Section 2

The Research Process and Delving into the Constructs of Research

Learning Objectives

At the end of this section you should be able to:

gain an overview of the research processes and view the stages in the research process.

develop an understanding about the good research in the field of inquiry (business and management sciences).

plan a quality of research in the field of business and management sciences.

aware of the research skills required to undertake research thesis.

delve deeper into the philosophical underpinning of the research journey.

familiarize with research paradigms/philosophies which help us to understand the production of knowledge and consequently the research process.

know the role played by research dissertation supervisor (s) and the kind of support they provide.

The Research Process

The series of steps a researcher is likely to go through when undertaking a research thesis/dissertation. Experienced and new researchers (you) go through similar stages when conducing a research. But:

There are some differences e.g., your research study needs to contain a certain amount of literature to support the study argument.

You also have a support during your research from the supervisor.

The majority of textbooks on research skills make reference to the research process by illustrating a series of stages. You must have to follow the logical series of steps.

All type of research is a multi-stage process that you must follow in order to undertake and complete the research study or dissertation/or thesis.

The precise number of stages varies, a typical example of the research process is as follow: (see next slide)

The Research Process (contd:)Establish an intention you need to have a basic purpose prior to carrying out your research.

Your focus will be on starting and eventually completing your research study within the time period laid down by the university.

Choosing a research topic - before you start you need a subject.

The nature of the research topic, how to generate ideas and establish research problem or question will be discussed throughout the course.

Conduct a literature review essential part of academic research and an acknowledgement of what has already been written on the chosen subject for research.

The existing literature that may help you to form the basis of present study and will be discussed in section -4.

The Research Process (contd:)Research design - a systematic plan of the data collection and analysis phases of your dissertation. The is full explored in section 5.

Address ethics the principles and values that underpin the way researchers conduct their research.Research ethics will be discussed in detail in section 4.

Collect data process of gathering the data from a wide range of sources.

These are likely to include both primary and secondary data. We will examine the main data collection methods in next few sections.

Analyze data process of analyzing your results to see the extent to which extent they address your research question/hypotheses.

The tools of analysis depend on whether you have collected quantitative or qualitative data. These tools are addressed in section 9,10,11.

Conclusion and write-up - at some point all the information that you have gathered, probably over several months or years, need to be concluded and written-up. The wrap-up of the research along with writing issues will discussed later on.

The Research Process in Your ContextAll type of research is a multi-stage process that you must follow in order to undertake and complete the research thesis. The precise number of stages varies. But:

Depending on the scope or subject matter of your research, there are number of steps/stages involved. Essentially these include:

Choosing a focus and identifying a research topicFraming and defining the research question/problemExploring the literatureDetermining how to conduct the study (strategy/method)Collecting, analyzing and interpreting the research dataDrawing conclusion and writing/submitting the report

In next few slides we will look briefly at each of the stages in the research process to give you an overview - greater detail will be discussed throughout the course.

1. Choosing Focus and Identifying a Research TopicYou may find a research topic suggests itself as a result of your coursework job interest or experience from the surrounding. For example:

You may be interested in the employment problems of minority groups in society, the difficulties of funding small business, what makes managers successful, or the commercial sponsorship of sport.

The possibilities are endless, but having identified a research topic which is of general interest to you, you can move on to the next stage.

Selecting a topic for research or Choosing a focus for the research:

Obviously, before you start you need a subject.

How do you select a topic/subject to study?

Among the important factors your choice must be base on personal inclinations; value judgments; and commercial aspects.

2. Framing and Defining the Research Question/ProblemIn our context every research begins with a research question or topic. In either case, (chosen or given) with any topic or focus it may be useful to ask yourself certain questions or cover issues that clarify in your own mind the extent of your investigation.

Key Question:

Define what you want to find out and explain why you wish to research this topic or area.

Establish why it is important for this research to be carried out (e.g., is the literature weak in this area? Would it be useful for practitioners to read and apply the result of your work?).

How data/information will be collected?

