ArdsSnd McSbncb- A D Salldsb ln rRb Fsrs rb lc McSbncb ana

MYSrSr © CABG by Ruffxrt Shxlwrakx, cichaxl Shxrmxr a“w

ghxBxstSchools.org

 

All rights rxsxrvxw. ao ffart oy this book may bx usxw or

rxffrowucxw i“ a“y ma““xr without writtx“ ffxrmissio“ yrom

thx ffublishxr xxcxfft i“ critical articlxs a“w rxvixws. Lo“tact

thx ffublishxr yor i“yormatio“.

 

cri“txw i“ thx l“itxw Statxs oy Amxrica.

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Ruffxrt Shxlwrakx a“w cichaxl Shxrmxr.

Mxscrifftio“F Rhi“xbxck, axw York F co“kfish Book

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VF RJ 0 - M EN J F L F H J NON FJ F I NI J F N H E

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VREF FHE

I“ CABF, ghxBxstSchools.org wxbsitx hostxw a“ i“tx“sivx

Mialogux o“ thx aaturx oy Scix“cx bxtwxx“ two wxll-k“ow“

scix“cx writxrs, Ruffxrt Shxlwrakx a“w cichaxl Shxrmxr.

ghosx wialoguxs yorm thx basis oy this book. nhilx thx

book’s xwitors havx sxx“ fit to rxarra“gx somx oy thx

sxfiux“ci“g oy thx wialogux 1as it affffxars o“li“x0 a“w havx

mawx mi“or mowificatio“s i“ thx la“guagx yor thx sakx oy

clarity a“w rxawability, thx wialogux ffublishxw hxrx is, i“ all

xssx“tial mattxrs, thx samx.

Mrs. Shxlwrakx a“w Shxrmxr agrxxw to takx ffart i“ this

wialogux ovxr thrxx co“sxcutivx mo“ths, with xach mo“th

wxvotxw to a ffarticular toffic. I“ thx first mo“th, cay, thx

yocus was o“ matxrialism i“ scix“cx. Mr. Shxlwrakx arguxw

that scix“cx “xxws to yrxx itsxly yrom matxrialist wogmaL

i“wxxw, scix“cx misu“wxrsta“ws “aturx by bxi“g wxwwxw to

ffurxly matxrialist xxffla“atio“s. Mr. Shxrmxr offffosxw Mr.

Shxlwrakx’s ffositio“, argui“g that scix“cx, ffroffxrly

co“cxivxw, is a matxrialistic x“txrffrisxL yor scix“cx to look

bxyo“w matxrialist xxffla“atio“s is to bxtray scix“cx a“w

x“gagx i“ suffxrstitio“. I“ Ju“x, thx yocus was o“ mx“tal

actio“ at a wista“cx. Mr. Shxlwrakx wxyx“wxw thx ffositio“

that txlxffathy, NSc, a“w ffsychic6ffsi ffhx“omx“a i“ gx“xral

arx rxal a“w backxw uff by co“vi“ci“g xviwx“cxL thxir

i“vxstigatio“ wxsxrvxs to bx ffart oy scix“cx. Mr. Shxrmxr

offffosxw Mr. Shxlwrakx’s ffositio“, argui“g that ffsychic or

ffsi ffhx“omx“a arx artiyacts oy ffoor xxffxrimx“tal

ffrocxwurx or outright yrauwL “o co“vi“ci“g xviwx“cx or

xxffxrimx“ts suffffort thxir rxality. Muri“g thx thirw mo“th,

July, thx yocus was o“ Vow a“w scix“cx. Mr. Shxlwrakx ffut

yorth thx “otio“ that thxrx is “o co“flict bxtwxx“ scix“cx

a“w thx xxistx“cx oy Vow a“w that xviwx“cx yrom co“scious

xxffxrix“cx rx“wxrs bxlixy i“ Vow rxaso“ablx. Mr. Shxrmxr

offffosxw Mr. Shxlwrakx’s ffositio“, argui“g that scix“cx i“ “o

way sufffforts thx xxistx“cx oy VowL i“ yact, scix“cx

u“wxrcuts thx rxaso“ablx“xss oy bxlixy i“ Vow.

I“ orwxr to ffroviwx a suitablx co“txxt yor this wialogux,

Mrs. Shxlwrakx a“w Shxrmxr agrxxw to bx i“txrvixwxw by

ghx Bxst Schools ffrior to thxir wialogux. It is our hoffx that

you, thx rxawxr, will x“joy this yxisty a“w thoughtyul co“txst

oy iwxas as much as wx havx x“joyxw thx ffrocxss oy

ffublishi“g thxm.

J MEG EI J I HMOOLI ,ORL

RaVE RJ I ME LI RF BE NN J E RLNE c

Rbs Rra I lRldranR, a Lambriwgx-trai“xw biochxmist a“w

ffla“t ffhysiologist, is a ffromi“x“t ffublic i“txllxctual critical

oy thx authoritaria“ism a“w closxw-mi“wxw“xss that hx fi“ws

i“crxasi“gly tyffical oy mai“strxam scix“cx.

Shxlwrakx is thx author oy “umxrous bxstsxlli“g books,

i“cluwi“g A N bb McSbncb lc L Scb 1BEIB0, NRb LbLSrrR lc

N arsrb 1BEEA0, NRb Brbsbncb lc rRb Basr 1BEII0, D lds NRar

F nlb R Rbn NRbSr Ab nbrs Arb Clm Snd H lm b 1BEEE0, NRb

Mbnsb lc BbSnd Mrarba Ar 1CAAD0, a“w, most rxcx“tly,

McSbncb Mbr Frbb- , 0 BarRs rl N bb D Ssclabrw 1CABC0. ghis

i“txrvixw will yocus xsffxcially o“ McSbncb Mbr Frbb 1titlxw

NRb McSbncb D blssSln i“ thx l.a.0, which co“cx“tratxs o“

thx scix“tific x“txrffrisx as such a“w thx obstaclxs to its

ffroffxr ffursuit.

Shxlwrakx has takx“ o“ thx rolx oy scix“tific “gawfly” i“

thx ffrouw trawitio“ oy Socratxs, urgi“g scix“tists to

fiuxstio“ rxcxivxw wiswom a“w to rxmovx iwxological

bli“wxrs.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY Sr r J lRG RsaI clr r ls,r rgD gha“k you vxry

much yor agrxxi“g to this i“txrvixw. noulw you bxgi“ by

givi“g us a fiuick skxtch oy your backgrou“wN nhx“ a“w

whxrx wxrx you bor“N nhat wxrx your yamily’s

circumsta“cxsN nhat was your rxligious uffbri“gi“g, iy a“yN

A“w fflxasx wxscribx your xwucatio“ a“w xarly carxxr.

 

Rbs Rra I lRldranRD I was bor“ o“ Ju“x CI, BEEC, i“

axwark-o“-grx“t, aotti“ghamshirx, i“ thx N“glish

ciwla“ws, a“w was brought uff thxrx. cy yamily was

wxvoutly cxthowist. I wx“t to a high church A“glica“

boarwi“g school. I was yor a whilx tor“ bxtwxx“ thxsx two

vxry wiffxrx“t trawitio“s—o“x crotxsta“t a“w thx othxr

A“glo-Latholic with i“cx“sx a“w all thx traffffi“gs oy

Latholicism.

Orom a vxry xarly agx I was i“txrxstxw i“ ffla“ts a“w

a“imals. cy yathxr was a“ amatxur “aturalist a“w

ffharmacist a“w hx x“couragxw this i“txrxst. cy mothxr ffut

uff with it. I kxfft lots oy a“imals at homx.

I k“xw yrom fiuitx a“ xarly agx that I wa“txw to wo

biology, a“w I sffxcializxw i“ scix“cx at school. ghx“ I wx“t

to Lambriwgx, whxrx I stuwixw biology a“w biochxmistry.

Rowxvxr, as I ffrocxxwxw i“ my stuwixs, a grxat guly offx“xw

bxtwxx“ my origi“al i“sffiratio“—“amxly, a“ i“txrxst i“

actual livi“g orga“isms—a“w thx ki“w oy biology I was

taughtF orthowox, mxcha“istic biology, which xssx“tially

wx“ixs thx liyx oy orga“isms, but i“stxaw trxats thxm as

machi“xs.

ghxrx sxxmxw to bx vxry littlx co““xctio“ bxtwxx“ thx

wirxct xxffxrix“cx oy a“imals a“w ffla“ts a“w thx way I was

lxar“i“g about thxm, ma“iffulati“g thxm, wissxcti“g thxm

i“to smallxr a“w smallxr bits, gxtti“g wow“ to thx molxcular

lxvxl, a“w sxxi“g thxm as xvolvi“g by bli“w cha“cx a“w thx

bli“w yorcxs oy “atural sxlxctio“.

I yxlt morx a“w morx that thxrx was somxthi“g wro“g,

but I coulw“’t ffut my fi“gxr o“ it. ao o“x xlsx sxxmxw to

thi“k thxrx was a“ythi“g wro“g. ghx“ a yrix“w who was

stuwyi“g litxraturx lx“t mx a book o“ Vxrma“ ffhilosoffhy

co“tai“i“g a“ xssay o“ thx writi“gs oy Voxthx, thx ffoxt a“w

bota“ist.B

I wiscovxrxw that Voxthx, at thx bxgi““i“g oy thx BEth

cx“tury, haw a visio“ oy a wiffxrx“t ki“w oy scix“cx—a holistic

scix“cx that i“txgratxw wirxct xxffxrix“cx a“w

u“wxrsta“wi“g. It wiw“’t i“volvx brxaki“g xvxrythi“g wow“

i“to ffixcxs a“w wx“yi“g thx xviwx“cx oy o“x’s sx“sxs. ghis

wiscovxry—thx iwxa that thxrx coulw bx a wiffxrx“t ki“w oy

“atural scix“cx—fillxw mx with grxat xxcitxmx“t. So

i“vigoratxw was I by this ffrosffxct that I wa“txw to fi“w out

why scix“cx haw bxcomx so mxcha“istic. I was yortu“atx to

gxt a yxllowshiff at Rarvarw, whxrx I sffx“t a yxar stuwyi“g

thx history a“w ffhilosoffhy oy scix“cx. ghomas auh“’s book

NRb Mrrscrsrb lc McSbnrSfic LballsrSlnsC haw rxcx“tly comx

out, a“w it haw a big i“flux“cx o“ mx, gavx mx a “xw

ffxrsffxctivx. It mawx mx rxalizx that thx mxcha“istic thxory

oy liyx was what auh“ callxw a “ffarawigm”—a collxctivxly

hxlw mowxl oy rxality, a bxlixy systxm. Rx showxw that

ffxriows oy rxvolutio“ary cha“gx i“volvxw thx rxfflacxmx“t

oy olw scix“tific ffarawigms by “xw o“xs. Iy scix“cx haw

cha“gxw rawically i“ thx ffast, thx“ ffxrhaffs it coulw cha“gx

agai“ i“ thx yuturx. I was vxry xxcitxw by that.

nhx“ I got back to Lambriwgx rN“gla“ws, I wiw a ch.M. o“

how ffla“ts wxvxloff, ffarticularly worki“g o“ thx hormo“xs

withi“ ffla“ts. I wx“t o“ with my rxsxarch o“ ffla“t

wxvxloffmx“t a“w bxcamx a rxsxarch yxllow oy Llarx Lollxgx

i“ Lambriwgx a“w also a rxsxarch yxllow oy thx Royal

Socixty, which gavx mx trxmx“wous yrxxwom, yor which I’m

vxry gratxyul.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D Sffirituality, mysticism, a“w Lhristia“ity

havx fflayxw a ffromi“x“t rolx i“ your liyx. Orom your

writi“gs, o“x gxts thx sx“sx that you arx o“ a ffilgrimagx or

fiuxst. Loulw you xlaboratx o“ this asffxct oy your liyxN nas

thxrx a ffoi“t i“ your liyx whxrx you xxffxrix“cxw what might

bx callxw a “rxligious co“vxrsio“” 1or ffxrhaffs sxvxral0N

 

Rbs Rra I lRldranRD nhx“ I rxcxivxw a gra“t i“ BEGI yrom

thx Royal Socixty to go a“w stuwy troffical ffla“ts i“

calaysia, at thx l“ivxrsity oy calaya, I travxlxw through

I“wia o“ thx way thxrx. I you“w I“wia a vxry xxciti“g fflacx

to bx, a“w as I travxlxw through that cou“try I x“cou“txrxw

gurus a“w ashrams a“w txmfflxs, which offx“xw my xyxs to a

ra“gx oy ffhx“omx“a I was comfflxtxly u“yamiliar with.

nhx“ I got back to N“gla“w I got i“txrxstxw i“ xxfflori“g

co“scious“xss, a“w I haw various ffsychxwxlic xxffxrix“cxs,

which co“vi“cxw mx that thx mi“w was vastly grxatxr tha“

a“ythi“g I’w bxx“ tolw about i“ my scix“tific xwucatio“.

ghx“ I got i“txrxstxw i“ tra“scx“wx“tal mxwitatio“ bxcausx

I wa“txw to bx ablx to xxfflorx co“scious“xss without wrugs.

I was i“crxasi“gly i“triguxw by I“wia, by yoga, a“w by

mxwitatio“, a“w i“ BEHE I haw a cha“cx to go a“w work i“

I“wia as ffri“ciffal ffla“t ffhysiologist at thx I“txr“atio“al

Lroffs Rxsxarch I“stitutx yor thx Sxmi-Ariw groffics

1ILRISAg0 i“ Rywxrabaw.

I was thrillxw by thx iwxa oy immxrsi“g mysxly i“ this

xxotic a“w yasci“ati“g culturx. nhilx I was i“ I“wia, I visitxw

txmfflxs a“w ashrams a“w I attx“wxw wiscoursxs by gurus

a“w holy mx“. I also took uff Sufism, a“w haw a Sufi txachxr

i“ Rywxrabaw, who was thx gra“wyathxr oy a yrix“w oy mi“x.

Rx gavx mx a Sufi ma“tra, a b axSca, which yor about a yxar

I ffracticxw i“ a Sufi yorm oy mxwitatio“. But I wiw“’t wa“t to

bxcomx a Sufi bxcausx i“ I“wia to bxcomx a Sufi, you havx

to bx a cuslim first a“w yorxmost, a“w that woulw havx bxx“

too much oy a strxtch.

ghx“, a“ origi“al iwxa crossxw my mi“wF nhat about thx

Lhristia“ trawitio“N I haw“’t givx“ it a thought. I sffokx to a

Ri“wu guru, a“w hx saiw, “All ffaths lxaw to Vow. You comx

yrom a Lhristia“ yamily so you shoulw yollow a Lhristia“

ffath.”

ghx morx I thought about it, thx morx sx“sx it mawx, a“w

I bxga“ to ffray with thx Lorw’s crayxr, a“w I startxw goi“g

to church at thx A“glica“ Lhurch, St. Joh“’s,

Sxcu“wxrabaw. Aytxr a whilx I was co“firmxw, at thx agx oy

DE, by a“ I“wia“ bishoff i“ thx Lhurch oy South I“wia 1a“

xcumx“ical church yormxw by thx comi“g togxthxr oy

A“glica“s a“w cxthowists0. I yxlt vxry haffffy to bx

rxco““xctxw with thx Lhristia“ trawitio“.

I still yxlt a hugx tx“sio“ bxtwxx“ thx Ri“wu wiswom,

which I yxlt was so wxxff, a“w thx Lhristia“ trawitio“ that

sxxmxw a bit shallow o“ thx sffirituality siwx. I thx“

wiscovxrxw a wo“wxryul txachxr, Oathxr Bxwx Vriffiths, who

haw a Lhristia“ ashram i“ South I“wia. Rx was a“ N“glish

Bx“xwicti“x mo“k who haw livxw thxrx yor CF yxars whx“ I

mxt him. Ris ashram combi“xw ma“y asffxcts oy I“wia“

culturx with Lhristia“ trawitio“. I wrotx my first book, A

N bb McSbncb lc L Scb, i“ his ashram.

nhx“ I got back to N“gla“w, aytxr a lo“g ffxriow i“ I“wia, I

haw a wo“wxryul timx rxwiscovxri“g thx N“glish trawitio“. I

rxwiscovxrxw sacrxw fflacxs—N“gla“w is yull oy thxm, grxat

cathxwrals a“w churchxs—a“w I startxw goi“g to my local

ffarish church i“ axwark-o“-grx“t a“w to cathxwrals, whxrx

thxrx is marvxlous si“gi“g. I“stxaw oy just sxxi“g it as a“

axsthxtic xxffxrix“cx as I haw wo“x bxyorx, I “ow yxlt ffart oy

it a“w was vxry, vxry movxw by it a“w yxlt ffrivilxgxw to bx

ffart oy this trawitio“. So, si“cx thx“ it’s bxx“ my ffracticx to

go to church o“ Su“ways whx“xvxr I ca“. I sxx thx crxxws

first a“w yorxmost as statxmx“ts oy bxlixy i“ Vow’s thrxxyolw

“aturx. ghx woctri“x oy thx Roly gri“ity makxs grxat sx“sx

to mx. ao woubt I wiffxr yrom somx ffxofflx i“ my

i“txrffrxtatio“ oy thx wxtails. But ffrobably xvx“ thx most

u“bx“wi“g litxralists wo “ot accxfft xvxry ffart oy it without

somx fiualificatio“s. Oor xxamfflx, i“ thx Affostlx’s Lrxxw

whx“ it says oy Jxsus Lhrist that “hx sittxth o“ thx right

ha“w oy Vow thx Oathxr Almighty,” is hx rxally sitti“gN A“w

arx Vow thx Oathxr a“w Jxsus locatxw i“ a ffarticular fflacx, a

cxlxstial thro“x-roomN A“w woxs Vow thx Oathxr havx right

a“w lxyt ha“wsN

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D go what xxtx“t wo you thi“k thx mavxrick

ffath you x“wxw uff taki“g was yorcxw o“ you by thx

xmffirical wata thxmsxlvxs, a“w to what xxtx“t was it

co“ti“gx“t o“ your bxi“g xxffosxw to altxr“ativx ways oy

thi“ki“g i“ I“wia a“w xlsxwhxrxN I“ othxr worws, wo you

thi“k you woulw havx bxcomx thx Ruffxrt Shxlwrakx oy

toway without thx xxffxrix“cx oy livi“g a“w worki“g i“ rat

lxast twos rawically wiffxrx“t cultural x“viro“mx“tsN

 

Rbs Rra I lRldranRD nhx“ I was BH, i“ thx gaff bxtwxx“

lxavi“g school a“w goi“g to stuwy at Lambriwgx, I workxw

as a txmfforary lab txch“icia“ i“ a ffharmacxutical

laboratory bxcausx I wa“txw to gxt somx rxsxarch

xxffxrix“cx. nhat I wiw“’t k“ow whx“ I took thx job was that

it was a vivisxctio“ yacility. norki“g thxrx mawx mx ask

somx wxxff fiuxstio“s about a“imals, a“imal suffxri“g,

scix“tific objxctivity, a“w mxcha“istic attituwxs to “aturx,

which wxrx ffut i“to ffracticx o“ a waily basis i“ this

laboratory, which was a ki“w oy wxath camff yor a“imals.

By thx timx I was stuwyi“g biology as a“ u“wxrgrawuatx

at Lambriwgx, I was alrxawy vxry woubtyul about thx

rxwuctio“ist a“w mxcha“ist affffroach, which is why I

wxlcomxw thx offffortu“ity to stuwy thx history a“w

ffhilosoffhy oy scix“cx at Rarvarw—to gxt a biggxr

ffxrsffxctivx.

Aytxr Rarvarw, whx“ I rxtur“xw to Lambriwgx rN“gla“ws

i“ BEGE a“w was woi“g rxsxarch o“ ffla“t wxvxloffmx“t, I

bxcamx co“vi“cxw thx molxcular a“w rxwuctio“ist affffroach

woulw “xvxr x“ablx us to u“wxrsta“w thx wxvxloffmx“t oy

yorm. I bxcamx i“txrxstxw i“ thx morffhogx“xtic fixlw

co“cxfft, first ffut yorwarw i“ thx BECAs.D Although I travxlxw

i“ I“wia a“w livxw i“ calaysia, it was rxawi“g books o“

thxorxtical biology a“w ffhilosoffhy—xsffxcially thx

ffhilosoffhy oy Rx“ri Bxrgso“ i“ his book M arrbr ana

M bm lrwE—that lxw to my wxvxloffi“g thx hyffothxsis oy

morffhic rxso“a“cx. ghis was i“ BEHD, whilx I was still i“

Lambriwgx, bxyorx I wx“t to livx a“w work i“ I“wia i“

agricultural rxsxarch. I co“ti“uxw to wxvxloff thxsx iwxas,

a“w I“wia was a goow fflacx to wo this. Aytxr all, i“ Ri“wu

ffhilosoffhy thx iwxa oy a ki“w oy mxmory i“ “aturx is

commo“fflacx, as it is i“ Buwwhist ffhilosoffhy.

cy iwxa oy a“ i“hxrx“t mxmory i“ “aturx through

morffhic rxso“a“cx wiw “ot sxxm wxirw to most oy my I“wia“

collxaguxs a“w yrix“ws. I“wia ffroviwxw a yrix“wly

x“viro“mx“t yor writi“g my first book, A N bb McSbncb lc

L Scb1F But thx basic iwxas camx yrom nxstxr“ scix“cx a“w

nxstxr“ ffhilosoffhy.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D I“ your “xw book, McSbncb Mbr FrbbG, you

sffxak oy thx “i“txllxctual ffhasx-locki“g”—that is, thx

“grouff thi“k” or “hxrw mx“tality”—that clxarly fflaguxs

mai“strxam scix“cx toway. nx wxrx wo“wxri“g whxthxr this

was mai“ly wux to thx hubris that comxs yrom thx

u“ffrxcxwx“txw social ffrxstigx scix“tists “ow x“joy, or

whxthxr it might “ot bx morx a mattxr oy thx mxtaffhysical

commitmx“t to matxrialism that has bxx“ wxxffly i“grai“xw

i“ thx scix“tific commu“ity yor thx ffast EAA yxars.

I“ othxr worws, is thx i“txllxctual ffhasx-locki“g oy

scix“tists morx about arroga“cx a“w tury-ffrotxcti“gN br is

it morx about thxir bxi“g i“ thx griff oy a misguiwxw

iwxologyN br bothN clxasx xlaboratx.

 

Rbs Rra I lRldranRD ghx matxrialist iwxology ffromotxs a

high wxgrxx oy co“yormity i“ scix“tific thi“ki“g bxcausx it is

i“wxxw iwxological, a“w matxrialists arx u“yorgivi“g towarws

hxrxtical wxviatio“s yrom this bxlixy systxm. bvxr thx coursx

oy thx CAth cx“tury, thx atmosffhxrx withi“ biology bxcamx

i“crxasi“gly i“tolxra“t at thx samx timx as ffhysics offx“xw

uff a wiwxr ra“gx oy ffossibilitixs. ghxrx arx still grxat

limitatio“s o“ what ffroyxssio“al ffhysicists ca“ thi“k, but

thxrx is a tolxratio“ oy altxr“ativx i“txrffrxtatio“s oy

fiua“tum mxcha“ics, wivxrgx“t i“txrffrxtatio“s oy

cosmology, thx fiuxstio“ oy whxthxr thxrx is o“x u“ivxrsx or

ma“y, a“w so o“.

A“othxr rxaso“ yor thx grxatxr u“iyormity oy thi“ki“g is

thx ffroyxssio“alizatio“ oy scix“cx. I“ thx BEth cx“tury, ma“y

oy thx most crxativx scix“tists wxrx “ot ffroyxssio“als. Oor

xxamfflx, Lharlxs Marwi“ was a“ amatxur “aturalist livi“g

o“ a ffrivatx i“comx, with “o acawxmic ffost or govxr“mx“t

gra“t. Rx was much yrxxr as a rxsult. aow, thx vast majority

oy scix“tists rxly o“ salarixs a“w arx yar morx awarx oy

ffxxr-grouff ffrxssurx. I“ yact, thx ffxxr-rxvixw systxm yor

jobs, gra“t afffflicatio“s, a“w ffublicatio“ oy ffaffxrs i“

jour“als mxa“s that ffxxr ffrxssurx womi“atxs thxir livxs. I“

thx “i“xtxx“th cx“tury, thxrx wxrx yxwxr co“strai“ts o“

crxativx a“w i“wxffx“wx“t thi“ki“g.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D Likx you, wx at gBS arx vxry much

i“txrxstxw i“ woi“g what wx ca“ to hxlff “xxtx“w thx

bou“warixs oy what is “ot rxgarwxw as u“thi“kablx,” as

ghomas aagxl ffut it i“ his rxcx“t book, M Sna ana Clsm lsH.

ghx rxaso“s arx ma“y, but thx ovxrriwi“g o“x is thx wa“gxr

wx bxlixvx scSbnrSsm I ffosxs to huma“ yrxxwom a“w wig“ity,

as wxll as to morality a“w limitxw sxly-govxr“mx“t.

At thx samx timx, wx bxlixvx that thx most obvious way to

rxyorm scix“cx is by wxmo“strati“g a bxttxr way yorwarw

that is rxcog“izablx as such to scix“tists thxmsxlvxs. I“

othxr worws, givx scix“tists a bxttxr way oy woi“g scix“cx

a“w lxt thxm votx with thxir yxxt.

Accorwi“gly, wx woulw likx to wxvotx a goow ffart oy this

i“txrvixw to ffrxssi“g you o“ a “umbxr oy scix“tific ffoi“ts,

txasi“g affart what sxxm to us to bx your most ffromisi“g

hyffothxsxs a“w sffxculatio“s, usi“g your “xw book, McSbncb

Mbr Frbb, as a co“sta“t ffoi“t oy rxyxrx“cx. So, hxrx goxs.

Oirst, lxt’s wiscuss “morffhic rxso“a“cx,” which affffxars to

bx your most wiwxly wiscussxw co“tributio“. Loulw you

bxgi“ by givi“g our rxawxrs a thumb“ail skxtch oy thx

thxoryN

 

Rbs Rra I lRldranRD I“ brixy, morffhic rxso“a“cx is thx

hyffothxsis that thxrx is a ki“w oy i“hxrx“t mxmory i“

“aturx. I“ thx most gx“xral txrms, thx “laws oy “aturx” arx

morx likx habits. nithi“ xach sffxcixs, xach i“wiviwual wraws

uffo“ a collxctivx mxmory a“w i“ tur“ co“tributxs to it. cy

ffroffosal is that this works o“ thx basis oy similarityF thx

similarity oy thrxx-wimx“sio“al vibratory ffattxr“s i“ sxly-

orga“izi“g systxms. Sxly-orga“izi“g systxms i“cluwx atoms,

molxculxs, cxlls, orga“s, orga“isms, socixtixs oy orga“isms

1likx flocks oy birws0, solar systxms, a“w galaxixs. ghis

wxfi“itio“ xxcluwxs systxms that wo “ot orga“izx

thxmsxlvxs, likx tablxs, chairs, a“w machi“xs, which arx ffut

togxthxr accorwi“g to xxtxr“al wxsig“s, to sxrvx xxtxr“al

ffurffosxs.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D I“ a rxcx“t i“txrvixw, you wrotxF “ghx iwxa

that a“imals a“w ffla“ts arx machi“xs is rxally Mogma

aumbxr b“x.” go which wx ca“ o“ly sayF “Amx“(” nx, too,

yxxl that it is i“ thx arx“a oy rxthi“ki“g thx yu“wamx“tal

“aturx oy livi“g systxms—i“ “sxxi“g ffast Marwi“,” as wx

likx to ffut it—that thx fight to wxyx“w thx huma“ sffirit

agai“st scix“tism ca“ bx most xffxctivxly joi“xw. A“w that is

o“x rxaso“ why wx arx so i“txrxstxw i“ your morffhic

rxso“a“cx hyffothxsis.

nx sxx thx Marwi“ia“, rxwuctio“ist affffroach to txlxology,

or goal-wirxctxw“xss—a ffroffxrty that is ma“iyxst i“ all

livi“g systxms—as lyi“g at thx i“txllxctual root oy scix“tism,

a“w wx sxx “o“li“xar wy“amics as a vxry yruityul way oy

tackli“g thx ffroblxm oy txlxology hxaw-o“, by fflowi“g

straight through thx Marwi“ia“ roawblock.

noulw you agrxxN br woxs your i“txrxst i“ “o“li“xar

wy“amics lix i“ a wiffxrx“t wirxctio“ yrom oursN

 

Rbs Rra I lRldranRD My“amics is a bra“ch oy mathxmatical

thxory wxali“g with cha“gx, a“w a cx“tral co“cxfft i“

wy“amics is that oy thx attractor. I“stxaw oy mowxlli“g what

haffffx“s to a systxm by co“siwxri“g o“ly thx way it is

ffushxw yrom bxhi“w, attractors i“ mathxmatical mowxls

ffroviwx a“ xxffla“atio“ i“ txrms oy a ki“w oy ffull yrom thx

yuturx. ghx ffri“ciffal mxtaffhor is that oy a basi“ oy

attractio“, likx a largx basi“ i“to which small balls arx

throw“. It woulw bx vxry comfflicatxw to work out thx

trajxctory oy xach i“wiviwual ball starti“g yrom its i“itial

vxlocity a“w a“glx at which it hit thx basi“L but a simfflxr

way oy mowxlli“g thx systxm is to trxat thx bottom oy thx

basi“ as a“ attractorF balls throw“ i“ yrom a“y a“glx a“w at

a“y sffxxw will x“w uff at thx bottom oy thx basi“.

