideas. The idea that gets the highest aggregate ranking is selected as

the final decision.

iii. Electronic Meetings: In this method about fifty people sit around a

horse-shoe shaped table with a series of computer terminals. After the

presentation of issues, the participants type their responses on their

monitor. Individual responses as well as aggregate votes are displayed

on a projection screen in the room. The major advantages of

electronic meetings are anonymity, honesty, speed and wider

participation.

iv. Committees. A committee is a vely prevalent system in educational

institutions to pool the experience of different members and utilise

their efforts for problem solving and decision-making. Committees

also can serve as "incubators" for young teachers, teaching them to

think beyond the needs and concerns of their own work unit.45 The

success of a committee depends upon its leadership. The leader is

chiefly responsible for the satisfactory completion of its assigned tasks,

and for his own leadership behaviour. The leader should make sure

that the committee works within its jurisdiction. The following tips will

be helpful in managing committee discussions effectively. (a) control

the aggressive ones. (b) draw out the silent ones. (c) protect the weak

ones. (d) encourage the clash of ideas (e) watch out for the

suggestion-squashing reflex (f) come to the senior most people last

and (g) close on a note of a~hievement.~~

4. Leading

The importance of leadership in management of any educational

organisation is vely crucial. Achievement of organizational goals very much

depends on how effectively leadership is exercised in the organisation. The

leaders of organisations can so change the work climate that all the

employees are motivated to work hard with the result that the goals are

achieved. When managers motivate subordinates, direct their activities,

select the most effective communication channel or resolve conflicts among

members, they are leading.47 Educational leadership is that quality which

evokes from co-workers their vo luntay , active participation in assuming

responsibilities which contribute to growth in relationships, attitudes and

activities of the group.

It is clear from all these definitions that educational leadership has two

main aspects-the achievement of organizational goals and working with

people. These may be regarded as two attitudinal positions of leaders-

attitudes towards goals and attitudes towards people. The leader's

effectiveness is determined by these two sets of his attitudes.

Characteristics of Leadership

Educational leadership occupies a prominent place in government policy

making, both nationally and internationally. John Adair has identified five

distinguishing leaders hip characteristics. i ) gives direction, ii) offers inspiration,

iii) builds teamwork, iv) sets an example, v) gains acceptan~e.~~ Recent studies

on educational leadership points out that the characteristics of leadership are

having vision, mission and strategic direction.

Leadership is a vital factor in the effectiveness of schools and colleges.

When we analyse good schools and colleges it becomes clear that without

exception the most important single factor in the success of those schools

and colleges is the quality of leadership at the head. The definition of an

effective educational institution as 'one which responds to individual pupil

and staff needs and to the changing face of the community in which it is

placed:' highlights the importance of effective leadership of an institution.

The stress given there is very much on the inter-personal skills of the leader.

Leadership is to be found not in legal or procedural formalities but in the

person and the quality of their relationships with others. Leaders in

education are expected to ad both as agents of change and to maintain

day-to-day running of a stable institution.

The International School Improvement Programme (ISlP) has

recommended four major tasks for leadership in the improvement of

educational institutions.

1. Taking a long-term view. . . 11. Ensuring a corporate educational strategy agreed to by all involved. . . . 111. Working towards integrating, the results of successful improvement

work on to the normal work of the school.

iv. The management of external relations, relating the school or college

to its wider environment.

The effective schools and colleges require a wider concept of

leadership. There are two types of leadership related to educational

institutions-transactional and transformational leadership. The transactional

leadership describes the contract made between leader and follower, the

former for ensuring good working conditions and the latter to work toward

the achievement of organizational goals. Such leadership cannot guarantee

sch ool/college improvement. Rather what is termed transform ation a1

leadership ensuring the commitment of followers is required . . . leaders and

followers are united in pursuit of higher-level goals common to both. Both

want to become the best. Both want to shape the school in a new direction?'

Leadership can occur at a variety of levels in response to a variety of

situations and is not tied to possession of a formal organisations role. For the

improvement and effectiveness of educational institutions, all teachers must

be ready and willing to take up curriculum leadership responsibilities.

Leadership is the capacity to inspire fellowship, something which might

reasonably be an ambition and assumed function of all teachers, in relation

to their pupils and students.

5. Motivating

Managing needs the formation and maintenance of an environment in

which individuals work closely in groups towards the attainment of group

objectives. This duty of the manager cannot be done without knowing what

motivates his team. The building of motivating factors into organisational

roles, the staffing of these roles, and the entire process of leading people

must be built on a knowledge of rn~tivation.~~

The basic character of human behaviour is that it is goal-oriented. The

needs of the people motivate their adions which lead to the goal. The

primary task of managers is to get people to contribute activities, which will

help the institution achieve its mission and goals. No organisation can

progress without the commitment and integrity of its members. In order to

guide people in desired directions, the manager should know what leads

people to adion and what motivates them. Motivation is the art of helping

people to focus their minds and energies on doing their work as effectively as

Human motives are based on needs. Motivation involves a chain

reaction, which begins with needs. The needs give rise to wants, which cause

tensions or unfulfilled desires, which give rise to actions toward achieving

goals, which ultimately result in satisfying actions.

Need-want-satisfaction chain

.Tensions Needs-+K%Z-b

Which give rise to

Source: Harold Koontz and Heinz Weihrich, Ersentials of Management (New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 1998) p.319.

I

Motivation reflects wants, and motivators identify rewards or

incentives, that sharpen the drive to satisfy these wants. Motivators also act

Wants

as the means to unify the needs and to prioritise them. An educational

-b Satisfaction

manager can do a lot to sharpen motives by creating an environment

. Which result in

favourable to certain drives. He must be concerned about motivators that

Which cause

will lead people to perform effectively for the institution that employs them.

Actions

There are a number of theories of motivation, but the Hierarchy of

Needs-Theory put forth by the psychologist Abraham Maslow, has received

more attention than any other theoy. He classifies human needs in a

logical way. Maslow viewed human motivation as a hierarchy of five needs,

ranging from the most basic psychological needs to the highest needs for

self-actualization.=

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

In the opinion of Maslow, individuals will be motivated to fulfil

whichever need is 'prepotent' or most powerful at a given time. Individual's

current situation and recent experiences decide the prepotency of a need.

Starting with physical needs which are the most basic like food, shelter,

warmth etc. each need must be at least partially satisfied before the

individual desires to satisfy a need at the next higher level. Then comes

security or safety needs-to be free of physical danger and of the fear of losing

a job, property, food or shelter. Next in the hierarchy is the need to belong

and to be accepted by others. According to Maslow, once people begin to

satisfy their need to belong and be accepted, they want to be held in esteem

both by themselves and by others. This kind of need produces such satisfactions

as power, prestige, status and self-confidence. Educational managers can satisfy

esteem needs by providing challenging work assignments, giving perf o m ance

feedback, performance recognition and personal encouragement as well as

by involving subordinates in the goal-setting and decision making process.

Maslow regards the need for self-actualisation as the highest need in his

hierarchy. It is the desire to become what one is capable of becoming-to

maximise one's potential and to accomplish something. Educational

managers should generate in the staff and students the desire to make full

use of their potential, and train them to become what they are capable of.

After the study of the art and science of Educational Management, a

survey of its genesis and development in the Indian perspective is imperative.

Genesis and Development of Educational Administration and

Management in India

Education is part and parcel of civilization. If the civilization and the

culture of a race are to be preserved, it can be done only through education.

Learning has been an integral part of Indian tradition since time immemorial.

