Argument Forms Ioan Despimcs.une.edu.au/~amth140/Lectures/Lecture_08/Lecture/...Modus (ponendo)...
Transcript of Argument Forms Ioan Despimcs.une.edu.au/~amth140/Lectures/Lecture_08/Lecture/...Modus (ponendo)...
Propositional LogicArgument Forms
Ioan Despi
University of New England
July 19, 2013
Outline
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Order of Precedence
1 connectives within parentheses, innermost parentheses first
2 βΌ3 β§, β¨4 β5 β
Some people actually place a higher precedence for β§ than for β¨.
To avoid possible confusion we shall always insert the parentheses at theappropriate places.
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Basic concepts
A logical argument is built from propositions, also called statements.
A proposition is a sentence which is either true or false,e.g.,
βThe first computer was built by Babbage.ββDogs cannot see blue colour.ββBerlin is the capital of Albania.β
Propositions may be eitherI asserted (said to be true) orI denied (said to be false).
The proposition is the meaning of the statement, not the particulararrangement of words used:
I βbeauty existsβ and βthere exists beautyβ both express the sameproposition.
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Basic concepts
An argument is βa connected series of statements to establish a definitepropositionβ (Monty Python).There are three stages to an argument:
1 premises β assertions,often introduced by βbecauseβ, βsinceβ, βobviouslyβ and so on.
2 inference β deriving new propositions from premises3 conclusion β the final stage of inference,
introduced by βthereforeβ, βit follows thatβ, βwe concludeβ, etc.
Typically an argument form will take the form
π1, π2, ..., ππ, β΄ π
where propositions π1, ..., ππ are the premises and proposition π is theconclusion.The above argument form can also be represented vertically by
π1π2...ππ
β΄ π
or by
π1π2...ππ
β΄ π
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Argument
Definition. (Argument)
An argument form (argument) is a finite set of statements called premises,together with a single statement, called the conclusion, which the premisesare taken to support.
Here is an example of a (deductive) argument:I Every event has a cause. (premise)I The universe has a beginning. (premise)I All beginnings involve an event. (premise)I This implies that the beginning of the universe involved an event.
(inference)I Therefore the universe has a cause. (inference and conclusion)
The symbol β΄ is used to indicate an argumentβs conclusion. It ispronounced βthereforeβ.
Symbolic logic does not care about the contents of arguments.
Symbolic logic studies the forms of arguments.
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Validity and invalidity
Definition. (Validity and Invalidity)
An argument is valid if and only if its conclusion must be true when itspremises are true. Otherwise, it is invalid.
The argument (π1, π2, . . . , ππ,β΄ π) is valid if and only if
the proposition (π1 β§ π2 β§ . . . β§ ππ) β π) is a tautology.
The fact that an argument is valid does not imply that its conclusionholds.
I This is because of the slightly counter-intuitive nature of implication.
Obviously a valid argument can consist of true propositions.However, an argument may be entirely valid even if it contains only falsepropositions (no contradiction of the definition), e.g.,
All insects have wings. (premise)Woodlice are insects. (premise)Therefore woodlice have wings. (conclusion)
The conclusion is not true because the premises are false. If theargumentβs premises were true, however, the conclusion would be true.The argument is thus entirely valid.
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Validity and invalidity (cont.)
One can reach a true conclusion from one or more false premises, as in:
All fish live in the sea. (premise)Dolphins are fish. (premise)Therefore dolphins live in the sea. (conclusion)
If the premises are false and the inference valid, the conclusion can betrue or false.
If the premises are true and the conclusion false, the inference must beinvalid.
If the premises are true and the inference valid, the conclusion must betrue.
To say that an argument is valid is not to say that the conclusion is true ,andTo say that an argumentβs conclusion is true is not to say that the argument is valid.
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Validity and invalidity (cont.)
Notice that a valid argument may have false premises and a falseconclusion.
Practical MethodThe validity of an argument can be tested through the use of the truth tableby checking if critical rows (the ones where all premises are true)will correspond to the value true for the conclusion.
An invalid argument is an argument which is not valid.I In other words, it has true premises but a false conclusion.