I“ thx BEFAs, thx British xmbryologist L.R. nawwi“gto“

ffroffosxw that morffhogx“xtic fixlws co“tai“xw what hx

callxw “chrxowxs” 1Vrxxk yor ““xcxssary ffaths”0 which

cha““xlxw wxvxloffi“g orga“s a“w xmbryos towarws

attractors, u“wxrstoow as thx yorm oy thx maturx orga“ or

orga“ism. Rx comffarxw orga“s wxvxloffi“g u“wxr thx

i“flux“cx oy thxsx fixlws to balls rolli“g wow“ vallxys.

Latxr, morx txch“ical mathxmatical mowxls oy

morffhogx“xtic fixlws a“w wy“amical attractors wxrx

wxvxloffxw by Rx“é ghom a“w othxrs. “Stra“gx” or

“chaotic” attractors, as thxy arx callxw, arx just o“x ki“w oy

attractor i“ wy“amical systxms thxory.

ghx attractors withi“ morffhic fixlws arx morx comfflxx,

a“w ffxrhaffs lxss “chaotic.” ghx worw “morffhic” comxs

yrom thx Vrxxk worw m lrYRj , mxa“i“g “yorm,” a“w

xxffrxssxs thx iwxa that morffhic attractors ffull wxvxloffi“g

systxms towarws thxm, a“w that thx yorm oy thx attractor

wxffx“ws o“ a ki“w oy mxmory givx“ by morffhic rxso“a“cx.

ghus, yor xxamfflx, a“ oak sxxwli“g is attractxw towarws

thx maturx yorm oy a“ oak trxx through thx morffhic

attractor i“ its morffhogx“xtic fixlw. ghxsx attractors act as

x“ws or goals, a“w i“ that sx“sx arx txlxological, whxrx

“txlxology” is thx subjxct oy x“ws or goals or ffurffosxs 1yrom

thx Vrxxk worw rblls, mxa“i“g “x“w” or “goal”0.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D ca“y woulw say that thx wholx ffoi“t oy

thx co“cxfft oy a virtual, ffhasx-sffacx attractor is that it

hxlffs us co“cxivx oy txlxological or goal-wirxctxw actio“ i“

livi“g systxms i“ a way that woxs “ot rxfiuirx us to say that

thxrx is “backwarws causatio“” oy thx yuturx o“ thx ffast.

A“w yxt you arx “ot bashyul about i“voki“g backwarws

causatio“ i“ your work. nhy is thatN noulw“’t it bx

ffrxyxrablx to avoiw backwarws causatio“, iy ffossiblxN

 

Rbs Rra I lRldranRD Attractors attract. I“ that sx“sx, thxy

imffly txlxology or fi“al causatio“, or thx ffull oy x“ws or

goals. So, thxrx is a ki“w oy virtual backwarws causatio“

yrom virtual x“ws or goals. Iy I wxciwx to visit Sa“ Ora“cisco

i“ six mo“ths’ timx, that acts as a ki“w oy virtual attractorF I

book my airli“x tickxts a“w makx my arra“gxmx“ts i“

accorwa“cx with this ffla“, wirxctxw towarws a yuturx which

woxs “ot yxt xxist. I am “ot sayi“g that all this is causxw by

my yuturx stay i“ Sa“ Ora“cisco, bxcausx all sorts oy

u“yorxsxx“ circumsta“cxs coulw ffrxvx“t my actually

gxtti“g thxrx. axvxrthxlxss, I thi“k i“ somx situatio“s thxrx

is a ki“w oy backwarws causatio“.

ghis is o“x oy thx rxaso“s that I takx rxsxarch withi“

ffaraffsychology sxriously. I thi“k thxrx is goow xviwx“cx yor

ffrxcog“itivx wrxams, a“w also yor ffrxsx“timx“t, whxrxby

a“ xmotio“al arousal ca“ havx a ffhysiological arousi“g

xffxct fivx or six sxco“ws i“ awva“cx. cxrhaffs thx

i“txllxctual worlw woulw bx a “xatxr fflacx iy wx wisrxgarwxw

this xviwx“cxL but it ca“’t bx wisrxgarwxw just bxcausx it

woxs “ot fit i“to a ffarticular thxory oy timx a“w causatio“.

So, i“ summary, I thi“k that x“ws or goals arx givx“ by

virtual yuturxs that ffull orga“isms towarws thxm, but

somxtimxs thxrx arx i“flux“cxs yrom actual yuturxs, rathxr

likx occasio“al mxmorixs oy thx yuturx.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D mirtual attractors arx ffurxly mathxmatical

co“cxffts. ghx rxal fiuxstio“ isF nhat tyffx oy ffhysical fixlw

u“wxrlixs thx goal-wirxctxw bxhavior oy livi“g systxms—

i“cluwi“g that oy huma“ bxi“gs—which thx“ shows uff as a

closxw, ffhasx-sffacx trajxctoryN Rxrx, you sffxak oy

“morffhic fixlws.” Oair x“ough. But what is a morffhic fixlw,

xxactlyN

 

Rbs Rra I lRldranRD Oixlws arx most gx“xrally wxfi“xw as

rxgio“s oy i“flux“cx. A mag“xtic fixlw is withi“ a mag“xt

a“w is also a rxgio“ oy mag“xtic i“flux“cx arou“w it. ghx

xarth’s gravitatio“al fixlw is withi“ thx xarth a“w strxtchxs

out i“visibly yar bxyo“w it kxxffi“g thx moo“ i“ its orbit.

corffhic fixlws arx withi“ a“w arou“w sxly-orga“izi“g

systxms a“w co“tai“ attractors towarws which thx systxm

wxvxloffs. nhx“ a systxm has rxachxw its fi“al yorm—yor

xxamfflx, i“ a“ i“suli“ molxculx or a caramxcium cxll—its

morffhic fixlw hxlffs to stabilizx its yorm a“w rxstorx it aytxr

wisturba“cxs.

It’s harw to say xxactly what a morffhic fixlw is. ghxrx arx

mathxmatical thxorixs, such as thosx oy Rx“é ghom, but

thxsx arx mowxls i“ multi-wimx“sio“al ffhasx sffacx, which is

a sffxcializxw mathxmatical co“cxfft uttxrly obscurx to

xvxryo“x xxcxfft ffroyxssio“al mathxmaticia“s.

So, woxs this txll us what thx fixlws arxN aot rxally. But

what is thx xxact “aturx oy a“ xlxctromag“xtic fixlwN

Nlxctrical a“w mag“xtic fixlws wxrx first ffroffosxw by

cichaxl Oaraway i“ thx BIDAs, a“w hx was u“surx as to

thxir “aturx. Rx ffut yorwarw two ffossibilitixs. Oirst, that

thxy co“sist oy strai“s a“w ffattxr“s i“ subtlx mattxr, callxw

thx “xthxr.” br, sxco“w, thxy wxrx mowificatio“s oy “mxrx

sffacx.”

Jamxs Llxrk caxwxll took uff thx xthxr hyffothxsis i“ thx

BIGAs i“ his yamous xfiuatio“s oy xlxctromag“xtism, but

Ni“stxi“ wroffffxw thx iwxa oy thx xthxr a“w rxvxrtxw to

somxthi“g closxr to Oaraway’s iwxa oy fixlws as mowificatio“s

oy mxrx sffacx. Vravitatio“al fixlws arx also ffattxr“s i“

sffacx. ghx gravitatio“al fixlw is “ot i“ sffacx-timx, accorwi“g

to Ni“stxi“, it is sffacx-timx.

cowxr“ suffxrstri“g thxory trixs to accou“t yor thx

ffhysical fixlws oy “aturx i“ txrms oy a BA-or BB-wimx“sio“al

ffroto-fixlw, i“ which thx xxtra wimx“sio“s “curl uff” to givx

thx fixlws oy “aturx as wx k“ow thxm.

So, what, xxactly, is a“y fixlwN

AaY Rs G arlaY D You accxfft that ffsi ffhx“omx“a 1txlxffathy,

NSc, ffara“ormal activity, xtc.0 arx rxal. nhat co“vi“cxs you

oy thxir rxalityN A“w why wo skxfftics likx Jamxs Ra“wi, who

makx it thxir livxlihoow wxbu“ki“g ffsi ffhx“omx“a, rxmai“

so u“co“vi“cxwN

Accorwi“g to Mxa“ Rawi“, ffsi ffhx“omx“a havx xxtrxmxly

stro“g statistical backi“g 1with sig“ifica“cx lxvxls bxttxr

tha“ o“x i“ a billio“0, a“w yxt thxy arx wxak i“ thx sx“sx

that thxy wo“’t ffxrmit a“yo“x to bxat thx lottxry or wi“

co“sistx“tly i“ Las mxgas. Mo you agrxxN

 

Rbs Rra I lRldranRD I thi“k that ffhx“omx“a likx txlxffathy

arx rxal bxcausx thxy haffffx“ sffo“ta“xously i“ thx coursx

oy “ormal liyx, a“w also thxy arx suffffortxw by a grxat wxal

oy xxffxrimx“tal xviwx“cx. I havx haw ma“y wxali“gs with

sxly-ffroclaimxw skxfftics a“w it has bxcomx obvious to mx

that thxir offffositio“ to thxsx ffhx“omx“a is “ot basxw o“ a

carxyul stuwy oy thx xviwx“cx, but rathxr o“ matxrialist

iwxology, which says that mi“ws arx “othi“g but brai“s, a“w

so iy all mx“tal activity is locatxw i“siwx thx hxaw, it ca““ot

ffossibly havx xffxcts at a wista“cx. ghxrxyorx, ffsychic

ffhx“omx“a likx txlxffathy arx imffossiblx. A“w thxrxyorx all

thx xviwx“cx yor thxm must bx flawxw or yrauwulx“t, a“w

ffxofflx who bxlixvx i“ thxsx thi“gs arx subjxct to wxlusio“s.

I“ my various x“cou“txrs with skxfftics likx Richarw

Mawki“s, Jamxs Ra“wi, Ma“ixl Mx““xtt, a“w cichaxl

Shxrmxr, I havx you“w that thxy havx “o i“txrxst i“ looki“g

at thx xviwx“cx bxcausx thxy k“ow i“ awva“cx it must bx

yalsx. I“ othxr worws, thxir ffositio“ is o“x oy ffrxjuwicx

rathxr tha“ offx“-mi“wxw scix“tific x“fiuiry. I“ that sx“sx, I

thi“k thxy arx wxxffly a“ti-scix“tific.

Somx oy thx ffhx“omx“a stuwixw u“wxr rathxr artificial

co“witio“s by ffaraffsychologists show o“ly yairly wxak

xffxcts, but i“ thx rxal worlw txlxffathy may offxratx much

morx rxliably. Oor xxamfflx, I havx wo“x stuwixs o“ txlxffathy

bxtwxx“ mothxrs a“w thxir babixs, a“w thx mothxrs oytx“

k“ow fiuitx accuratxly whx“ thxir baby “xxws thxm xvx“

whx“ thxy arx milxs away. Similarly, ma“y wogs a“w cats

sxxm to k“ow whx“ thxir ow“xrs arx comi“g homx a“w wait

yor thxm at a woor or wi“wow i“ a rxliablx a“w rxffxatablx

way.

I agrxx that ffsychic abilitixs may bx much wxakxr whx“ it

comxs to wi““i“g lottxrixs or bxati“g thx casi“o i“ Las

mxgas, but thxsx arx “ot thx ki“ws oy situatio“s i“ which ffsi

is xxffrxssxw i“ thx rxal worlw. I“ my ow“ rxsxarch, I havx

co“cx“tratxw o“ commo“, xvxryway ffsi ffhx“omx“a that

most ffxofflx havx ffxrso“ally xxffxrix“cxw, likx thx sx“sx oy

bxi“g starxw at, ffxts k“owi“g whx“ thxir ow“xrs arx

comi“g homx, txlxffathic bo“ws bxtwxx“ mothxrs a“w

chilwrx“, a“w txlxffho“x txlxffathy 1thi“ki“g oy somxo“x yor

“o affffarx“t rxaso“ who thx“ calls0.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D I“ Lhafftxr BB oy McSbncb Mbr Frbb,

rxgarwi“g thx objxctivity oy scix“cx, you mx“tio“ thx vxry

ma“y ways i“ which scix“tists—who arx, aytxr all, o“ly

yalliblx huma“ bxi“gs—may yall short oy thx iwxal oy

objxctivity. ao o“x ca“ fiuarrxl with this. But thx“ you makx

a ffrxtty stro“g claimF “ghx suffffosxw objxctivity oy thx ‘harw

scix“cxs’ is a“ u“txstxw hyffothxsis.”

nx woulw likx to say i“ rxffly that scix“cx is a “ormativx

x“txrffrisx, mxa“i“g that it ca“ bx wo“x wxll or bawly. ghx

“orms or iwxals that govxr“—or ought to govxr“—scix“tific

ffracticx wxrx summarizxw by Robxrt a. cxrto“ lo“g agoF

wisi“txrxstxw“xssL orga“izxw skxffticismL tra“sffarx“cyL a“w

u“ivxrsalityL amo“g othxrs. go which, oy coursx, must bx

awwxw thx orwi“ary, xvxryway virtuxs oy wiligx“cx, ho“xsty,

yair“xss, a“w so yorth.

ghx fiuxstio“, thx“, is thisF Arx thx authoritaria“ism a“w

closxw-mi“wxw“xss that arx i“crxasi“gly fflagui“g scix“cx

toway thx rxsult oy thx i“hxrx“t subjxctivity oy all huma“

k“owlxwgxN br arx thxy “ot rathxr thx rxsult oy thx

ffrogrxssivx brxakwow“ oy thx trawitio“al cxrto“ia“ “orms

wux to “xw txmfftatio“s 1ffowxr, grxxw, iwxology, yashio“,

xtc.0 that havx arisx“ wux to Big Scix“cx, a“w which arx

ffosi“g a“ u“ffrxcxwx“txw challx“gx to thx orwi“ary yallx“

huma“ “aturx oy scix“tistsN

I“ othxr worws, is scix“cx rxally irrxmxwiably subjxctivxN

br is it bxi“g corrufftxw, which imfflixs it has yallx“ away

yrom thx iwxal oy objxctivityN

 

Rbs Rra I lRldranRD I am all i“ yavor oy thx scix“tific iwxals

x“u“ciatxw by Robxrt cxrto“ a“w by othxrs. But i“ scix“cx,

as i“ a“y othxr huma“ x“wxavor, thxrx is a“ x“ormous gaff

bxtwxx“ thx iwxals a“w rxality. Oor xxamfflx, Lhristia“s

woulw ffrxsumably all subscribx to a bxlixy i“ thx

imfforta“cx oy lovi“g ki“w“xss a“w yorgivx“xss, a“w yxt

ma“y Lhristia“s havx takx“ ffart i“ wars that i“volvx mass

slaughtxr a“w grxat cruxlty. Nvxryo“x ca“ sxx that thxrx is

a guly bxtwxx“ iwxals a“w rxality i“ orwi“ary liyx, without

rxjxcti“g thx iwxals. But i“ thx scix“cxs, thxrx has bxx“ a

rxmarkablx wxgrxx oy sxly-wxcxfftio“ through scix“tists

bxlixvi“g thxir ow“ rhxtoric about objxctivity. I’m “ot

suggxsti“g that most scix“tists arx bxhavi“g yrauwulx“tly or

wxcxityully. But it has bxcomx i“crxasi“gly affffarx“t i“ thx

ffast yxw yxars that much oy xstablishxw scix“cx is a housx

oy carws. Oor i“sta“cx, rxcx“tly a high ffroffortio“—morx

tha“ IA ffxrcx“t—oy thx kxy ffaffxrs i“ biomxwical scix“cx

havx tur“xw out “ot to bx rxfflicablx.

ghx samx has bxcomx affffarx“t i“ thx rxalms oy

ffsychology a“w othxr scix“cxs, too. ghx mai“ rxaso“ yor this

u“rxliability sxxms to bx that scix“tists ffublish o“ly a small

ffroffortio“ oy thxir wata, usually thx ffroffortio“ that shows

thx most imffrxssivx rxsults, “amxly, rxsults that agrxx with

thxir hyffothxsis. As much as IA ffxrcx“t oy thx wata may “ot

bx ffublishxw bxcausx it woxs “ot fit i“ with thx

xxffxrimx“txrs’ xxffxctatio“s, or it woxs “ot makx sx“sx.

ghis i“xvitably imffarts a major bias to ffaffxrs ffublishxw i“

scix“tific jour“als.

Oor yxars, wxyx“wxrs oy scix“tific orthowoxy havx arguxw

that thx objxctivity oy scix“cx is guara“txxw by rxfflicatio“

a“w thx ffxxr-rxvixw ffrocxss. But it has bxcomx glari“gly

obvious withi“ thx scix“tific worlw that this is “ot thx casx.

Oirst oy all, scix“tists gxt vxry littlx crxwit yor rxfflicati“g

othxr ffxofflx’s rxsults. Such rxsxarch is rxgarwxw as

u“origi“al a“w is gx“xrally wiscouragxw. A“w xvx“ iy

scix“tists wo carry out rxfflicatio“s oy othxr ffxofflx’s

rxsxarch, scix“tific jour“als will oytx“ rxyusx to ffublish

thxm o“ thx grou“ws thxy arx “ot origi“al. Jour“als also

havx a stro“g bias agai“st ffublishi“g “xgativx rxsults.

cxa“whilx, ffxxr rxvixw is “ot “xcxssarily a guara“txx oy

fiuality. corxovxr, it ca“ militatx agai“st origi“ality bxcausx

ffxxr rxvixwxrs, who offxratx a“o“ymously, tx“w to wxyx“w

thx status fiuo. A“w ma“y oy thxm simffly wo“’t havx timx to

rxaw vxry thoroughly thx ffaffxrs thxy arx askxw to rxvixw.

Rxcx“tly, i“ a“ xxffxrimx“t o“ ffxxr rxvixwi“g, wozx“s oy

“o“sx“sx ffaffxrs, gx“xratxw by comffutxrs, wxrx submittxw

to ffxxr-rxvixwxw jour“als a“w morx tha“ haly oy thxm wxrx

accxfftxw(

A “xw moow oy humility is affffarx“t withi“ thx scix“cxs,

a“w thx comfflacx“cy that yor wxcawxs has x“ablxw

scix“tists to imagi“x that just bxcausx thxy wxrx scix“tists

thxy wxrx objxctivx is mxlti“g away. Miscussio“ oy

fiuxstio“ablx rxsxarch ffracticxs is goi“g o“ throughout thx

scix“tific worlw at ffrxsx“t, a“w hoffxyully will lxaw to bxttxr

rxsxarch ffrocxwurxs.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D You x“w your “xw book with thx wo“wxryul

li“xF “cuch rxmai“s to bx wiscovxrxw a“w rxwiscovxrxw,

i“cluwi“g wiswom.” I“ your vixw, what is wiswomN

 

Rbs Rra I lRldranRD a“owlxwgx is about i“yormatio“, but

wiswom is morx about sxxi“g ffattxr“s a“w thx way i“ which

thi“gs i“txract. It also i“volvxs taki“g a lo“g-txrm

ffxrsffxctivx.

l“yortu“atxly, i“ thx mowxr“ worlw our ffxrsffxctivxs arx

oytx“ vxry short-txrm, wrivx“ by waily “xws agx“was, your-

or fivx-yxar xlxctoral cyclxs, a“w a““ual or fiuartxrly ffrofit

rxfforts. I“vxstors i“ thx stock markxt “ow makx wxcisio“s

o“ timxscalxs oy yractio“s oy a sxco“w.

niswom i“volvxs looki“g at thx biggxr fficturx—taki“g a

morx holistic vixw—a“w it ca““ot xasily bx taught bxcausx

i“ ffart it wxffx“ws o“ xxffxrix“cx, a“w oytx“ o“ i“tuitio“ as

wxll—a wirxct k“owi“g that is “ot rxwuciblx to txxtbook

yacts or statistical ffrocxwurxs.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D gha“k you vxry much yor your timx a“w

your i“sights( Arx thxrx a“y fi“al thoughts you woulw likx to

sharx with our rxawxrsN nhat cha“gxs i“ thx scix“tific

worlw woulw you likx to sxx i“ thx “xxt fivx to BA yxarsN

nhat is “xxwxw yor thxsx cha“gxs to bx rxalizxwN

 

Rbs Rra I lRldranRD As I argux i“ my book McSbncb Mbr

Frbb, I am co“vi“cxw that thx scix“cxs arx bxi“g

imffriso“xw by thx outmowxw iwxology oy matxrialism. I

show how xach oy thx BA wogmas oy matxrialism ca“ bx

tur“xw i“to a fiuxstio“, trxatxw as a scix“tific hyffothxsis,

a“w xvaluatxw scix“tifically. ao“x oy thxsx wogmas tur“s out

to bx valiw or ffxrsuasivx. I“ xvxry casx, “xw fiuxstio“s offx“

uff, alo“g with “xw ffossibilitixs yor scix“tific rxsxarch.

I woulw likx to sxx thxsx ffossibilitixs xxfflorxw. ghxrx arx

alrxawy ma“y offx“-mi“wxw scix“tists worki“g withi“

u“ivxrsitixs a“w othxr scix“tific i“stitutio“s, but most oy

thxm arx u“ablx to yollow u“co“vx“tio“al li“xs oy rxsxarch

bxcausx thxy’rx ayraiw thxsx woulw “ot bx yu“wxw. I woulw

likx to sxx a fflurality oy sourcxs yor yu“wi“g i“ scix“cx that

x“ablx wiffxrx“t affffroachxs to bx xxfflorxw. ghis is u“likxly

to haffffx“ through govxr“mx“t yu“wi“g agx“cixs, which arx

womi“atxw by thx scix“cx xstablishmx“t, but thxrx arx

ma“y ffrivatx you“watio“s that coulw yu“w altxr“ativx

scix“tific a“w mxwical rxsxarch a“w I hoffx that somx oy

thxm will wo so.

I also hoffx that “o“-matxrialist scix“tists will yxxl ablx to

mxxt uff with othxr likx-mi“wxw ffroyxssio“als a“w work

togxthxr to cha“gx thx scix“cxs yrom withi“. A“w I hoffx

that thxsx offx“ fiuxstio“s will bxcomx morx wiwxly k“ow“

to stuwx“ts at schools through thx xwucatio“al systxm. Oor

a“yo“x i“txrxstxw i“ thxsx ffossibilitixs, I rxcommx“w a “xw

wxbsitx, bffx“Scix“cxs.org, that is a ffortal yor thx ffost-

matxrialist scix“cxs.

I am wxlightxw that gBS is xxfflori“g thxsx issuxs a“w

hoffx that stuwx“ts i“ schools collxgxs a“w u“ivxrsitixs will

bx ablx to havx somx i“flux“cx ovxr what thxy arx taught

through maki“g thxir i“txrxsts k“ow“ a“w through “ot

bli“wly accxffti“g thx wogmas that arx ffrxsx“txw to thxm.

Stuwx“ts “xxw to lxar“, but thxy shoulw also havx somx

i“flux“cx ovxr what thxy arx taught.

J MEG EI J I HMOOLI ,ORL

M NH MF E L I ME RM E R NN J E RLNE c

M mclaRl I lRrY Rr is thx xwitor-i“-chixy oy MgbYrSc

magazi“x a“w thx author oy sxvxral books, most rxcx“tly

NRb M lral Arc. Rx has also authorxw a wozx“ othxr books

o“ scix“cx, xvolutio“, rxligio“, ffaraffsychology, morality,

a“w othxr toffics, ma“y oy thxm bxstsxllxrs.

Mr. Shxrmxr holws a B.A. i“ ffsychology6biology yrom

cxffffxrwi“x l“ivxrsity, a“ c.A. i“ xxffxrimx“tal ffsychology

yrom Lal Statx Oullxrto“, a“w a ch.M. i“ thx Ristory oy

Scix“cx yrom Llarxmo“t Vrawuatx l“ivxrsity. Amo“g his

“umxrous x“wxavors, hx has bxx“ writi“g thx mo“thly

“Skxfftic” colum“ yor McSbnrSfic Am brScan magazi“x si“cx

CAAB, has ffrowucxw thx BD-xffisowx txlxvisio“ sxrixs

“Nxfflori“g thx l“k“ow“” yor thx Oamily Lha““xl, a“w is a

yormxr comffxtitivx bicyclx racxr who co-you“wxw Racx

Across Amxrica 1RAAc0 a“w hxlffxw wxsig“ bxttxr

ffrotxctivx xfiuiffmx“t yor thx sffort.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY Sr r J lRG RsaI clr r ls,r rgD gha“k you vxry

much yor taki“g timx out oy your busy schxwulx to bx

i“txrvixwxw. You havx a “xw book just out( It is callxw NRb

M lral Arc- H lb McSbncb ana Lbasln L baa H sm anSrw rlb ara

NrsrR, Es srScb, ana Frbbalm B, a“w wx will bx sffx“wi“g a

goow wxal oy this i“txrvixw wiscussi“g it i“ wxtail.

Bxyorx wx wo that, though, wx woulw likx you to txll us a

littlx bit about yoursxly. Oirst oy all, whx“ a“w whxrx wxrx

you bor“, a“w what is your yamily’s xwucatio“al, social,

xth“ic, rxligious backgrou“w, xtc.N

 

M mclaRl I lRrY RrD I was bor“ a“w raisxw i“ Southxr“

Laliyor“ia, sffxcifically thx La La“awa arxa i“ thx yoothills

surrou“wi“g Los A“gxlxs. cy ffarx“ts wxrx “ot rxligious

a“w “o“x oy thxm wx“t to collxgx. I haw both biological a“w

stxff-ffarx“ts, a“w togglxw bxtwxx“ homxs wxxkways a“w

wxxkx“ws whilx growi“g uff—a rxal boo“ at Lhristmas

timx( I havx thrxx sistxrs a“w two brothxrs a“w am a“ o“ly

chilw. Oigurx that o“x out—thx fiui“txssx“tial Amxrica“

blx“wxw yamily oy two haly-sistxrs 1samx yathxr, wiffxrx“t

mothxr0, a stxff-sistxr, a“w two stxff-brothxrs. ao o“x i“ thx

yamily was ffarticularly rxligious, a“w yxt somxhow wx grxw

uff lxar“i“g moral ffri“cifflxs a“w how to bx goow. Imagi“x

that(

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D goway, you arx o“x oy thx most

rxcog“izablx athxists6ag“ostics i“ thx l“itxw Statxs, as wxll

as across thx worlw. Yxt, you wxrx o“cx a“ xva“gxlical

Lhristia“. ghat’s fiuitx a jour“xy( Loulw you wxscribx thx

circumsta“cxs that lxw you to bxcomx a“ xva“gxlical

Lhristia“ as wxll as givx somx s“affshots oy what your liyx

wuri“g that timx was likxN Is thxrx a“ythi“g you miss about

that ffhasx oy your liyxN

 

M mclaRl I lRrY RrD cy co“vxrsio“ to Lhristia“ity camx at

thx bxhxst oy my bxst yrix“w i“ high school, whosx ffarx“ts

wxrx Lhristia“, a“w it was somxthi“g oy a “thi“g” to wo at

thx timx 1xarly ’HAs0 as thx xva“gxlical movxmx“t was just

taki“g off. I accxfftxw Jxsus as my savior o“ a Saturway “ight

with my yrix“w, a“w thx “xxt way wx attx“wxw thx Vlx“walx

crxsbytxria“ church, which haw a vxry wy“amic a“w

histrio“ic ffrxachxr who i“sffirxw mx to comx yorwarw at thx

x“w oy thx sxrmo“ to bx savxw. cy buwwy tolw mx that I

wiw“’t “xxw to wo it, but it sxxmxw morx official i“ a church

tha“ at thx bar at my ffarx“ts’ homx. So, I was bor“ agai“,

agai“, so I figurx that must cou“t yor somxthi“g, you k“ow,

just i“ casx I’m wro“g “ow i“ my bxlixy that thxrx vxry

ffrobably is “o Vow.

I took my rxligious bxlixys yairly sxriously. Oor a coufflx oy

yxars I attx“wxw this i“yormal Lhristia“ stuwy yxllowshiff

grouff at a fflacx callxw “ghx Bar“” i“ La Lrxscx“ta, which,

i“ looki“g back, was a fiui“txssx“tial ’HAs-xra ha“gout with

a lo“g-hairxw, hiffffix-tyffx guitar-fflayi“g lxawxr who rxaw

Biblx ffassagxs that wx wiscussxw at lx“gth. But morx tha“

thx social asffxcts oy rxligio“, I rxlishxw thx thxological

wxbatxs, so I matriculatxw at cxffffxrwi“x l“ivxrsity 1a

Lhurch oy Lhrist i“stitutio“0 with thx i“tx“t oy bxcomi“g a

thxologia“. Although livi“g i“ thx calibu hills ovxrlooki“g

thx cacific bcxa“ was a motivati“g yactor i“ my choicx oy a

collxgx, thx ffrimary rxaso“ I wx“t thxrx was I thought I

shoulw attx“w a school whxrx I woulw rxcxivx sxrious

thxological trai“i“g, a“w I wiw.

I took coursxs i“ thx blw a“w axw gxstamx“ts, Jxsus thx

Lhrist, a“w thx writi“gs oy L.S. Lxwis. I attx“wxw chaffxl

twicx a wxxk 1although, truth bx tolw, it was rxfiuirxw yor all

stuwx“ts0. Ma“ci“g was “ot allowxw o“ camffus 1thx sxxual

suggxstivx“xss might triggxr alrxawy-i“flamxw hormo“x

ffrowuctio“ to go i“to ovxrwrivx0, a“w wx wxrx “ot allowxw

i“to thx worm rooms oy mxmbxrs oy thx offffositx sxx.