The history of university education in India goes long back in the ancient

times, even before the commencement of universities and colleges in Europe

during the medieval age.

Educational Administration cannot be studied as an isolated

discipline. Its historical growth cannot be studied singularly without reference

to the history of its nation concerned. Similarly, cultural background of the

nation and political vicissitudes have profound influence on the nature of

educational administrative The Educational Administration of the

modern type has only a short histoly in India. Its evolution has taken many

centuries to come into the present form. The history of Educational

Administration is closely associated with and moves parallel to the political

and educational history of the nation. It is also connected with our nationalist

movement and also the move for the Indianisation of educational

administration. When India became independent, its history became coupled

with the democratisation of educational organisational structures to suit the

fast changing national conditions.

Educational Administration in Ancient lndia

The present has its roots deeply embedded in the past. The refulgence

of the glorious past of India has not only illuminated the present but also

aroused faith in future. The glorious past of India owes much to the social,

cultural, economic factors as well as to the spirituality prevalent in the nation.

In the ancient period, all the political, economic and social currents

emanated from spiritualism. Even education was looked at as a spiritual

activity.

Education in lndia began as a spiritual and intellectual activity to satisfy

man's innate curiosity, during the primordial ages. It is usually said that the

methodology and organization of education in India originated during the

Vedic period. Education was an important component of the Vedas.

Education in 'Vedas' meant the learning of the pronunciation of vowels and

consonants correctly.55 The education of those days were largely oral, the

teacher recited the 'Mantras' and the pupil was to learn them by heart.

Home was the child's first school and the family was his primary school.

No other country in the world can boast of a more ancient or more

powerful tradition of the love of knowledge than lndia. The main basis of

education in those days was vedic activity and hence life was very much

spiritual. Education in ancient lndia was totally free from any external control

like that of the state or government or any other statutory agencies or any

party politics. It was one of the royal duties t o see that the erudite pundits

persuaded their studies and imparted knowledge without any interference of

whatsoever nature. There were three agencies of education.

I. Gurukula: This was the residence of the teacher where the students

stayed during the period of their study. The primary duty of the

student was to serve the teacher and his family. The students were not

subjected to any external laws or regulations.

ii. Parishad: The parishads were bigger educational institutions, that can

be compared to a college, where different teachers used to teach

different subjects.

iii. Sammelan: In this type of educational institutions scholars gathered at

one place for discussions, meetings, and competitions generally on the

invitation of the king.

The aim of Vedic education was sacred and lofty. It aimed at

providing full opportunity for the development of human traits to enable the

learners to get full opportunity to develop themselves and their innate

potential. Thus Vedic education aimed at character building, widening the

horizons of knowledge and material advancement. All these were done with

the least external intervention. The system was cleverly administered by the

Gurus themselves.

The Post-Vedic period

The post-Vedic period extends between 1400 BC and 600 BC or from

the end of Rigvedic period to the beginning of Buddhism and Jainism. With

the spread of vedic culture, the sacrificial rituals dominated and the Brahman

priests gained the highest position in the Indian society. The ritual system

and activities, with their practical knowledge, took the place of self-realisation

and meditation in the Brahmanic Age.

The Educational structure in the Brahman Age was, to a great extent,

only a refined and developed form of Vedic education. However, during this

age, various institutions, such as, Shakha, Charana, Parishad, Kul and Gotra

began to emerge at the various levels of education. Many famous ashrams or

monasteries came to be established. A notable feature of this period was the

determination of the syllabus according to the caste and ashrama system.

Mithila, named as Videh emerged as a prominent seat of Brahminical system

of education. From the 12th century to 15th centuy, Mithila had been an

important centre of learning and culture. There, was also a Nyaya Vidyalaya.

The 'snatakas' (graduates) of Mithila were strictly examined and degrees

were given to successful candidates.

Education in the Brahmanic age stood upon the foundations of the

Vedic period. Students lived with the Gurus in the Gurukul. But there were

restrictions on Shudras, the lower caste in receiving education. Education in

this period became more comprehensive and was dominated by religion. In

this age, too, primacy was given to the study of the Vedas. Along with this

grammar, arithmetic, geometry, astrology, history, nyayas, philosophy, and

economics were also taught.

During the Brahmanic period, education came to be bound with

chains of formality. It was free and universal. It was also free from external

control, restraint and political parties. But it was fully dominated by religion.

Dr. R.K. Mukerji says:

Since the birth of the oldest Vedic poehy we find Indian literature for a

period of more than a thousand years bearing an exclusively religious

stamp. Even a thousand yeas after the compilation of Wgveda'

religious ideas continued to inspire education. The main aim of

education was the propagation of religious ideas and principles."

The schools in those days were known as Ashrama schools. The

teachers were given complete freedom to organize and administer their

schools. The economic independence of the Ashrama schools were

maintained by liberal grants given to them by the ruling chieftains or the

wealthy members of the locality. The student inmates of the Ashrama schools

used to cultivate lands and to grow food for their needs. Thus the

organisational pattern of the Ashrama schools was of the autonomous type.

The administration of the school was the responsibility of the chief teacher-

Acharya. In reputed institutions, when the number of students increased a

single teacher was unable to handle them. Then, some assistant teachers or

upadhayas were there to help the Achaya. In order to maintain complete

autonomy in organization and administration, the ancient Hindus evolved a

system of Charans and Parishadsa5' During a later period, some of the

Ashrams developed into teacher colonies. In these colonies, the most learned

had certain powers of control. There are also many indications in the ancient

texts that ancient Hindus were able to organise big institutions like the

present day residential universities.

Education in ancient India was not under the control of the State. In

those days public education was not regarded as the duty of the state. There

was neither constraint nor taxation for providing education to the public.

Education had been, more or less governed by the religious doctrinaires. It

was a part of Dharma of the people-teachers as well as students. There had

been royal patronage in abundance, even though little of state interference is

discernible." A notable feature of the educational administration of those

days had been complete academic and administrative freedom enjoyed by

the educators. In ancient India, the State did not attempt to control

education and it was liberally subsidising it. The Kings were giving generous

grants to all institutions without trying to control their policy or curricula.

For many centuries there were n o organised educational institutions in

India. Hence, there was n o need for establishing an administrative

machinery of education. Educational institutions were managed by the chief

instructors themselves.

The Buddhist System of Education and its Administration

The Buddhist and the Muslim systems of education were the most

important systems in medieval India. During the Brahman period, ritualism

increased and a sense of aimlessness prevailed in society. Buddhism

emerged as a reaction to Vedic ritualism. Gautama Buddha revolted against

the prevalent brahmanical religion and he was against the rigid classification

according to varnas. The Buddhists began to establish educational

monasteriesviharas- in competition with the Vedic system of education. In

the beginning their institutions were open only to Buddhists, but gradually

they began to impart education to all classes of people. The Buddhists

imparted education in Sanghas or collective groups. The Buddhist Sangh

was parallel to the Gurukula of the Hindus. The Buddhist education and

learning centred round monasteries as Vedic education centred round the

sacrifice. All education, sacred as well as secular was in the hands of monks.

As in the Brahminical tradition, the Buddhist system also insisted the student

to live with the teacher. This was known as pabbaja according t o the

Buddhist tradition. The student was known as antevasin, one who lives out

of his home.