This clarifying process should enable you to develop and frame the questions youd like to set out to answer in your research thesis.

2. Framing and Defining the Research Question/Problem (contd:)Framing the research question/problem:

Background of the problem (e.g., unresolved issues, organizational or social concerns)

Delineation (description) of the research problem (explication of relationship among variables or comparison to be considered)

Statement of the problem situation (basic difficultyarea of concern, felt need).

A question well-stated is a question half-answered.

3. Exploring the Literature

Once you have decided on your research topic, you are ready to start your literature search.

The purpose of the literature review is to provide proof of scholarship, as well as help you to focus on your own topic, develop and support it.

To show that you know the literature and you have the intellectual capacity to read it and criticize it constructively.

By exploring what others have contributed to your area of interest, you will be able to find out:

what is already known,

identify any gaps,

see how your ideas compare with what has gone before, and

developing existing ideas or create new ones.

3. Exploring the Literature (contd:)When you are exploring the literature, you may follow the following procedure:

Select relevant small number of high-quality articles/material on your topic only.

Group the material into categories and comment on the most important features.

Compare the results of different studies, picking out those which have the most bearing (towards) on your research.

Set the context for your own study.

Be critical: you are not recording or describing other peoples work, you are providing a critique by pointing out the strengths and weaknesses of other research and evaluating other studies, theories, etc., with reference to your own study.

Trouble Shooting: Exploring the LiteratureProblem: a comprehensive literature review, you may find that your original research question is no longer appropriate or require reshaping.

For example:

You may discover that very similar work has been carried out elsewhere.

Solution: in this case you would need to refine your questions to concentrate on an area not explored fully in the other work, or concentrate on questions which add to the research already conducted.

This reforming of the research question is quite common and you should not feel obliged to stick rigidly to your original questions.

4. Determining How To Conduct The Study (Strategy/Method) Once you have framed and perhaps reshaped your questions, how will you actually go about answering them?

You will need to develop a strategy for your research. It includes the research plan, structure and the strategy of the investigation. For example:

Tools, techniques and instruments needed to collect and analyze the data.

Your research strategy should focus on the questions and explore the most effective and efficient ways of answering the these questions.

For example:

Your strategy should detail which research instrument you will use and how you will collect data (through documentary analysis, via telephone, questionnaires, through case study etc.)

4. Determining How To Conduct The Study (Strategy/Method) (contd:) The strategy forms a major part of the research and it is useful to develop a visual plan as part of the strategy indicating key milestones in the research.

For example:

Week 1 to 2

Develop questionConsult colleagues and refers to key journalsReview current research areas and write proposalWeek 3 to 4

Develop strategy for research and design instruments.Pilot instrument and refine instrumentSelect sample group and administer instruments.Week 10 to 13

Collate data and Analysis dataSubmit draft report to colleagues for commentWeek 14 to 16

Revise and submit the refined report.

5. Collecting, Analyzing and Interpreting the Research Data Do not underestimate the length of time it takes to collect data. In addition, do not overestimate the amount of data you are likely to be able to collect.

Many researcher expect to achieve a response rate of between 30% to 60% for questionnaires. Therefore, do not disheartened if, after all you work, only 30 out of 100 questionnaires are returned.

The ease of analyzing your data will depend on how well structured your instruments for collecting the data are.

The process of analyzing data can also take time and it may even produce results you did not expect to find.

Be prepared for this and allocate time to consider the implications of the data being different to how you expect them to be.

Can you explain this? Does, it necessitate further analysis or data collection?

6. Drawing Conclusion

Drawing conclusions from your data is often the most difficult part of a research thesis.

You may have considered your conclusions when designing or framing your research questions.

Once you have collected data you must ask yourself how the data answer your original questions.

For example:

Does it provide evidence (in your findings) upon which to make conclusions?

Do you consider alternative explanations for your conclusion?

Is your research topic subject to other factors perhaps not considered in your work?

6. Drawing Conclusion (contd:)It is not a major failing if you indicate that other work or external factors beyond the remit (forward) of your research affect your conclusion.