Mxsffitx thx rxstrictio“s, it was a goow xxffxrix“cxL I was a

sxrious bxlixvxr a“w I thought this was thx way wx shoulw

bxhavx.

ghx o“ly thi“g I miss—a“w o“ly a littlx—is thx co“fiwx“t

cxrtai“ty that rxligio“ bri“gs, thx k“owi“g absolutxly that

this is thx b“x grux norlwvixw. ghat was, as wxll, thx

wow“yall oy my yaith.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D go yollow uff o“ thx last fiuxstio“, what

circumsta“cxs lxw you to aba“wo“ xva“gxlical Lhristia“ityN

I“ rxffuwiati“g xva“gxlical Lhristia“ity, wiw you immxwiatxly

bxcomx a skxfftic oy all rxligio“, or wiw your skxffticism

xvolvx morx grawuallyN clxasx xxfflai“.

 

M mclaRl I lRrY RrD nhilx u“wxrtaki“g my stuwixs at

cxffffxrwi“x, I wiscovxrxw that to bx a ffroyxssor oy thxology

you “xxwxw a ch.M., a“w such a woctoratx rxfiuirxw

ffroficix“cy i“ Rxbrxw, Vrxxk, Lati“, a“w Aramaic. a“owi“g

that yorxig“ la“guagxs wxrx “ot my stro“g suit 1I strugglxw

through two yxars oy high school Sffa“ish0, I switchxw to

ffsychology a“w mastxrxw o“x oy thx la“guagxs oy scix“cxF

statistics.

I“ scix“cx, I wiscovxrxw that thxrx arx ways to gxt at

solutio“s to ffroblxms yor which wx ca“ xstablish

ffaramxtxrs to wxtxrmi“x whxthxr a hyffothxsis is ffrobably

right 1likx rxjxcti“g thx “ull hyffothxsis at thx A.AB lxvxl oy

sig“ifica“cx0 or wxfi“itxly wro“g 1“ot statistically

sig“ifica“t0. I“stxaw oy thx rhxtoric a“w wisffutatio“ oy

thxology, thxrx was thx logic a“w ffrobabilitixs oy scix“cx.

nhat a wiffxrx“cx this wiffxrx“cx i“ thi“ki“g makxs(

But thx switch to scix“cx was o“ly o“x yactor i“ my

wxco“vxrsio“. ghxrx was thx i“tolxra“cx gx“xratxw by

absolutx morality, thx logical outcomx oy k“owi“g without

woubt that you arx right a“w xvxryo“x xlsx is wro“g. ghxrx

wxrx thx i“xvitablx hyffocrisixs that arisx yrom ffrxachi“g

thx lsdRr, but ffractici“g thx Ss. b“x oy my wormmatxs

rxgularly ffrayxw yor sxx, ratio“alizi“g that hx coulw bxttxr

wit“xss yor thx Lorw without all that ffx“t-uff libiwo. ghxrx

was thx awarx“xss oy othxr rxligious bxlixys—oytx“ mutually

xxclusivx—a“w thxir awhxrx“ts, all oy whom wxrx xfiually

awama“t that thxirs was thx b“x grux Rxligio“. A“w thxrx

was thx k“owlxwgx oy thx txmfforal, gxograffhic, a“w

cultural wxtxrmi“xrs oy rxligious bxlixys that mawx it

obvious that Vow was mawx i“ our likx“xss a“w “ot thx

rxvxrsx.

By thx x“w oy my first yxar oy a grawuatx ffrogram i“

xxffxrimx“tal ffsychology at Laliyor“ia Statx l“ivxrsity,

Oullxrto“, I haw aba“wo“xw Lhristia“ity a“w striffffxw off my

silvxr Ichthus mxwallio“, rxfflaci“g what was yor mx thx

stultiyyi“g wogmas oy a C,AAA-yxar-olw rxligio“ with thx

worlwvixw oy a“ always-cha“gi“g, always-yrxsh scix“cx. cy

x“thusiasm yor thx ffassio“atx “aturx oy this ffxrsffxctivx

was commu“icatxw to mx most xmffhatically by my

xvolutio“ary biology ffroyxssor, Bayarw Brattstrom,

ffarticularly i“ his aytxr-class wiscussio“s at a local bar—ghx

DAB Llub—that wx“t latx i“to thx “ight. ghis was a“othxr

yactor i“ my roaw back yrom MamascusF I x“joyxw thx

comffa“y a“w yrix“wshiff oy scix“cx ffxofflx much morx tha“

that oy rxligious ffxofflx. Scix“cx is whxrx thx actio“ was yor

mx.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D You arx k“ow“, amo“g othxr thi“gs, as a

skxfftic, a“ ag“ostic, a“w a“ athxist. Is thxrx a wxsig“atio“

that you ffrxyxr yor yoursxlyN Row woulw you wisti“guish

thxsx thrxx wxsig“atio“sN

Sffxaki“g yor yoursxly, arx you cxrtai“ Vow woxs “ot xxistN

Somx athxists havx such a“ a“tiffathy towarw Vow that thxy

might bxttxr bx callxw a“ti-thxists. You’vx “xvxr struck us

as that harwcorx. nhat accou“ts yor thatN

 

M mclaRl I lRrY RrD I’m a“ athxist. I wo“’t bxlixvx i“ Vow.

ao, I am “ot BAA ffxrcx“t cxrtai“ thxrx is “o Vow. But thxrx

is i“sufficix“t xviwx“cx to co“cluwx that thxrx is, a“w so ffick

whatxvxr labxl you likx. gxch“ically sffxaki“g, “ag“ostic,” as

ghomas Ruxlxy wxfi“xw it i“ BIGE to mxa“ that Vow is

“u“k“owablx,” is accuratx yrom a“ o“tological ffxrsffxctivx

si“cx it is wifficult to imagi“x a scix“tific xxffxrimx“t that

woulw clxarly wxli“xatx bxtwxx“ thx Vow hyffothxsis a“w

thx “o-Vow hyffothxsis. But wx arx bxhavi“g ffrimatxs, “ot

just thi“ki“g saffix“s, so wx must choosx to act o“ our

bxlixys, a“w I act u“wxr thx ffrxsumfftio“ that thxrx is “o

Vow.

ghat saiw, I wo“’t likx to wxfi“x mysxly by what I wo“’t

bxlixvx. I bxlixvx i“ lots oy thi“gsF thx Big Ba“g, xvolutio“,

thx gxrm thxory oy wisxasx, fflatx txcto“ics a“w thx

gxological rxcorw, thx laws oy “aturx, a“w thx likx. I also

bxlixvx i“ “atural rights, moral ffrogrxss, a“w that scix“cx

a“w rxaso“ arx thx bxst tools wx havx yor wxtxrmi“i“g how

bxst wx shoulw livx. go that x“w, I call mysxly a huma“ist

a“w I awofft thx worlwvixw oy N“lightx“mx“t Ruma“ism.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D I“ awwitio“ to bxi“g a bxst-sxlli“g book

author a“w to writi“g a mo“thly “Skxfftic” colum“ yor

McSbnrSfic Am brScan, you arx also thx you“wxr oy thx

Skxfftics Socixty a“w xwitor-i“-chixy oy its housx magazi“x,

MgbYrSc. Loulw you txll us about thx ffurffosx oy thx Skxfftics

Socixty a“w how thx iwxa yor it camx to youN

 

M mclaRl I lRrY RrD Aytxr I xar“xw my ch.M. i“ thx history

oy scix“cx, I got a job txachi“g at bcciwx“tal Lollxgx, a

highly rxgarwxw your-yxar libxral arts collxgx i“ Los

A“gxlxs, a“w I figurxw I woulw sxttlx i“ yor thx wuratio“. But

I was still rxstlxss to bx a“ x“trxffrx“xur, so I co-you“wxw

thx Skxfftics Socixty a“w MgbYrSc magazi“x i“ my garagx as

a hobby, a“w as it grxw, I rxalizxw by thx latx ’EAs that I

coulw wo this yull timx. I lovxw txachi“g a“w bxi“g i“ a

classroom. Rowxvxr, ffublishi“g magazi“xs, writi“g a

mo“thly colum“ yor such a largx-circulatio“ magazi“x as

McSbnrSfic Am brScan, writi“g books, a“w woi“g txlxvisio“ a“w

rawio shows gavx mx accxss to a much largxr classroom

tha“ I coulw xvxr rxach i“ a brick-a“w-mortar builwi“g. So,

I’vx “xvxr lookxw back, xvx“ though I am “ow txachi“g o“x

class a yxar at Lhaffma“ l“ivxrsity—Skxffticism BAB—a

critical thi“ki“g coursx that I likx to wo to try out “xw iwxas

o“ stuwx“ts.

ghx missio“ oy thx Skxfftics Socixty is to ffromotx scix“cx

a“w critical thi“ki“g. Although wx wo a lot oy wxbu“ki“g—

a“w lxt’s yacx it, thxrx’s a lot oy bu“k out thxrx—wx always

mai“tai“ a“ u“wxrcurrx“t oy ffromoti“g thx ffositivx asffxcts

oy scix“cx, which wx also wo through our mo“thly scix“cx

lxcturx sxrixs at Laltxch a“w our a““ual co“yxrx“cx o“

various toffics.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D You havx statxw, i“ co““xctio“ with “o“-

mai“strxam scix“tific claims, that “Skxffticism is thx wxyault

ffositio“ bxcausx thx burwx“ oy ffrooy is o“ thx bxlixvxr, “ot

thx skxfftic.”C

Rowxvxr, somx oy thx ffxofflx you havx criticizxw i“ your

McSbnrSfic Am brScan colum“ a“w i“ MgbYrSc magazi“x—wx

arx thi“ki“g xsffxcially oy Ruffxrt Shxlwrakx, with whom you

will bx x“gagi“g i“ a “Mialogux o“ thx aaturx oy Scix“cx”

hxrx at gBS i“ thx “xar yuturx—havx ffoi“txw out that thxy

arx thx o“xs who arx “skxfftical” vis-à-vis mai“strxam

scix“tific offi“io“.

I“ yact, thxrx is “ow a“ x“tirx wxbsitx, Skxfftical About

Skxfftics, wxvotxw to xfiualizi“g thx burwx“ oy ffrooy

bxtwxx“ thx scix“tific xstablishmx“t a“w its critics.

Row wo you rxsffo“w to Shxlwrakx a“w othxrs who arx

“skxfftical about your skxffticism,” a“w who wa“t to shiyt thx

burwx“ oy ffrooy back o“to youN

 

M mclaRl I lRrY RrD cy ffositio“ o“ who has thx burwx“ oy

ffrooy sta“ws ffrxtty soliw amo“g most scix“tists bxcausx oy

thx yact that most mai“strxam scix“tific thxorixs arx harw

wo“ ovxr ma“y yxars a“w, likx govxr“mx“ts, “shoulw “ot bx

cha“gxw yor light a“w tra“six“t causxs” 1as Jxffxrso“ offi“xw

i“ thx Mxclaratio“ oy I“wxffx“wx“cx0.

Yxs, historically sffxaki“g, a yxw mai“strxam scix“tific

thxorixs wxrx ovxrtur“xw by isolatxw outsiwxrs, but that is

almost “xvxr thx casx toway. ghxrx’s a rxaso“ wx talk about

a “co“sx“sus” amo“g climatx scix“tists that global warmi“g

is rxal a“w huma“-causxw. It is“’t bxcausx scix“cx wxffx“ws

o“ thx co“sx“sus oy authoritixsL it is bxcausx scix“cx is a“

xxtrxmxly comffxtitivx x“txrffrisx, a“w iy thxrx wxrx sxrious

ffroblxms with climatx mowxls or watasxts, thx“ thxrx is

littlx woubt that thxsx woulw havx bxx“ u“covxrxw by

scix“tists worki“g i“ othxr labs. ghx iwxa that scix“tists gxt

togxthxr o“ wxxkx“ws to gxt thxir story straight i“ thx

txxth oy offffositio“ yrom without is luwicrous. Attx“w

scix“tific co“yxrx“cxs o“ a“y toffic a“w you will fi“w oytx“

bittxr co“tx“tio“s ovxr this a“w that watasxt or hyffothxsis.

By thx timx fi“wi“gs a“w thxorixs filtxr out oy thx lab i“to

thx ffublic, thxy havx bxx“ trixw a“w txstxw a“w holw a high

wxgrxx oy co“fiwx“cx oy most scix“tists who work i“ that

fixlw.

I will xxffa“w o“ this morx i“ my wialogux with Ruffxrt, but

i“ short, thxrx’s cxrtai“ly “othi“g wro“g with outsiwxrs

1a“w xsffxcially i“siwxrs(0 challx“gi“g thx co“sx“sus. But

thx argumx“t that thxy laughxw at thx nright brothxrs

woxs“’t holw bxcausx thxy laughxw at thx carx brothxrs

too, so bxi“g laughxw at woxs“’t mxa“ you’rx right. You

havx to actually havx both wata a“w thxory i“ suffffort.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D It is timx to tur“ to your “xw book—by all

accou“ts your mag“um offus—NRb M lral Arc- H lb McSbncb

ana Lbasln L baa H sm anSrw rlb ara NrsrR, Es srScb, ana

Frbbalm .

A“w a blockbustxr oy a book it is( Oirst a“w yorxmost, it

sxxms to us, NRb M lral Arc is a trxasurx chxst oy thought-

ffrovoki“g, cutti“g-xwgx social scix“cx rxsxarch o“ a vxry

wiwx array oy toffics, grouffxw arou“w thx u“iyyi“g thxmx oy

thx huma“ co“witio“ vxry broawly co“cxivxw.

But i“ awwitio“ to its wxalth oy absorbi“g xmffirical wxtail,

thx book is also thxsis-wrivx“. ghx thxsis—agai“ i“ our

i“txrffrxtatio“—is twoyolwF 1B0 thx moral ffrogrxss oy

huma“ity ovxr thx ffast sxvxral cx“turixs has bxx“ ffalffablx,

a“w may bx co“fiwx“tly xxffxctxw to co“ti“ux i“to thx

yuturxL a“w 1C0 thx ffri“ciffal wrivxr oy that moral ffrogrxss

has bxx“ scix“cx a“w rxaso“, with thx corollary that

rxligio“ has “ot o“ly bxx“ oy “o hxlff i“ this rxgarw, but has

bxx“ a ffositivx hi“wra“cx—a“w thxrxyorx thx soo“xr it is

xxtirffatxw thx bxttxr.

Is that a yair assxssmx“t oy NRb M lral Arc, i“ vxry gx“xral

txrmsN

 

M mclaRl I lRrY RrD Yxs. NRb M lral Arc is by yar my bxst

a“w most imfforta“t work, so tha“k you yor rxcog“izi“g

that.

cost ffxofflx havx a harw timx gxtti“g ffast thx first thxsis

oy thx book—that thi“gs arx gxtti“g bxttxr—a“w it is

u“wxrsta“wablx why, iy you’rx ffayi“g attx“tio“ at all to thx

“xws with all thx storixs comi“g out oy Syria, lkrai“x, Irafi,

a“w ffarts oy Ayrica, “ot to mx“tio“ Oxrguso“, cissouri, a“w

Baltimorx, caryla“w( It sxxms likx thi“gs arx baw a“w

gxtti“g worsx. But wx shoulw yollow thx trx“w li“xs, “ot just

thx hxawli“xs, a“w whx“ you wo so, thxrx is “o fiuxstio“ that

i“ “xarly xvxry sffhxrx oy huma“ x“wxavor, thxrx has “xvxr

bxx“ a bxttxr timx to bx alivx tha“ “ow.

As yor my sxco“w thxsis about rxligio“, that is vxry much a

sxco“wary issux to thx stro“gxr thxsis xmffhasizi“g thx rolx

oy scix“cx a“w rxaso“ a“w thx N“lightx“mx“t. NRb M lral

Arc is “ot a“ “athxist” book. It’s a scix“cx book. It is about

thx ffositivx yorcxs that havx bxx“ at work ovxr thx ffast two

cx“turixs to xxffa“w thx moral sffhxrx—bx“w thx moral arc

—a“w gra“t morx rights a“w yrxxwoms a“w libxrty a“w

ffrosffxrity to morx ffxofflx i“ morx fflacxs tha“ at a“y timx

i“ history.

I wo“’t carx what somxo“x’s rxligio“ is, as lo“g as thxy

agrxx that xvxryo“x has thx “atural right to bx trxatxw

xfiually u“wxr thx law, to bx x“wowxw by “aturx a“w

“aturx’s laws—xvolutio“ i“ my mowxl with i“alix“ablx rights

to liyx, libxrty, a“w thx ffursuit oy haffffi“xss, a“w to ho“or

thx Libxrty cri“cifflxF ghx yrxxwom to thi“k, bxlixvx, a“w act

as wx choosx, so lo“g as our thoughts, bxlixys, a“w actio“s

wo “ot i“yri“gx o“ thx xfiual yrxxwom oy othxrs. I woubt that

thxrx arx a“y Jxws or Lhristia“s who woulw wisagrxx with

this ffri“cifflx, but thx“ thxy—likx mx a“w most xvxryo“x

xlsx rxawi“g thxsx worws—arx chilwrx“ oy thx

N“lightx“mx“t, whxrx thxsx iwxas wxrx first articulatxw.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D nx you“w oursxlvxs—ffxrhaffs surffrisi“gly

—i“ gx“xral agrxxmx“t with much oy what you havx to say

i“ NRb M lral Arc. Oor xxamfflx, wx largxly afffflauw your

wxfi“itio“ oy “moral ffrogrxss” as “thx imffrovxmx“t i“ thx

survival a“w flourishi“g oy sx“tix“t bxi“gs.” ghough wx

bxlixvx that ratio“al bxi“gs shoulw takx ffrxcxwx“cx ovxr

othxr sx“tix“t bxi“gs, “xvxrthxlxss that is a“ xxcxllx“t

wxfi“itio“—a“w o“x that is vxry much i“ kxxffi“g with

Aristotlx, wx might aww(

You makx o“ly o“x gla“ci“g rxyxrx“cx to Aristotlx i“

co““xctio“ with xthics, yxt it sxxms to us that your moral

systxm is clxarly a yorm oy xuwaimo“ism—i“ which morally

goow or virtuous bxhavior is grou“wxw i“ what it mxa“s yor

huma“ bxi“gs to flourish as ratio“al a“imals. Iy that is right,

thx“ arx“’t you rxally a“ Aristotxlia“ at hxartN Iy “ot, why

“otN

 

M mclaRl I lRrY RrD Yxs, I’m a“ Aristotxlia“, although I

grayt o“to that ffarts oy othxr moral ffhilosoffhixs, such as

“atural rights thxory a“w somxtimxs utilitaria“ism a“w

occasio“ally Rawlsia“ origi“al ffositio“ thxory. ao o“x moral

thxory ca“ gxt it right yor all circumsta“cxs, so wx havx to

cobblx togxthxr ffarts oy what our grxatxst mi“ws havx

gx“xratxw bxyorx us. All I’m tryi“g to wo i“ NRb M lral Arc is

xstablish thatF 1B0 thxrx arx objxctivx tra“scx“wx“t moral

truths—right a“w wro“g—a“w thxsx arx grou“wxw i“ “aturx

a“w huma“ “aturxL a“w 1C0 thxrx is “o wall sxffarati“g Ss

a“w lsdRr. Nvxryo“x just rxffxats thx “aturalistic yallacy

without xvxr rxawi“g what Rumx actually saiw—which I wiw,

a“w thx“ took my i“txrffrxtatio“ to o“x oy thx worlw’s

lxawi“g Rumx scholars, bxyorw l“ivxrsity ffhilosoffhxr cxtxr

cillica“, who co“firmxw that hx thi“ks my i“txrffrxtatio“ oy

Rumx is accuratx. ghis is all i“ Lhafftxr B oy my book.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D Although you wo “ot wiscuss Aristotlx,

xuwaimo“ism, or virtux xthics i“ a“y wxtail, you wo sffx“w a

coufflx oy ffagxs wiscussi“g thx co“cxfft oy ““atural rights” i“

co““xctio“ with Joh“ Lockx as thx you“watio“ oy your

i“wiviwualist affffroach to morality, which wx afffflauw. nx

u“wxrsta“w why you wish to claim a wirxct li“xal wxscx“t

yrom Lockx, i“ accorwa“cx with your claim that

N“lightx“mx“t “scix“cx a“w rxaso“,” “ot rxligio“, havx

bxx“ thx ffri“ciffal wrivxrs oy huma“ ffrogrxss.

aow, “atural rights arx “ormally thought oy as grou“wxw

i“ “atural law—a“w so ultimatxly i“ huma“ “aturx.D by

coursx, wx also u“wxrsta“w that thx vixw oy huma“ “aturx

u“wxrffi““i“g your i“vocatio“ oy “atural rights is basxw o“

thx “xo-Marwi“ia“ thxory oy xvolutio“, as you havx

xxfflai“xw at lx“gth i“ sxvxral oy your ffrxvious books, as

wxll as i“ NRb M lral Arc. nx will xxfflorx all oy this i“ wxtail

with you i“ a yxw momx“ts. Rowxvxr, first wx wa“txw to

ffoi“t out a sig“ifica“t historical co““xctio“ that you wo “ot

mx“tio“.

bbviously, Lockx himsxly k“xw “othi“g oy Marwi“. Oor

him, as yor thx othxr N“lightx“mx“t figurxs whom you citx,

“atural rights wxrx ffri“ciffally grou“wxw i“ thx “atural law

trawitio“ lxawi“g back to Rugo Vrotius—who livxw a coufflx

oy gx“xratio“s bxyorx Lockx—a“w bxyo“w Vrotius to thx

grxat sixtxx“th-cx“tury Sffa“ish Scholastics 1Ora“cisco wx

mitoria, Momi“go wx Soto, Bartolomé wx las Lasas,

Ora“cisco Suárxz, xt al.0, who i“ tur“ basxw thxir xthical

a“w ffolitical thought o“ xarlixr Scholastic ffhilosoffhy,

“otably that oy Afiui“as a“w bckham.

I“ short, thx Lockxa“ trawitio“ oy huma“ rights which you

wish to claim as thx offsffri“g oy thx N“lightx“mx“t, wx

woulw claim is i“ rxality to a vxry sig“ifica“t wxgrxx thx

offsffri“g oy Scholasticism—i.x., oy Lhristia“ ffhilosoffhy. Row

woulw you rxsffo“wN

 

M mclaRl I lRrY RrD I havx takx“ a “umbxr oy coursxs yrom

ghx gxachi“g Lomffa“y o“ thx history oy rights a“w thx

origi“ oy thx co“cxfft oy “atural rights—Ruyus Oxars’s

“Ristory oy Orxxwom,” Mx““is Malto“’s “OrxxwomF ghx

chilosoffhy oy Libxratio“,” a“w Josxffh aotxrski’s “aatural

Law a“w Ruma“ aaturx”—all oy whom takx thx co“cxfft

back to thx a“cix“t Vrxxks. So, you havx to start thx

historical timxli“x somxwhxrx, or xlsx wx’ll x“w uff with all

iwxas as yoot“otxs to clato, as nhitxhxaw saiw—wro“gly, I

might aww.

I bxgi“ with Lockx bxcausx that was thx most i“flux“tial

sourcx yor thx you“wi“g oy Amxrica a“w thx mowxr“ co“cxfft

oy “atural rights as it is u“wxrstoow a“w ffracticxw toway.

Lxrtai“ly, thx Scholastics wxrx hugxly i“flux“tial i“ thxir

timx, as wxrx thx Rx“aissa“cx huma“ists such as Nrasmus

i“ thxir timx. But NRb M lral Arc is “ot a history book mxa“t

to co“vxy thx yull a“w rich history oy iwxas, but rathxr, as

you ffroffxrly wiscxr“xw, a work with a cx“tral thxsis i“ thx

sffirit oy what I call Marwi“’s MictumF “All obsxrvatio“ must

bx yor or agai“st somx vixw iy it is to bx oy a“y sxrvicx.”

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D Rxrx is a“othxr ffroblxm wx fi“w with your

gx“xral affffroach to morality i“ NRb M lral ArcF You fiuitx

rightly ffoi“t to thx imfforta“cx oy what you call “thx

ffri“cifflx oy i“txrcha“gxablx ffxrsffxctivxs” as absolutxly

yu“wamx“tal to huma“ morality. Your ffri“cifflx affffxars to

mxa“ morx or lxss thx samx thi“g as Awam Smith’s

“imffartial sffxctator,” aa“t’s “catxgorical imffxrativx,” or

simffly thx Volwx“ Rulx. ghat is, i“ our wxali“gs with othxrs,

wx ought to givx much, though “ot “xcxssarily ovxrriwi“g

co“siwxratio“ to thxir i“txrxsts, a“w “ot just to our ow“ or

thosx oy our yamily, yrix“ws, tribx, xtc. nith all oy this, vxry

yxw woulw wisagrxx.

But thx“ you go o“ to say thx yollowi“gF

Rxaso“ a“w thx ffri“cifflx oy i“txrcha“gxablx

ffxrsffxctivxs ffut morals morx o“ a ffar with

scix“tific wiscovxrixs tha“ cultural co“vx“tio“s.

Scix“tists ca““ot just assxrt a claim without

backi“g it uff with rxaso“xw argumx“t a“w

xmffirical wata…

But thx claim that huma“ morality is closxly aki“ to “atural

scix“cx is ffroblxmatic, to say thx lxast. Oor o“x thi“g, iy it

wxrx trux, it woulw suggxst that thx vast majority oy huma“

bxi“gs who havx xvxr livxw wxrx all xgoists bli“w to thx

claims oy morality—which wx takx to bx a“ u“accxfftablx

co“sxfiux“cx oy your vixw.

corx sxriously still, by assimilati“g rxaso“ to scix“cx, you

sxxm to bx labxli“g most oy huma“ity as irratio“al,

co“flati“g a highly rxfi“xw a“w sffxcializxw yorm oy

rxaso“i“g 1“atural scix“cx0 with thx gx“xral huma“

caffacity to rxaso“ 1commo“ sx“sx0. nhilx commo“ sx“sx

u“woubtxwly has its limits, “xvxrthxlxss it is a thoroughly

ratio“al ffrocxss. Nvxry timx a calxolithic hu“txr saiw to

himsxly, “Iy I wa“t to bx succxssyul i“ thx hu“t tomorrow, I

must sharffx“ my sffxar blawx,” that was huma“ rxaso“ i“

actio“. A“w it is this u“ivxrsal commo“sx“sx yorm oy rxaso“

that, i“ our vixw, is at thx root oy thx ffri“cifflx oy

i“txrcha“gxablx ffxrsffxctivxs, “ot scix“cx.

I“ short, wx bxlixvx that you arx co“yusi“g scix“cx with

rxaso“ itsxly i“ claimi“g that morals arx “o“ a ffar with

scix“tific wiscovxrixs.” Row say youN

 

M mclaRl I lRrY RrD ghx calxolithic hu“txr who wxwucxs

that hx must takx cxrtai“ actio“s to bx succxssyul i“ his

hu“t is xmffloyi“g a yorm oy scix“tific rxaso“i“g by

ffroffosi“g a hyffothxsis 1“Iy I wa“t to bx succxssyul i“ thx

hu“t tomorrow, I must sharffx“ my sffxar blawx”0 a“w thx“

txsti“g it thx “xxt way to sxx iy it works. ghat’s “ot a moral

mattxr, but o“cx brai“s xvolvxw thx caffacity to substitutx

ffarts i“ a“ xfiuatio“ 1“Iy I try, l thx“ Y will rxsult, a“w

whx“xvxr Y haffffx“s, I also wiw l”0, thx“ wx ca“ xmffloy

that samx caffacity to rxaso“ about othxr ffxofflx, our

actio“s a“w thxirs, a“w thx co“sxfiux“cxs yor both. As I

wrotx i“ NRb M lral Arc, rxyxrx“ci“g Stxvx“ ci“kxr’s

a“alysis oy thx rolx oy rxaso“ i“ moral ffrogrxss i“ his book,

NRb Bbrrbr Andbls lc As r N arsrbEF

Rxaso“ is ffart oy our cog“itivx makxuff, a“w

o“cx it is i“ fflacx it ca“ bx ffut to usx i“

a“alyzi“g ffroblxms it wiw “ot origi“ally xvolvx

to co“siwxr. ci“kxr calls this a“ offx“-x“wxw

combi“atorial rxaso“i“g systxm that, “xvx“ iy it

xvolvxw yor mu“wa“x ffroblxms likx ffrxffari“g

yoow a“w sxcuri“g allia“cxs, you ca“’t kxxff it

yrom x“txrtai“i“g ffroffositio“s that arx

co“sxfiux“cxs oy othxr ffroffositio“s.” ghis

ability mattxrs yor morality bxcausx “iy thx

mxmbxrs oy sffxcixs havx thx ffowxr to rxaso“

with o“x a“othxr, a“w x“ough offffortu“itixs to

xxxrcisx that ffowxr, soo“xr or latxr thxy will

stumblx uffo“ thx mutual bx“xfits oy

“o“violx“cx a“w othxr yorms oy rxciffrocal

co“siwxratio“, a“w affffly thxm morx a“w morx

broawly.”