Compared to the Gurukula system, which developed around the

family of a single teacher, the Buddhist educational institutions were large

centres consisting of thousands of students and a number of teachers. Thus

Uhara or the Buddhist monastely was a federated educational institution on

the pattern of a modern university.59 The curriculum of the Buddhist

universities was almost varied like the modem universities. This helped in

attrading students not only from all parts of India but also from abroad such

as China, Tibet and Korea. The history of education in the Buddha period is

coupled with the history of monasteries and Wharas because, there was no

independent educational institutions or centres, other than those religious

centres. The admissions into Buddhist monasteries were regulated more or

less similar to the rules and regulations observed by the Gurukulas as in the

Vedic period. Education had two levels during the Buddhist period-the

primay and higher level. There were many universities too. Among them the

most notable were Nalanda, Taxila, Ballabhi, Vikramshila, Odantpuri, Nadia

and Jagdalla.

In the Buddhist period there were no organised Gurukulas like that of

the Vedic period. The big and extensive monasteries were the backbone of

Buddhist education where thousands of monks lived together. The Buddhist

educational institutions were based on federal principles where small

Padasalas worked under the control of big groups of the Sanghs. Like Vedic

education the Buddhist education was mainly religious. Its primary aim was

to attain Nirvana. There was no provision for the education of common man

in the Buddhist Sanghs. But since they depended upon the endowment by

the public and the rulers, it was necessary for them to teach Buddhism to the

public. The educational institutions of the Buddhist period were managed on

the basis of democratic principle^.^' Celebrated scholars were appointed

Kulapati or the highest authority of the institution. The Manager in Chief of

th.e Buddhist universities was the Bbikshu Mahasfhavir. He was a kind of

Kulapati or the President. He was elected by all the other Bhikshus. The

criteria for election were learning, experience and purity of character. The

Kdapati had two committees appointed by the Sangh to advise him on

matters of importance. The first committee was like the present day

Academic Council, with responsibilities to advise the Kulapati on questions

of education and teaching. This committee gave advice on matters of

admission, courses, and the work of teachers. This council managed the

libray too. It was assisted by other teachers and students according to

its requirements.

The other committee was responsible for general administration,

construction of new buildings, maintenance and management of the existing

buildings, proper arrangement of residence of the students in boarding

houses, food and clothing for all the Bhikshus and also general matters

concerning the Sangh. The directions for the daily working of the University

were given by the heads of the departments, appointed by the Sangh. They

had charge over the boarding houses too. The punishments for offences

were decided by the students themselves, thus the administration of the

universities went on well with the cooperation and the coordination of the

teachers and the students.

The Buddhist period was marked for the beginning of organised

educational institutions, which can be well compared with the universities of

the Medieval Europe. There was no state administrative machinely of

education to manage these institutions. All these clearly indicated that

corporate educational institutions were first evolved in ancient India, in

connection with the Buddhist monasteries.

Administration in the Medieval period

Education in the Medieval period is popularly known as Maktab

Madrasa system or Muslim system. This system aimed at making the

individual capable of earning for himself. According to Muslims the purpose

of education is the attainment of knowledge which is considered to be a

duty. The Prophet Muhammad himself has said: "To seek knowledge is a

duty for every Muslim and every Musalimah."

After the defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan, Mohammad Gori laid the

foundation of Muslim rule in Northern India. Many Muslim kings ruled over

India as the representative of the Slave, Tughlak, Sayyad, Lodhi and the

Mughal dynasties. Many of them were great patrons of learning and

literature. They established centres of learning in different parts of their

kingdom. Akbar was a great champion of education. His Court was adorned

with Nine Jewels. He tried to reorganise education and place it on a stronger

footing. Akbar wanted that Muslims and Hindus should receive education in

their own religions. Mathematics, Physiology, Medicine, Agriculture and

other traditional subjects were the essential parts of the curriculum. He had a

big palace library consisting of many precious books.

Education was organised in Maktabs and Madrasas. Primaty education

was given in Makfabs and higher education was given in Madrasas. During the

Muslim period education received great patronage of the state. They also

granted scholarships to many students. There was no university in Muslim

education. Since education had the mark of high religious orthodoxy, the

Hindus could not get much benefit out of it. The provision for education was

meant only for the middle and the upper class. There was no means for

imparting education to the children of common people.

The Muslim prophets had urged their followers to preach and expand

their religion. Education was looked at as a tool to propagate Islam. The

3 R's and the Koran were taught in MaMabs. After completing the education

in a Maktab, one could go to a Madrasa for higher education. The Madrasas

were granted land and villages by the Kings for their maintenance. They

used to receive other financial grants as well. The Madrasa was headed by a

scholar. The King never interfered in the administration of a Madrasa. The

Madrasas were extended financial assistance by rich people. There was no

special officer or department to supervise the work of Madrasas. For

awarding grants to the Maktabs and Madrasas, most of the Muslim rulers

appointed a special minister known as 'Sardar-usSadur'. But in lieu of

grants there was no administrative control over these institutions.

The above analysis clearly shows that there arose no need of the

development of any kind of state administrative machiney of education

either in the ancient or in the medieval times, though a sort of state

interference had been noticed in the medieval ages. A state administrative

machiney of the modern type did not exist and education was self-

controlled. It was only in recent centuries when the State interfered in

education that there arose the need for an external controlling system to

ascertain that the funds were properly utilised and instructions were taken

care for.

Educational Administration under the East India Company

Educational administration in the true sense has its genesis and

development during the British period only. For a long time in the beginning

the administration of education was in the hands of foreigners. The policy of

the alien government had been mostly that of non-interference and

withdrawal from the active participation in spreading educational

programmes. Educational administration in those early days had only

controlling and supenrisory functions. Later other functions like enrolment,

recruitment of teachers, evaluation and guidance were also taken up.

Before the enhy of the foreign missionaries into India, there had been an

indigenous system of education prevalent in the counhy, covering both

elementary and higher states of education. It was purely a private initiative,

uncontrolled and unrestrained by any official agency. The organisation of

these institutions was entirely different from the present type of school

organisation and there was n o administrative organisation to supervise the

activities of these institutions. The famous British Historian Arther Howell

remarked: "Education in India under the British Government, was first

ignored, then violently and successfully opposed, then conducted on a

system now universally admitted to be erroneous and finally placed on its

present f~o t ing . "~ '

The administrative policy of the British in the field of education can

be conveniently divided into four main periods: ( i ) A period of

indifference (from the early days of the British rule till 1812) (ii) Introduction

of centralisation (1813-53) (iii) Extreme centralisation (1854-1919)

(iv) Provincial autonomy (1 920-47).

1. The First Period; the Period of Indifference

The East India Company was established in 1599 by a few

Englishmen for the purpose of trading with India. In 1660 it obtained

permission from Queen Elizabeth for it. The Company that came for trade

gradually thought to establish its own empire in the country. In order to

achieve this goal, they began to mingle with Bengal politic.. Like all

commercial concerns, its main target was pecuniay gain by trade, and if

territorial acquisitions were made, it was more in the nature of investment of

capital than laying the foundation of an imperial dominance. After acquiring

the Diwani rights and the political grip over Bengal, they began to show

interest in education to prove that they were really interested in the welfare

of the people. Raj Narain Gupta writes in this context: "In the beginning, the

Court of Directors of the East India Company did not favour the spread of

education in India. They feared that the establishment of schools and

colleges would result in political awakening and unrest, and that the

unpleasant experience of American colonies may well be repeated in

India's rich land."

This is known as the period of indifference and non-interference. But

gradually the Hindu and Muslim scholars were patronised and to consolidate

their position by winning over the influential people, the company provided

for higher education and better administration to such people. Towards this

end, they started. colleges at Calcutta, Madras and Varanasi.

