Argumentation: A PrimerArgumentation: A Primer

““Happiness is when everyone Happiness is when everyone agrees that I’m right!”agrees that I’m right!”

What is Argumentation?

– Argumentation -- clear thinking, logic to convince reader of the soundness of a particular opinion on a controversial issue.

– Persuasion -- emotions used to convince reader to take a particular action.

– Persuasion and argumentation are often combined.

Arguments must have the following:

• Logos

• Ethos

• Pathos

Logos

• "Logos" or soundness of argument -- facts, statistics, examples, and authoritative statements to support viewpoint.

• Evidence must be: unified, specific, sufficient, accurate, and representative. This is the main strength of the argument.

Pathos

• "Pathos" -- appeals to readers' needs, values, and attitudes, encouraging them to commit themselves to a viewpoint or course of action.

• Pathos is derived from language (connotative -- strong emotional overtones).

Ethos

• "Ethos" -- credibility and integrity. Prove to the reader that you're knowledgeable and trustworthy.

• Give a balanced approach, acknowledge differing points of view; give lots of support for your viewpoint.

There are two basic types of reasoning:• Inductive reasoning

-- draw a conclusion from using specific details.

• (Small to big)

• Deductive reasoning -- apply a generalization to a specific case.

• (Big to small)

There are lots of things to consider.

• First: There are perfectly wonderful, reasonable, intelligent people who disagree with you absolutely. (And there are dunderheads who may agree with you.) The moral: judge the argument, not the person.

Know what you know.

• You need to be certain of what you know as well as of what you are uncertain -- that knowledge affects your use of proofs as well as your use of language.

Don’t offend.

• Goodwill -- readers are more likely to listen to an argument if it is reasoned, cool, calm, and relatively dispassionate.

• Focus on the issues, not the reader or opponent.

Know the history.

• Be able to identify the controversy of your issue and why there is a controversy in the first place.

Know all sides.

• You should be able to see the validity of both (all) sides of an issue.

• Also, you should be able to determine what the two sides may agree on.

What can you do with both sides?• Refutations -- restate opposing points of

view, acknowledge the validity of some of the arguments given by opponents, point out common grounds, present evidence for your position.

• You must be able to refute the opposition in order to have a strong argument (and get an “A” on your essay).

Things to avoid:faulty conclusions, post hoc fallacy

(cause-effect sequential but not related); non sequitur fallacy (conclusion has no connection to evidence); ad hominem argument (attach person rather than point of view);

More things to avoid:

• faulty authority (when authority is in doubt); begging the question (reader expected to accept a controversial premise without proof); false analogy (two things share all characteristics if they share only a few); either-or fallacy (viewpoint can only have one of two solutions); red herring argument (deflect attention).

Structure

• There is no one “better” way to structure an argument. Whatever works, whatever is actually convincing, is the “right” way to do it.

• Do consider the “Rogerian” method, however, because it does contain all elements of a strong argument.

More stuff to think about:

• Always be thorough. Find out what you don’t know -- do your research -- and don’t spout nonsense.

• Avoid loaded words and prejudicial statements -- generalizations that are vague and often misleading and inaccurate.

Language issues:

• Vary sentences structure.

• Be aware of homonyms.

• Be aware of transitions.

• Be aware of connotations and denotations.

• Have a clearly identifiable thesis.

Things to remember.

• Avoid announcements. Please never say something like, “In this paper I will discuss…” That is fine for papers written in science or math classes, but it is not acceptable in an English class.

Possible Beginnings• Broad statement narrowing to a limited subject (end

introduction with thesis statement)• Brief anecdote leading up to thesis• Comparative or opposite ideas leading up to

thesis• Series of short questions leading to thesis• Quotes leading to thesis• Refutation of a common belief leading up to a

thesis• Dramatic fact or statistic leading to thesis

Possible Conclusions

• Summary of information presented (useful if your argument is long and/or complicated)

• Prediction based on information presented• Quotation leading to concluding statement• Statistics leading to concluding statement• Recommendation or call for action

Double Check These:

• Does the paper answer the assignment given?

• Does the paper address your audience?• Does the paper have the appropriate tone?• Does the paper serve the purpose intended?• Is the thesis clear and easily understood?• Add information where it appears to lack

adequate support.

More to remember:

• Delete useless or confusing information.• Do all of the supporting statements actually

support the thesis?• Are clear transitions used between thoughts,

ideas, paragraphs?• Are the introduction and conclusion adequate and

appropriate?• Is your organization systematic and methodical

(consistent throughout the paper)?

More to consider:

• Consider sentence structure and length.• Reconsider word choice. Never use profanity or

slang. Always identify abbreviations.• Proofread for correct grammar, punctuation,

typing errors.• REPEAT ALL OF THIS UNTIL YOU ARE

SATISFIED (or cannot stand to look at it anymore).

Last Items

• Give your paper a title• Make sure that your paper is on correct paper

stock, typed, and legible.• Make sure that your paper is properly identified

with your name, course title, date, and paper title• Make a copy of your paper and keep it as a record

for yourself• Turn in your paper on time