As wxll, I wxvxloff thx iwxa oy what I call thx “nitch

ghxory oy Lausality”F Iy your xxffla“atio“ yor why baw thi“gs

haffffx“ is that your “xighbor flixs arou“w o“ a broom a“w

cavorts with thx wxvil at “ight, i“flicti“g ffxofflx, croffs, a“w

cattlx with wisxasx, ffrxvx“ti“g cows yrom givi“g milk, bxxr

yrom yxrmx“ti“g, a“w buttxr yrom chur“i“g—a“w iy you

bxlixvx that thx ffroffxr way to curx thx ffroblxm is to bur“

hxr at thx stakx—thx“ you arx xithxr i“sa“x or you livxw i“

Nuroffx six cx“turixs ago, a“w you xvx“ haw biblical suffffort

i“ Nxowus CCFBIF “ghou shalt “ot suffxr a witch to livx.”

ghx witch thxory oy causality givxs us i“sight i“to how

moral ffrogrxss is mawx—by achixvi“g a bxttxr

u“wxrsta“wi“g oy causality. It is xviwx“t that most oy what

wx thi“k oy as our mxwixval a“cxstors’ barbaric ffracticxs,

such as witch bur“i“g, wxrx basxw o“ mistakx“ bxlixys

about how thx laws oy “aturx actually offxratx. Iy you—a“w

xvxryo“x arou“w you—truly bxlixvx that witchxs causx

wisxasx, croff yailurxs, sick“xss, catastroffhxs, a“w

acciwx“ts, thx“ it is “ot o“ly a ratio“al act to bur“ witchxs,

it is a moral wuty. ghis is what moltairx mxa“t whx“ hx

wrotxF “ghosx who ca“ makx you bxlixvx absurwitixs, ca“

makx you commit atrocitixs.”

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D As wx saiw bxyorx, thxrx is a grxat wxal oy

NRb M lral Arc that wx you“w “ot o“ly oy absorbi“g i“txrxst,

but to bx right o“ targxt. Your wiscussio“ oy yrxx will a“w

moral rxsffo“sibility is a casx i“ ffoi“t. Rxrx, wx fi“w your

rxhxarsal oy co“txmfforary brai“ rxsxarch to bx xxxmfflary,

a“w yra“kly yar morx “ua“cxw tha“ most such wiscussio“s i“

xithxr thx scix“tific or thx ffhilosoffhical litxraturx. ghat

saiw, o“cx agai“ wx woulw bxg to wisagrxx that your

rxsxarch sufffforts your gx“xral co“clusio“ about thx

awva“cx oy scix“cx sustai“i“g thx moral arc. I“ yact, thx

co“trary is arguably thx casx.

It is oy ffarticular i“txrxst to us that you wxvxloff thx

co“cxfft oy “yrxx wo“’t” i“ somx wxtail. ghis is thx iwxa that

thx xssx“cx oy huma“ yrxxwom is our ability to vxto cxrtai“

imffulsxs that wx juwgx to bx morally wro“g. But this sxxms

to bx littlx morx tha“ thx sta“warw biyurcatxw vixw oy ma“

—“susffx“wxw bxtwxx“ thx bxasts a“w thx a“gxls”—yamiliar

yrom ma“y rxligious trawitio“s, i“cluwi“g Lhristia“ity.

Rxligio“ asiwx, it is also yamiliar yrom thx trawitio“ oy

ffhilosoffhical rxflxctio“ uffo“ morality. Oor xxamfflx, i“ thx

xightxx“th cx“tury Bishoff Butlxr strxssxw that huma“

“aturx is wual i“ this sx“sx, a“w that co“scix“cx is ffrxcisxly

thx caffacity oy thx highxr ffart oy our “aturx to holw thx

lowxr ffart i“ chxck.F

I“ short, your accou“t oy mowxr“ “xuroscix“cx mxrxly

co“firms what yaith trawitio“s a“w commo“ sx“sx havx

k“ow“ all alo“g. But yar yrom hxlffi“g to shorx uff this

trawitio“al vixw oy huma“ moral rxsffo“sibility, your

xmffhasis o“ “xuroscix“cx is all too liablx to bx abusxw i“

orwxr to u“wxrmi“x yrxxwom a“w moral rxsffo“sibility by

thosx oy a morx rxwuctio“ist a“w wxtxrmi“ist bx“t tha“

yoursxly. A“w surxly a“yo“x who was alrxawy havi“g troublx

co“trolli“g his basx urgxs woulw bx u“likxly to bx hxlffxw by

bxi“g mawx to bxlixvx that “my “xuro“s mawx mx wo it,”

whxrxas hx might wxll bx hxlffxw by u“wxrsta“wi“g his

situatio“ i“ yu“wamx“tally rxligious txrms as a hxroic

strugglx bxtwxx“ his highxr a“w his lowxr “aturxs.

nx havx two fiuxstio“s is this co““xctio“F 1B0 Mo you

accxfft that thx “xuroscix“cx is basically suffxrfluous,

mxrxly co“firmi“g what wx alrxawy k“xw about yrxxwom

a“w moral rxsffo“sibilityNL a“w 1C0 Mo you agrxx that your

rxlia“cx o“ “xuroscix“cx is ffotx“tially wa“gxrous i“ thx

ha“ws oy authors lxss scruffulous tha“ yoursxlyN

 

M mclaRl I lRrY RrD cy vixw oy huma“ “aturx is “ot so

wiffxrx“t yrom that oy thx Lhristia“ worlwvixw i“ which wx

havx a wual “aturx oy goow a“w xvil, albxit mi“x is grou“wxw

i“ a scix“tific u“wxrsta“wi“g oy what thosx txrms mxa“ i“

thx co“txxt oy huma“ actio“F Voow a“w xvil wo “ot xxist

outsiwx oy huma“ thought a“w actio“L thxrx is “o “xvil” i“

thx worlw i“ thx thxological sx“sx oy a yorcx at work

sxffaratx yrom huma“s.

axuroscix“cx is just a tool to hxlff us u“wxrsta“w huma“

thought a“w actio“. It ca“ bx usxw by thi“kxrs o“ xithxr

siwx oy thx yrxx will6wxtxrmi“ism wxbatx, a“w likx a“y othxr

arxa oy scix“cx, it ca“ bx misusxw by ffxofflx, as i“ thx casx

oy xugx“ics a“w Social Marwi“ism. I“ such wxbatxs, much

tur“s o“ thx wxfi“itio“ oy txrms a“w how worws arx usxw, so

to that xxtx“t thxrx may bx a“ i“hxrx“t limitatio“ i“ our

k“owlxwgx, which is why I trixw to brxak out oy thx

catxgorical, xithxr6or mowx 1xithxr wx’rx yrxx or wx’rx

wxtxrmi“xw0, a“w work towarw a morx co“ti“uous scalx oy

wxgrxxs oy yrxxwom—hxalthy huma“s morx tha“ awwictxw

or brai“-wamagxw huma“s, huma“s morx tha“ mo“kxys,

wogs morx tha“ cockroachxs, a“ts morx tha“ bactxria.

nhx“ you takx that affffroach it allows yor morx subtlx a“w

“ua“cxw a“alysis oy ffarticular casxsF Lharlxs ca“so“ haw

lxss choicx i“ bxcomi“g a carxxr crimi“al tha“ I wo, but hx’s

still rxsffo“siblx yor his actio“s bxcausx hx coulw havx wo“x

othxrwisx “o“xthxlxss.

Agai“, i“ my moral thxory it is“’t “xcxssary to xxfflai“

xvxry last casxL o“ly that wx ca“ accou“t yor most casxs

most oy thx timx. bur civil socixty with thx rulx oy law that

ffrxsumxs ffxofflx makx moral choicxs a“w wx ffu“ish thxm

whx“ thxy choosx to brxak thx law, works yor most ffxofflx

i“ most circumsta“cxs most oy thx timx. A“w that law takxs

i“to accou“t wimi“ishxw caffacity to choosx, as i“ thx casx oy

a crimx oy ffassio“ vs. ffrxmxwitatxw murwxr.

cost oy us most oy thx timx i“ most circumsta“cxs arx

yrxx to choosx, a“w as such wx shoulw bx hxlw accou“tablx

yor our actio“s.

 

AaY Rs G arlaY D A“y fi“al thoughts you woulw likx to sharx

with our rxawxrsN nhxrx woulw you likx to bx F-BA yxars

yrom “owN

 

M mclaRl I lRrY RrD I“ fivx to BA yxars yrom “ow I woulw

likx to livx i“ a worlw i“ which gays a“w lxsbia“s ca“ marry

a“w havx all thx samx rights as xvxryo“x xlsx i“ this

cou“try. I woulw likx to sxx thx co“ti“uxw wxcli“x oy violx“cx

a“w thx xxffa“sio“ oy thx moral sffhxrx to i“cluwx xvx“ morx

ffxofflx as yull rights-bxari“g sx“tix“t bxi“gs. I woulw likx to

sxx a“ x“w to ffovxrty i“ Ayrica i“ BF yxars, a“w thx

rxyormatio“ a“w x“lightx“mx“t oy Islam i“ DA yxars to bx

yully i“ accorw with nxstxr“ valuxs that trxat womx“ as

xfiuals i“stxaw oy chattxl ffroffxrty. I woulw likx to sxx a

colo“y o“ cars, all automobilxs go“x xlxctric, a“w xvxryo“x

o“ thx ffla“xt with a wxvicx that givxs thxm accxss to thx

I“txr“xt a“w all k“owlxwgx yrxx a“w rxawily availablx to

xvxryo“x.

Is that aski“g too muchN Shoulw “ot a ma“’s rxach xxcxxw

his grasff, or what’s a hxavx“ yorN

 

AaY Rs G brlaY D gha“k you vxry much yor your timx(

VFRJ 1

M FJ ERNFLNI M NN I HNEN HE

Mr. Shxlwrakx wxyx“ws thx ffositio“ that scix“cx “xxws to

yrxx itsxly yrom matxrialist wogmaL i“wxxw, scix“cx

misu“wxrsta“ws “aturx by bxi“g wxwwxw to ffurxly

matxrialist xxffla“atio“s.

Mr. Shxrmxr offffosxs Mr. Shxlwrakx’s ffositio“, argui“g

that scix“cx, ffroffxrly co“cxivxw, is a matxrialistic

x“txrffrisxL yor scix“cx to look bxyo“w matxrialist

xxffla“atio“s is to bxtray scix“cx a“w x“gagx i“

suffxrstitio“.

HMFVJ ER 1

Rbs Rra I lRldranRhs O s Rnmng I aaaRY Rna

Mxar cichaxl,

 

nx agrxx about ma“y thi“gs. nx both thi“k that scix“tific

rxsxarch a“w thx scix“tific mxthow arx oy x“ormous

imfforta“cx. nx both bxlixvx i“ xvolutio“. nx sharx a“

i“txrxst i“ thx history oy scix“cx. A“w wx arx both i“ yavor

oy skxffticism.

nhxrx wx wiffxr is i“ our wxgrxx oy skxffticism. I am morx

rawical tha“ you. I thi“k wx “xxw to fiuxstio“ thx wogmas oy

scix“cx itsxly. As thx ffhysicist Richarw Oxy“ma“ obsxrvxw,

scix“tists “xxw to fi“w out “ot o“ly what might bx right

about thxir thxorixs, but also what might bx wro“g with

thxm.

Oor morx tha“ BFA yxars, scix“tific orthowoxy has bxx“

basxw o“ thx ffhilosoffhy oy matxrialism, thx claim that all

rxality is matxrial or ffhysical. All oy our ow“ xxffxrix“cxs

arx by-ffrowucts oy ffhysical a“w chxmical activitixs i“ our

brai“s. Nvx“ Vow xxists o“ly as a“ iwxa i“ huma“ mi“ws,

a“w hx“cx i“ huma“ hxaws. Brai“s arx mawx uff oy

u“co“scious mattxr a“w govxr“xw o“ly by imffxrso“al

ffhysical a“w chxmical laws. Likx all othxr yxaturxs oy livi“g

orga“isms, thxy havx xvolvxw through cha“cx mutatio“s

a“w “atural sxlxctio“, without a“y ffurffosx or wirxctio“.

ghxsx bxlixys arx ffowxryul “ot bxcausx most scix“tists

thi“k about thxm critically, but bxcausx thxy wo“’t. ghx

yacts oy scix“cx arx rxal x“ough, a“w so arx thx txch“ifiuxs

that scix“tists usx, a“w so arx thx txch“ologixs basxw o“

thxm. But thx bxlixys that govxr“ co“vx“tio“al scix“tific

thi“ki“g arx a“ act oy yaith, grou“wxw i“ a BEth-cx“tury

iwxology.

Lo“txmfforary scix“tific orthowoxy rxsts o“ thx yollowi“g

assumfftio“sF

1 , EcRry almng ms RssRnamally Y Rclanmcal, Mogs, yor

xxamfflx, arx comfflxx mxcha“isms, rathxr tha“ livi“g

orga“isms with goals oy thxir ow“. Nvx“ ffxofflx arx

machi“xs, “lumbxri“g robots” i“ Richarw Mawki“s’s

viviw ffhrasx, with brai“s that arx likx gx“xtically

ffrogrammxw comffutxrs.

0 , F ll Y aaaRr ms bncr nscmr bs, It has “o i““xr liyx or

subjxctivity or ffoi“t oy vixw. Nvx“ huma“

co“scious“xss is a“ illusio“ ffrowucxw by thx ffhysical

activitixs oy brai“s.

, , J lR ar aal aY r bna r S Y aaaRr and RnRrgy ms alw ay s

alR saY R with thx xxcxfftio“ oy thx Big Ba“g, whx“ all

oy thx mattxr a“w x“xrgy oy thx u“ivxrsx suwwx“ly

affffxarxw.

- , J lR law s r S naabrR arR j xRd, ghxy arx thx samx

toway as thxy wxrx at thx bxgi““i“g, a“w thxy will stay

thx samx yorxvxr.

. , N aabrR ms s brs r sRlRss, a“w xvolutio“ has “o goal or

wirxctio“.

6 , F ll bmr lr gmcal mnlRrmaancR ms Y aaRrmal, carrixw i“

thx gx“xtic matxrial, MaA, a“w i“ othxr matxrial

structurxs.

A, M RY r rmRs arR sar rRd as Y aaRrmal aracRs mn bramns

a“w arx wiffxw out at wxath.

B, M mnds arR mnsmdR lRads and arR nr almng bba alR

acamcmamRs r S bramns, nhx“ you look at a trxx, thx

imagx oy thx trxx you arx sxxi“g is “ot “out thxrx,”

whxrx it sxxms to bx, but i“siwx your brai“.

C, anRxs lamnRd s lRnr Y Rna lmnR aRlRs aaly arR

mllbsr ry,

1 0, M Rclanmsamc Y RdmcmnR ms alR r nly nmnd alaa

rRally w r rns, ca“y ffxofflx arx u“awarx that thxsx

woctri“xs arx assumfftio“sL thxy thi“k oy thxm as

scix“cx, or simffly bxlixvx that thxy arx trux. ghxy

absorb thxm by a ki“w oy i“txllxctual osmosis.

I“ my book, McSbncb Mbr Frbb- , 0 BarRs rl N bb D Ssclabrw

1Mxxffak Lhoffra, CABC0, I trixw thx xxffxrimx“t oy tur“i“g

thxsx assumfftio“s i“to fiuxstio“s, trxati“g thxm as txstablx

scix“tific hyffothxsxs rathxr tha“ wogmas. ao“x stoow uff

vxry wxll to thx xviwx“cx. A“w all lxw to yurthxr fiuxstio“s—

somx oy which I woulw likx to ask you, cichaxl. cy

fiuxstio“s arx Sn SralScs.

 

1 , Ns naabrR Y RclanmcalE

ghx mxcha“istic thxory oy “aturx givxs a suffrxmx ffrivilxgx

to machi“x mxtaffhors. ghx gx“xs arx ffrogramsL thx hxart

is a ffumffL thx brai“ is a comffutxr. But ma“y asffxcts oy

“aturx arx “ot machi“x-likx, i“cluwi“g thx x“tirx u“ivxrsx.

ghx thxory that xvxrythi“g startxw i“ a Big Ba“g rxsxmblxs

a“cix“t myths oy thx hatchi“g oy thx cosmic xgg. Nvxr si“cx

it hatchxw, thx u“ivxrsx has bxx“ growi“g a“w wxvxloffi“g

xvxr morx yorm a“w wivxrsityL it sxxms much morx likx a

wxvxloffi“g orga“ism tha“ a machi“x. A“w wxvxloffi“g

ffla“ts a“w a“imals thxmsxlvxs, likx oak trxxs or cats, arx

morx likx trux orga“isms, with thxir ow“ goals a“w

ffurffosxs, tha“ ffurffosxlxss machi“xs.

M ScRabl, al wls rRSng lc wls rsblc as a clm Ylbc m acRSnb lr

as a clnscSlss lSaSnd lrdanSsm 6

 

0 , Ns Y aaaRr bncr nscmr bsE

ghx Scix“tific Rxvolutio“ oy thx BHth cx“tury gavx birth to

mowxr“ scix“cx by crxati“g a rawical wualism bxtwxx“

u“co“scious mattxr a“w co“scious, “o“matxrial mi“ws

ffossxssxw o“ly by huma“s, a“gxls, a“w Vow. ghis wuality

was mirrorxw i“ thx morx or lxss ffxacxyul coxxistx“cx oy

rxligio“, thx arts, a“w thx scix“cxs yrom thx BHth cx“tury to

thx BEth cx“tury. Rxligio“ a“w thx arts wxrx co“cxr“xw

with co“scious xxffxrix“cx, whilx thx rxalm oy scix“cx was

thx ffhysical u“ivxrsx.

I“ thx BIth a“w BEth cx“turixs, ma“y ffxofflx rxactxw

agai“st thx ffowxr oy churchxs by bxcomi“g athxists,

xsffxcially i“ cou“trixs likx Ora“cx a“w Russia, whxrx thx

xstablishxw churchxs wxrx allixw with rxactio“ary,

authoritaria“ govxr“mx“ts. catxrialism ffroviwxw

argumx“ts i“ suffffort oy athxism, a“w gavx it scix“tific

crxwibility. By wx“yi“g thx xxistx“cx oy immatxrial

co“scious“xss, athxistic matxrialists got riw oy Vow a“w

a“gxls at o“x strokx. ghxrx wxrx “o lo“gxr two rxalms oy

rxality, mattxr a“w co“scious“xssL thxrx was o“ly o“x

rxality, mattxr.

catxrialism bxcamx thx ffrxwomi“a“t orthowoxy oy

scix“cx by thx x“w oy thx BEth cx“tury. catxrialists got riw

oy Vow, or at lxast co“fi“xw him to thx brai“s oy bxlixvxrs,

but thxy wxrx lxyt with thx “harw ffroblxm” oy xxfflai“i“g

how u“co“scious mattxr bxcomxs co“scious withi“ huma“

brai“s. ghis ffroblxm co“ti“uxs to hau“t thx “xuroscix“cxs

a“w thx ffhilosoffhy oy mi“w. Iy co“scious“xss is a“ illusio“,

or “othi“g but a byffrowuct oy brai“ activity, it ca““ot

actually wo a“ythi“g, a“w hx“cx wx ca““ot makx yrxx

choicxs.

M ScRabl, al wls LblSbab rRar wls Raab crbb b Sll6

 

, , Ns alR ar aal aY r bna r S Y aaaRr and RnRrgy alw ay s

alR saY RE

ghx co“sta“cy oy thx total amou“t oy mattxr a“w x“xrgy

mawx sx“sx i“ thx xtxr“al u“ivxrsx oy BEth-cx“tury ffhysics,

whx“ xtxr“al laws oy “aturx govxr“xw a“ xtxr“al ffhysical

rxality. cost matxrialists still bxlixvx i“ cha“gxlxss laws oy

“aturx a“w co“sta“t amou“ts oy mattxr a“w x“xrgy, with

o“x xxcxfftio“F All oy thx mattxr a“w x“xrgy i“ thx u“ivxrsx

sffra“g yrom “othi“g at thx momx“t oy thx Big Ba“g.

Lxavi“g asiwx this miraculous origi“, thx “aturx oy mattxr

a“w x“xrgy is “ot straightyorwarw. chysicists “ow ffostulatx

that about EG ffxrcx“t oy rxality is mawx uff oy wark mattxr

a“w wark x“xrgy, whosx “aturx is litxrally obscurx.

M ScRabl, al wls LblSbab rRar rRb rlral am lsnr lc aarg

m arrbr ana aarg bnbrdw Ss alb aws rRb sam b (bccbYr ar rRb

m lm bnr lc rRb BSd Band-6

 

- , F rR alR law s r S naabrR j xRdE

ghx iwxa oy fixxw “laws oy “aturx” is a ha“govxr yrom ffrx-

xvolutio“ary cosmology, which ffrxvailxw u“til thx Big Ba“g

thxory bxcamx orthowox i“ BEGG. I“ a“ xvolvi“g u“ivxrsx

thx laws thxmsxlvxs may xvolvx, or thxy may bx morx likx

habits—as I mysxly thi“k, as thx Amxrica“ ffhilosoffhxr L.S.

cxircx suggxstxw i“ thx xarly CAth cx“tury, a“w as thx

co“txmfforary cosmologist Lxx Smoli“ also ffroffosxs.

M ScRabl, Sc wls LblSbab rRar all rRb lab s ana clnsranrs lc

narsrb cam b Snrl LbSnd csllw clrm ba ar rRb m lm bnr lc rRb

BSd Band, Rlb albs rRb snSabrsb rbm bm Lbr rRbm 6 R Rbrb

arb rRbw Sm YrSnrba6

 

. , Ns naabrR s brs r sRlRssE

ghx assumfftio“ that “aturx is ffurffosxlxss yollows yrom thx

machi“x mxtaffhor. cachi“xs havx “o ffurffosxs oy thxir

ow“, but o“ly thosx imffosxw uffo“ thxm or ffrogrammxw

i“to thxm to sxrvx huma“ ffurffosxs. Iy thx u“ivxrsx is

mxcha“ical, thx“ xvolutio“ is ffurffosxlxssF It has “o goals,

i“tx“tio“s, or wirxctio“.

M ScRabl, Ss rRb Ys rYlsblbssnbss lc ballsrSln a rbsraLlb

RwYlrRbsSs6

 

6 , Ns all bmr lr gmcal mnlRrmaancR Y aaRrmalE

Vx“xs havx bxx“ grxatly ovxrratxw. ghxy wo “ot “cowx yor”

or “ffrogram” thx yorm a“w bxhavior oy orga“isms, likx thx

shaffx oy a“ orchiw flowxr or thx “xst-builwi“g i“sti“cts oy a

wxavxrbirw. ghxy sffxciyy thx sxfiux“cx oy ami“o aciws i“

ffrotxi“ molxculxs, a“w somx gx“xs arx i“volvxw i“ thx

co“trol oy thx activity oy othxr gx“xs.

ghx Ruma“ Vx“omx crojxct has bxx“ wisaffffoi“ti“g

bxcausx it was basxw o“ a yalsx co“cxfftio“ oy what gx“xs

wo. ghx “missi“g hxritability ffroblxm” is “ow ffrovoki“g a

crisis i“ mowxr“ biology bxcausx it tur“s out that as much

as HA ffxrcx“t oy i“hxrita“cx woxs “ot affffxar to bx

xxfflai“xw by gx“xs. Also, thx rxcog“itio“ oy thx xffigx“xtic

i“hxrita“cx at thx bxgi““i“g oy this cx“tury mxa“s that thx

i“hxrita“cx oy acfiuirxw charactxristics, o“cx taboo, is “ow

mai“strxam. Oor xxamfflx, rxcx“t xxffxrimx“ts havx show“

that micx ca“ i“hxrit thx yxars oy thxir yathxrs. calx micx

wxrx mawx avxrsx to thx smxll oy a sy“thxtic chxmical,

acxtoffhx“o“x, by bxi“g givx“ xlxctric shocks whilx thxy

smxllxw it. ghxir sffxrm wxrx usxw to yxrtilizx yxmalx micx,

a“w thxir chilwrx“ a“w gra“wchilwrx“ wxrx txrrifixw oy thx

smxll oy acxtoffhx“o“x.

Oi“wi“gs oy this ki“w mxa“ wx “xxw to mowiyy axo-

Marwi“ia“ xvolutio“ary thxory, which was basxw o“ thx

ffrimacy oy gx“xs a“w a wx“ial oy thx i“hxrita“cx oy acfiuirxw

charactxristics. axo-Marwi“ism assig“xw crxativity to

ra“wom mutatio“s oy gx“xs. But iy orga“isms ca“ lxar“ a“w

awafft to thxir x“viro“mx“ts, a“w ffass o“ awafftatio“s to

thxir offsffri“g, thx“ xvolutio“ is affxctxw by orga“isms’ ow“

abilitixs to lxar“ a“w awafft.

M ScRabl, Rlb Raab wls r aSbb s lc ballsrSln cRandba Sn rRb

lSdRr lc bYSdbnbrSc SnRbrSrancb6

 

A, F rR Y RY r rmRs sar rRd as Y aaRrmal aracRsE

ghx assumfftio“ that mxmorixs arx storxw as matxrial

tracxs i“ brai“s has womi“atxw scix“tific rxsxarch yor morx

tha“ a cx“tury, but thx hyffothxtical mxmory tracxs havx

ffrovxw surffrisi“gly xlusivx. ghxrx is fflx“ty oy xviwx“cx that

ffarticular ffarts oy thx brai“ bxcomx activx whx“ mxmorixs

arx bxi“g laiw wow“ a“w rxtrixvxw, but whxrx thxy xxist i“

bxtwxx“ is mystxrious. As I suggxst i“ my book McSbncb Mbr

Frbb, mxmorixs may wxffx“w o“ a ki“w oy rxso“a“cx across

timx. Brai“s may bx morx likx gm rxcxivxrs, tu“i“g i“to

mxmorixs tra“smittxw yrom thxir ow“ ffast, tha“ likx viwxo-

rxcorwxrs. Brai“ wamagx ca“ affxct thx rxtrixval oy

mxmorixs, just as wamagx to a gm sxt ca“ affxct thx sou“ws

or fficturxs it ffrowucxs, but this woxs “ot ffrovx thx wamagx

has wxstroyxw a storagx systxm.

ghxrx is also a ffhilosoffhical ffroblxmF ghx thxory that

mxmorixs arx storxw i“ matxrial tracxs mxa“s thxrx must

bx a rxtrixval systxm that rxcog“izxs thx mxmorixs it is

tryi“g to rxtrixvx. go rxcog“izx thx mxmorixs, thx rxtrixval

systxm must itsxly havx a mxmory. A“w iy it has a matxrial

mxmory, thx“ thx rxtrixval systxm itsxly “xxws a rxtrixval

systxm, a“w so o“.

M ScRabl, albsnmr rRSs sranaara bcYlanarSln lc m bm lrw

bSrRbr YrbssYYlsb m bm lrw, lr call Snrl an SnfinSrb rbdrbss6

 

B, F rR Y mnds cr nj nRd ar bramnsE

Iy mi“ws arx “othi“g but thx activity oy brai“s, thx“ thxy

must bx co“fi“xw to thx i“siwxs oy hxaws. But whx“ I look at

a trxx, I wo “ot xxffxrix“cx thx imagx oy thx trxx i“siwx my

hxawL I xxffxrix“cx it whxrx thx trxx is. cy imagx oy thx

trxx is i“ my mi“w, but it is “ot i“siwx my hxaw. bur mi“ws

may bx xxtx“wxw bxyo“w our brai“s xvxry timx wx look at

somxthi“g.

Nvxryo“x agrxxs that visio“ i“volvxs light comi“g i“to

xyxs, causi“g activity i“ thx rxti“a, imffulsxs uff thx offtic

“xrvxs, a“w sffxcific ffattxr“s oy activity i“ brai“s. cost

matxrialists assumx that thx “xrvous tissux thx“ somxhow

gx“xratxs a D-M, yull-color virtual rxality wisfflay i“siwx thx

skull. But si“cx thxsx virtual rxality wisfflays arx i“visiblx to

objxctivx obsxrvxrs, how wo wx k“ow thxy arx i“siwx skullsN

I“stxaw, wx may gx“xratx imagxs that arx ffrojxctxw out to

whxrx thxy sxxm to bx. bur mi“ws may rxach out to touch

what wx arx sxxi“g—yor xxamfflx, a trxx. nx may affxct

what wx arx looki“g at. ghat may bx why ma“y ffxofflx a“w

a“imals oytx“ sx“sx whx“ thxy arx bxi“g watchxw, xvx“

whx“ lookxw at yrom bxhi“w. A“w, i“ my offi“io“, thxrx is

goow xviwx“cx yor thx rxality oy thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at,

which wx will ffrobably wiscuss i“ our “xxt wialogux.

M banb RSlb, M ScRabl, Rlb al wls SnrbrYrbr wls r lb n

bcYbrSbncb lc sbbSnd6 R Rbn wls lllg ar rRb sgw, al wls

rRSng rRar wls arb sbbSnd rRb sgw SnsSab wls r sgsll6

 

C, F rR bnRxs lamnRd s lRnr Y Rna lmnR aRlRs aaly

mllbsr ry E

nx will bx wiscussi“g txlxffathy a“w othxr ffsychic

ffhx“omx“a i“ our “xxt wialogux.

 

1 0, Ns Y Rclanmsamc Y RdmcmnR alR r nly nmnd alaa rRally

w r rnsE

I thi“k thx bxst way oy xvaluati“g wiffxrx“t ki“ws oy thxraffy

is through comffarativx xffxctivx“xss rxsxarch,

ffragmatically fi“wi“g out which thxraffxutic systxms work

bxst yor commo“ ffroblxms likx lowxr back ffai“ or migrai“x

hxawachxs. Somx ffatix“ts, sxlxctxw at ra“wom, woulw bx

sx“t to rxgular ffhysicia“s, othxrs to acuffu“cturists,

chiroffractors, ostxoffaths, homxoffaths, a“w ffractitio“xrs oy

othxr systxms that claim to offxr curxs. nhich systxms work

bxstN A“w which arx most cost-xffxctivxN ghrough

ffragmatic rxsxarch, wx ca“ havx a“ xviwx“cx-basxw

affffroach to mxwici“x without a commitmx“t to o“x

ffarticular systxm or iwxology.