At the request of the upper class Muslims, the English started a

Madrasa in Calcutta to educate the Muslims and to win their favour. It

received full financial support from the company. The Madrasa was well

organised and efficiently administered. As it was also necessary to win the

support of the Hindus, the Company founded the Sanskrit College in

Benares in 1791. At first Maulavis were given charge of the Calcutta Madrasa

and Pundits that of the Sanskrit College. But when they failed to control

affairs, an English officer was also appointed at each of these places to keep

things in order.

The East India Company was not fully prepared to undertake total

responsibility for education, because in England, at that time the

Government was not responsible for running educational affairs. Moreover,

education was hardly looked upon as part of the administrator's duty. It was

regarded only as a private enterprise. They wanted to follow the British

policy here. When the policy changed in England due to public pressure, the

Company too had to change its policy of indifference and began to take

greater interest in education.

Earlier, in 1 793, when the great British philanthropist, Mr. Wilberforce,

came out with a proposal to add two clauses to the Charter Act of that year for

sending school masters to India, the Court of Directors strongly opposed this

suggestion. One of the Directors stated: "We have lost America from our folly,

in having allowed the establishment of schools and colleges, and that it would

not do for us to repeat the same act of folly in regard to India, and that if

the natives required anything in the way of education, they must come to

England for it."62

In spite of this difference on the part of the state, a few individuals of

high official rank in the administration of India were not oblivious of the

moral and administrative necessity of spreading knowledge among the

people of India.

Role of Charles Grant

Charles Grant was an ordinary official of the Company, who came to

lndia in 1773. He closely studied the problems of India and after his return to

England wrote an essay entitled 'Observation.' In it he detailed the

deplorable condition of the Indian educational field. The description given in

the 'Observation' influenced the British Parliament and it took upon itself the

responsibility for education in India. Grant was of the opinion that the

medium of instruction should be the Indian language along with English as

well. He also opined that at first English teachers should be appointed and

later they might be replaced as able Indians were available. The British

Parliament gradually accepted the suggestions given by Grant and these

were implemented after 40 years when a Charter Act was published in 1813.

2. The Second Period (1813-53); Introduction of Centralisation

The Company was not very keen in undertaking the educational

responsibility of the territories which they ruled. In the early stages of the

Company's rule, the territories acquired by it had been divided into three

Presidencies - Bengal, Bombay and Madras-each with a Governor General

and Council responsible to the Company in London. In 1773, through the

Regulating Act, the British Parliament made the Governor General of Bengal,

the Govemor General of all the three Presidencies. From 1773 onwards, the

control of the British Parliament also continued to grow and the renewal of the

Company's Charter in 1813 is an important landmark in the histoy of

educational administration of the British in India. The Charter of 1813 was

published mainly due to the efforts of Charles Grant. This Charter gave a new

direction to education. Therefore, Charles Grant is regarded as the Father of

Modem Education in India. The section 43 of this Charter declared:

It shalI be lawful for the Governor-General-in-Council to direct that

a sum of not less than one lakh of rupees in each year shall be set

apart and applied to the revival and improvement of literature, and

the encouragement of the learned natives of India, and for the

introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the sciences among

the inhabitants of the British territories in India.63

Now it became a responsibility of the Company to make

arrangements for education of the Indian people. The principal implication of

the above clause was that the company would create its own agency to

spend this amount of a lakh of rupees and try to educate the people of India

in a secular and conservative fashion as opposed to proselytising and

revolutionary proposals of the missi~naries.~ The Charter of 1813 may be

regarded as the beginning of a new epoch in the history of public education

in India. Being the first legislative enactment on that behalf, it possesses

historical value and interest as the early policy of public instruction, as part of

the administration of the British rule.

In 1823, the Governor General's Council appointed a General

Committee of Public instruction for the Bengal Presidency. Later this

Committee was replaced by the Council of Education. This is the second

administrative structure of education initiated in the country by the Company.

By 1854 the Council of Education is said to have conducted fifteen

educational institutions incurring a total expenditure of Rs. 5,94,428 a year.

During the period from 1813 to 1833, education expanded due to the

responsibility taken up by the Company. Though the Company was asked to

spend at least one lakh rupees per year on education, it had not been given

any specific instruction on this issue. So the direction of education remained

uncertain during these 30 years due to the following reasons: i ) It could not

be decided whether the medium of instruction should be English or Indian

languages. ii) Should education be provided to all, or should it be for a

selected few. iii) Should education be within the strict control of the

government or should it be run by some private enterprises. iv) The

Missionaries were tying to preach and spread Christianity in the garb of

educational expansion. Therefore, the Company had to decide whether the

missionaries should be given a free hand in their educational practices or

should the Company itself shoulder the total responsibility.

Though the Charter Act of 1813 made a provision for an annual grant

of a sum of not less than one lakh rupees for the promotion of learning in

India, it did not specify the methods and ways to secure the objective. This

resulted in a controversy, which is known as the Anglicist-Orientalist

controversy. One group of officials of the Company like Munroe, the

Governor of Madras and Mount Elphinstome, the Governor of Bom bay,

wanted to make Indian languages the medium of instruction. The second

group which included Warren Hastings and Minto wanted Sanskrit, Arabic

and Persian medium of instruction. There was also a third group which

consisted of some young Englishmen and Raja Ram Mohan Roy who

wanted to make English the medium of instruction. The Christian

missionaries were in favour of English.

In 1833 the Charter Act of the Company was renewed and a

principle of great significance to education was laid down, providing

employment to Indian youth under the Company. Education grant was also

raised to Rs. 10 lakh from Rs. 1 lakh. In the Governor General's Council a

fourth member, a Law Member was added.

Lord Macualay came to India as a Law Member of the Governor

General's Executive Council, during the time of the Anglicist-Orien talist

controversy. He was appointed President of the General Committee on

Public Instruction by Lord William Bentick, the Governor General of India.

The government sought the advice of Macualay on clause 43 of the Charter

Act of 1813. He presented his lengthy minute to Lord Bentick in 1835.

And this ended the controversy between the Anglicists and the Orientalists.

The main features of his Minutes were as follows:

1 . The word 'Literature9 in the Charter Act of 1813 meant English

literature and not Sanskrit, Arabic or Persian. . . 1 1 . The Indian scholar should gain knowledge of English Literature and

Western Philosophy.

iii. Macualay advocated English to be made the medium of instruction in

India. He said 'A single shelf of a good European Lbrary was worth

the whole native literature of India and Arabia.'

iv. He proposed to stop the grants to oriental institutions and save the

unnecessary expenditure. He stated that the British Government's

main aim was to spread European literature and Science among

Indians and so all the money granted for education should be spent

for that purpose.

Lord William Bentick accepted the arguments of Lord Macualay and a

Resolution was passed in 1835. It was the first declaration of the British

Government in the sphere of education in India. The resolution of March 7th,

1835, enforced the following changes in Indian education.

1. European literature and science will be propagated among the

Indians.

. . 11 . Funds will be used only for encouraging English education.

. a .

111. Future allocation of funds to oriental students and teachers will be

stopped.

iv. No funds will be available for printing of oriental works.

v. The medium of education will be English.

In 1844, Governor General Lord Hardinge enunciated a Resolution

which had great effect on the future acceptance of the western type of

education by the Indian youths. He stated that 'preference shall be given

in the selection of candidates for public employment to those who have

been educated in the institutions thus established by the G~vernrnent . '~~

Thus education in Govemment institutions became a passport to the

govemment jobs.