However, it would be a failing if you didnt mention them.

Make sure, do you indicate the strengths and weaknesses of research (methodological or approach)?

These are the types of questions you should seek to address in the conclusions of your research report.

The answer of these issues show that you have evaluated the approach you have taken in the work.

7. Writing and Submitting the Research Thesis/ReportOur MPhil research thesis, which takes an average period of six months, it is usual for 2 months to be given to the write-up of the work.

This s often in addition to notes and draft chapters written throughout the period of study.

The writing process often involves drafting and re-drafting.

Say 8-weeks research thesis you should aim to leave perhaps 2-weeks for writing the report.

The further detail will be discussed in the write-up section-7.

Research Process and Role of Supervisor Source: Adopted from Wilson, 2008

What is Good Research?

Good research generates dependable solution (s) to problem through the planned and systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data.

Good research follows the standards of the scientific method. The characteristics of good research are:

Purpose clearly defined.

Research processes must be defined and detailed.

Research design thoroughly planned

Exploratory or descriptive procedures must be outlined.

What is Good Research?(contd:)Ethical standards must be followed

Extensive analysis of the data and used methods should be appropriate.

The reliability and validity of data should be checked.

Unambiguously presentation of research findings.

Limitations must be acknowledged and detailed.

Conclusions must be justified.

Planning Good Research

Ten Steps are involved in planning the good research:

Basic difficulty what is it that has caught your interest or raised question in your mind?

Rationale and theoretical base can this be fitted into a conceptual framework that gives a structured point of view?

In other words, may I begin from a position of logical concepts, relationships, and fulfill the expectations based on current thinking in this area?

Can I build a conceptual framework into which my ideas can be placed, giving definition, orientation, and direction to my thinking?

Planning Good Research (contd:)Statement of the purpose or problem what is it that plan to investigate?

What are the general goals of the study? Define the problem.

Question to be answered when the research is finished, what are the questions to which reasonable answers can be expected?

Statement of hypotheses spell out the particular research hypotheses you will test or the specific objectives at which the research is aimed.

Be concrete and clear, making sure that each hypothesis is stated in terms of observable behavior allowing objectives evaluation of the results.

Planning Good Research (contd:)Design and procedures state who your subjects will be, how they will be selected, the condition under which the data will be collected, treatment variables to be manipulated.

What measuring instruments or data-gathering techniques will be used, and how the data will be analyzed and interpreted.

Assumptions what assumption have made about the nature of the behavior you are investigating, about the conditions under which the behavior occurs, about your methods and measurements.

What is relationship of this study to other persons and situations?

Planning Good Research (contd:)Limitations what are the limitations surrounding your study and within which conclusions must be confined?

What limitation exist in your methods or approach?

Delimitation how have you arbitrarily narrowed the scope of the study? Did you focus only on selected aspects of the problem, certain areas of interest, a limited range of subjects, and level of sophistication involved?

Definition of terms list and define the principal terms you will use, particularly where terms have different meanings to different people.

Emphasis should be placed on operational or behavioral definitions.

Delving into The Construct of Research If one is not wrong now you have some sense of What is Research? and What steps are to conduct a quality of research.

As I have mentioned in our learning objectives you must have a philosophical underpinning of the research game. Certainly, I will also discuss in more detail in Section 4.

Few decades ago, the construct of research was without too much contention (OLeary, 2011).

Research was a technical enterprise that followed the rules of scientific method.

The object of scientific enquiry might differ e.g., chemistry, biology, physics, the social, etc. But

Research was united by common objectives, logic, presuppositions, and general methodological approaches.

Social science came under the scientific paradigm and worked within its assumption (OLeary, 2011).

Delving into The Construct of Research (contd:)Social science enter the later half of the 20th century. However, many of its assumptions related to the production of knowledge began to be questioned, critiqued, and even denigrated (degraded).

The implication of social science has been a shift from sole reliance on approaches that follow positivist rules of scientific methods.