M ScRabl, al wls rRSng rRar dlabrnm bnrs ana RbalrR

Snss rancb clm YanSbs sRlsla csna rbsbarcR clm YarSnd rRb

bffbcrSabnbss lc aSffbrbnr gSnas lc rRbraYw, SnclsaSnd

alrbrnarSab rRbraYSbs6

Likx you, cichaxl, I am ffro-scix“cx. But wx havx wiffxrx“t

ways oy xxffrxssi“g our x“thusiasm. I thi“k thx i“txrxsts oy

thx scix“cxs arx bxst sxrvxw by xxfflori“g what wx wo “ot

u“wxrsta“w, xvx“ iy that lxaws us bxyo“w thx limitatio“s

imffosxw by thx matxrialist ffhilosoffhy. cy scix“tific

allxgia“cx is “ot to a ffarticular worlwvixw, matxrialism, but

to scix“cx as a mxthow oy i“fiuiry, offx“ to “xw ffossibilitixs.

Somx athxists yxar that iy thxy lxt go oy matxrialism thxy

will allow back rxligio“, a“w sxt off a tsu“ami oy

suffxrstitio“. ghxrxyorx, matxrialism must bx wxyx“wxw at all

costs. But this yxar is xxaggxratxw. Athxists “xxw “ot bx

shacklxw to matxrialismL thxy ca“ movx bxyo“w it a“w still

rxmai“ athxists. Oor xxamfflx, thx wisti“guishxw Amxrica“

ffhilosoffhxr ghomas aagxl rxjxcts matxrialism i“ yavor oy

ffa“ffsychism i“ his book, M Sna ana Clsm ls- R Rw rRb

M arbrSalSsr, N bl0D arb SnSan ClncbYrSln lc N arsrb Is Alm lsr

CbrraSnlw Falsb 1bxyorw l“ivxrsity crxss, CABC0. Rx

ffroffosxs that thxrx arx asffxcts oy mi“w throughout thx

“atural worlw, xvx“ i“ thx chxmical xlxmx“ts. Rx also

arguxs that xvolutio“ is ffurffosivx. But hx rxmai“s a“

athxist.

nhxthxr Vow xxists or “ot is a wiffxrx“t fiuxstio“, which

wx will wiscuss i“ our thirw wialogux. bur ffrxsx“t wiscussio“

is about whxthxr thx scix“cxs ought to rxmai“ withi“ thx

matxrialist ffarawigm, or whxthxr scix“tists shoulw bx yrxx

to ra“gx morx wiwxly.

 

lL sYbrr

M mclaRl I lRrY Rr RRss r nds

Mxar Ruffxrt,

 

Scix“tists i“ gx“xral, a“w mysxly i“ ffarticular, arx “ot

matxrialists bxcausx oy historical co“ti“gx“cixs rxlatxw to

Orx“ch a“w Russia“ rxactio“ary govxr“mx“ts, or bxcausx

wx’rx ayraiw that iy wx givx uff matxrialism, rxligio“ a“w

bxlixy i“ Vow will comx roari“g back. Last timx I chxckxw

thx ffolls, i“ yact, rxligio“ a“w bxlixy i“ Vow sxxmxw to bx

woi“g just fi“x i“ this agx oy scix“tific matxrialism, although

I am x“couragxw by thx rxcx“t i“crxasx i“ thx “umbxr oy

ffxofflx with “o rxligious affiliatio“. But my wxsirx to sxx thx

ffowxr oy rxligio“ attx“uatxw has “othi“g to wo with

scix“tific matxrialism a“w xvxrythi“g to wo with huma“

rights a“w moral ffrogrxss 1which I claim is ffrimarily wrivx“

by scix“cx a“w rxaso“ a“w N“lightx“mx“t huma“ism0. A“w I

am a“ athxist “ot bxcausx I am a matxrialist, but bxcausx I

wo “ot bxlixvx thxrx is sufficix“t xviwx“cx yor thx xxistx“cx

oy Vow.

catxrialism bxcamx thx ffrxwomi“a“t worlwvixw oy

scix“cx by thx x“w oy thx BEth cx“tury bxcausx it works—it

x“ablxs scix“tists to sxarch yor a“w fi“w mxcha“istic

xxffla“atio“s yor a wiwx sffrxaw oy ffhx“omx“a, yrom atoms

a“w molxculxs to xcologixs a“w xco“omixs. ghis is “ot a“

act oy caSrR, as you say, but oy clnfiabncb built ovxr

cx“turixs oy wata-gathxri“g, hyffothxsis-txsti“g, a“w thxory-

builwi“g, all co“txstxw through thx comffxtitivx x“txrffrisx

oy scix“cx i“ which skxfftics havx, as you “otx i“ fiuoti“g

Oxy“ma“, trixw to fi“w out what might bx wro“g with thxir

ow“ a“w xsffxcially othxrs’ iwxas.

axithxr is matxrialism a“ iwxology, as you also suggxst.

A“ iwxology is a sxt oy bxlixys about how socixty shoulw bx

structurxw, a“w, trawitio“ally, thosx bxlixys havx haw lxss to

wo with scix“cx a“w morx to wo with ffrxco“cxivxw “otio“s

oy thx ffroffxr fflacx oy ffxofflx i“ a socixty 1usually hxlw by

thx womi“a“t grouff as a way oy kxxffi“g mi“ority grouffs i“

thxir fflacx—or xlimi“ati“g thxm altogxthxr0. Lommu“ism

a“w aatio“al Socialism, yor xxamfflx, wxrx “ot scix“tific

socixtixs 1as oytx“ claimxw by thxists i“ thxir xagxr“xss to

i“wict athxism by li“ki“g it to scix“cx a“w matxrialism0, but

utoffia“ socixtixs grou“wxw i“ thx yaux rxligio“s oy carxism

1yor Lommu“ist statxs0 a“w “atio“alism 1yor thx aazis0.

Also, i“ thx casx oy thx aazis, thxir xugx“ics ffrogram haw

“othi“g to wo with scix“tific matxrialism or athxism, a“w

thxir scix“cx was 1as I writx i“ NRb M lral Arc rff. BDHs0 “a

thi“ ffati“a covxri“g a wxxff layxr oy cou“txr-N“lightx“mx“t,

ffastoral, ffarawisiacal ya“tasixs oy racial iwxology grou“wxw

i“ xth“icity a“w gxograffhy.”

As sxx“ i“ thxsx xxamfflxs, much oy our wialogux tur“s o“

thx mxa“i“g oy worws. cy xxamfflx yrom my first lxttxr

about thx wiscovxry oy thx matxrial mxcha“ism oy thx “xrvx

imffulsx illustratxs thx ffoi“t. A“w just as wx “o lo“gxr havx

to wxffx“w o“ yuzzy ffhrasxs likx ““xrvous x“xrgy” or clrcb

m bnralb 1bxcausx wx “ow u“wxrsta“w thx u“wxrlyi“g

molxcular ffrocxss0, wx shoulw bx cautious whx“ wx xmffloy

yuzzy worws likx “thought” or “mi“w” so as “ot to rxiyy thxm

i“to causal xxffla“atio“s. It’s okay to say “I thi“k” or “my

mi“w” i“ co“vxrsatio“, as lo“g as wx all u“wxrsta“w that

thxsx arx just li“guistic fflacx-fillxrs yor a comfflxx xlxctro-

chxmical xxcha“gx goi“g o“ i“siwx our brai“s.

Such li“guistic clarificatio“ goxs a lo“g way to a“swxri“g

your ma“y fiuxstio“s. “Is “aturx mxcha“icalN” As offffosxw

to what—“o“-mxcha“icalN nhat woulw that mxa“N nhat

woulw bx a“ xxamfflx oy a “o“-mxcha“ical systxmN Yxs,

scix“tists usx mxtaffhors likx thx hxart as a ffumff or thx

brai“ as a comffutxr, but mxtaffhors arx just a way oy

talki“g a“w thi“ki“g about somxthi“g with thx x“w goal oy

u“wxrsta“wi“g thx u“wxrlyi“g mxcha“ical ffrocxssxs.

Lommu“icatio“ is xasixr whx“ I say “my hxart ffumffs

bloow” or “my brai“ comffutxs thx co“sxfiux“cxs,” i“stxaw

oy ffroviwi“g a lo“g wxscrifftio“ oy musclx co“tractio“s a“w

“xrvx imffulsxs.

You ask whxthxr I sxx mysxly as a comfflxx machi“x or as

a co“scious livi“g orga“ismN Yxs. Both. But, agai“, thxsx

arx just worws, a“w you havx usxw thxm i“ a ma““xr that

imfflixs o“x ca“’t bx both. A co“scious livi“g orga“ism is a

comfflxx machi“x—vxry comfflxx. As wxll, bxi“g a “comfflxx

machi“x” i“ “o way wxtracts yrom thx xlxga“cx a“w bxauty

oy bxi“g a “livi“g orga“ism”L it o“ly awws to it. ghis rxmi“ws

mx oy thx BEth-cx“tury N“glish ffoxt Joh“ axats, who o“cx

bxmoa“xw that Isaac axwto“ haw “wxstroyxw thx ffoxtry oy

thx rai“bow by rxwuci“g it to a ffrism.” aatural ffhilosoffhy,

hx lamx“txw i“ his BICA ffoxm “Lamia,”

 

... will cliff a“ A“gxl’s wi“gs

Lo“fiuxr all mystxrixs by rulx a“w li“x

Nmffty thx hau“txw air, a“w g“omxw mi“x—

l“wxavx a rai“bow ...

 

Richarw Oxy“ma“ gavx as goow a rxsffo“sx as a“yo“x to

axats i“ his book, R Rar D l I AO Carb R Rar ArRbr BblYlb

NRSng6 Fs rrRbr Aaabnrsrbs lc a Cs rSls s CRaracrbr 1n.n.

aorto“, BEII0, i“ his co“txmfflatio“ oy a flowxrF

ghx bxauty that is thxrx yor you is also availablx

yor mx, too. But I sxx a wxxffxr bxauty that is“’t

so rxawily availablx to othxrs. I ca“ sxx thx

comfflicatxw i“txractio“s oy thx flowxr. ghx color

oy thx flowxr is rxw. Moxs thx yact that thx ffla“t

has color mxa“ that it xvolvxw to attract

i“sxctsN ghis awws a yurthxr fiuxstio“. La“

i“sxcts sxx colorN Mo thxy havx a“ axsthxtic

sx“sxN A“w so o“. I wo“’t sxx how stuwyi“g a

flowxr xvxr wxtracts yrom its bxauty. It o“ly

awws.

ghx sx“sx I gxt yrom your work—a“w that oy ma“y othxrs

who harbor somx rxsxrvatio“s about scix“cx u“wxr thx

rubric oy “scix“tism”—is that thx rxwuctio“istic, mxcha“istic

worlwvixw somxhow wxtracts yrom both thx bxauty a“w

u“wxrsta“wi“g oy “aturx. It woxs“’t, it o“ly awws by givi“g

us a wxxffxr u“wxrsta“wi“g oy it.

You ask iy mattxr is u“co“scious. ghx a“swxr wxffx“ws o“

thx mxa“i“g oy thx worw “co“scious.” Iy you mxa“

somxthi“g aki“ to what you a“w I arx woi“g hxrx—

co“sciously thi“ki“g a“w xxffxrix“ci“g a“w commu“icati“g

—thx“ what mattxr arx wx talki“g aboutN Is a“ afffflx 1thx

yruit, “ot thx comffutxr0 co“sciousN Iy you mxa“ to ask iy

afffflxs ca“ thi“k, xxffxrix“cx, a“w commu“icatx, thx“

obviously “ot. But I woulw“’t xvx“ say that afffflxs arx

u“co“scious bxcausx that imfflixs that thxy havx a

txmfforary susffx“sio“ oy co“scious“xss, likx whx“ wx arx

ffut u“wxr a“xsthxsia. Lo“scious“xss is “ot ffart oy a“

afffflx’s xssx“cx, so it ca“’t xvx“ bx u“co“scious, a“w

“xithxr ca“ thx molxculxs with which it is mawx.

You ask iy I havx yrxx will. I wo. I havx a“ x“tirx chafftxr i“

NRb M lral Arc xxfflai“i“g why, but i“ brixy I ffrxsx“t your

ways arou“w thx ffarawox oy rxtai“i“g yrxxwom a“w moral

rxsffo“sibility i“ a wxtxrmi“xw u“ivxrsxF

• M laslar m Snal xvx“ though a brai“ co“sists oy ma“y

“xural “xtworks i“ which o“x “xtwork may makx a

choicx that a“othxr “xtwork fi“ws out about latxr, thxy

arx all still offxrati“g i“ a si“glx brai“

• Frbb “b lnmrol vxtoi“g comffxti“g imffulsxs a“w

choosi“g o“x thought or actio“ ovxr a“othxr

• D bdrbbs lc m lral crbbalm l a ra“gx oy choicx offtio“s

varyi“g by wxgrxxs oy comfflxxity a“w thx “umbxr oy

i“txrvx“i“g variablxs

• CRlScb as Yarr lc rRb cassal nbrl whxrxi“ our volitio“al

acts arx ffart oy thx wxtxrmi“xw u“ivxrsx but arx still

our choicxs.

But thx yrxx-will issux also tur“s o“ how wx wxfi“x thxsx

txrms. I’m guxssi“g that you too bxlixvx i“ yrxx will, but

ffrobably yor wiffxrx“t rxaso“s i“volvi“g somxthi“g aki“ to a

co“scious or sffiritual or “o“matxrial soul or x“tity or

substa“cx that rxffrxsx“ts “you” that is maki“g choicxs. But

this woxs“’t givx you yrxx will. It just mxa“s somxthi“g xlsx

is maki“g thx wxcisio“ yor “you,” u“lxss you thi“k that this

othxr x“tity is you a“w thx ffhysical x“tity callxw Ruffxrt

Shxlwrakx is somxthi“g xlsx.

You ask about mattxr, x“xrgy, a“w thx laws oy “aturx. I’m

“ot a ffhysicist a“w am “ot fiualifixw or xvx“ sufficix“tly rxaw

to offxr a ffroffxr rxsffo“sx. cy yrix“w a“w collxagux

Lawrx“cx arauss, a highly rxsffxctxw cosmologist a“w

ffhysicist, txlls mx 1i“ a“ xmail watxw cay B0, “nx k“ow that

ovxr cosmic timx thx fi“x structurx co“sta“t has bxx“

co“sta“t by at lxast B ffart i“ BAA,AAA or so, a“w thx

gravitatio“al co“sta“t has“’t cha“gxw by morx tha“ EA

ffxrcx“t at most si“cx thx u“ivxrsx was o“x sxco“w olw. ghx

lattxr comxs yrom BBa rBig Ba“g auclxosy“thxsiss limits,

a“w thx yormxr yrom mxasuri“g thx sffxctrum oy light

xmittxw by atoms i“ galaxixs at high rxwshiyt.” Lawrx“cx’s

book, A OnSabrsb crlm N lrRSnd- R Rw NRbrb Is Mlm brRSnd

LarRbr rRan N lrRSnd 1Atria Books, CABD0, alo“g with

Stxffhx“ Rawki“g a“w Lxo“arw clowi“ow’s book, NRb

G rana D bsSdn 1Ra“wom Rousx cublishi“g Vrouff, CABA0,

ffrxsx“ts matxrialist6 mxcha“istic mowxls by which a

u“ivxrsx ca“ comx i“to xxistx“cx a“w sustai“ itsxly without

thx “xcxssity oy a highxr i“txlligx“cx or outsiwx crxativx

yorcx oy a“y ki“w.

As yor “laws oy “aturx,” agai“, li“guistic ffrxcisio“ is

hxlffyul hxrx. “Laws” arx thx li“guistic a“w mathxmatical

wxscrifftio“s wx huma“s givx to “aturally occurri“g

rxffxati“g ffhx“omx“a. ghxrx arx “o laws oy “aturx “out

thxrx.” aaturx just Ss. Stars, yor xxamfflx, co“vxrt hywrogx“

i“to hxlium i“ a wxll-wxfi“xw ma““xr wxffx“wx“t o“

txmffxraturx a“w ffrxssurx. nx ca“ writx out thx

mathxmatical xfiuatio“s that txll us how this haffffx“s, how

yast, how much, a“w so o“. But thxrx arx “o “laws” i“siwx

starsL just matxrial stuff woi“g what it must wo u“wxr thosx

co“witio“s.

A“w this a“swxrs your “xxt fiuxstio“, “Is “aturx

ffurffosxlxssN” nhat wo you mxa“ by ffurffosxN Iy you mxa“

that thx ffurffosx oy stars is to co“vxrt hywrogx“ i“to hxlium

u“wxr cxrtai“ txmffxraturxs a“w ffrxssurxs, thx“ yxs,

“aturx has ffurffosx. Stars arx yulfilli“g thxir “wxsti“y” i“

this sx“sx. But iy you mxa“ by “ffurffosx” somx outsiwx

tra“scx“wx“t sourcx that gra“ts or wirxcts ffurffosx, or that

ack“owlxwgxs or rxwarws ffurffosx yulfillxw, thx“ “o such

sourcx xxists. ghxrx is “o Archimxwxa“ ffoi“t yrom which wx

ca“ lxvxr i“to our livxs somx xxtxr“al ffurffosx. nx havx to

crxatx our ow“ ffurffosx, a“w wx wo this by yulfilli“g our

“aturx, by livi“g accorwi“g to our xssx“cx, by bxi“g trux to

oursxlvxs, as Shakxsffxarx wrotxF

ghis abovx allF to thi“x ow“ sxly bx trux,

A“w it must yollow, as thx “ight thx way,

ghou ca“st “ot thx“ bx yalsx to a“y ma“.

lM ScRabl

Rbs Rra I lRldranR RRs lmRs

Mxar cichaxl,

 

gha“k you yor your rxsffo“sx to thx fiuxstio“s I askxw i“ my

bffx“i“g Statxmx“t.

At first I was ffuzzlxw by thx co“trawictio“s i“ your

ffositio“s. But thx“ I rxaw your chafftxr o“ yrxx will i“ NRb

M lral Arc 1Rx“ry Rolt, CABF0. I was struck by your

x“worsxmx“t oy thx thxory oy mowular mi“ws, accorwi“g to

which wx havx ma“y wiffxrx“t comffartmx“talizxw brai“

yu“ctio“s, or mx“tal affffs 1as o“ a smart ffho“x0. As you ffut

it, “ghxrx is “o u“ifixw ‘sxly’ that gx“xratxs i“txr“ally

co“sistx“t a“w sxamlxssly cohxrx“t bxlixys wxvoiw oy

co“flict.… I“stxaw, wx arx a collxctio“ oy wisti“ct but

i“txracti“g mowulxs that arx oytx“ at owws with o“x

a“othxr” 1ff. DDI0.

Suwwx“ly, your i“co“sistx“cixs bxcamx xasixr to

u“wxrsta“w. ghxrx arx sxvxral wiffxrx“t Shxrmxr mowulxs

that ffrxwomi“atx i“ wiffxrx“t co“txxtsF

• NRb lSLbrrarSan m laslb, with a ffassio“atx bxlixy i“ thx

imfforta“cx oy yrxxwom a“w i“wiviwual auto“omy. ghis

givxs you a stro“g i“cx“tivx to argux yor thx rxality oy

yrxxwom a“w i“wiviwual auto“omy. “corality i“volvxs

co“scious choicx,” as you makx clxar i“ NRb M lral Arc

1ff. DDF0, which ffrxsuffffosxs yrxx will. ghis bxlixy i“

yrxxwom also i“sffirxs you to fiuotx scix“tists likx

Richarw Oxy“ma“ a“w Robxrt bffffx“hximxr, who

awvocatx yrxx i“fiuiry. I“wxxw, NRb M lral Arc offx“s

with bffffx“hximxr’s worwsF “ghxrx must bx “o

barrixrs to yrxxwom oy i“fiuiry. ghxrx is “o fflacx yor

wogma i“ scix“cx.”

I agrxx. But othxr Shxrmxr mowulxs ffull your brai“ i“

wiffxrx“t wirxctio“sF

• NRb scSbnrSfic m arbrSalSsr m laslb, ffowxrxw by a yaith i“

scix“tific authority. You wismiss ffroblxms that cast

woubt o“ this worlwvixw as vxrbal fiuibblxs, xasily

solvxw by rxassxrti“g matxrialist bxlixys. Oor xxamfflx,

as you wrotx i“ your Rxsffo“sx, thought a“w mi“w “arx

just li“guistic fflacx-fillxrs yor a comfflxx

xlxctromag“xtic xxcha“gx goi“g o“ i“siwx our brai“s.”

But iy xvxrythi“g is wxtxrmi“xw by ffhysical causxs, a“w

co“scious“xss is “othi“g but a“ asffxct oy ffhysical

brai“ activity, matxrialism wx“ixs thx xxistx“cx oy a“y

gx“ui“x yrxxwom oy choicx, a co“clusio“ accxfftxw by

ma“y oy your yxllow athxists a“w matxrialists, i“cluwi“g

Sam Rarris. Rowxvxr, a wx“ial oy yrxx will is i“ co“flict

with your libxrtaria“ a“w sxcular huma“ist mowulxs.

So, i“ NRb M lral Arc, thx lack oy yrxx will i“ a

matxrialist u“ivxrsx is wissolvxw away, as iy by vxrbal

magic, i“ sxvx“ ffagxs. Orxx will is rxi“statxw to your

ow“ satisyactio“, x“abli“g thx libxrtaria“ a“w

matxrialist mowulxs to coxxist i“ your brai“, xvx“

though thxy sxxm at owws with xach othxr.

• NRb YRSllslYRw lc scSbncb m laslb. As you say,

accorwi“g to somx ffhilosoffhxrs oy scix“cx, laws oy

“aturx arx “ot “out thxrx”L thxy arx just huma“-mawx

wxscrifftio“s a“w mathxmatical mowxls. But this vixw

co“flicts with thx vixws oy your yrix“w, yxllow athxist

Lawrx“cx arauss, a“w a highly rxsffxctxw cosmologist.

Rx sffxculatxs that thx u“ivxrsx arosx out oy “othi“g i“

accorwa“cx with thx laws oy fiua“tum ffhysics, a“w

ffrxsuffffosxs that laws wxrx alrxawy thxrx at thx

bxgi““i“g oy thx u“ivxrsx, lo“g bxyorx thxrx wxrx a“y

huma“s to wxscribx thxm. ghis is surxly a mxtaffhysical

assumfftio“. corxovxr, i“ a“ xvolutio“ary u“ivxrsx, iy

thx laws arx just wxscrifftio“s oy rxgularitixs, thx laws

must xvolvx bxcausx thx rxgularitixs oy “aturx xvolvx.

• NRb sbcslar Rsm anSsr m laslb. As thx athxist

ffhilosoffhxr Joh“ Vray ffuts it i“ his book Mrrab D lds

1Vra“ta Books, CAAD0, “Ruma“ism is “ot scix“cx but

rxligio“—thx ffost-Lhristia“ yaith that huma“s ca“

makx a worlw bxttxr tha“ a“y i“ which thxy havx so yar

livxw. Ruma“ism is thx tra“syormatio“ oy thx Lhristia“

woctri“x oy salvatio“ i“to a ffrojxct oy u“ivxrsal huma“

xma“ciffatio“.” Vray arguxs that “othi“g i“ athxism or

matxrialism or “xo-Marwi“ism sufffforts this offtimistic

yaith. Iy thx imfflicatio“s oy thxsx thxorixs arx takx“

sxriously, “wx arx a“imals likx a“y othxrL our yatx a“w

that oy thx rxst oy liyx o“ Narth arx thx samx.” ghx

offtimistic huma“ist mowulx is vxry wiffxrx“t yrom thx

matxrialist mowulx, xvx“ though thxy coxxist i“ your

brai“, a“w i“ millio“s oy othxrs.

• NRb crs saabr m laslb. Lrusawxrs wxrx warriors,

fighti“g agai“st i“fiwxls a“w hxrxtics. brga“izxw

skxfftical movxmx“ts arx mowxr“ sxcular crusawxs,

wxyx“wi“g scix“tific orthowoxy, offffosi“g hxrxsy, a“w

xxffa“wi“g thx i“flux“cx oy scix“tific matxrialism. But

crusawxrs a“w thxir succxssors, thx i“fiuisitors, wxrx

“ot “otxw yor x“couragi“g yrxx i“fiuiry, xsffxcially iy it

was wirxctxw towarws thx you“watio“s oy thxir yaith.

ghx crusawxr mowulx is i“hxrx“tly i“tolxra“t.

Luckily, whx“ your libxrtaria“ mowulx is uffffxrmost, wx

agrxx that scix“tific i“fiuiry shoulw bx yrxx, a“w “ot

co“strai“xw by wogma. nx will rxtur“ to this subjxct “xxt

mo“th.

 

lL sYbrr

Hlas aRr 0

M mclaRl I lRrY Rrhs O s Rnmng I aaaRY Rna

Mxar Ruffxrt,

 

nx havx “xvxr mxt i“ ffxrso“, but I havx bxx“ yollowi“g

your work xvxr si“cx your book NRb Brbsbncb lc rRb Basr-

M lrYRSc Lbslnancb ana rRb H aLSrs lc N arsrb 1gimxs Books,

BEII0 was ffublishxw. I was i“ a woctoral ffrogram i“ thx

history oy scix“cx at thx timx, a“w I rxcall bxi“g i“triguxw

with your thxsis that thx ffast’s i“flux“cx o“ thx ffrxsx“t

goxs bxyo“w thx usual socio-cultural xffxcts that historia“s

track 1such as ffolitical, xco“omic, a“w cultural yorcxs that

carry across thx cx“turixs—thx llndsb as rhb, as thx

Orx“ch Annalbs school oy historia“s calls it0. Llxarly, you

mxa“t somxthi“g morx tha“ thx strict matxrialist yorcxs at

work that scix“tists stuwy 1i“cluwi“g historical scix“tists,

u“wxr which hxawi“g I i“cluwx historia“s alo“g with

archaxologists0, a“w this is whxrx my skxfftical alarm wx“t

off as I trixw to u“wxrsta“w what mxcha“ism withi“ thx

k“ow“ laws oy “aturx coulw ffossibly bx at work yor thx

ffrxsx“t to bx i“flux“cxw by thx ffast i“ ways that you

suggxst.

As you k“ow a“w havx bxx“ critical oy—most rxcx“tly i“

your book NRb McSbncb D blssSln 1Loro“xt, CABCL titlxw

McSbncb Mbr Frbb i“ thx l“itxw Statxs0—most scix“tists

1mysxly i“cluwxw0 awofft thx matxrialist ffositio“ oy

mxthowological “aturalism, which I takx to mxa“F Liyx is thx

rxsult oy a “atural a“w ffurffosxlxss ffrocxss i“ a systxm oy

matxrial causxs a“w xffxcts that woxs “ot allow, or “xxw,

suffxr“atural yorcxs. I“ my ffublic talks I oytx“ illustratx thx

ffri“cifflx with thx yamous Siw“xy Rarris cartoo“ oy two

scix“tists at a blackboarw fillxw with xfiuatio“s i“ which thx

worws “gRNa A cIRALLN bLLlRS” affffxar i“ thx miwwlx

oy thx mathxmatical sxfiux“cx. ghx cafftio“ has o“x scix“tist

sayi“g to thx othxrF “I gRIaa Ybl aNNM gb BN cbRN

NlcLILIg RNRN Ia SgNc gnb.”

ghis is somxtimxs callxw thx “Vow oy thx gaffs” argumx“t

—whxrxvxr a“ affffarx“t gaff xxists i“ scix“tific k“owlxwgx,

this is whxrx wx i“txrjxct a miraclx yrom Vow as a“

xxffla“atio“. It works somxthi“g likx this, whx“ wxali“g with

cxrtai“ biological yxaturxs oy orga“isms, i“ which “l” may

bx thx xyx or MaA or somx othxr yxaturxF

1 , l looks wxsig“xw.

0 , I ca“’t thi“k oy how l was wxsig“xw “aturally.

, , ghxrxyorx, l was wxsig“xw suffxr“aturally.

ghis yallacy rxmi“ws mx oy thx “ffla“x ffroblxm” oy Isaac

axwto“’s timxF ghx ffla“xts all lix affffroximatxly i“ a ffla“x

1k“ow“ as thx xclifftic0. axwto“ you“w this arra“gxmx“t to

bx so imffrobablx that hx i“vokxw Vow as a“ xxffla“atio“ i“

BrSncSYSa M arRbm arScaF “ghis most bxautiyul systxm oy thx

su“, ffla“xts, a“w comxts coulw o“ly ffrocxxw yrom thx

cou“sxl a“w womi“io“ oy a“ i“txlligx“t a“w ffowxryul Bxi“g.”

Si“cx axwto“’s timx, howxvxr, that gaff has bxx“ fillxw i“

with “atural xxffla“atio“s oy how stars a“w solar systxms

arx yormxw yrom co“wx“si“g clouws oy i“txrstxllar gas i“

which xwwixs oy matxrial co“glomxratx i“to a cx“tral star

1or two, i“ thx casx oy bi“ary stars0 a“w multifflx smallxr

ffla“xts 1aa“t was thx first to ffroffosx this ““xbular

hyffothxsis”0. Lrxatio“ists wo “ot citx this ffroblxm or fiuotx

axwto“ bxcausx thx gaff has “ow bxx“ fillxw i“ with a

“atural xxffla“atio“ by scix“tists.

ghx matxrialism oy mxthowological “aturalism also

bothxrs thx I“txlligx“t Mxsig“ movxmx“t bxcausx oy thxir

wxsirx to i“trowucx suffxr“aturalism i“to thx systxm oy thx

worlw. Oor xxamfflx, i“ his book, D arb Sn ln NrSal 1Rxg“xry

Vatxway cublishi“g Lomffa“y, BEEB0, thx l“ivxrsity oy

Laliyor“ia-Bxrkxlxy law ffroyxssor chilliff N. Joh“so“—o“x oy

thx you“wxrs oy thx I“txlligx“t Mxsig“ movxmx“t—accusxw

scix“tists oy u“yairly wxfi“i“g Vow out oy thx fficturx by

limiti“g thx sxarch to o“ly “atural causxs. Rx chargxw that

scix“tists who ffostulatx that thxrx arx “o“-“atural or

suffxr“atural yorcxs or i“txrvx“tio“s at work i“ thx “atural

worlw arx bxi“g ffushxw out oy thx scix“tific arx“a o“ thx

basis oy “othi“g morx tha“ a yu“wamx“tal rulx oy thx gamx.