During this period, majority of educational institutions were under the

control of the General Department of the Govemment of India. The

company and the Governor General were formulating educational policies,

which was a sign of centralisation. Even financial control was centralised in

the Government of India. Through the Charter A d of 1833, the East India

Company's commercial monopoly ended, and it practically ceased to be a

commercial body. It centralised all financial control in the Govemment of

India. All the revenues of the country were described as imperial funds and

were credited to the Government of India and all expenditure could be met

only by the authority of that government. The Budgets were prepared by the

respective state governments, but these had to be sanctioned by the

Government of India. The state government had no power to incur

expenditure, however small, or create a humble post without obtaining the

prior approval of the Govemment of India. It was under these constraints

that the state had to execute their educational programmes.

3. The Third Period (1854-1919); The Period of Extreme

Centralisation

This period is known as a period of extreme centralisation. The

centralisation in the administrative policy culminated in appointing a

Secretary of State, responsible to the British Parliament. Its basic principle

was parliamentary control, operating through a Secretary of State, who in

turn operated through a Governor. The principle of centralisation in general

administration also guided the relationship between the Govemment of India

and Provincial governments in the field of education. Provincial

Governments remained as the agencies of the Central Govemment, and

were expected to submit proposals for educational legislations to the

Government of India for prior sanction.

The first authoritative declaration on the part of the British Parliament

about the educational policy to be followed in India was made during this

period. Wood's Educational Despatch of 1854 was a landmark in the

historical development of educational administration in India. It still forms the

charter of education in India. It recommended to the Govemment of India

for the improvement and far wider extension of education, both English and

vernacular. Its major recommendations were.

i. Abolition of former Provincial Boards and Councils of Education and

form the Department of Public Instruction in their place in the existing

provinces. The Department was to be in charge of an officer

designated as the Director of Public Instruction.

. . 11. Institution of universities in the Presidency towns of Calcutta, Madras

and Bombay. The proposed Universities were to be administered by

their own Senates, consisting of a Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor and

Fellows, all to be nominated by Govemment.

iii. The establishment of institutions for training teachers for all classes of

sc~ools.

iv. The maintenance of the existing government colleges and schools and

the increase of their number when necessay.

v. Professional training in law, medicine and civil engineering should be

given under the direct control of Universities.

vi. It sympathised with the cause of women's and Muslim education and

insisted on a policy of strict neutrality.

vii. The introduction of grant-in-aid.

The Despatch provided a scheme, which tried to touch all aspects of

Indian education, right from the Primary to the University stage. It suggested

several measures not only for spreading mass education but also for

preserving and encouraging indigenous education. Through a scheme of

grant-in-aid, the Despatch proposed to leave education gradually to the

people, but at the same time it suggested that efficiency should be

maintained through proper State Control. It began a new era of organised

educational administration, defined the aim of Indian education, determined

Government's attitude towards religion, stressed mass education and

recognised the need for technical and women's education. The Despatch

organised the present Indian educational system and brought order out of

misdirected efforts.

According to the recommendations of the Woods Despatch

three Universities were founded at Calcutta Madras and Bombay. These

Universities we merely examining bodies and were of affiliating nature on the

pattern of the Lqndon University at that time. But a year later London

University gave up its affiliating character but the Indian Universities

continued to be of the affiliating type.

57

Stanley's Despatch

In 1857 the First War of Indian Independence broke out. This ended

the governance of the Company, and the administration of India passed into

the hands of the British Crown. The regime of the Court of Directors ended

and the post of the Secretary of State for India was created. As soon as order

was restored, a new educational despatch emanated from Lord Stanley, the

first Secretary of State. It proposed to examine the educational developments

after 1854 and to see whether education had something to do with the event

of 1857.

The despatch did not make any change in the policy initiated by

Wood's despatch except in the field of elementq education. It further

observed that the grant-in-aid system hitherto in force, was not suitable for

providing primary education to the masses. The Despatch suggested that

Govemment should itself establish and run primary schools, and should, if

necessaly , levy a compulsoly local tax for defraying the educational expenses.

The Despatch resulted in increased interest of the British Parliament in

Indian education. The State expenditure on education continued increasing.

But there was extremely wasteful centralization of financial administration.

There was only one budget for the whole of India. All revenues were

received in the name of Govemment of India and all expenditure was

incurred with its sanction only. Thus the provincial governments had no

independent status and were nothing more than glorified district boards.

The financial policy gave them no incentive to collect more taxes or to spend

less, because the financial allocations were made by the Govemment of

India and the unspent balances returned to it lapsed at the end of the

financial year.

In 1870, Lord Mayo introduced a scheme of decentralization and he

transferred the control of some departments including education to provincial

governments and they were asked to meet all expenditure of these

departments form three sources, viz., ( i ) the receipts from these departments,

(ii) central grants, (iii) more taxation of a specified nature. In 1882-83, a

policy of contract grants through quinquennial settlements was introduced,

the system of cash allotments was completely stopped and the provincial

governments were given a specified share in some items of revenue. Thus

some sources of revenue were made entirely Central, some entirely

Provincial and the remaining were divided.

The Resolution of 1884 coupled with the Local Self-Government Acts

of 1883 to 1885 paved the way for a gradual devolution of the management

of government schools upon municipalities and district boards. In 1900 the

Secretary of State drew the attention of the Govemment of India to the

necessity for the continuance of government control, guidance and

assistance in higher education, and for the maintenance of a number of

government schools.

The minor and occasional central interest in education during the

period 1870-97 was followed by deep and sustained interest by the

Government of India. When Lord Curzon became the Governor General of

India, he was profoundly interested in education, and in February 1900 the

Govemment of Qdia published a resolution containing the following

passage:

The Government of India cannot consent to divest itself of the

responsibility that attaches both to its interest and its

prerogatives. If it is to lend the resources of the state to the

support of certain schools, it cannot abrogate its right to a

powerful voice in the determination of the course which is

there imparted?

In 1901 Cumon summoned a conference of the Directors of Public

lnstruction of the country at Simla to discuss the prevailing educational

situation. The summum bonum of these discussions though never published

was that: 'education should be expanded through private efforts and

expansion should be accompanied by control and quality.' Under Curzon,

the policy of state withdrawal was abandoned. The inspecting staff was

strengthened and a vigilant policy of inspection and supervision of private

schools was adopted in the place of the old policy of laissezfajre. To

strengthen the machinery for administration in the Government of India, a

Director General of Education-the first nucleus of the present Minishy of

Education was appointed in 1901. He was chiefly responsible for giving

advice to the Government of India in educational matters and also to

supervise, guide and coordinate the administration and academic affairs of

the provinces for this purpose.

Another outcome of the Simla Conference was the setting up of the

Indian Universities Commission of 1902, This Commission stressed the need

for reorganisation of universities and rejected the idea of setting up of new

universities. It recommended the improvement of the standard of matric and

higher education. The Indian Universities A d of 1904 was formulated on the

basis of these recommendations. This act regularised the constitution of the

governing bodies and tightened the control of the universities over their

affiliated colleges. On the main question of the control of education, it

accepted the devolution policy of the Commission of 1882, but laid stress on

the necessity for adequate safeguards. This Act of 1904 granted a systematic

form, and structure to higher education in our nation. The University A d

1904 did not benefit higher education materially, but the fad remains

that the credit for initiating a university improvement campaign must go to

Lord Curzon.

In 1913, the Government of India issued another resolution on

education. It surveyed the whole field of education from the Primary to

Higher education. It announced a policy of instituting teaching and

residential universities and urged the necessity for providing facilities for

research in evely branch of learning.