These methods reliant on hypothesis testing to more post-positivist approaches. But:The contention of social science about these approaches was - participative, collaborative, inductive, ethnography, exploratory and so on.

Now the social science has its own paradigms assumptions and building blocks/constructs of research for the production of knowledge.

Much of this shift can be understood through the exploration of these constructs. Yes, you would try your best to avoid or skip of this discussion and may get bored.

But keep in mind it is important to become familiar with these terms since and also help us to understand the production of knowledge and consequently the research process.

Research Paradigm

Research paradigm the progress of scientific practice based on peoples philosophies and assumptions about the world and the nature of knowledge, in this context how research should be conducted.

Paradigms are universally recognized scientific achievements that for a time provide model (replicate) problems and solutions to a community of practitioners (Kuhn, 1962).

They offer framework comprising an accepted set of theories, methods and ways of defining data and can mean different things to different people.

Morgan (1979) suggests that the term can be used at three different levels:

Philosophical level used to reflect basic belief about the world (the way you design your research, how you collect and analyze the data, the way you write your thesis).

Social level used to provide guidelines about how the researcher should conduct his/her endeavors.

Technical level used to specify the methods and techniques which ideally should be adopted when conducting research.

Research Paradigms/Philosophies

There are two main research paradigms and philosophies and can be labeled positivist and phenomenological (interpretivist).

During the course of your studies you may come across authors who use other terms like quantitative and qualitative.

The alternative terms for the main research paradigms are:

At MPhil level considerable study may be required to argue the appropriateness of a particular paradigm.

Positivistic ParadigmPhenomenological ParadigmQuantitative ObjectivistScientificExperimentalistTraditionalistsPost-positivist (thinking exist after the positivism)QualitativeSubjectivistHumanisticInterpretivistSocial ConstructivismAdvocacy and Participatory

Research Paradigms/Philosophies(contd:)Slife & William, (1995) suggested although philosophical ideas remain largely hidden in any research study but they influence the practice of research and need to be identified.

Creswell, (2009) suggest individuals preparing a research plan make explicit the larger philosophical ideas they espouse.

Obviously these information will help you to explain or justify why you chose qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods approaches for your research.

In writing about the basic set of beliefs (that guide action) might include a section in your research study that addresses the following:

The philosophical views of the study.

A basic definition of basic considerations of the philosophical views

How the philosophical view shaped the research approach (Creswell, 2009).

Assumptions of the Main ParadigmsCreswell (1994; 2009) draws on a number of other author to show the different assumptions of the two main paradigms. These are:

AssumptionQuestionQuantitativeQualitative

Ontological What is the nature of reality?Reality is objective and singular, apart from the researcherReality is subjective and multiple as seen by participant in a study.EpistemologicalWhat is the relationship of the researcher to that researched.Researcher is independent from that being researchedResearcher interacts with that being researched.AxiologicalWhat is role of values?Value free and unbiasedValue-laden and biasedRhetorical/MetaphoricalWhat is the language of research?Formal based on set definitions. Impersonal voice and use of accepted words.Informal evolving decisions. Personal voice and use of accepted words

MethodologyWhat is the process of research?Deductive process, cause and effect, statistic design categories isolated before study.Context-free. Inductive process. Mutual simultaneous shaping of factor. Emerging design categories identified doing research process.Contextual bound.

Ontology and Epistemology

At MPhil level argument - ontology and epistemology like what footings are to a house - and form the foundation of the whole edifice/structure.

More simply, your research foundations are a skin, not a sweater to be changed every day (Marsh and Furlong).

To be honest majority of your friends or gurus saying to you dont worry about such things (footings), as this left to philosophers and/or who have time to dwell/stay on the theories of being and knowledge.

But trust me if you want to present clear, precise and logical work, and engage & debate with others work, then:

you need to know the core assumptions that underlie their work and inform their choice of research questions, methodology, methods and even sources.

More simply, the familiarization of these terms (ontology and epistemology) help us to understand the debates and diversity related to the production of knowledge, and consequently the research processes you are about to engage in.