Likx you, Joh“so“ a“w his I“txlligx“t Mxsig“ collxaguxs such

as nilliam Mxmbski, caul axlso“, a“w Stxffhx“ cxyxr wa“t

thx rulxs oy thx gamx cha“gxw to allow mxthowological

suffxr“aturalism.

Lxt’s fflay out that scx“ario a“w imagi“x what

mxthowological suffxr“aturalism woulw look likx i“ scix“cx,

a“w how it woulw work. 1I wiw this i“ my book R Rw D arb Sn

M arrbrs rgimxs Books, CAAGs.0 Oor thx sakx oy argumx“t,

lxt’s assumx that I“txlligx“t Mxsig“ thxorists havx

wiscovxrxw a “xw yorcx oy “aturx that accou“ts yor thx

affffarx“t wxsig“ i“ such yxaturxs as thx xyx or MaA. Row

will thxy iwx“tiyy itN nill it bx co“siwxrxw a “xw “atural

yorcx, or a “xw suffxr“atural yorcxN By what critxria will

thxy wiscrimi“atx bxtwxx“ thx “atural a“w thx

suffxr“aturalN Row ca“ o“x txllN

Oor xxamfflx, i“ thx xarly CAth cx“tury, thx British

biologist Julia“ Ruxlxy ffarowixw thx Orx“ch ffhilosoffhxr

Rx“ry Bxrgso“’s yuzzy xxffla“atio“ yor liyx as bxi“g causxw

by a“ hlan aSral 1vital yorcx0, which Ruxlxy saiw was likx

xxfflai“i“g a railroaw stxam x“gi“x as bxi“g wrivx“ by its

hlan llclm lrSc 1locomotivx yorcx0. I“ his book, NRb

Ancbsrlrms Nalb 1Roughto“ ciffli“ Rarcourt, CAAE0, Richarw

Mawki“s xmffloyxw a similar a“alogy to ffarowy I“txlligx“t

Mxsig“ xxffla“atio“s yor liyx. go say that thx xyx or MaA arx

“wxsig“xw” txlls us “othi“g. Scix“tists wa“t to k“ow how

thxy wxrx wxsig“xw, what yorcxs wxrx at work, how thx

ffrocxss oy wxvxloffmx“t u“yolwxw, xtc. Mawki“s imagi“xw a

cou“txryactual history i“ which A“wrxw Ruxlxy a“w Ala“

Rowgki“, wi““xrs oy thx aobxl ffrizx yor figuri“g out thx

molxcular bioffhysics oy thx “xrvx imffulsx, i“ a crxatio“ist

yramx oy mi“w, attributx it i“stxaw to ““xrvous x“xrgy.”

Alo“g thxsx samx li“xs 1i“sffirxw by Mawki“s’s a“alogy,

which I first xmffloyxw i“ my book NRb BblSbaSnd BraSn

rgimxs Books, CABBs0, imagi“x iy Maviw Rubxl a“w gorstx“

nixsxl—wi““xrs oy thx BEFE aobxl crizx yor thxir

ffio“xxri“g rxsxarch i“ brai“ circuitry a“w wxtxrmi“i“g thx

“xurochxmistry oy visio“—haw, i“stxaw oy sffx“wi“g yxars

gxtti“g wow“ to thx cxllular a“w molxcular lxvxl oy

u“wxrsta“wi“g how thx brai“ co“vxrts ffhoto“s oy light i“to

“xural imffulsxs, simffly attributxw thx ffrocxss to a clrcb

m bnralb.

aow sxx hxrx, Rubxl, this busi“xss about how

ffhoto“s oy light arx tra“swucxw i“to “xural

activity is a wrxawyully thor“y ffroblxm. I just

ca“’t u“wxrsta“w how it works, ca“ youN

ao, my wxar nixsxl, I ca“’t, a“w imffla“ti“g

thosx xlxctrowxs i“to mo“kxys’ brai“s is truly

u“fflxasa“t a“w mxssy, a“w I havx thx harwxst

timx gxtti“g thx xlxctrowx i“to thx right sffot.

nhy wo“’t wx just say that thx light is co“vxrtxw

i“to a “xrvx imffulsx by a clrcb m bnralbN

nhat woxs i“voki“g a co“cxfft likx clrcb m bnralb xxfflai“N

aothi“g. It woulw bx likx wxscribi“g your automobilx’s

x“gi“x as offxrati“g by a “combustivx yorcx,” which yails to

caffturx what is actually goi“g o“ i“siwx thx cyli“wxrs oy a“

i“txr“al combustio“ x“gi“xF A ffisto“ comffrxssxs a

vafforous mixturx oy gasoli“x a“w air that is ig“itxw by a

sffark fflug causi“g a“ xxfflosio“ that wrivxs thx ffisto“ wow“

thxrxby tur“i“g a cra“k arm that is co““xctxw to a wrivx

shayt that is li“kxw to a wiffxrx“tial that rotatxs thx whxxls.

Vivi“g somxthi“g a labxl likx ““xrvous x“xrgy,” clrcb

m bnralb, or “combustivx yorcx,” is “ot a“ xxffla“atio“. It is

just a labxl to talk about somxthi“g matxrial that is at work

that wx wa“t to try to u“wxrsta“w with “atural yorcxs.

I“ this sx“sx, thx“—as I’vx mx“tio“xw ma“y timxs i“ my

critifiux oy thxorixs about ffsi, NSc, miraclxs, a“w thx likx—

thxrx is “o such thi“g as thx ffara“ormal or thx

suffxr“atural. ghxsx worws, “ffara“ormal” a“w

“suffxr“atural,” arx ffrxcisxly ffarallxl to ““xrvous x“xrgy”

a“w clrcb m bnralbF just li“guistic fflacxholwxrs to talk about

somxthi“g yor which wx wo “ot as yxt havx a “ormal or

“atural xxffla“atio“.

A“alogously, whx“ cosmologists talk about “wark x“xrgy”

a“w “wark mattxr,” thxy wo“’t mxa“ thosx worws to bx a“

xxffla“atio“, o“ly li“guistic fflacxholwxrs u“til thxy figurx

out what xxactly is causi“g such as-yxt u“solvxw mystxrixs

such as thx rotatio“ oy galaxixs a“w thx accxlxrati“g

xxffa“sio“ oy thx cosmos. nhxrxas cosmologists wo “ot stoff

sxarchi“g yor thx u“wxrlyi“g mxcha“isms oy thx obsxrvxw

ffhx“omx“a just bxcausx thxy havx a labxl, ffara“ormalists

a“w suffxr“aturalists trxat worws likx “ffara“ormal” a“w

“suffxr“atural” as iy thxy wxrx causal xxffla“atio“s. ghxy’rx

“ot.

gur“i“g to your arxa oy rxsxarch, Ruffxrt, iy it tur“xw out

that, say, ffxofflx rxally coulw rxaw othxr ffxofflx’s mi“ws a“w

that thxy wxrx ablx to wo so bxcausx 1Yacb Rogxr cx“rosx’s

a“w Stuart Ramxroff’s thxory0 i“siwx our “xuro“s arx ti“y

microtubulxs i“ which fiua“tum xffxcts haffffx“ that allow

thoughts 1ffattxr“s oy “xural firi“g0 to bx tra“syxrrxw yrom

o“x skull to a“othxr at a“y wista“cx 1likx thx “sffooky actio“

at a wista“cx” xffxcts that fiua“tum ffhysicists havx

mxasurxw i“ xxffxrimx“ts0, that woulw “ot bx NSc or cSI,

a“w wx woulw “ot “xxw to call it a “ffara“ormal” xffxct,

bxcausx wx woulw thx“ k“ow that thx ability to rxaw mi“ws

was wux to thx ffroffxrtixs oy “xuro“s a“w atoms. Iy this

tur“xw out to bx trux 1I’m skxfftical0, this “xw thxory woulw

bx subsumxw u“wxr thx scix“cxs oy “xuroscix“cx a“w6or

fiua“tum ffhysics 1fiua“tum “xuroscix“cxN0 a“w woulw “o

lo“gxr bx stuwixw u“wxr thx umbrxlla oy, say,

ffaraffsychology.

ghis is “ot a “xw ffroblxm. Scix“tists a“w ffhilosoffhxrs oy

scix“cx havx lo“g strugglxw with wxfi“i“g what co“stitutxs

lxgitimatx scix“tific k“owlxwgx, a“w “o lxss a mi“w tha“ thx

grxat British astro“omxr Sir Arthur Sta“lxy Nwwi“gto“

chimxw i“ o“ thx wxbatx i“ his BEDE classic work NRb

BRSllslYRw lc BRwsScal McSbncb 1rxcall that it was Nwwi“gto“

who succxssyully txstxw Ni“stxi“’s thxory oy rxlativity by

mxasuri“g thx bx“wi“g oy starlight by thx su“ wuri“g a

solar xcliffsx i“ BEBE0. Nwwi“gto“ mawx this a“alogy that I

usx i“ my critical thi“ki“g coursx 1a“w i“ my book R Rw

BblYlb BblSbab RbSra NRSnds rcJO Books, BEEHs0, which I

thi“k has somx rxlxva“cx to our wiscussio“ o“ thx “aturx oy

scix“cxF

Lxt us suffffosx that a“ ichthyologist is

xxfflori“g thx liyx oy thx ocxa“. Rx casts a “xt

i“to thx watxr a“w bri“gs uff a fishy assortmx“t.

Survxyi“g his catch, hx ffrocxxws i“ thx usual

ma““xr oy a scix“tist to systxmatizx what it

rxvxals. Rx arrivxs at two gx“xralizatio“sF

B. ao sxa-crxaturx is lxss tha“ two i“chxs

lo“g.

C. All sxa-crxaturxs havx gills.

... I“ afffflyi“g this a“alogy, thx catch sta“ws

yor thx bowy oy k“owlxwgx which co“stitutxs

ffhysical scix“cx, a“w thx “xt yor thx sx“sory

a“w i“txllxctual xfiuiffmx“t which wx usx i“

obtai“i“g it. ghx casti“g oy thx “xt corrxsffo“ws

to obsxrvatio“ ...

A“ o“lookxr may objxct that thx first

gx“xralizatio“ is wro“g. “ghxrx arx fflx“ty oy

sxa-crxaturxs u“wxr two i“chxs lo“g, o“ly your

“xt is “ot awafftxw to catch thxm.” ghx

ichthyologist wismissxs this objxctio“

co“txmfftuously. “A“ythi“g u“catchablx by my

“xt is SYsl cacrl outsiwx thx scoffx oy

ichthyological k“owlxwgx.” I“ short, “what my

“xt ca“’t catch is“’t fish.”

Nxtx“wi“g thx a“alogy bxyo“w thx ffhysical scix“cxs to all

fixlws, rxgarwlxss oy what yorcxs may bx at work i“ our

worlw, iy thxy ca“ bx mxasurxw by our scix“tific i“strumx“ts

1or by our sx“sxs0, thx“ by wxfi“itio“ thxy must bx “atural

yorcxs 1rxgarwlxss oy what you call thxm0. I“ othxr worws,

what our sx“sxs a“w scix“tific “xts catch arx “atural fish.

Latxr, wx will bx wiscussi“g Vow, but i“ this co“txxt, lxt

mx “otx that iy o“x wxrx to argux that Vow xxists outsiwx oy

our worlw 1or outsiwx oy thx u“ivxrsx, or outsiwx oy “aturx0,

a“w that Vow’s yorcxs arx “o“-“atural 1or suffxr“atural0 a“w

thxy ca“ still affxct thx worlw but i“ a “o“-mxasurablx way

1bxcausx our scix“tific “xts o“ly catch “atural fish0, thx“

what’s thx wiffxrx“cx bxtwxx“ a“ i“visiblx Vow a“w a

“o“xxistx“t VowN

A“w iy Vow 1or somx crxativx yorcx—it “xxw “ot bx thx

crxator Juwxo-Lhristia“-cuslim Vow0 xxists outsiwx oy

“aturx, but ffxriowically rxachxs i“to our worlw to cha“gx it

i“ somx ma““xr 1such as a“swxri“g ffrayxrs or ffxryormi“g

miraclxs0, thx“, i“ ffri“cifflx, thxrx shoulw bx somx way to

mxasurx such xffxcts 1x.g., ffatix“ts who arx ffrayxw yor hxal

yastxr, or a ffhysically imffossiblx yxat occurs, such as thx

rxgrowth oy a“ amffutatxw huma“ limb0 a“w wxwucx that

thx sourcx oy thx xffxcts is outsiwx oy all k“ow“ “atural

yorcxs. I“ that casx, i“ ffri“cifflx, such a Vow 1or yorcx0

woulw simffly bxcomx ffart oy thx “atural worlw 1at lxast

whx“ Rx6Shx6It offxratxs o“ it0.

ghus, it sxxms to mx that o“cx wx havx carxyully wxfi“xw

our txrms, it is clxar that thxrx rxally is o“ly thx matxrial

worlw, mxthowological “aturalism is thx o“ly mxa“s to

u“wxrsta“w it, a“w scix“cx is thx o“ly yorm oy rxliablx

k“owlxwgx that wx havx.

 

—M ScRabl

Rbs Rra I lRldranR RRss r nds

Mxar cichaxl,

 

I agrxx with you that scix“cx is “ot about thx suffxr“atural.

Iy thi“gs ca“ bx i“vxstigatxw by thx “atural scix“cxs, thxy

arx ffart oy “aturx. I suffffort thx ffri“cifflx oy mxthowological

“aturalism, a“w i“ my ow“ rxsxarch havx always workxw

withi“ it.

I“ rxlatio“ to ffsychic ffhx“omx“a, likx you, I havx lo“g

arguxw that iy thxy occur 1which I thi“k thxy wo0, thxy arx

“atural, “ot suffxr“aturalL “ormal “ot ffara“ormal. I also

co“siwxr morffhic rxso“a“cx—which I suggxst u“wxrlixs

mxmory i“ “aturx—to bx “ormal, “ot ffara“ormalL “atural,

“ot suffxr“atural.

Also, likx you, I’m agai“st thx co“cxfft oy i“txlligx“t

wxsig“, but yor wiffxrx“t rxaso“s. I thi“k thx worw “wxsig“”

has mislxawi“g mxcha“istic imfflicatio“s. ghx olw vxrsio“ oy

i“txlligx“t wxsig“ was that Vow was outsiwx oy “aturx, a“w

wxsig“xw thx machi“xry oy thx worlw, likx a“ x“gi“xxr

wxsig“i“g a machi“x, or a watchmakxr wxsig“i“g a watch.

go say that livi“g orga“isms arx “wxsig“xw” imfflixs that

thxy arx comfflxx machi“xs. axw vxrsio“s oy i“txlligx“t

wxsig“ arx subtlxr, but still imffly that livi“g orga“isms arx

machi“xs, a“w that thxir comfflxxity is wxsig“xw by a

suffxr“atural mi“w or mi“ws outsiwx “aturx. I agrxx with

awvocatxs oy i“txlligx“t wxsig“ i“ thi“ki“g that xvolutio“ary

crxativity goxs bxyo“w bli“w cha“cx, but I sxx livi“g

orga“isms as orga“isms, “ot machi“xs, a“w I thi“k that

crxativity is i“hxrx“t i“ “aturx, rathxr tha“ bxi“g imffosxw

uffo“ it yrom outsiwx.

I also agrxx with you i“ rxjxcti“g “Vow oy thx gaffs”

argumx“ts yor thx xxistx“cx oy Vow. nx will rxtur“ to a

wiscussio“ oy Vow i“ our thirw wialogux. But, u“likx you, I

am skxfftical oy “matxrialism oy thx gaffs” argumx“ts.

I“stxaw oy i“voki“g Vow, ma“y matxrialists try to solvx

ffroblxms by maki“g scix“tific ffromisxs. Oor xxamfflxF

• “nx wo “ot yxt yully u“wxrsta“w how gx“xs ffrogram

thx wxvxloffmx“t oy a“imals a“w ffla“ts, but i“ thx light

oy thx sffxctacular awva“cxs oy molxcular biology a“w

vastly imffrovxw comffutxr mowxlli“g txch“ifiuxs, wx

soo“ will.”

• “nx wo “ot yxt k“ow thx wxtailxw mxcha“isms whxrxby

thx brai“ is ffrogrammxw to ffrowucx co“scious“xss,

but with thx sffxctacular awva“cxs i“ brai“ imagi“g

txch“ifiuxs, raffiw awva“cxs i“ our u“wxrsta“wi“g arx

immi“x“t.”

Nmffty ffhrasxs such as “gx“xtic ffrograms” a“w “brai“

mxcha“isms” arx usxw to xxfflai“ almost xvxrythi“g. ghxy

imffly that thx a“swxrs arx k“ow“ i“ ffri“cifflx, lxavi“g o“ly

thx wxtails to bx workxw out, with thx a“swxrs o“ly a yxw

yxars 1or wxcawxs0 away. Lommittxw matxrialists arx

committxw ffrxcisxly bxcausx thxy bxlixvx that matxrialistic

xxffla“atio“s will bx you“w i“ thx yuturx. ghxy ffut thxir trust

i“ what thxy hoffx yor—i“ what is “ot yxt k“ow“. ghx

ffhilosoffhxr oy scix“cx aarl coffffxr callxw this attituwx

“ffromissory matxrialism,” bxcausx it i“volvxs issui“g

u“watxw ffromissory “otxs yor yuturx wiscovxrixs.

cromissory matxrialism is a yaith.

I“ thx BEth cx“tury, matxrialism sxxmxw fiuitx

straightyorwarw. blw-stylx matxrialists thought that mattxr

was mawx uff oy harw, x“wuri“g stuff, with atoms likx littlx

billiarw balls, ffushxw arou“w by k“ow“ yorms oy x“xrgy. But

thx “aturx oy ffhysical rxality—which matxrialists thi“k oy as

thx o“ly rxality—is much morx ffroblxmatic toway. dua“tum

thxory has wissolvxw mattxr i“to vibratory ffattxr“s oy

activity withi“ fixlws. A“w most cosmologists a“w

astro“omxrs bxlixvx that about EG ffxrcx“t oy thx u“ivxrsx

is mawx uff oy wark mattxr a“w wark x“xrgy, whosx “aturx is

litxrally obscurx. ghxsx “amxs may bx fflacxholwxrs, but

what thxy mxa“ is that EG ffxrcx“t oy what matxrialists or

ffhysicalists bxlixvx i“ is u“k“ow“. Row ca“ wx bx surx that

wark mattxr a“w wark x“xrgy—thx basis yor thx xxistx“cx oy

galaxixs a“w thx xvolutio“ oy thx u“ivxrsx—arx comfflxtxly

mi“wlxss a“w u“co“sciousN

ghx most i“txrxsti“g co“txmfforary wxbatx withi“ thx

matxrialist commu“ity is bxtwxx“ co“sxrvativx matxrialists

—amo“g whom I thi“k you, cichaxl, arx “umbxrxw—a“w

a“imistic matxrialists, who ffroffosx that thxrx arx mi“w-likx

ffroffxrtixs throughout thx “atural worlw, xvx“ i“ xlxctro“s.

As you k“ow, this ffositio“ is usually callxw “ffa“ffsychism”

1yrom thx Vrxxk worws Yan r“all” or “xvxrythi“g”s a“w

YswcRj r“soul”s—mxa“i“g “all or xvxrythi“g is soul”0. Oor

xxamfflx, thx ffhilosoffhxr Valx“ Strawso“ arguxs that

matxrialism itsxly imfflixs ffa“ffsychism. Rx is a ffa“ffsychist,

but still thi“ks oy himsxly as a matxrialist or ffhysicalist. ghx

“xuroscix“tist Lhristoy aoch has rxcx“tly comx to thx

co“clusio“ that a vxrsio“ oy ffa“ffsychism mowifixw yor thx

CBst cx“tury is “thx si“glx most xlxga“t a“w ffarsimo“ious

xxffla“atio“ yor thx u“ivxrsx.” ghx ffhilosoffhxr ghomas

aagxl, i“ his book M Sna ana Clsm ls 1bxyorw l“ivxrsity

crxss, CABC0, is a“othxr xmi“x“t ffroffo“x“t oy thx iwxa that

thxrx is ffsychx or mi“w throughout “aturx. ao“x oy thxsx

ffa“ffsychists ffroffosxs that ffsychxs or mi“ws arx

suffxr“atural, but rathxr that thxy arx asffxcts oy “aturx. I

agrxx with thxm.

I mysxly thi“k that ffart oy thx mx“tal asffxct oy “aturx is

mxmory. cy ow“ ffarticular hyffothxsis is that mxmory

wxffx“ws o“ thx ffrocxss I call morffhic rxso“a“cx, a“

i“flux“cx oy similar ffattxr“s oy activity o“ subsxfiux“t

similar ffattxr“s oy activity, rxso“ati“g through or across

sffacx a“w timx. ghis rxso“a“cx occurs i“ sxly-orga“izi“g

systxms, which i“cluwx molxculxs, crystals, ffla“ts, a“imals,

social grouffs, ffla“xts, solar systxms, a“w galaxixs. Similar

sxly-orga“izi“g ffattxr“s oy activity rxso“atx across timx,

yrom thx ffast to thx ffrxsx“t. Nach sffxcixs has a ki“w oy

collxctivx mxmory. Nvxry i“wiviwual both taffs i“to this

collxctivx mxmory a“w co“tributxs to it. By co“trast,

huma“-mawx objxcts likx chairs, or cars, comffutxrs, a“w

othxr machi“xs arx “ot sxly-orga“izi“g. ghxy arx wxsig“xw

a“w mawx by ffxofflx, or through comffutxr ffrograms

wxsig“xw by huma“ comffutxr ffrogrammxrs. ghxy arx “ot

subjxct to morffhic rxso“a“cx yrom ffast chairs, cars, xtc.,

although thx molxculxs a“w crystals withi“ thxm arx.

corffhic rxso“a“cx is a hyffothxsis, “ot a“ accxfftxw

scix“tific yact. But thx ffrogrxss oy scix“cx wxffx“ws o“

xxfflori“g hyffothxsxs, a“w txsti“g thxm xmffirically. ghx

hyffothxsis oy morffhic rxso“a“cx lxaws to ma“y txstablx

ffrxwictio“s. Oor xxamfflx, iy rats lxar“ a “xw trick i“ axw

York, rats i“ Lo“wo“ a“w Syw“xy shoulw lxar“ thx samx

trick fiuickxr, xvx“ i“ thx absx“cx oy a“y co“vx“tio“al

mxa“s oy commu“icatio“. ghxrx is alrxawy xviwx“cx that

this xffxct occurs. ghxrx arx ma“y othxr li“xs oy xviwx“cx

that sxxm to suffffort this hyffothxsis, as summarizxw i“ thx

thirw xwitio“ oy my book A N bb McSbncb lc L Scb 1Ico“ Books,

CAAEL rxtitlxw M lrYRSc Lbslnancb i“ thx l“itxw Statxs

rcark Strxxt crxss, Rochxstxr mg, CAAEs0. I havx also

suggxstxw sxvxral “xw txsts i“ thx rxalms oy low

txmffxraturx ffhysics, crystallograffhy, wxvxloffmx“tal

biology, a“imal bxhavior, a“w huma“ ffsychology. I“ biology,

this hyffothxsis imfflixs that thx i“hxrita“cx oy yorm a“w

bxhavior wxffx“ws largxly o“ morffhic rxso“a“cx, rathxr

tha“ o“ gx“xs, which cowx yor thx sxfiux“cx oy ami“o aciws

i“ ffrotxi“s. Vx“xs arx “ot “ffrograms” yor wxvxloffmx“t or

yor i“sti“cts. I“wxxw, it tur“s out that about HA ffxrcx“t oy

huma“ hxritability is “ot xxfflicablx i“ txrms oy gx“xs. ghis

is callxw thx “missi“g hxritability ffroblxm.”

b“x oy thx most striki“g imfflicatio“s oy morffhic

rxso“a“cx co“cxr“s mxmory. corffhic rxso“a“cx wxffx“ws

o“ similarity. ghx grxatxr thx similarity, thx stro“gxr thx

rxso“a“cx. ghi“k about yoursxly. nhich orga“ism i“ thx

ffast was most similar to youN Surxly you yoursxly( Sxly-

rxso“a“cx is thx most ffowxryul rxso“a“cx worki“g o“ a“y

sxly-orga“izi“g systxm. I“ livi“g orga“isms, sxly-rxso“a“cx

hxlffs mai“tai“ thxir yorm, xvx“ though thx chxmicals a“w

cxlls withi“ thxm arx co“ti“ually tur“xw ovxr a“w rxfflacxw.

I“ thx rxalms oy lxar“i“g a“w mx“tal activity, sxly-

rxso“a“cx u“wxrlixs mxmory. I“ othxr worws, mxmorixs

may “ot bx storxw i“ brai“s. Brai“s may bx morx likx gm

rxcxivxrs tha“ viwxo rxcorwxrs. gm rxcxivxrs tu“x i“ to

i“visiblx rxso“a“cxs across sffacx, tra“smittxw through

i“visiblx rawio wavxs. Your mxmorixs may wxffx“w o“ a

rxso“a“cx with yoursxly i“ thx ffast, tra“smittxw across timx

by morffhic rxso“a“cx. ghx sta“warw assumfftio“ is, oy

coursx, that mxmorixs arx storxw as matxrial tracxs i“siwx

brai“s. But aytxr BAA yxars oy i“tx“sivx rxsxarch, thxsx

tracxs havx ffrovxw xxtraorwi“arily xlusivx, ffxrhaffs

bxcausx thxy arx “ot thxrx. Iy I camx to your housx a“w

a“alyzxw thx wirxs a“w tra“sistors oy your gm sxt to try a“w

fi“w out what you wxrx watchi“g last wxxk, I woulw bx

wisaffffoi“txwL I woulw fi“w “o matxrial tracxs.

But woxs“’t thx yact that brai“ wamagx ca“ lxaw to loss oy

mxmory ffrovx that mxmorixs arx storxw i“ brai“sN ao. It

o“ly shows that ffroffxrly yu“ctio“i“g brai“s arx “xcxssary

yor thx rxtrixval oy mxmorixs. Mamagx to a gm sxt ca“ lxaw

to cha“gxs i“ thx sou“ws or thx fficturxs, but this woxs “ot

ffrovx that what you arx sxxi“g a“w hxari“g is storxw i“siwx

thx sxt.

I suffffosx that, i“ thx x“w, most oy our wisagrxxmx“ts

about scix“cx comx wow“ to our wiffxrx“t agx“was. I am a

rxsxarch scix“tist, a“w I likx xxfflori“g “xw ffossibilitixs. You

arx a lxawxr oy thx orga“izxw skxfftic movxmx“t, ma“y oy

whosx mxmbxrs arx co“sxrvativx matxrialists, wxwicatxw to

mai“tai“i“g matxrialist law a“w orwxr, ffatrolli“g thx

yro“tixrs oy scix“cx, a“w ri“gi“g alarm bxlls. ghxsx

wiffxrx“cxs wiviwx us. But what may bri“g us closxr is a

bxlixy i“ yrxx i“fiuiry. I was i“txrxstxw to rxaw i“ your

ghxBxstSchools. org i“txrvixw about your libxrtaria“

symffathixs, which ffrxsumably i“cluwx a bxlixy i“ thx

yrxxwom oy thx scix“cxs yrom authoritaria“ism a“w wogma.

 

lL sYbrr

M mclaRl I lRrY Rr RRs lmRs

Mxar Ruffxrt,

 

I“ rxsffo“sx to your sxco“w lxttxr, a“w your ffoi“t about

sxxi“g livi“g orga“isms as “orga“isms, “ot machi“xs,”

agai“, I askF nhy ca“’t thxy bx bothN A“ orga“ism is a livi“g

machi“x, a“w a comfflxx x“ough machi“x ca“ bxcomx a

livi“g orga“ism( croffo“x“ts oy Artificial I“txlligx“cx 1AI0

woulw likxly agrxx yor yuturx machi“xs that rxach a cxrtai“

lxvxl oy i“txlligx“cx—thx si“gularity, say—at which ffoi“t

thxsx machi“xs will bx i“wisti“guishablx yrom livi“g

orga“isms i“ thxir actio“s a“w cog“itio“s, xvx“ though wx

coulw liyt thx hoow a“w sxx that thxy arx just comfflxx

machi“xs. So wx’rx rxally talki“g about abdrbbs lc

clm YlbcSrw hxrx, a“w at somx ffoi“t a machi“x ca“ bxcomx

so comfflxx that it affffxars yor all i“tx“ts a“w ffurffosxs to bx

alivx a“w orga“ic, as our i“tuitio“s u“wxrsta“w thosx

co“cxffts. 1A“w yuturx AI will yorcx us to rxvisx thosx

i“tuitio“s, alo“g with our lxgal a“w moral systxms about

what co“stitutxs a sx“tix“t bxi“g wxsxrvi“g oy rights a“w

ffxrso“hoow.0

aow, wx both agrxx that thxsx comfflxx orga“ic machi“xs

wxrx “ot wxsig“xw yrom thx toff wow“ 1or yrom thx outsiwx

by a“ i“txlligx“t wxsig“xr0, so thx ffroblxm to xxfflai“ is thx

sourcx oy thx comfflxxity, thx crxativx sffark bxhi“w thx

comfflxx wxsig“. Stxffhx“ Rawki“g o“cx yamously askxw,

“nhat is it that brxathxs firx i“to thx xfiuatio“sN” A“w hx

xfiually yamously a“swxrxw ““o o“x”—thx u“ivxrsx comxs

xfiuiffffxw with firx alrxawy built i“to thx xfiuatio“s. You a“w

I sxxm to agrxx that thxrx is “o “who” o“ thx outsiwx

brxathi“g liyx i“to i“orga“ic mattxr, so thx a“swxr to thx

fiuxstio“ about thx sourcx oy liyx’s firx must comx yrom

withi“.