This was followed in 1917 by the appointment of the Calcutta

University Commission to tackle the question of higher education in Bengal,

and incidentally to give a lead to India as a whole. The report had two very

important impacts on higher education. In the first place, it gave great

impetus to the creation of new Universities in India. In the second place, the

movement for creating Boards of intermediate and high school examinations

began. And within a short period, secondaty education had been freed from

the domination by the university.

Apo tab l e development that happened in the field of educational

administration during 1854-1919, was the transfer of education from the

Home Department to a new Department of Education. The post of the

Director-General of Education was absorbed into the new department

but the post was revived and redesignated in 1915 as the Educational

Commissioner.

Another remarkable feature of the period was the organisation of the

Indian Educational Sentice (IES) in 1896. All the higher posts in the

administrative line were reserved for them. It was through this Service that

the Government of India controlled the entire education. In 1924, on the

recommendation of the Lee Commission, the recruitment to this Service was

stopped and the Indianisation of superior sewices in education began in

India. Political agitations began in India and the Montagu-Chelmsford

Report was drawn up. Ultimately, an Act of Parliament was passed in 1919.

It marks the beginning of parliamentary Govemment in India.

Gokhale's Bills

Gokhale was the pioneer of compulsoy primay education in India.

He made strenuous efforts to get the principle of compulsoy primary

education accepted by the Govemment. In 1910 he moved a resolution in

the Imperial Legislative Council, which initiated a beginning for making

elementary education free and compulsoly throughout the country. Though

Gokhale withdrew the resolution on the assurance of the government, he

succeeded in gaining acceptance for two of his proposals-one for creating a

Department of Education and the other was for the publication of the yearly

reviews of educational progress in India. In 1913, the Govemment issued a

Resolution of Educational Policy, which laid down principles for the

expansion and improvement of primary education. It fannulated a policy 9

regarding Secondary English schools and it reviewed the whole question of

University Education.

In 1915, the post of Director General of Education, abolished in 1910

was changed to Education Commissioner. He was required to tour

extensively, to discuss the problems with local Governments and to advise

the educational departments in cases. A Central Bureau of Education was

also re-establish ed to collect and disseminate information on education.

4. 'The Fourth Period (1920-47); The Period of Provincial Autonomy

The last period in the British era is called as the Period of Provincial

Autonomy, as there had been comparatively greater devolution of power to the

provincial authorities. The A d of 1919, which was the result of Montford

Reforms, introduced Dyarchy , a milestone towards provincial autonomy. Under

this system, the administration of a Province was divided into two halves-the

resewed and transferred. The Govemor, who was the head of the Provincial

Govemment was to administer the Resewed Departments with the help of the

Executive Council consisting of Govemment official members. They were

responsible to the Secretary of the State for Indian Affairs through the

Govemment of India. On the other hand, the Govemor was expected to

administer the Transferred Departments with the help of the ministers who were

responsible, not to the Secretary of State, but to the electorate of the province.

Subjects like education, agriculture, public health and local government were

transferred to the Governor who acted with his ministers who were responsible

to the electorate of the province and not to the Govemment of India. Thus

education, with small exceptions, became a provincial and transferred subject in

charge of an Indian Minister for the first time. This system of devolution of

authority from the Centre to the Provinces created some problems too. The

states became independent units and isolated from the Centre. Another

problem was the absence of Central interest and the stoppage of Central

assistance in all educational matters. The Govemment wen withdrew from its

function of coordinating provincial activities. The Act also deprived the

Govemment of India of the power of guiding or formulating an educational

policy for the whole counhy, and it was no longer possible for it to ad as an

advisory and coordinating agency on problems of all India importance.67

This created a situation where there was a need for a coordinating

agency and the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) was

established in 1921. Its main function was to offer expert advice on

important educational matters referred to it. But two years later the Board

was abolished on economic grounds along with the Bureau of Education.

The Deparhnent of Education was amalgamated with that of Health and

Agriculture. However, there was considerable growth of Education

Departments in the provinces. Later the posts of Assistant Deputy Directors

of Public Instruction were created in several provinces.

In 1935, on the recommendation of the Hartog Committee, the

central Advisow Board of Education was revived. Later, on their

recommendation of CABE, the Bureau of Education was revived in 1937,

which was again reconstituted and strengthened in 1945.

On the recommendations of the Calcutta University Commission of

1917, the Boards of Seconday Education were constituted to control

Secondaly and Intermediate Education and thus they freed Secondary and

Intermediate Education from the dominance of the Universities.

The second milestone in the development of provincial autonomy was

the Government of India A d of 1935. This Act recognised the provinces for

r the first time as separate entities, exercising executive and legislative powers

in their own field in their own right, free in normal circumstances from

Central control. The Act implemented in 1937, introduced complete

provincial autonomy and entrusted ministers of education with greater

power. The distinction between transferred and reserved subjects

disappeared and the ministers acquired full control over educational services.

The Act of 1935 provided for three lists of subjects. They were the Federal,

State and Concurrent Lists. Educational activities figured in the first two lists.

All matters regarding education, barring those that had been placed in the

Federal list were to be covered by the provinces. In the meantime, national

consciousness was fully aroused in the country and the people realised that

the progress of India depended mainly upon educational development. The

popular ministries exhibited greater interest in education and various new

schemes for educational reconstruction and development were launched.

In 1938, the National Planning Committee was constituted under the

Chairmanship of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru to prepare plans for national

reconstruction in all walks of life including education. In 1944, the Sargeant

Report envisaged the Post-war Educational Developmental Plan in India,

which was the first official attempt to plan a national system of education

for India.

The Government's renewed interest in education was amply evident

in its decision to trifurcate the Department of Education, Health and

Agriculture, with effect from September 1, 1945, into three separate and

independent departments. The Department of Education was raised to the

status of a Ministry in 1947.

Educational Administration in the Missionary Period

The British is mainly responsible for the introduction of the modem

system of education in India, though its progress has been not much of the

British Government's responsibility. Three distinct agencies made efforts to

nourish it-the British officers, the Missionaries and the enlightened Indians.

Of the three agencies the activities of the Christian Missionaries were

pioneering. The Roman Catholic missionaries were the first group to come to

India. Their intention was to spread Christianity among Indians and to

establish a new religious empire. Mr. Allen has put forward two reasons why

the missionaries took up the cause of education. Firstly, that they could make

Indians understand their religious theories and principles better if they got

their education on Western lines. The second aim was to gain contact with

Indians through these institutions.

The Portuguese were the first Europeans who came to India and they

were the people who started modem system of education here. The main

centres of Portuguese activities were Goa, Daman, Diu, Ceylon, Chittagong

etc. They started primary schools in these places. Christian children were

given free education. In 1575 they started the first degree college in Goa and

later St. Anne's College in Bandra. These institutions were administered

independently and managed by the Priests who were in charge of them.

The Portuguese experience in India attracted other Catholic

Congregations too like the Franciscans, Dominicians and Jesuits. These sects

established new kinds of Institutions. ( i ) Primary schools attached to churches

and missionary institutions where Portuguese and Latin languages were

taught . ( ii ) Vocational schools where technical and agricultural education,

along with traditional education was given. (iii) Jesuit Colleges for higher

education. (iv) Theological Centres for training padres and missionaries.

