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Transcript of Argument pp 1
©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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THE STRUCTURE OF ARGUMENT
ANNETTE ROTTENBERG
DONNA WINCHELL
Chapter 1Understanding Argument
©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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Discussion Questions
How have you written papers or writing assignments containing Argument, in the past? E.g. plans, supporting ideas, research, data etc.
Were your Arguments convincing for the audience?What process did you use?When you listen to an argument – what are the factors
that convince you the argument is valid?
©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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A definition of Argument
Definition:
“Argumentation is the art of influencing others, through the medium of reasoned discourse, to believe or act as we wish them to believe or act”
©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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Stages of a thesis argument
There are three parts to an argument in thesis writing
1. Claim
2. Support
3. Warrant
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The Claim
The ClaimCan be a proposition - what you are trying to prove.Can be the “ thesis statement” of an essay.In some arguments it may not be stated directly, or
immediately.
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Types of Claim
3 principle types of claim
Claims of factClaims of valueClaims of policy
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Claims of fact:Assert that a condition did, does or will existBased on facts or data that the audience can verify
e.g. HORSE RACING IS THE MOST DANGEROUS SPORT
This claim must be supported by facts or data to be credible with the audience
Claims of fact
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Claims of value:Attempt to prove something is more or less desirable
than othersExpress approval/ disapproval of standards of taste/
moralityExhibited in advertising and cultural reviews
Claims of Value
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FOOTBALL IS ONE OF THE MOST DEHUMANISING EXPERIENCES A PERSON CAN FACE.
- Dave Meggyesy
ENDING A PATIENTS LIFE INTENTIONALLY IS ABSOLUTELY FORBIDDEN ON MORAL GROUNDS
- Presidential Commission on Medical Ethics, 1983
Claims of Value - Examples
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Claims of policy:Assert that specific policies should be instituted as
solutions to problemsUsually contain expressions such as ‘should, must or
ought’Call for analysis of both fact and value
e.g. PRISONS SHOULD BE ABOLISHED BECAUSE THEY ARE CRIME-MANUFACTURING CONCERNS
Claims of policy
©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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The Support
The support:Includes evidence and motivational appeals to
convince the audienceEvidence is data – including facts, statistics, experts
testimonialsMotivational appeals are arguments to the values and
attitudes of the audience‘Motivational’ as a word implies movement of an
audience to accept an idea and take action
©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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The Warrant:The assumption that underlies all claims we makeCan be stated or unstated, if the arguer believes the
audience backs the assumptionCan be stated for a doubting audienceThe ‘Warrant’ enables the reader to make the same
connection between claim and support as the author.
The Warrant
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Warrant ( unstated) - example 1
Claim: Adoption of a healthier diet leads to healthier and longer life.
Support: The authors of becoming a healthy family say so.
Warrant: Unstated because.....
The authors are published experts which presupposes their opinion is tested and valid, and reliable sources of information
©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Warrant ( stated ) – Example 2
Claim: Laws making marijuana illegal should be repealed
Support: People should have the right to use any substance they wish
Warrant: No Laws should prevent citizens from exercising their rights
The warrant here is stated because it appeals to ethical and legal issue/ values implicit in Western Society. It also clearly links the warrant with the claim by using the topic word ‘laws’.
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©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Warrants can be broad statements
Note: The warrants are in many cases more broader statements of belief than the claim.
i.e. they can be used to support many different claims.
e.g. Warrant: “No Laws should prevent citizens from exercising their rights” can be used to justify claims against many laws
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©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Audience
All arguments are composed with the audience in mindOften an argument is made in response to another writer
or speaker whose claims needs to be supported or opposedWriters of arguments should always anticipate a
disagreeing reader.
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©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Authors audience question check list
Self- check questions about the audience for the writer
Why/ Has this audience requested this report?What do they want to get out of it?How much do they already know about the subject?Are they divided or agreed on the subject?What is their emotional involvement with the issues?
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©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Importance of Credibility
Credibility - the key issue in winning over an audience “intelligence, character and goodwill” attributes which
produce credibility
Ethos, Aristotle
The writer must convince the audience of their following
attributes knowledgeable and well informedTruthful, morally upright and dependableGood intentions, taking into account the needs of others,
as well as himself.
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©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Other factors in successful argument
Other issues in Argument Discourse:
Defining key termsChoosing an Appropriate ClaimChoosing and documenting Appropriate sourcesAnalysing assumptionsAvoiding logical errorsEditing for appropriate language
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Defining Key Terms
Defining Key TermsMany controversial questions will be primarily of
definitionFor example, topics such as.....Racism, Pornography, Poverty, Freedom of Speech
etc. must be defined before solutions are proposed.This is vital so the audience understands how you are
using the key term
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©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Choosing an appropriate claim
Choosing an appropriate claimClarify to audience what the change in thought/ action
you want to achieve isConsider audiences current thinkingBe realistic about the extent of change you hope to
achieveBe realistic about how far the audience is able to effect
that change
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©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Sources for support
Choosing and Documenting appropriate sources:
Submit evidence of careful researchDemonstrate you have been conscientious in....Finding the best authoritiesGiving creditAttempting to arrive at the truth
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Analyzing Warrant assumptions
Analyzing AssumptionsConsider the warrant or assumption carefullyThe warrant need not be expressed if the audience will
reasonably not need proofBe prepared to defend any other warrant you include
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©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Avoiding Logical Errors
Avoiding Logical Errors
Understand how to use.....
- Inductive reasoning processes
- Deductive reasoning processesThese will help you to determine truth and validity of
yours and other argumentsIdentify and correct faulty reasoning
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©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Editing for appropriate language
Editing for Appropriate LanguageCareful use of language necessary to .....
- Define terms
- Express personal style
- Reflect clarity of thought
- Avoid clichésAvoid word choices that turn your audience off your
ideas
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©2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
And Finally......
Good luck with your Argumentative Discourse!
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