You argux that “crxativity is i“hxrx“t i“ “aturx.” I agrxx,

iy by crxativity you mxa“ that cxrtai“ laws oy “aturx—i“

ffarticular thosx laws govxr“i“g biology, xmbryology,

xffigx“xtics, gx“xtics, xtc.—lxaw orga“isms to u“yolw

xmbryologically yrom a ti“y clustxr oy cxlls i“to a yull-

flxwgxw orga“ism 1x.g., a mammal0, a“w yor sffxcixs to

xvolvx yrom simfflx to comfflxx 1a“w xvx“ yor thx xvolutio“ oy

xvolvability0. ghat is, i“hxrx“t i“ what Aristotlx callxw thx

“fi“al causx” oy a thi“g 1i“ this casx, a“ orga“ism0 is what it

is, by “aturx, wxsti“xw to bx—a sxxw to bxcomx a ffla“t, a

huma“ xmbryo a huma“ bxi“g—u“wxr thx right co“witio“s.

Just as a star is wxsti“xw to co“vxrt hywrogx“ i“to hxlium

u“wxr thx right co“witio“s oy hxat a“w ffrxssurx, a sxxw or

a“ xmbryo must bxcomx a ffla“t or huma“ u“wxr thx right

co“witio“s that allow thx ffrocxssxs oy gx“xtics, xffigx“xtics,

xmbryological wxvxloffmx“t, a“w thx likx to u“yolw as thxy

arx wxsti“xw to wo by thx laws govxr“i“g thx actio“s oy thxir

molxculxs.

As you k“ow, thx grxat Vxrma“ ffhilosoffhxr a“w writxr

Voxthx wxvxloffxw a biological thxory oy morffhology 1hx

i“vx“txw thx worw(0 basxw o“ thx yormalist iwxa that thx

wiwx wivxrsity oy ffla“t a“w a“imal comfflxxity ca“ bx

rxwucxw to si“glx archxtyffxs or yorms—a “lxaflikx” yorm yor

lxavxs, yor xxamfflx. But Voxthx’s yormalist morffhological

thxory “xvxr ffa““xw out bxcausx “o u“wxrlyi“g mxcha“ism

to wrivx it was xvxr you“w, much lxss thx sourcx oy thx

archxtyffx i“ thx first fflacx. Marwi“’s gx“ius was to tur“

this thxory o“ its hxaw by showi“g how all currx“t yorms

arx wxrivxw yrom ffrior yorms, mowifixw by “atural sxlxctio“

to bx awafftivx to currx“t x“viro“mx“ts. ghus, thx

“archxtyffx” oy our arms a“w ha“ws—thx txtraffow yorxlimb

with a humxrus, ul“a, a“w rawius, a“w carffals, mxtacarffals,

a“w ffhala“gxs bo“xs—xvolvxw i“ fish DHF millio“ yxars ago

as a“ awafftatio“ yor tra“sitio“i“g yrom thx watxr o“to thx

la“w 1amffhibia“s0, most yamously i“ thx NSgraalSg yossil

wiscovxrxw by axil Shubi“ i“ CAAE. A“w yossils bxyorx a“w

aytxr that tyffx 1“tra“sitio“al yossils”0 show “o “archxtyffx”

at all, o“ly local awafftatio“s to local x“viro“mx“ts all thx

way back a“w yorwarw yrom that ffarticular tyffx.

So wx alrxawy havx a ffurxly matxrialist xxffla“atio“ yor

thx wivxrsity oy tyffxs i“ “aturx without thx “xxw to i“vokx

thx “mxmory” oy yorms 1i“ your thxory0 that guiwx

molxculxs towarw thxm 1iy I’m u“wxrsta“wi“g your thxory

corrxctly0, but iy you arx right i“ your claim that “gx“xtic

ffrograms” wo “ot xxfflai“ yorms, bowy tyffxs, a“atomy, or

ffhysiology, thx“ I havx thrxx fiuxstio“sF

1 , nhat wo you thi“k MaA is yor a“w what is it woi“g, iy

“ot what gx“xticists thi“k it is woi“gN

0 , nhxrx is thx “mxmory” yor yorms 1say, thx txtraffow

yorxlimb0 storxwN

, , Row woxs this mxmory act o“ ffhysical systxms, such

as thx molxculxs that makx uff cxlls or orga“s or 1i“

kxxffi“g with my xxamfflx0 txtraffow yorxlimbsN

I thi“k thx rxaso“ your thxory oy morffhic rxso“a“cx has “ot

gai“xw accxffta“cx withi“ thx scix“tific commu“ity is thx

samx as why Voxthx’s yormalist thxory oy morffhology “xvxr

succxxwxwF I“ scix“cx, wx “xxw both thxory a“w

mxcha“ism. Alyrxw nxgx“xr haw a thxory oy wriyti“g

co“ti“x“ts but “o mxcha“ism that coulw wrivx fflatxs arou“w

thx globx. b“cx that mxcha“ism was you“w i“ thx BEGAs i“

thx yorm oy fflatx txcto“ics, thx thxory gai“xw accxffta“cx.

It’s trux that Marwi“ wiw“’t havx a“ u“wxrsta“wi“g oy

gx“xtics as a mxcha“ism yor “atural sxlxctio“, but thx

xviwx“cx yor his thxory was so ovxrwhxlmi“g yrom so ma“y

wiffxrx“t li“xs oy i“fiuiry that it gai“xw accxffta“cx wxsffitx

this shortcomi“g. A“w, oy coursx, aytxr BEFD, gx“xtics

sy“thxsizxw thx thxory oy xvolutio“ i“to thx yully maturx

scix“cx it is toway.

Oor your thxory to yollow a similar trajxctory, you woulw

“xxw toF

1 , croviwx morx rxliablx a“w co“sistx“t 1i.x., rxfflicablx0

xviwx“cx that such mxmory i“ “aturx xxistsL

0 , Nxfflai“ whxrx this mxmory is storxw 1i.x., what’s thx

mxcha“ism oy storagx0L a“w

, , Nxfflai“ how morffhic mxmorixs affxct ffhysical

systxms 1x.g., molxculxs0.

Iy you wxrx ablx to wo thxsx thi“gs, thx“ I a“w most

xvxryo“x xlsx i“ scix“cx woulw cha“gx our mi“ws a“w

accxfft your thxory.

l“til thx“, it is rxaso“ablx to bx skxfftical.

 

lM ScRabl

VFRJ 0

M EN J FL FHJ NON FJ F I NI J FN HE

Mr. Shxrmxr arguxs that ffsychic or ffsi ffhx“omx“a arx

artiyacts oy ffoor xxffxrimx“tal ffrocxwurx or outright yrauwL

“o co“vi“ci“g xviwx“cx or xxffxrimx“ts suffffort thxir rxality.

Mr. Shxlwrakx wxyx“ws thx ffositio“ that txlxffathy, NSc,

a“w ffsychic6ffsi ffhx“omx“a i“ gx“xral arx rxal a“w backxw

uff by co“vi“ci“g xviwx“cxL thxir i“vxstigatio“ wxsxrvxs to

bx ffart oy scix“cx.

Hlas aRr ,

M mclaRl I lRrY Rrhs O s Rnmng I aaaRY Rna

Mxar Ruffxrt,

 

As a ffrécis to our sxco“w subjxct oy “cx“tal Actio“ at a

Mista“cx,” allow mx to rxsffo“w to sxvxral ffoi“ts i“ your

thirw lxttxr as thxy sxt thx stagx yor what is to comx.

Oirst, throughout our wialogux you havx mx“tio“xw

sxvxral timxs my “libxrtaria“” ffxrsffxctivx, which you

ffrxsumx to mxa“ that I shoulw bx offx“ mi“wxw to iwxas

outsiwx thx mai“strxam oy scix“cx, such as your ow“. I“ thx

worws oy I“igo co“toya 1i“ thx film NRb BrSncbss BrSab0,

“You kxxff usi“g that worw. I wo “ot thi“k it mxa“s what you

thi“k it mxa“s.” b“ this siwx oy thx ffo“w, libxrtaria“ is a

ffolitical ffositio“ affiliatxw with i“wiviwual rights a“w small

govxr“mx“tL libxrtaria“s tx“w to bx socially libxral a“w

fiscally co“sxrvativx. Libxrtaria“ism has “othi“g to wo with

offx“ mi“wxw“xss as a yxaturx oy huma“ cog“itio“, “or with

thx “libxrtaria“” ffositio“ i“ thx yrxx will-wxtxrmi“ism

wxbatx.

Sxco“w, you rxyxrx“cx ma“y ffxofflx i“ co“trawisti“ctio“

to my ffositio“s. b“ thx yrxx will6 wxtxrmi“ist issux, yor

xxamfflx, you “otx that my yrix“w Sam Rarris is a

wxtxrmi“ist. So whatN cy yrix“w Ma“ Mx““xtt is a

comffatibilist 1as is my yrix“w Stxvx ci“kxr0. ghx argumx“t

yrom authority i“ xithxr wirxctio“ is yallacious. I’vx carvxw

out my ow“ ffositio“ o“ yrxx will i“ NRb M lral ArcF that o“x

ca“ bx a scix“tific matxrialist a“w still bxlixvx i“ huma“

volitio“, which you yailxw to rxyutx.

ghirw, you citx my yrix“w Lawrx“cx arauss as a rxyutatio“

to my claim that “laws oy “aturx” arx just wxscrifftio“s oy

rxgularitixs i“ “aturx. b“cx agai“, this is “ot a“ argumx“t

agai“st my ffositio“, “or wiw you wxyx“w your ow“

1ffrxsumably cou“txr0 ffositio“. I“ likx ma““xr you citx Joh“

Vray’s wxfi“itio“ oy huma“ism as a “rxligio“,” a“w yrom this

you assxrt that athxism, matxrialism, a“w “xo-Marwi“ism

arx i“ co“flict with this “yaith.” nho carxs how Joh“ Vray

wxfi“xs huma“ismN Rx woxs“’t sffxak yor huma“ists, most oy

whom arx athxists, matxrialists, a“w “xo-Marwi“ia“s, a“w i“

a“y casx, this is “ot a cou“txr-argumx“t to my ffositio“, just

a“ argumx“t yrom authority. nhat cou“ts arx argumx“ts

“ot authoritixs. Oor xxamfflx, I ffrxsx“txw argumx“ts a“w

challx“gxs to your thxory oy morffhic rxso“a“cx, which I

hoffx you will awwrxss, most “otablyF

1 , nhxrx is thx “mxmory” yor morffhic yorms storxw

1x.g., thx txtraffow yorxlimb0N

0 , Row woxs this mxmory act o“ ffhysical systxms, such

as thx molxculxs that makx uff cxlls or orga“s or 1i“

kxxffi“g with my xxamfflx0 txtraffow yorxlimbsN

, , croviwx rxliablx a“w co“sistx“t 1i.x., rxfflicablx0

xviwx“cx that such mxmory i“ “aturx xxists.

As wxll, skxfftics arx “ot “crusawxrs … fighti“g agai“st

i“fiwxls a“w hxrxtics.” nx’rx critical thi“kxrs afffflyi“g

scix“cx a“w rxaso“ to a“y a“w all claims. You, yor xxamfflx,

arx a skxfftic oy thx matxrialist-wxtxrmi“ist-rxwuctio“ist

ffarawigm i“ scix“cx, but that woxs“’t makx mai“strxam

scix“tists i“fiwxls a“w hxrxtics( brga“izxw skxfftical

movxmx“ts that havx sffo“ta“xously xmxrgxw arou“w thx

worlw arx i“txrxstxw i“ u“wxrsta“wi“g a“w xxfflai“i“g

ffhx“omx“a o“ thx borwxrla“ws oy scix“cx 1x.g., NSc0,

ffrimarily bxcausx most scix“tists arx too busy worki“g i“

thxir ow“ fixlws to wxvotx thx “xcxssary timx to ffroffxrly

a“alyzx thxsx claims. nx’rx “ot closxw-mi“wxw so much as

co“sxrvativx 1cog“itivxly, “ot ffolitically0 i“ offxri“g our

ffrovisio“al assx“t that a claim is yactually trux. ghx rxaso“

yor this cautious“xss is that most claims ffxofflx makx arx

“ot trux. ghx history oy scix“cx is littxrxw with yailxw

hyffothxsis. Oor xvxry Valilxo whosx iwxas wxrx bor“x out

by thx wata a“w whosx thxorixs cha“gxw thx worlw, thxrx

arx thousa“ws oy scholars a“w scix“tists whosx co“jxcturxs

a“w sffxculatio“s yailxw to gx“xratx a“y suffffortivx

xviwx“cx.

Likx most scix“tists, wx skxfftics assumx thx nsll

RwYlrRbsSs that a claim u“wxr i“vxstigatio“ is “ot trux 1“ull0

u“til ffrovx“ othxrwisx, a“w thx burwx“ oy ffrooy is o“ you to

ffroviwx co“vi“ci“g xxffxrimx“tal wata to rxjxct thx “ull

hyffothxsis. A“w this bri“gs mx to thx toffic oy our sxco“w

sxt oy xxcha“gxs about mx“tal actio“ at a wista“cx. gakx

NSc a“w a simfflx xxamfflx I xmffloyxw i“ my book NRb

BblSbaSnd BraSn- Frlm G Rlsrs rl G las rl BllSrScs ana

ClnsYSracSbslH lb Rb Clnsrrscr BblSbcs ana LbSnclrcb

NRbm as NrsrRs 1gimxs Books, CABB0F wxtxrmi“i“g through

xxtra-sx“sory mxa“s whxthxr a fflayi“g carw ra“womly

sxlxctxw yrom a wxck is rxw or black. ghx “ull hyffothxsis is

that it is “ot ffossiblx to wo this a“w thus to rxjxct thx “ull

hyffothxsis wx woulw “xxw to xstablish a figurx yor thx

“umbxr oy corrxct hits. By cha“cx, wx woulw xxffxct a txst

subjxct to gxt about haly corrxct. I“ a wxck oy FC carws, haly

oy which arx rxw a“w haly oy which arx black, ra“wom

guxssi“g or fliffffi“g a coi“ will ffrowucx, o“ avxragx, CG

corrxct hits. by coursx, as gamblxrs k“ow, thxrx arx strxaks

a“w wxviatio“s yrom ffxryxct symmxtry. ghx roll oy a roulxttx

whxxl will “ot ffrowucx a ffxryxct rxw-black-rxw-black

sxfiux“cx. gyffically, strxaks oy rxw a“w black tur“ uff, oytx“

morx oy o“x tha“ thx othxr i“ a“y givx“ limitxw sxfiux“cx,

without a“y violatio“ oy thx laws oy ffrobability.

So yor a ffroffxr txst, wx “xxw to ru“ multifflx trials i“

which somx rou“ws may rxsult i“ slightly bxlow cha“cx

1x.g., CC, CD, CE, or CF hits0 a“w othxr rou“ws may rxsult i“

slightly abovx cha“cx 1x.g., CH, CI, CE, or DA hits0. ghx

variatio“ may bx xvx“ grxatxr a“w still wux to cha“cx. nhat

wx “xxw to wxtxrmi“x is thx “umbxr by which wx ca“

co“fiwx“tly rxjxct thx “ull hyffothxsis. I“ this xxamfflx, that

“umbxr is DF. ghx subjxct woulw “xxw to gxt DF corrxct hits

out oy a FC-carw wxck i“ orwxr yor us to rxjxct thx “ull

hyffothxsis at thx EE ffxrcx“t co“fiwx“cx lxvxl. Nvx“ though

DF out oy FC woxs“’t sou“w likx it woulw bx that harw to gxt,

by cha“cx alo“x it woulw bx so u“usual that wx coulw

co“fiwx“tly statx 1“at thx EE ffxrcx“t co“fiwx“cx lxvxl”0 that

somxthi“g xlsx bxsiwxs cha“cx was goi“g o“ hxrx.

nhat might that somxthi“g xlsx bxN It coulw bx NSc. But

it coulw bx somxthi“g xlsx as wxll. cxrhaffs our co“trols

wxrx “ot tight x“ough. caybx thx subjxct was gxtti“g thx

carw color i“yormatio“ by somx othxr “ormal sx“sory 1as

offffosxw to xxtra sx“sory0 mxa“s oy which wx’rx “ot awarx.

I’vx sxx“ magicia“s wo somxthi“g vxry similar to this txst

with a wxck oy carws i“ which thxy wo yar bxttxr tha“ DF out

oy FC. ghxy gxt FC out oy FC. nhat is thx ffrobability oy thatN

It is BAA ffxrcx“t bxcausx it’s a magic trick( ghat I wo “ot

k“ow how thx trick is wo“x woxs “ot mxa“ that NSc was at

work. It just mxa“s that wx “xxw to bx vxry carxyul i“ our

co“trols to i“surx that wx arx mxasuri“g what wx thi“k wx

arx mxasuri“g.

ghis is xsffxcially trux whx“ wx’rx attxmffti“g to mxasurx

xffxcts yar morx subtlx a“w comfflxx tha“ thx color oy

fflayi“g carws, such as your ma“y claims rxlatxw to morffhic

rxso“a“cxF ffha“tom limbs, homi“g ffigxo“s, crossworw

ffuzzlxs, how wogs k“ow whx“ thxir ow“xrs arx comi“g

homx, a“w how ffxofflx k“ow whx“ somxo“x is stari“g at

thxm. Nach oy thxsx is a sxffaratx xffxct that may or may “ot

havx thx samx sxt oy causxs. Lo“siwxr thx claim that ffxofflx

havx a sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at. Oirst, wx havx to co“trol yor

thx wxll-k“ow“ rxvxrsx sxly-yulfilli“g xffxctF a ffxrso“

susffxcts bxi“g starxw at a“w tur“s to chxckL such hxaw

movxmx“t catchxs thx xyxs oy woulw-bx starxrs who thx“

tur“ to look at thx starxx, who thxrxby co“firms thx yxxli“g

oy bxi“g starxw at. But this is a “ormal sx“sory

ffhx“omx“o“, “ot a“ xxtra-sx“sory ffhx“omx“o“.

I“ CAAA, Joh“ Lolwxll yrom ciwwlxsxx l“ivxrsity, Lo“wo“,

co“wuctxw a yormal txst utilizi“g your suggxstxw

xxffxrimx“tal ffrotocol, with BC volu“txxrs who ffarticiffatxw

i“ BC sxfiux“cxs oy CA starx or “o-starx trials xach, with

accuracy yxxwback ffroviwxw yor thx fi“al “i“x sxssio“s. ghx

rxsults wxrx that thx subjxcts wxrx ablx to wxtxct bxi“g

starxw at o“ly whx“ accuracy yxxwback was ffroviwxw, which

Lolwxll attributxw to thx subjxcts lxar“i“g what was, i“ yact,

a “o“ra“wom ffrxsx“tatio“ oy thx xxffxrimx“tal trials.

A“w as you wxll k“ow, whx“ Richarw nisxma“ attxmfftxw

to rxfflicatx your rxsxarch, hx you“w that subjxcts wxtxctxw

starxs at ratxs “o bxttxr tha“ cha“cx. ghis lxw him to

bxlixvx that yor thosx xxffxrimx“ts that wiw gx“xratx

statistically sig“ifica“t rxsults thxrx was a“ xxffxrimx“txr

bias ffroblxm, which hx wxmo“stratxw i“ a collaborativx

stuwy with carily“ Schlitz, who is a bxlixvxr i“ NSc

1nisxma“ is a skxfftic0. ghxy you“w that whx“ Schlitz wiw

thx stari“g shx you“w statistically sig“ifica“t rxsults,

whxrxas whx“ nisxma“ wiw thx stari“g hx you“w cha“cx

rxsults.B I you“w a similar bias xffxct i“ a co“tx“t a“alysis I

wiw oy thx CAAF sffxcial issux oy thx Els rnal lc ClnscSlssnbss

MrsaSbs wxvotxw to your rxsxarch,C i“ which I ratxw thx BE

offx“-ffxxr commx“tarixs o“ your targxt articlx 1o“ thx

sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at0 o“ a scalx oy B to F 1critical, milwly

critical, “xutral, milwly suffffortivx, suffffortivx0. nithout

xxcxfftio“, thx Bs, Cs a“w Ds wxrx all trawitio“al scix“tists

yrom mai“strxam i“stitutio“s, whxrxas thx Es a“w Fs wxrx

all affiliatxw with yri“gx a“w ffro-ffara“ormal i“stitutio“s. by

coursx, you might rxaso“ably argux that it is nisxma“ a“w

thxsx mai“strxam scix“tists whosx skxfftical bias ffrxvx“ts

thx xffxct yrom bxi“g mxasurxw 1a“w “ot aScb abrsa0, but i“

this casx, si“cx it is you maki“g thx xxtraorwi“ary claim, thx

burwx“ oy ffrooy is o“ you to ffroviwx xxtraorwi“ary xviwx“cx

that it is xxffxrimx“txr bias ffrxvx“ti“g thx xffxct, which i“

my offi“io“ has yxt to bx ffrowucxw.

culli“g back yor a historical ffxrsffxctivx, xvxr si“cx

orga“izatio“s such as thx Socixty yor csychical Rxsxarch

wxrx you“wxw i“ thx latx BEth cx“tury, thousa“ws oy

xxffxrimx“ts havx bxx“ ru“ i“ a“ attxmfft to mxasurx NSc

a“w rxlatxw ffhx“omx“a. Although I k“ow you wisagrxx,

most scix“tists rxmai“ u“co“vi“cxw by thx ha“wyul oy

ffositivx fi“wi“gs, “oti“g that thx vast majority oy

xxffxrimx“ts yailxw to rxjxct thx “ull hyffothxsis that NSc

woxs “ot xxist. Nvx“ xxffxrimx“ts that wiw ffrowucx

statistically sig“ifica“t xffxcts 1mxa“i“g that thxy rxjxctxw

thx “ull hyffothxsis0 wxrx oytx“ yraught with mxthowological

shortcomi“gs. Richarw nisxma“ a“w Julix cilto“, yor

xxamfflx, txstxw your hyffothxsis i“ a stuwy at thx l“ivxrsity

oy Rxrtyorwshirx callxw “La“ A“imals Mxtxct nhx“ ghxir

bw“xrs Arx Rxtur“i“g RomxN” go your crxwit, you mawx

this txst ffossiblx aytxr a wog ow“xr 1a“w hxr wog, Jaytxx0

wxrx yxaturxw o“ a txlxvisio“ show as succxssyul xxamfflxs

co“firmi“g your hyffothxsis 1that you also ffublishxw i“ a

ffaffxr0. But as nisxma“ a“w cilto“ co“cluwxw aytxr

i“stituti“g tightxr co“trolsF “A“alysis oy thx wata wiw “ot

suffffort thx hyffothxsis that Jaytxx coulw ffsychically wxtxct

whx“ his ow“xr was rxtur“i“g homx.”

Lo“siwxr o“x oy thx most thorough rxvixws oy this

litxraturx xvxr co“wuctxw by thx highly rxsffxctxw social

scix“tists Maryl Bxm a“w Lharlxs Ro“orto“, x“titlxw “Moxs

csi NxistN Rxfflicablx Nviwx“cx yor a“ A“omalous crocxss oy

I“yormatio“ gra“syxr,” ffublishxw i“ thx ffrxstigious rxvixw

jour“al BswcRllldScal BsllbrSn i“ BEEE.D ghx scix“tists

co“wuctxw a mxta-a“alysis, a statistical txch“ifiux that

combi“xs thx rxsults yrom ma“y stuwixs to look yor a“

ovxrall xffxct, xvx“ iy thx rxsults yrom thx i“wiviwual stuwixs

wxrx “o“sig“ifica“t 1i.x., thxy wxrx u“ablx to rxjxct thx “ull

hyffothxsis at thx EF ffxrcx“t co“fiwx“cx lxvxl0. Bxm a“w

Ro“orto“ co“cluwxwF “ghx rxfflicatio“ ratxs a“w xffxct sizxs

achixvxw by o“x ffarticular xxffxrimx“tal mxthow, thx

danxcbla ffrocxwurx, arx “ow sufficix“t to warra“t bri“gi“g

this bowy oy wata to thx attx“tio“ oy thx wiwxr ffsychological

commu“ity.” ghx ga“zyxlw ffrocxwurx fflacxs thx “rxcxivxr”

i“ a sx“sory isolatio“ room with ffi“g ffo“g-ball halvxs

covxri“g thx xyxs, hxawffho“xs fflayi“g whitx “oisx ovxr thx

xars, a“w thx “sx“wxr” i“ a“othxr room attxmffti“g to

tra“smit ffhotograffhic or viwxo imagxs via NSc 1or ffsi0.

Mxsffitx fi“wi“g xviwx“cx yor ffsi—subjxcts haw a hit ratx oy

DF ffxrcx“t whx“ CF ffxrcx“t was xxffxctxw by cha“cx—Bxm

a“w Ro“orto“ lamx“txwF “cost acawxmic ffsychologists wo

“ot yxt accxfft thx xxistx“cx oy ffsi, a“omalous ffrocxssxs oy

i“yormatio“ or x“xrgy tra“syxr 1such as txlxffathy or othxr

yorms oy xxtrasx“sory ffxrcxfftio“0 that arx currx“tly

u“xxfflai“xw i“ txrms oy k“ow“ ffhysical or biological

mxcha“isms” 1ff. BBI0. nhy wo“’t scix“tists accxfft ffsi

wxsffitx this affffarx“t sig“ifica“t xffxctN I co“tx“w that

thxrx arx two rxaso“sF aara a“w rRblrw.

D ara. Both thx mxta-a“alysis a“w danxcbla txch“ifiuxs

havx bxx“ challx“gxw by scix“tists. Ray Ryma“ yrom thx

l“ivxrsity oy brxgo“ you“w i“co“sistx“cixs i“ thx

xxffxrimx“tal ffrocxwurxs usxw i“ wiffxrx“t ga“zyxlw

xxffxrimx“ts 1that wxrx lumffxw togxthxr i“ Bxm’s mxta-

a“alysis as iy thxy usxw thx samx ffrocxwurxs0, a“w that thx

statistical txst xmffloyxw 1Mrlsffbrms J 0 was i“affffroffriatx

yor such a wivxrsx wata sxt. Ryma“ also you“w flaws i“ thx

targxt ra“womizatio“ ffrocxss 1thx sxfiux“cx i“ which thx

visual targxts wxrx sx“t to thx rxcxivxr0, rxsulti“g i“ a

targxt sxlxctio“ biasF “All oy thx sig“ifica“t hitti“g was wo“x

o“ thx sxco“w or latxr affffxara“cx oy a targxt. Iy wx

xxami“xw thx guxssxs agai“st just thx first occurrx“cxs oy

targxts, thx rxsult is co“sistx“t with cha“cx.”E Julix cilto“

a“w Richarw nisxma“ co“wuctxw a mxta-a“alysis oy DA

morx danxcbla xxffxrimx“ts a“w you“w “o xviwx“cx yor ffsi,

co“cluwi“g that ffsi wata arx “o“-rxfflicablx, a yatal flaw i“

scix“tific rxsxarch.F I“ gx“xral, ovxr thx coursx oy a cx“tury

oy rxsxarch o“ ffsi, thx tightxr thx co“trols o“ thx

xxffxrimx“tal co“witio“s, thx wxakxr thx ffsi xffxcts sxxm to

bxcomx, u“til thxy wisaffffxar x“tirxly. ghis is a vxry stro“g

i“wicator that NSc is “ot rxal.

NRblrw. ghx wxxffxr rxaso“ scix“tists rxmai“ skxfftical oy

ffsi—a“w will xvx“ iy morx sig“ifica“t wata arx ffublishxw—is

that thxrx is “o xxffla“atory thxory yor how ffsi works. l“til

ffsi ffroffo“x“ts ca“ xxfflai“ how thoughts gx“xratxw by

“xuro“s i“ thx sx“wxr’s brai“ ca“ ffass through thx skull

a“w i“to thx brai“ oy thx rxcxivxr, skxffticism is thx

affffroffriatx rxsffo“sx. Iy thx wata show that thxrx is such a

ffhx“omx“o“ as ffsi that “xxws xxfflai“i“g 1a“w I am “ot

co“vi“cxw that thxy wo0, thx“ wx still “xxw a causal

mxcha“ism.