Like the Portuguese in South India, the Dutch carried out their activities

in Bengal. The French confined themselves to Pondicheny. The Danes who

came to lndia had no political interests. They limited their activities to education

and religious expansion. Tanjore , Trichnapalli, Madras and Travancore were

their areas of operation. A centmlised system of administration could not be

seen in their institutions. They managed them with utrnost care and concern to

achieve their goal of winning people for Christ.68

Educational Administration in Free India

A new era in the history of Indian education began on 15th August

1947, when India became independent. Indian Constitution was adopted on

26'h Januay 1950. The Constitution has laid responsibilities both on the

Centre and the State Governments so that this partnership in educational

administration is carried out in a democratic climate, promoting educational

reconstruction and educational development through planned and phased

programmes. In the Constitution, Education was placed in the State list. With

Independence, a full-fledgedv Ministry of Education and Scientific Research

was established, with Maulana Abciul Kalam Azad as the first Minister for

Education. With the assumption of the national ministry in Delhi, the interest

of the Central Govemment in education was fully reviewed and Central

grants began to flow freely for educational reconstruction in the states. Since

the new constitution envisaged Education as a State subject it gave no more

control to the Central Govemment than what it already had under the

Government of India Act, 1935.

As time passed, there arose overlapping in the matter of educational

reorganisation in the efforts of the Central and the States of the Union. The

Centre issued directives without sharing responsibility. They wanted to retain

the power they had been enjoying for long. Even after the Constitution of

India came into effect the Centre adopted an isolationist policy and gave no

help to the states in the matter of education. But with the launching of Five

Year Plans, the states began to get funds for educational expansion. With the

control of these grants the Centre started supervising education in the states.

After the attainment of independence, the Department of Education

at the Centre became a separate Ministry of Education headed by a

Cabinet Minister. In 1958, the Union Education Ministry was bifurcated

into the General Education Ministry and the Ministry of Scientific Research

and Cultural Affairs. In 1963, these two Ministries were merged to form a

combined Ministly of Education with two Departments, the Department of

Education and the Department of Science. The two Departments were later

abolished on 2gth February 1964 and the Ministry of Education came into

being. When Rajiv Gandhi came to power in Delhi as the dynamic and

vibrant Prime Minister, he changed the name of the Ministry of Education

into the Ministry of Human Resources Development. The Central

Government discharges its functions and responsibilities through several

advisory councils and statutory organisations like, Central Board of

Education, Central Board of Secondary Education, University Grants

Commission, National Council for Educational Research and Training etc.

Educational Policy in the Constitution of India

Constitution is a mirror of the ideals, values, hopes, dreams and

aspirations of its people. So it is quite natural that education has an

important place in this great document. It provides the conception of the

economic and social order for which the youth of the country should be

ed~cated.~' The Preamble, which is an introduction to our Constitution is a

grand declaration of the ideals and objedives that the Indian people desire to

achieve through the political edifice they have set for themselves. It indicates

the high moral tone of the Constitution. It contains the objedives to which

the people of a country are permanently committed and at the same time

selves as a challenge to people to adhere to the ideals embodied in it and

regulate their life and conduct accordingly.

Various Constitutional Provisions Relating to Education

I. Free and compulsoly education

Article 45 of the Constitution states "The State shall endeavour to

provide within a period of ten years from the commencement of this

constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they

complete the age of fourteen years." . . 11. Religious instruction

Article 28 (1) provides: "No religious instruction shall be provided in

any educational institution wholly maintained out of State funds."

iii. Language safeguards

Article 29(1) states "Any section of the citizens, residing in the territoy

of India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script of culture of its

own shall have the right to conserve the same."

iv. Equality of opportunity in educational institutions

Article 29(2) states "No citizen shall be denied admission to any

educational institution maintained by the state or receiving aid out of State

funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them."

v. Minority rights

Article 30 relates to "Rights of minorities to establish and administer

educational institutions."

Article 30(1) reads "All minorities whether based on religion or

language shall have the right to establish and administer educational

institutions of their choice."

(2) "The State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions,

determine against any educational institution on the ground that it is

under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or

languages."

vi. Education of the weaker sections and scheduled castes

Article 46 deals with promotion of educational and economic interests

of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections. It reads:

"The state shall promote with special care the educational and economic

interests of the weaker sections of the people and, in particular, of the

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social

injustice and all forms of exploitation."

vii. Education of Anglo-lndian community

Article 37 relates to "special provision with respect to educational

grants for the benefit of Anglo-Indian Community. "

viii. Instruction in mother tongue

Article 350-A states: "It shall be the endeavour of evew state and of

every local authority within the state to provide adequate facilities for

instruction in the mother tongue at the primay stage of education to children

belonging to linguistic minority groups, and the President may issue such

directions to any State as he considers necessay or proper for securing the

provisions of such facilities.

ix. Higher education and research

Parliament has exclusive rights to enad legislation in respect of

Institutions of National Importance, Union Agencies, Institutions of Scientific

and Technical Education financed by the Government of India, Institutions

of Higher Education and Research, mentioned in entries 62, 63, 64, 65 and

66 of the Union List of the Constitution.

Education as a Concurrent Subject

Right from the beginning of the modem system of education

originating with the British rule in India, there had been large variations in

the curriculum and structure of education, service conditions of teachers,

examination patterns and standards of education over various states of India.

Uniformity in these matters could not be brought about as the education was

on the State List and the States were free to make their own rule. This could

be materialised only when the Central Government was made empowered to

legislate on education. This was possible only if education was in the Union

List or Concurrent List. Several efforts had been made to include education

in the Concurrent List.

The Committee of the Members of Parliament on Higher Education

examined the whole issue and recommended that higher education at least

should be included in the Concurrent List. In their opinion the experience of

the years since independence has shown that, for the lack of adequate

authority at the Centre, national policies could not be implemented

satisfactoiily and that the excellent recommendations of many Commissions

and Committees, in various fields of education remained on paper. Some

argued that for the creation of an egalitarian society, it was essential that the

Centre should be charged with the duty of looking after education. Some

were against placing education in the Concurrent List. The Education

Commission (1964-66) observed: "The inclusion of education in the

Concurrent List may lead to undesirable centralisation and greater rigidity in

a situation where the greatest need is elasticity and freedom to experiment."

It was only in 1975 that education was voted to be on the Concurrent

List. Thereafter, the Central Government has been empowered to make

legislations on education also with the provision that if State Act comes into

conflict with the A d passed by the Union government, the latter will prevail.

The present position in this regard after the change stands as follows:

1. The State Government even now can make their own legislations on

education. . . 11. The Central Government is also empowered to get any A d about

education passed through the Union legislative bodies.

iii. If the State act and the Union Act happen to be in contradiction, the

Union Act will prevail.

The decision to include education in the Concurrent List has been

hailed as a v e y progressive and useful step in the educational administration

in India. This bold step will ensure uniformity and diversity throughout India.

This would also help in formulating legislations regarding a uniform national

policy on university admissions, uniform examination systems etc. Another

great advantage of putting education on concurrent list is that this may lead

to greater responsibility of the Central Government in educational matters.

Thus the Centre will have to find more funds from its own revenue to be

spent on education, particularly in those aspects of education which are

covered by a Central legislation.

M.L. Sachdeva in his study on Centre-State Relationship in Education

observed:

Broadly speaking, it may be concluded that the Central

Government has consolidated its position so far as its educational

role is concerned. From an advisory and coordinating authority it

has become an equal partner . . . the trend is towards the

increasing activities of the Centre. " 'O

Along with the developments in Education and Administration, a pamllel

stream of knowledge was also developinpEducationaI Management. It began

with the realization that an organization would be orderly, effective and goal

oriented, if it is run on modem principles of management. The Industrial

Revolution which began in Britain had its aftermath in its colony-India, too. The

growth of factories and the large number of workers necessitated new strategies

and policies for their administration. So, the entrepreneurs and adminishators

began to use management principles in administration. This happened in the

educational sector too. With the attainment of independence, a number of,

educational institutions, mushroomed in India, both in the private and public

sector. Our rulers had the foresight to appoint an Education Commission

immediately after gaining independence. All the Education Commissions have

since then highlighted the need for effective management of educational

institutions. This expedited the growth of this branch of knowledge in the

county. But even after 52 years of Independence, education has not solved

what it is expected to solve, and not achieved what it is expected to achieve. It

may be hoped that scientific management of educational institutions will bear

the expected fruits of education.