Ontology and Epistemology(contd:)Your gurus also suggest you : if you elaborate your ontological and epistemological background, then the wheel would truly be endlessly re-invented.

It is a waste of time to clarify your research footings, because it has been done before by others in different pieces of work.

This is not the case, there are several reasons for wanting to have a clear and transparent knowledge of the ontological and epistemological assumptions that underpin your research.

To understand the interrelationship of the key components of research (including methodology and methods).

To avoid confusion when discussing theoretical debates and approaches to social phenomena.

To be able to recognize others, and defend our own, positions.

Ontology & Epistemology (contd:)Ontology concerns our assumption about reality. The starting point of all kind of research, after which epistemological and methodology positions logically follow.

More simply the study of what exists, and how things that exist are understood and categorized.

Is there an objective or subjective reality? Must exist in our mind. For example:

Take your assumptions about what exists for granted because you believe you know what the real world is. For example:

You work as a manager, go to meetings, write reports, or make policy etc. You do not question whether these things are real or have an existence independent of you.

You know your car exists because you drive it. But -: Does your job exist if you are not there to perform it? Does your report describe what is really going on?

Ontology & Epistemology (contd:)Philosophers sometimes refer to these existential questions because they attribute existence to one set of things (reality) - but:

not to another (the unreal, metaphysical or fantastical/extraordinary).

Depending upon your perspective, you will give something the position of being real, while you disregard others.

These ontological assumptions about whether a particular phenomenon exists or is merely/just an illusion (e.g., culture, power, control) lead to arguments between those who - maintain different perspectives.

Ontology & Epistemology (contd:)Ontology -: (continued)

Subjectivists stand at one end of the reality continuum in their belief that something exists only when you experience and give it meaning. From this point of view -:

people create and experience realities in different ways because individuals and groups have their own assumptions, beliefs, and perceptions that lead them to do so.

Objectivists believe reality exists independently of those who live in it.

People react to what is happening around them in predictable ways because their behavior is part of the material world in which they live and is determined by causes, just as the behavior of matter.

Between these points of view you can find many combinations of subjectivism and objectivism.

Ontology & Epistemology (contd:)Ontology -: (continued) The main question addressed by ontology is what types of things actually exists. For example:

Objectivists/Empiricists believe that all knowledge is limited to what can be observed by the senses (their epistemology).

They do not acknowledge anything that cannot be measured (their ontology).

While - the main question addressed by epistemology is what are the rules for discovering what exists? For example:

Subjectivist believes there are ways of knowing (competing epistemologies), which lead to differing conceptions of real (alternate ontology). For example:

Those with religious epistemologies based on faith (rather than measurement) would say God is real even if you cannot physically touch him.

Ontology & Epistemology (contd:)Ontology -: (continued)

Blaikie (2000), suggest ontology claims and assumptions that are made about the nature of social reality:

Claims about what exists, what it look like, what units make it up and how these units interact with each other.

In short, ontological assumptions are concerned with what we believe constitutes social reality (the study of what exist).

The purpose of this discussion is to make you aware of the need to understand, acknowledge and define owns ontological position.

Ontology & Epistemology (contd:)Ontology -: (continued)

Whats an ontological position when I see one?

Ans: what is the nature of the business and management reality to be investigated?

alternatively, what exists that I might acquire knowledge of? this is rather significant question and one whose answer may determine, to a considerable extent (level), the content of the . analysis I am likely to engage in and, indeed, what I regards as an (adequate) . explanation (Hay, 2002).

It is only after the questions above have been asked that one can discuss what it is that I can know about this (business and management) reality that is thought to exist.

If ontology is about what we may know, then epistemology is about how we come to know what we know.

Ontology & Epistemology (contd:)Epistemology

Epistemology is concerned with study of knowledge and what we accept as to being valid knowledge.

In other words, how we come to have legitimate/justifiable knowledge of the world; rules for knowing.

This involves an examination of the relationship between the researcher and that which is being researched.

More simply concerned with the theory of knowledge, especially in regard to its methods, validation and the possible way of gaining knowledge of e.g., business and management reality, whatever it is understood to be.