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Examples
Example
1. Show that (π β¨ π, πβ π, π β π,β΄ π) is a valid argument.
There are 3 variables (p, q, r) so we need 23 = 8 rows in our truth-table.
p q r0 0 00 0 10 1 00 1 11 0 01 0 11 1 01 1 1
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Examples
Example
1. Show that (π β¨ π, πβ π, π β π,β΄ π) is a valid argument.
There are 3 variables (p, q, r) so we need 23 = 8 rows in our truth-table.
p q r π β¨ π πβ π π β π0 0 0 0 1 10 0 1 0 1 10 1 0 1 1 00 1 1 1 1 11 0 0 1 0 11 0 1 1 0 11 1 0 1 1 01 1 1 1 1 1
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Examples
Example
1. Show that (π β¨ π, πβ π, π β π,β΄ π) is a valid argument.
There are 3 variables (p, q, r) so we need 23 = 8 rows in our truth-table.
p q r π β¨ π πβ π π β π0 0 0 0 1 10 0 1 0 1 10 1 0 1 1 00 1 1 1 1 1 β1 0 0 1 0 11 0 1 1 0 11 1 0 1 1 01 1 1 1 1 1 β
critical rows
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Examples
Example
1. Show that (π β¨ π, πβ π, π β π,β΄ π) is a valid argument.
There are 3 variables (p, q, r) so we need 23 = 8 rows in our truth-table.
p q r π β¨ π πβ π π β π0 0 0 0 1 10 0 1 0 1 10 1 0 1 1 00 1 1 1 1 1 β1 0 0 1 0 11 0 1 1 0 11 1 0 1 0 01 1 1 1 1 1 β
critical rows correspond to 1 for π
Valid arguments can have false conclusions.But a valid argument with a false conclusion must have a false premise.
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Examples
Example
2. Show that (πβ π β΄ Β¬πβ Β¬π) is an invalid argument.
p q Β¬π Β¬π πβ π Β¬πβ Β¬π0 0 1 1 1 10 1 1 0 1 01 0 0 1 0 11 1 0 0 1 1
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Examples
Example
2. Show that (πβ π β΄ Β¬πβ Β¬π) is an invalid argument.
p q Β¬π Β¬π πβ π Β¬πβ Β¬π0 0 1 1 1 10 1 1 0 1 01 0 0 1 0 11 1 0 0 1 1
β this critical row fails
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Examples
Example
3. Show that (π β§ π β΄ π) is a valid argument.
Example
4. Show that (πβ π, π β΄ π) (Modus Ponens) is a valid argument.
You can tell modus ponens is valid from the truth table for β:p q πβ πT T TT F FF T TF F T
In only one row (the first) are both premises (πβ π) and π true. And, inthis row, π is also true.
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Other Simple Argument Forms
Which of the following are valid?
1 (πβ π, π β΄ π)invalid
2 (πβ π, βΌ π β΄βΌ π)valid
3 (πβ π, βΌ π β΄ π)invalid
4 (πβ π, π β΄βΌ π)invalid
5 (πβ π, β΄βΌ πββΌ π)invalid
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More Examples
An argument form with contradictory premises is valid.
(πβ§ βΌ π, β΄ π)
The premise formula is a contradiction! Always false. So there is no rowon which the premise is true but the conclusion is false. Hence theargument form is valid, by our definition.
An argument whose conclusion is a tautology is valid.
(πβ π, π β¨ π, β΄ π β¨ βΌ π )
There is no row on which (π β¨ βΌ π ) is false, so it is a tautology. Hencethere is no row on which the premise formulas are true but the conclusionformula is false. Therefore the argument form is valid, by our definition.
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More Examples
Argument A has five premises and one conclusion.
All five premises are true, and the conclusion is true.
Is argument A valid?
Answer. Not enough information to tell. Whether an argument is validdoes not depend on the fact that the premises and conclusion are true.Rather, it depends on whether its possible for the premises to be true andthe conclusion false.
Argument B has two premises and one conclusion.
All two premises are true, and the conclusion is false.
Is argument B valid?