Notes

Ranjana Srivasthava, "Educational Management: Concerns for the Future,"

New Frontiers in Education Vol. XVIII April-June 1998, p.97.

/bid.

" Dr. R.P. Bhatnagar and Dr. Vidya Agawal, Educational Adminisfmtion,

Supervision, Plar~ning and Financing (Meerut: S u y a Publications, 1997) p.3.

Jyoti Christian, "Educational Management: Conceptual Clarifications, "

Fundamental- of Educational Management, H.M. Singh (Ed.) (New Delhi: Vikas

Publishing House, 1995) p .3.

"elors Commission Report, UNESCO, p.119.

' O.P. Dahaman and O.P. Bhatnagar, Education and Communication for

Development (New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co, 1980) p.3.

' Harold Koontz and Heinz Weihrich, Essentialr of Management (New Delhi:

Tata Mc Graw Hill, 1998) p.4.

' Jyoti Christian, n. 4, p.4.

' Pre mila C hand rase kha ran, Educational Planning and Management

(New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1997) p.63.

'" Quoted by M . Dash, Education in India: Problems and Perspectives

(New Delhi: Atlantic publishers, 2000) p.63.

' Ibid.

l 2 The American Management Association, New Pe~specffivs in Management

(New York: Norton Publisher, 1999) p.6.

'" Narnita Roy Choudhuly, Management In Education (New Delhi: APH

Publishing Corporation, 2001) p.3.

l 4 /bid., p.4.

'' M. Dash, n.lO, p.63.

'"anjana Srivasthava, n.1, p.97.

l 7 Tony Bush and John West Bumham, The Principles of Educational

Management (Essex: Longman, 1994) pp. 1 1 - 13.

'%L. Gupta, Polfical They (New Dehi: Sultan Chand and Som, 1980) p.4.

l9 Quoted by Jyoti Christian, n.4, p.4. 20 Namita Roy Choudhuy, 11.13, p.14.

2' Ibid., pp.14-15.

" Peter Drucker, The Pmctice of Management (New York: Harper and Row,

1954) p.13.

''I S.S. Chatterjee, Principles and Pmctice of Management (New Delhi: Vikas

Publishing House, 1983) p. 7.

24 M. Dash, n.10, p.64.

2"he Fortyfith Year book, Pt. 11. National Society for the Study of Education,

Chicago: The University Press, 1946. p.1. 26 Dr. R.P. Bhatnagar and Dr. Vidya Agarwal, n.3, p.3.

27 Ronald F. Campbell, Administrative Theory in Education (London: OUP,

1965) p.166.

2H L.D. Gupta, Educational Administration, (New Delhi: Oxford and IBH

Publishing Co., 1987) p.3.

2"r. R.P. Bhatnagar and Dr. Vidya Agarwal, n.3, p.5.

" ' Hollis A. Moore Jr., quoted by James Jones, Jackson Salisbuy and Ralph

Spencer, Secondary School Administm fion (New York: McGmw-Hill, 1969) p. 187.

.'" R.F. CampeU, J.E. Corabally and R.O. Nystrand, Introduction to Educational

ad mini st ratio,^ [Boston: AUyn and Bacon, Inc. 1983) p .3.

'" S.P. Murdock, Administration and Management (London: Chapman & Co.,

1997) p.3.

'' Dr. R.P. Bhatnagar and Dr. Vidya Agarwal, n.3, p.8.

"' 0. Sheldon, Philosophy of Management (London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons,

1930) p.12.

"' Dr. B.R. Lulla and Dr. S.K.Murty, kentiah of Educatlbnal Administration

(Chandigarh: Mohindra Capital Publications, 1976) p.3. 136 Namita Roy Choudhuy, n. 13, p.40.

'" [bid. pp.41-42.

" Linda Elisson and Brent Davies, Education Management for the 1990's

(Essex: Longman, 1991) p.31.

""rnest C. Miller, Objectives and Standards: An Approach to Planning and

Control (New York: American Management Association, Inc., 1966) p. 138.

4" Eugene B. EUiot and Earl E. Moiser, Organisation of Planning for Education

(Chicago: University Press, 1995) pp.268-272.

" Namita Roy Choudhury, n.13, p.52.

4' Premila Chandrasekharan, n.9, p.64.

Harold Koontz and Heinz Weihrich, n.7, p.134.

" Ibid., p.186.

4s Namita Roy Choudhuy, 11-13, p.75.

4"bid., p 7 7 .

47 ibid, p.97.

48 Quoted by Gregory Bush, Leading and Managing in Education (New York:

Viking Press, 1989) pp.20-21.

4' Murgatroyd and Gray, Leade~h* and the Hfective School (London: Falmer

Press, 1984) p. 39.

'" T. J . Se lgiovanni, Educational Leademhb (Landon: Cassel, 1990) pp-24.

Harold Kooniz and Heinz Weihrich, n.7, p.317.

' Namita Roy Choudhuy, n.13, p. 103.

":' Abraham Maslow, Motivatio~l and Pe~onafi& (New York: Harper & Row,

1954) p.16.

" Dr. B.R. Lulla and Dr. S.K.Murty, n. 35, p.28.

" R . S . Pa nd e y , De velopmen t Strategies in Modern Indian Educa tion

(New Delhi: Kanishka Publishing House, 1997) p.1.

"aDr. R.K Mukherji quoted by Dr. R.K. S h a m and Dr. R.N. S h a m , History of

Educabbn in lndia (New Deh: Ailantic Pubhs hers, 19%) p.26.

57 S .S . Mat hur , Educational Adminishation, Principles and Practices (New

Defhi: Ashiwad Books, 1989) p.4.

" Dr. B.R. Lula and Dr. S.K. Murty, n.35, p.30.

" Dr. R.P. Singh, Educational Administration in India, Past and Pmsent

(New Delhi: Vignan Book, 1997) p.13.

'" Dr. R.N. Sharrna and Dr. R.K. Sharma, 11.56, p.54.

61 A.P. Howell, Education izl British lndia (Calcutta: Government Press, 1872)

p.1.

'' Quoted by Prof. S.N. Mukerji (Ed.) Administration of Education in lndia

(Baroda: Achaya Book Depot, 1962) p.3.

'' /bid. " Naik and Nurullah, A Studenis History of Education in India, 1800-1973

(New Delhi: Mcmillan Co. 1974) p.42.

'"arter V. Good, Dictiona y of Education (New York: McGraw-Hill, ) p. 13.

'" Quoted by S.N. Mukerji, 11.62, p.9.

" Prof. S.N. Mukerji, 11.62, p.88.

"' Dr. Ram Burdan, Educational Adminkhation: A Peep Into the Past

(New Delhi: Vision Books, 1997) p.16.

"' J . C . Ag ganval, De velopmez~ t and Planning of Modem Education: With

Special Reference to India, (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1982) p.1.

7" M. L. Sachdeva, A Critical Study of Centre-State Relationship in Education

fro~n 1871-1973 in Mia (New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, 1975) p.22.