In short, claims about how what is assumed to exist can be known (Blaikie, 2000).

Epistemology focuses on the knowledge-gathering process and is concerned with developing new models or theories that are better than competing models and theories.

Ontology & Epistemology (contd:)Epistemology -: (continued)

Knowledge, and the ways of discovering it, is not static, but forever changing.

when you reflecting on theories, and concepts in general, you need to reflect on the assumptions on which they are based and where they originate from in the first place.

Two contrasting epistemological positions within the research paradigms are: Positivism and Interpretivism.

The first position (positivism) advocates the application of the methods of natural sciences to the study of social reality and beyond.

The second position (interpretivism) advocates a strategy is required that respects the differences between people and the objects of the natural sciences and therefore requires the social scientist to grasp the subjective meaning of social action (Bryman, 2001).

Choosing one of these epistemological positions will lead you to employ different methodology than you would if you choose the other.

Ontology & Epistemology (contd:)Epistemology -: (continued)

Put in a more simple way epistemology is concerned with knowing how you can know.

Questions asked by those investigating epistemology include:

How do human generate knowledge?

What are the criteria by which they discriminate good knowledge from bad (e.g., true from false, valid from invalid, rational from irrational, scientific from pseudo-scientific).

How should reality be represented or described?

Epistemology is closely related to ontology because the answers to these questions depend on, and in turn help to forge/falsify, ontological assumptions about the nature of reality.

The Directional Relationship between Ontology, Epistemology, Methodology, Methods and SourcesIt is important that you understand how a directional relationship between the key building blocks ( see figure -1) of research affects the whole research process.

By setting out clearly the interrelationship between:

what a researcher thinks can be researched (ontological position) - linking it to:

what we can know about it (epistemology position) and :

how to go about acquiring it (methodological approach).

You can begin to comprehend the impact your ontological position can have on what and how you decide to study.

Also your ontological and epistemological assumptions, represents a choice of approach and research methods you adopt in a chosen study.

The method (s) chosen for a research thesis are inextricably linked to the research questions posed and to the source of data collected.

The Directional Relationship between Ontology, Epistemology, Methodology, Methods and Sources (contd:)

Axiological, Rhetorical/Symbolic and Methodological AssumptionsAxiological assumption- concerned with values.

Positivists believe that science and the process of research is value free- the objects they are studying are unaffected by their research activities. But:

These views are less convincing in the social sciences which are concerned with the activities and behavior of people.

Rhetorical assumptions- concerned with the language of research.

This is important when you write your research plan and final thesis. These documents should be written in a academic style which is acceptable to your supervisors and examiners.

Methodological assumptions- concerned with the process of research and determine the paradigm to adopt.

In simple words the overall approach to the research process.

Summary The Research Process Conducting research requires following sequence of steps.

select topicfocus question/problemdesign methodcollect dataanalyze datainterpret dataDiscussionConclusioninform others

These steps vary slightly by whether a study involves quantitative or a qualitative approach and data.

SummaryThe Building Blocks of ResearchWe have discussed a number of concepts in this session which may be new for you.

The simple meaning and relationship between these concepts can be summarized as follows.

Your personal research paradigm helps you to determine the ontology and epistemology of the subject of investigation.

This will guide you to decide which methodology to adopt and, in turn, the methodology you adopt helps you to determine how you will use different methods to collect your data.

Trust me if you understand thoroughly what we have discussed in this session, it gives you a very valuable framework which you can than use in a practical way to plan your research design.

Once you have chosen your research design, you will be in a position to develop your research proposal.

SummaryAxiological Assumption peoples assumptions about the role of values.

Epistemology the study of knowledge and what we accept as valid knowledge.

Epistemology Assumption peoples assumptions about the relationship of the researcher to that researched and it effect on the validity of knowledge.

Ontological assumption peoples assumptions about the nature of reality.

Paradigm the progress of scientific practice based on peoples philosophies and assumptions about the world and the nature of knowledge.

Ou ***o*