Answer. No. An argument is valid only if its impossible for the conclusionto be false when all the premises are true. Since you have been told thatthe premises are true and the conclusion is false, this is not impossible.So the argument is invalid.
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Converse, Inverse, and Contrapositive
Given the implication π β π
π is called the premise (or hypothesis) and π is called the conclusion.
For any such a proposition π β π, we also have
I π β π the converse of π β π
I βΌ π ββΌ π the inverse of π β π
I βΌ π ββΌ π the contrapositive of π β π
The inverse and the converse of an implication are not necesarily true.
The contrapositive of an implication is always true.
The following argument forms are invalid (aka fallacies):
πβ π β΄ π β π invalid!
πβ π β΄βΌ πββΌ π invalid!
Fallacies are mistakes of reasoning, as opposed to those that are of afactual nature.
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Examples
Write like if p then q
Maths teachers love their job.I let p = βteaching mathsβI let q = βloving your jobβI βIf you teach maths, then you love your jobβI its converse:
βIf you love your job, then you teach mathsβ (false)I its inverse:
βIf you donβt teach maths, then you donβt love your jobβ (false)I its contrapositive:
βIf you donβt love your job, then you donβt teach mathsβ(true)
Try yourself: Students hate homework.
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To sum up
β conditional: if p then q if true then
β converse: if q then p false
β inverse: if βΌ π then βΌ π false
β contrapositive: if βΌ π then βΌ π true
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Rules of Inference(Just another name for valid arguments)
modus ponens: πβ π, π β΄ π
modus tollens: πβ π, βΌ π β΄βΌ π
disjunctive addition: π β΄ π β¨ π
conjunctive addition: π, π β΄ π β§ π
conjunctive simplification: π β§ π β΄ π
Modus (ponendo) ponens [Latin] β the way that affirms by affirming
Modus (tollendo) tollens [Latin] β the way that denies by denying
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Rules of Inference(Just another name for valid arguments)
disjunctive syllogism: π β¨ π,βΌ π β΄ π
hypothetical syllogism: πβ π, π β π β΄ πβ π
division into cases: π β¨ π, πβ π, π β π β΄ π
rule of contradiction: βΌ πβ β₯ β΄ π
contrapositive equivalence: πβ π β΄βΌ π ββΌ π
Syllogism β a deductive scheme of a formal argument consisting of amajor (M) and a minor (m) premises, and a conclusion (C).
Example
All men are human; M
All humans are mortal; m
Therefore all men are mortal. C
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π β¨ π, π β π, π β§ π β π‘,βΌ π,βΌ π β π’ β§ π ,β΄ π‘
1 I π β π premiseI βΌ π premiseI β΄βΌ π by modus tollens
2 I π β¨ π premiseI βΌ π by (1)I β΄ π by disjunctive syllogism
3 I βΌ π β π’ β§ π premiseI βΌ π by (1)I β΄ π’ β§ π by modus ponens
4 I π’ β§ π by (3)I β΄ π by conjunctive simplification
5 I π by (2)I π by (4)I β΄ π β§ π by conjunctive addition
6 I π β§ π β π‘ premiseI π β§ π by (5)I β΄ π‘ by modus ponens
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πβ π β‘βΌ π β¨ π
We use a truth table to prove itπ π βΌ π βΌ π β¨ π πβ π0 0 1 1 10 1 1 1 11 0 0 0 01 1 0 1 1
We see that the last two columns (of interest!) are exactly the same,which means the two formulae are equivalent.
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πβ π, π β π,β΄ π
We use a truth table to see if this argument is validp q r πβ π π β π π0 0 0 1 1 00 0 1 1 1 10 1 0 1 0 00 1 1 1 1 11 0 0 0 1 01 0 1 0 1 11 1 0 1 0 01 1 1 1 1 1
The conclusion π fails at the first critical row, so the argument form is notvalid.
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π β π,βΌ π β¨ π, π β π β§ π,βΌ πβ§ βΌ π β π β¨ π‘,βΌ π, β΄ π‘
We use the basic inference rules to prove that this argument is valid:1 βΌ π,βΌ π β¨ π, β΄βΌ π (disjunctive syllogism)2 βΌ π, π β π, β΄βΌ π (modus tollens)3 βΌ π,βΌ π, β΄βΌ πβ§ βΌ π (conjunctive addition)4 βΌ πβ§ βΌ π,βΌ β§ βΌ π β π β¨ π‘, β΄ π β¨ π‘ (modus ponens)5 βΌ π, β΄βΌ π β¨ π (disjunctive addition)6 π ββΌ π β§ π, β΄ π ββΌ (βΌ π β¨ π) (De Morganβs law)7 βΌ π β¨ π, π ββΌ (βΌ π β¨ π), β΄βΌ π (modus tollens)8 π β¨ π‘,βΌ π , β΄ π‘ (disjunctive syllogism)
hence the argument form is valid.
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A Problem
Can you decide who killed E?
One person in a gang comprised of four members (say, A, B, C, and D) killeda person named E. A detective obtained the following statements from thegang members (letβs say ππ₯ denotes the statement made by π₯, whereπ₯ β {π΄,π΅,πΆ,π·}):
1 ππ΄: B killed E.
2 ππ΅ : C was playing with A when E was knocked off.
3 ππΆ : B didnβt kill E.
4 ππ·: C didnβt kill E.
The detective was then able to conclude that all but one were lying. Whokilled E?
Let us consider the following four statements denoted (1) to (4).The first two are true due to the detectiveβs work:
(1) Only one of the statements ππ΄, ππ΅ , ππΆ , ππ· is true.
(2) One of A, B, C, D killed E.
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A Problem (cont.)
From statements ππ΄ and ππΆ we know that(3) ππ΄ β ππ· is true because if ππ΄ is true, then B killed E
which implies C did not kill E [due to (2)], implying ππ· isalso true.
From (1), if ππ΄ is true, then all other three sentences (ππ΄, ππΆ ,ππ·) arefalse
(4) ππ΄ ββΌ ππ΅β§ βΌ ππΆβ§ βΌ ππ· is true.Let us examine the following sequence of statements:
(a) ππ΄ β ππ· (ππ΄,β΄ ππ·) from (3)(b) ππ΄ ββΌ ππ΅β§ βΌ ππΆβ§ βΌ ππ· from (4)(c) βΌ ππ΅β§ βΌ ππΆβ§ βΌ ππ· ββΌ ππ· conjunctive simplificant(d) ππ΄ ββΌ ππ· hypothetical syllogism from (b), (c)(e) βΌ ππ· ββΌ ππ΄ modus tollens from (a)(f) ππ΄ ββΌ ππ΄ hypothetical syllogism from (d), (e)
Notice that (a) and (b) are premises, (c) - (e) were obtained fromprevious ones.We call a sequence of this type a proof sequence, with the last entrycalled a theorem.
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A Problem (cont.)
The sequence (a) β (f) can be seen as special valid argument form, inwhich the truth of the first two statements will ensure the truth of therest of them.
We conclude that ππ΄ ββΌ ππ΄ is true, hence ππ΄ must be flase from therule of contradiction: if ππ΄ were true, then βΌ ππ΄ would be true, implyingππ΄ is false: contradiction.
From the definition of ππΆ we see that βΌ ππ΄ β ππΆ
From modus ponens βΌ ππ΄ β ππΆ ,βΌ ππ΄,β΄ ππΆ we conclude ππΆ is true.
Since (1) gives ππΆ ββΌ ππ΄β§ βΌ ππ΅β§ βΌ ππ· we obtain by using conjuctivesimplification(ππΆ ββΌ ππ΄β§ βΌ ππ΅β§ βΌ ππ·,βΌ ππ΄β§ βΌ ππ΅β§ βΌ ππ· ββΌ ππ·,β΄ ππΆ ββΌ ππ·)that is ππΆ β ππ·
Finally, from modus ponens (ππΆ ββΌ ππ·, ππΆ ,β΄βΌ ππ·) we conclude βΌ ππ·
is true, that is C killed E.
Verbal arguments in this case are more concise. Can you find them?
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