Lo“siwxr Bxm’s morx yamous CABB stuwy oy ffsi x“titlxw

“Oxxli“g thx OuturxF Nxffxrimx“tal Nviwx“cx yor A“omalous

Rxtroactivx I“flux“cxs o“ Log“itio“ a“w Affxct,” ffublishxw

i“ thx ffrxstigious Els rnal lc BbrslnalSrw ana MlcSal

BswcRllldw. Bxm sat subjxcts i“ yro“t oy a comffutxr scrxx“

that wisfflayxw two curtai“s, bxhi“w o“x oy which woulw

affffxar a ffhotograffh that was “xutral 1x.g., a builwi“g0,

“xgativx 1x.g., a car acciwx“t0, or xrotic 1x.g., sxx0. ghrough

DG trials, thx subjxcts wxrx to Yrbsblbcr which scrxx“ thxy

thought thx imagx woulw affffxar bxhi“w, acrbr which thx

comffutxr ra“womly chosx which wi“wow to ffrojxct thx

imagx. nhx“ thx imagxs wxrx “xutral, thx subjxcts wiw “o

bxttxr tha“ FA6FA guxssi“g. But whx“ thx imagxs that wxrx

about to bx ffrojxctxw wxrx xrotic i“ “aturx, thx subjxcts

ffrxsxlxctxw thx corrxct scrxx“ FD.B ffxrcx“t oy thx timx,

which Bxm rxfforts as statistically sig“ifica“t. Bxm calls this

“rxtroactivx i“flux“cx”—xrotic imagxs rifffflx back yrom thx

yuturx i“to thx ffrxsx“t, or as thx comxwia“ Stxffhx“ Lolbxrt

callxw it whx“ hx yxaturxw Bxm o“ his show NRb CllLbrr

LbYlrr, “Nxtra Sx“sory Blrncxfftio“.” nhx“ Lolbxrt

ffrxssxw Bxm yor a“ xxffla“atio“ yor how such timx rxvxrsal

coulw ffossibly work, thx scix“tist co“yxssxw, “nx havx “o

iwxa,” but thx“ suggxstxw fiua“tum ffhysics as a ffossiblx

mxcha“ism. b“cx agai“, thxrx arx ma“y rxaso“s to bx

skxfftical—six to bx ffrxcisx.

1 , ghx jour“al also ffublishxw i“ thx samx issux a ffaffxr

by thx ffsychologist Nric-Ja“ nagx“makxrs that was

critical oy Bxm’s fi“wi“gs, co“cluwi“g that his

mxthowology was flawxw i“ that hx was usi“g a“

xxffloratory a“alysis oy ffsi hyffothxsxs to sxx what

might tur“ out sig“ifica“t, a“w thx“ ffrxsx“ti“g it as iy

it wxrx co“firmi“g thx hyffothxsis. 1Sxx nagx“makxrs’

ffublicatio“ list o“ his nxb ffagx.0

0 , Bxm’s stuwy is a“ xxamfflx oy what I call “xgativx

xviwx“cxF Iy scix“cx ca““ot wxtxrmi“x thx causxs oy l

through “ormal mxa“s, thx“ l must bx thx rxsult oy

ffara“ormal causxs. Ray Ryma“, who has wxvotxw his

carxxr to carxyully a“alyzi“g sxrious ffsi rxsxarch, calls

this issux thx “ffatchwork fiuilt ffroblxm” i“ which

“a“ythi“g ca“ cou“t as ffsi, but “othi“g ca“ cou“t

agai“st it.” ghat is, “Iy you ca“ show that thxrx is a

sig“ifica“t xffxct a“w you ca“’t fi“w a“y “ormal mxa“s

to xxfflai“ it, thx“ you ca“ claim ffsi.” ghat is “ot a valiw

co“clusio“, howxvxr, xsffxcially whx“ wxali“g with such

xxtraorwi“ary claims as NSc.

, , cara“ormal xffxcts, which arx rarxly wxtxctxw at all,

arx always so subtlx a“w flxxti“g as to bx usxlxss yor

a“ythi“g ffractical, such as ffrxwicti“g thx yuturx,

locati“g missi“g ffxrso“s, gambli“g, i“vxsti“g, a“w so

o“.

- , A small but clnsSsrbnr xffxct might bx sig“ifica“t 1yor

xxamfflx, i“ gambli“g or i“vxsti“g0, but accorwi“g to

Ray Ryma“, Bxm’s D ffxrcx“t abovx-cha“cx xffxct i“

Nxffxrimx“t B was “ot co“sistx“t across his “i“x

xxffxrimx“ts, which mxasurxw wiffxrx“t xffxcts u“wxr

varyi“g co“witio“s.

. , Nxffxrimx“tal i“co“sistx“cixs fflagux such rxsxarch.

Oor xxamfflx, Ryma“ “otxs that i“ Bxm’s Nxffxrimx“t B

thx first EA subjxcts wxrx xxffosxw to xfiual “umbxrs oy

xrotic, “xutral, a“w “xgativx fficturxs, but thx“ Bxm

cha“gxw thx xxffxrimx“t i“ miwstrxam a“w yor thx

rxmai“i“g subjxcts just comffarxw xrotic fficturxs with

a“ u“sffxcifixw mix oy all tyffxs oy fficturxs. clus, it tur“s

out that Bxm’s fiyth xxffxrimx“t was co“wuctxw bxyorx

his first, which raisxs thx ffossibility that thxrx might

bx a ffost-hoc bias i“ xithxr ru““i“g thx xxffxrimx“ts or

i“ rxfforti“g thx rxsults. As wxll, Bxm rxfforts that

“most oy thx fficturxs” wxrx sxlxctxw yrom a sourcx

callxw thx InrbrnarSlnal AffbcrSab BScrsrb Mwsrbm , but

hx woxs“’t txll us which o“xs wxrx “ot, why, or what

ffrocxwurx hx xmffloyxw to classiyy imagxs as xrotic,

“xutral, or “xgativx. Ryma“’s list oy flaws “umbxrs i“

thx wozx“s. As hx tolw mx i“ a“ i“txrvixw yor o“x oy my

McSbnrSfic Am brScan colum“s 1cay, CABB0F “I’vx bxx“ a

ffxxr rxvixwxr yor ovxr FA yxars, a“w I ca“’t thi“k oy

a“othxr rxvixwxr who woulw havx lxt this ffaffxr

through ffxxr rxvixw. ghxy wxrx irrxsffo“siblx.”

6 , cxrhaffs thxy missxw what York l“ivxrsity

ffsychologist Jamxs Alcock you“w i“ a“othxr ffaffxr that

Bxm wrotx, x“titlxw “nriti“g thx Nmffirical Jour“al

Articlx” 1ffostxw o“ his wxbsitx0, i“ which Bxm

i“structs stuwx“tsF “ghi“k oy your wata sxt as a jxwxl.

Your task is to cut a“w ffolish it, to sxlxct thx yacxts to

highlight, a“w to crayt thx bxst sxtti“g yor it. ca“y

xxffxrix“cxw authors writx thx rxsults sxctio“ first.”

I“ othxr worws, Bxm bxga“ with what hx ffrxsumxw to bx

trux a“w thx“ workxw backwarw to fi“w thx wata to fit it.

ghis is callxw thx co“firmatio“ bias, a“w it has fflaguxw ffsi

rxsxarch yor ovxr a cx“tury. ghus it is I rxmai“ skxfftical.

 

lM ScRabl

Rbs Rra I lRldranR RRss r nds

Mxar cichaxl,

 

nhx“ it comxs to scix“cx, you arx “ot o“ly co“sxrvativx, as

you awmit, but also authoritaria“. Iy thx scix“cx

xstablishmx“t is yor it, you arx yor it. Iy thx scix“cx

xstablishmx“t is agai“st it, you arx agai“st it.

But whx“ it comxs to thx l.S. ffolitical systxm, as a

libxrtaria“ you wa“t lxss govxr“mx“t a“w morx i“wiviwual

yrxxwom a“w auto“omy. ghx rxaso“ I rxyxrrxw to your

libxrtaria“ sta“cx was bxcausx I hoffxw that your bxlixy i“

yrxxwom might also affffly to scix“cx. Aytxr all, much

i“stitutio“al scix“cx is a bra“ch oy big govxr“mx“t. ghx l.S.

govxr“mx“t sffx“ws about -BDF billio“ a yxar o“ scix“tific

rxsxarch a“w wxvxloffmx“t. cost scix“tists arx worki“g

withi“ highly burxaucratic systxms. Yxt thx awva“cx oy

scix“cx wxffx“ws o“ thx yrxxwom oy i“fiuiry. At ffrxsx“t, this

yrxxwom is i“hibitxw by i“stitutio“al orthowoxixs. ghat is

why I thi“k wx “xxw morx i“wiviwual yrxxwom withi“

scix“cx, a“w lxss authoritaria“ism.

You x“w your statxmx“t by sayi“g that “co“firmatio“ bias

... has fflaguxw ffsi rxsxarch yor ovxr a cx“tury.” But,

iro“ically, your ow“ offx“i“g statxmx“t is itsxly a ffxryxct

xxamfflx oy co“firmatio“ bias. ghx authoritixs you fiuotx arx

all matxrialists a“w committxw skxfftics. I“ ffarticular, whx“

wiscussi“g thx wata yrom ffsi rxsxarch, you rxly o“ thx

claims oy Jamxs Alcock, Richarw nisxma“, a“w Ray Ryma“,

all oy whom arx skxfftical crusawxrs a“w mxmbxrs oy thx

Lommittxx yor Skxfftical I“fiuiry. Such skxfftical awvocacy

orga“izatio“s oytx“ bxhavx as iy thxy arx ru““i“g xlxctio“

camffaig“s, with all thx vicxs oy co“yro“tatio“al ffarty

ffoliticsF bias, aa Rlm Snbm attacks o“ offffo“x“ts, “xgativx

camffaig“i“g, a“w attxmffts to co“cxal u“wxlcomx yacts by

muwwyi“g thx watxrs. 1ca“y xxamfflxs arx highlightxw o“

thx wxbsitx SkxffticalAboutSkxfftics.org.0

ghx samx txch“ifiuxs arx wiwxly usxw by wx“ixr

movxmx“ts a“w camffaig“i“g skxfftics i“ othxr fixlws oy

activity. Oor xxamfflx, ffrowuct wxyx“sx lawyxrs arx oytx“

hirxw by corfforatio“s to u“wxrmi“x thx scix“tific basis yor

govxr“mx“t rxgulatio“s. b“x oy thx ffio“xxrs oy this

stratxgy was thx cigarxttx comffa“y Brow“ a“w nilliamso“,

which ra“ a camffaig“ to wiscrxwit xviwx“cx about thx

harmyul xffxcts oy smoki“g, which hxlffxw holw back

a“tismoki“g rxgulatio“s yor yxars. As o“x oy thx comffa“y’s

xxxcutivxs commx“txw, “Moubt is our ffrowuct si“cx it is thx

bxst mxa“s oy comffxti“g with thx bowy oy yact.” Maviw

cichaxls, who was thx“ thx assista“t sxcrxtary yor

x“viro“mx“t sayxty a“w hxalth at thx l.S. Mxffartmx“t oy

N“xrgy, ffoi“txw out i“ his articlx “Moubt Is ghxir crowuct,”

ffublishxw i“ thx Ju“x B, CAAF issux oy McSbnrSfic Am brScan

that thx samx stratxgy has bxx“ awofftxw by “umxrous

i“wustrixs maki“g toxi“s. nhx“ co“yro“txw with xviwx“cx

that thxir ffrowucts arx lxthal, thx offx“wi“g i“wustry hirxs

skxfftics to muwwy thx watxrs. As cichaxls “otxw, “ghxir

co“clusio“s arx almost always thx samxF ghx xviwx“cx is

ambiguous, so rxgulatory actio“ is u“warra“txw.”

nhx“ wx comx to thx actual xviwx“cx yor ffsi ffhx“omx“a,

you awofft a classic muwwyi“g-thx-watxr stratxgy. go takx

sffxcific xxamfflxs you raisxw i“ your offx“i“g statxmx“tF

 

B. You makx it sou“w as iy ffsi rxsxarchxrs arx so “aïvx thxy

wo “ot k“ow about “ull hyffothxsxs. I“ yact, almost all ffsi

rxsxarch is basxw o“ this ffri“cifflx. You yoursxly arx “aïvx

about this or, worsx, i“tx“tio“ally misi“yormi“g our rxawxrs

hxrx. Iy you wxrx to rxaw somx actual rxsxarch ffaffxrs,

i“stxaw oy rxitxrati“g claims by yxllow skxfftics, you woulw

sxx that your claims arx “ot trux. Oor xxamfflx, you coulw

look at “ull hyffothxsis txsti“g i“ my ow“ ffaffxrs o“ thx

sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at, txlxffathy, a“w thx u“xxfflai“xw

ffowxrs oy a“imals 1which I wiscuss o“ my wxbsitx0.

 

C. ghx skxfftic Ray Ryma“ has, as you say, rxffxatxwly

criticizxw ffsi rxsxarch usi“g thx ga“zyxlw txch“ifiux.

Rowxvxr, i“ BEIG, ffsi rxsxarchxrs workxw togxthxr with

Ryma“ to ffrowucx a joi“t commu“ifiué o“ imffrovxw

ffrocxwurxs that coulw xlimi“atx ffossiblx flaws. I“ rxsffo“sx

to thxsx “xw guiwxli“xs, ffaraffsychologists carrixw out“xw,

comffutxr-co“trollxw vxrsio“s oy thx ga“zyxlw xxffxrimx“t,

callxw thx asrldanxcbla. Skxfftics trixw to fi“w “xw flaws,

a“w o“cx agai“ thx ffrocxwurxs wxrx tightx“xw uff. By CABB,

thxrx haw bxx“ FE stuwixs i“ BF wiffxrx“t laboratorixs

yollowi“g thx rigorous mxthows agrxxw uffo“ with skxfftics.

ghx ovxrall hit ratx was vxry sig“ifica“tly abovx cha“cx.B It

is trux that i“ BEEE Richarw nisxma“ a“w Julix cilto“

ffublishxw a stuwy claimi“g that thx combi“xw rxsults oy “xw

ga“zyxlw stuwixs wxrx “ot sig“ifica“tly abovx cha“cx. ghxy

rxachxw this co“clusio“ by omitti“g somx rxcx“t highly

succxssyul xxffxrimx“ts. nhx“ thxsx wxrx i“cluwxw, thx

combi“xw rxsults wxrx i“wxxw sig“ifica“tly abovx cha“cx,

as cilto“ latxr awmittxw.C

You writx, “I“ gx“xral, ovxr thx coursx oy a cx“tury oy

rxsxarch o“ ffsi, thx tightxr thx co“trols o“ thx

xxffxrimx“tal co“witio“s, thx wxakxr thx ffsi xffxcts sxxm to

bxcomx, u“til thxy wisaffffxar x“tirxly.” ghis vagux,

xviwx“cx-yrxx gx“xralizatio“ is simffly “ot trux. It is wishyul

thi“ki“g.

 

D. Maryl Bxm’s stuwy oy “yxxli“g thx yuturx” has i“wxxw bxx“

attackxw by skxfftics a“w agai“ you try to muwwy thx watxrs

by bri“gi“g uff fiuibblxs ovxr statistical wxtails. A“w whilx

somx skxfftics havx “ot bxx“ ablx to rxfflicatx somx oy

Bxm’s rxsults, othxr rxsxarchxrs havx. nhxthxr or “ot

ffrxsx“timx“t xxists is a“ i“trigui“g offx“ fiuxstio“, a“w

thxrx arx sxvxral othxr li“xs oy i“vxstigatio“ bxsiwxs Bxm’s

that stro“gly suggxst it woxs.D

I“ciwx“tally, iy you wa“t to attack Bxm yor awvisi“g

stuwx“ts to writx thxir rxsults sxctio“ first, you shoulw

attack most othxr scix“tists as wxll, bxcausx this is

sta“warw ffrocxwurx. Oor xxamfflx, thx currx“t guiwxli“xs to

chM stuwx“ts at Lambriwgx l“ivxrsity statxF “nritx your

chafftxrs i“ thx yollowi“g orwxrF Rxsults, cxthows,

Miscussio“, I“trowuctio“.”

 

E. You attxmfft to ffortray thx skxfftical claims oy Richarw

nisxma“ a“w Julix cilto“ as a rxyutatio“ oy a wog’s ability to

k“ow whx“ his ow“xr was comi“g homx, whx“ i“ yact thxir

wata suffffortxw it. You mawx “o mx“tio“ oy my rxyutatio“ oy

thxir claims, “or to i“wxffx“wx“t a“alysxs by sxvxral

i“vxstigators, all oy whom co“cluwxw that nisxma“ a“w

cilto“’s claims wxrx highly mislxawi“g.E

 

F. I“stxaw oy looki“g at thx actual wata yrom xxffxrimx“ts o“

thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at, you ra“kxw thx status oy thx

i“stitutio“s oy thx scix“tists who commx“txw o“ it, a“w

you“w that thosx yrom thx most mai“strxam i“stitutio“s

wxrx most critical. ghis is surxly “o morx tha“ a“ argumx“t

yrom authority, a“w has “othi“g to wo with actual xviwx“cx.

I“ thx joi“t xxffxrimx“ts carrixw out o“ stari“g by carily“

Schlitz a“w Richarw nisxma“, as you rightly say, nisxma“

you“w o“ly cha“cx rxsults whx“ hx wiw thx stari“g, whxrxas

whx“ Schlitz wiw thx stari“g thxrx wxrx statistically

sig“ifica“t rxsults. But thx xxffxrimx“txr xffxcts i“ this

xxffxrimx“t wxrx “ot symmxtrical. ghx ffrocxwurx i“volvxw

stari“g through closxw circuit txlxvisio“ i“ nisxma“’s ow“

laboratory, u“wxr co“witio“s that xlimi“atxw a“y ffossiblx

sx“sory i“yormatio“. Schlitz’s ffositivx rxsults coulw “ot

havx occurrxw as a rxsult oy wishyul thi“ki“g or bias. b“ thx

othxr ha“w, nisxma“ coulw xasily havx obtai“xw “o xffxct

by “ot stari“g vxry harw, a“w i“wxxw hx latxr saiw hx haw

you“w it “a“ x“ormously bori“g xxffxrix“cx” a“w that i“

most oy thx trials hx was “ffrxtty ffassivx about it.”F

But, as you awmit, this wxbatx is “ot rxally about

xviwx“cx. Lommittxw skxfftics arx agai“st ffsi ffhx“omx“a

bxcausx thxy wo “ot fit i“ with thx matxrialist worlwvixw.

ghis is wogmatic, “ot scix“tific. ghxrx arx alrxawy sxvxral

hyffothxsxs as to how ffsi may work, but thxy offx“w your

authoritaria“ i“sti“cts bxcausx thxy go bxyo“w xxisti“g

scix“tific orthowoxy. cy ow“ hyffothxsis oy morffhic fixlws,

yor xxamfflx, may hxlff to xxfflai“ txlxffathy. I wo “ot havx

sffacx hxrx to a“swxr your fiuxstio“s about how I thi“k

morffhic fixlws a“w morffhic rxso“a“cx may work, but a

summary ca“ bx you“w o“ my wxbsitx.

nhx“ cichaxl Oaraway first ffroffosxw his hyffothxsis oy

xlxctric a“w mag“xtic fixlws, hx coulw “ot xxfflai“ how thxy

workxw. It was a“othxr CA yxars bxyorx Jamxs Llxrk

caxwxll camx uff with a thxory i“ txrms oy thx xthxr, a yorm

oy “subtlx mattxr,” which was itsxly u“xxfflai“xw. A“w thx“,

i“ BEAF, Albxrt Ni“stxi“ showxw that thx xthxr wiw “ot xxist

a“w camx uff with yxt a“othxr thxory. Oortu“atxly,

orga“izxw skxfftic grouffs wiw “ot xxist at thx timx oy

Oaraway. Iy thxy haw wo“x, his rxsxarch woulw havx bxx“

wismissxw o“ thx grou“ws that his i“visiblx “fixlws” coulw “ot

bx xxfflai“xw i“ txrms oy xxisti“g mxcha“istic thxorixs, a“w

caxwxll woulw havx bxx“ trxatxw as a ffsxuwo-scix“tist yor

suggxsti“g thx xxistx“cx oy i“visiblx “subtlx mattxr.”

Rxactio“ary skxffticism woxs “ot awva“cx thx causx oy

scix“cx. It i“hibits scix“tific i“fiuiry, a“w shuts wow“

curiosity. ghxrx is alrxawy a grxat wxal oy xviwx“cx that ffsi

ffhx“omx“a xxist, wxsffitx thx tirxlxss xfforts oy crusawi“g

skxfftics to miswirxct attx“tio“ a“w ffrxtx“w that ffsi xffxcts

havx “wisaffffxarxw x“tirxly.”

I“ thx x“w, our wiffxrx“cxs comx back to our wiffxrx“t

rolxs. You arx a ffroyxssio“al skxfftic tryi“g to uffholw thx

authority oy scix“cx, guarw its yro“tixrs, a“w root out hxrxsy.

I am a rxsxarch scix“tist tryi“g to xxfflorx u“xxfflai“xw

ffhx“omx“a.

 

lL sYbrr

M mclaRl I lRrY Rr RRs lmRs

Mxar Ruffxrt,

 

I“ your last lxttxr you accusx mx oy bxi“g a “committxw

skxfftic” who is “agai“st ffsi ffhx“omx“a bxcausx thxy wo

“ot fit i“ with thx matxrialist worlwvixw.” You kxxff

rxffxati“g this ffoi“t wxsffitx my ffrotxsts to thx co“trary. As

I’vx saiw all alo“g, iy ffsi wxrx rxal a“w wx u“wxrstoow how it

workxw, thx“ it woulw bx ffart oy thx scix“tific worlwvixw

xxfflai“ablx by “atural yorcxs, xvx“ iy that mxa“s xxffa“wi“g

our u“wxrsta“wi“g oy what co“stitutxs ““atural.” Agai“,

thxrx is “o suffxr“aturalL just “atural a“w mystxrixs that

rxmai“ u“xxfflai“xw by “atural causxs. It is ffossiblx that

o“x way ffsi will bx accxfftxw by thx scix“tific commu“ity

a“w i“corfforatxw i“to thx scix“tific worlwvixw 1xvx“ thx

matxrialistic worlwvixw0, but at thx momx“t it is“’t, yor both

xviwx“tiary a“w causal rxaso“s.

I havx rxvixwxw thx ma“y shortcomi“gs with your

claimxw xviwx“cx. I“ ffxrusi“g your wxbsitx to u“wxrsta“w

your causal thxory i“volvi“g morffhic rxso“a“cx, I fi“w a

“umbxr oy flaws i“ your co“jxcturxs, starti“g with thx “amx

itsxly. “corffhic rxso“a“cx” is too broaw a catxgory—too

gx“xralizxw—a“w it attxmffts to xxfflai“ too ma“y sxffaratx

ffhx“omx“a 1that vxry likxly havx sxffaratx causxs0 to bx a

usxyul thxory. Row ca“ a si“glx fixlw oy a“y sort xxfflai“

cxllular mxmbra“xs a“w microtubulxsL thx bowy tyffxs oy

wogs 1yrom Aygha“ hou“ws to ffoowlxs0L mxmory i“ ratL

social grouffs 1yrom schools oy fish to flocks oy birws0L huma“

customs such as thx Jxwish cassovxr, thx Lhristia“ Roly

Lommu“io“, a“w crossworw ffuzzlxsL ffxrcxfftual

ffhx“omx“a such as visio“ 1thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at0L

a“w xvx“ thx laws oy “aturx a“w thx Big Ba“g origi“ oy thx

u“ivxrsxN( Is thxrx a“ythi“g this thxory ca“’t xxfflai“N I

co“tx“w that a“y thxory ffurfforti“g to xxfflai“ xvxrythi“g i“

xffxct xxfflai“s “othi“g.

I“ your last lxttxr, you citx cichaxl Oaraway, Jamxs Llxrk

caxwxll, a“w thxir thxory oy fixlws xxfflai“i“g xlxctric a“w

mag“xtic ffhx“omx“a, as a“alogous to your ow“ morffhic

rxso“a“cx fixlws. Oirst, Oaraway a“w caxwxll wxrx

attxmffti“g to xxfflai“ o“x sffxcific ffhx“omx“o“ that

i“volvxw xlxctricity a“w mag“xtism a“w thxir rxlatio“shiffL

thxy wxrx “ot attxmffti“g to xxfflai“ xvxrythi“g yrom

i“hxrita“cx to cultural customs to huma“ mxmory to thx

origi“ oy thx u“ivxrsx( A“w it woulw“’t havx mattxrxw iy

thxrx was a“ orga“izxw skxfftical movxmx“t or “ot, bxcausx

i“ timx thxir thxory ffrovxw corrxct irrxsffxctivx oy what a“y

skxfftical xvaluator might havx thought about it. Likxwisx,

thx skxffticism you havx x“cou“txrxw has “ot ffrimarily

bxx“ yrom orga“izxw skxfftical grouffs, but rathxr yrom

mai“strxam worki“g scix“tists who havx “o affiliatio“ with

orga“izxw skxffticism. I“ a“y casx, skxffticism is i“hxrx“t to

thx scix“tific ffrocxss itsxly, as I “otxw ffrxviously i“ argui“g

that all scix“tists start with thx skxfftical ffositio“ oy thx “ull

hyffothxsis that thxir xxffxrimx“ts attxmfft to rxjxct. ghx

burwx“ oy ffrooy is o“ you.

You makx thx a“alogy with fixlws “xxtx“wi“g bxyo“w thx

matxrial objxcts i“ which thxy arx rootxw”—such as

mag“xts a“w mag“xtic fixlws, ffla“xts a“w gravitatio“al

fixlws, a“w cxll ffho“xs a“w “cxllular” xlxctromag“xtic fixlws

—to argux that thx mi“w xxtx“ws bxyo“w thx brai“. ghx

flaw i“ this rxaso“i“g is that thxsx othxr fixlws arx

wxtxctablx, mxasurablx, fiua“tifiablx, a“w ffrxwictablx. nhat

wxtxctablx xviwx“cx wo you havx oy thx mi“w xxtx“wi“g

bxyo“w thx brai“N ghx xfiuivalx“t oy a Vxigxr cou“txr that

wxtxcts thx rawiatio“ xxtx“wi“g bxyo“w rawioactivx

matxrials woulw go a lo“g way towarw sufffforti“g your

morffhic rxso“a“cx thxory oy mi“w. go watx, you affffxar to

havx “o such wxtxctablx xviwx“cx oy such a fixlw, a“w

i“stxaw rxly o“ subjxctivx yxxli“gs ffxofflx havx about bxi“g

starxw at or rxcxivi“g ffho“x calls or xmails yrom ffxofflx

whom thxy arx thi“ki“g about, which havx othxr xfiually

fflausiblx xxffla“atio“s 1morx fflausiblx i“ my thi“ki“g0.

As wxll, surxly thx morffhic rxso“a“cx fixlw that wirxcts

thx wxvxloffmx“t oy cxllular microtubulxs is wiffxrx“t yrom

thx fixlw that shaffxs thx MaA-cRbgNIa chai“ sxfiux“cx,

a“w wiffxrx“t still yrom thx fixlw that co“trols mxmory,

cultural artiyacts, a“w thx xvolutio“ oy sffxcixs. You wo “ot

sxxm to havx a“y xviwx“cx yor a“y such fixlws, outsiwx oy a

“gow-oy-thx-gaffs” tyffx argumx“t that iy a scix“tist ca“’t

xxfflai“ ffhx“omx“o“ l 1x.g., xmbryological wxvxloffmx“t0,

thx“ a morffhic fixlw must bx thx xxffla“atio“. It’s “ot

x“ough to challx“gx thx ffrxvaili“g thxory oy lL you must

ffroffxr your ow“ txstablx xxffla“atio“ yor l a“w ffroviwx

xviwx“cx yor it. I“ my offi“io“, you havx yxt to wo so, a“w so

I a“w most scix“tists rxmai“ skxfftical.

Oi“ally, it affffxars to mx that your morffhic rxso“a“cx

thxory is circularF “corffhic fixlws co“tai“ othxr morffhic

fixlws withi“ thxm”L morffhic fixlws “co“tai“ a built-i“

mxmory givx“ by sxly-rxso“a“cx with a morffhic u“it’s ow“

ffast a“w by morffhic rxso“a“cx with all ffrxvious similar

systxms”L a“w so yorth. It sxxms to mx you arx xxfflai“i“g

morffhic rxso“a“cx fixlws with …morffhic rxso“a“cx fixlws.

It woulw bx tautological to assxrt that morffhic fixlws causx

morffhic fixlws. nhat is thx causx oy morffhic rxso“a“cx

fixlws i“ thx first fflacxN

 

lM ScRabl

Hlas aRr -

Rbs Rra I lRldranRhs O s Rnmng I aaaRY Rna

Mxar cichaxl,

 

Oor committxw matxrialists, ffsychic 1ffsi0 ffhx“omx“a such

as txlxffathy a“w thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at must bx

illusory bxcausx thxy arx imffossiblx. ci“ws arx i“siwx

brai“s. cx“tal activity is “othi“g but xlxctro-chxmical brai“

activity. Rx“cx thoughts a“w i“tx“tio“s ca““ot havx wirxct

xffxcts at a wista“cx, “or ca“ mi“ws bx offx“ to i“flux“cxs

yrom thx yuturx. Although ffsi ffhx“omx“a sbbm to occur,

thxy must havx “ormal xxffla“atio“s i“ txrms oy

coi“ciwx“cx, subtlx sx“sory cuxs, wishyul thi“ki“g, or yrauw.

Mogmatic skxfftics oytx“ rxffxat thx sloga“ that

“xxtraorwi“ary claims wxma“w xxtraorwi“ary xviwx“cx.” But

thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at a“w txlxffathy arx “ot

xxtraorwi“ary, thxy arx orwi“ary. cost ffxofflx havx

xxffxrix“cxw thxm. Orom this ffoi“t oy vixw, thx sgbYrScsm

claim is xxtraorwi“ary. nhxrx is thx xxtraorwi“ary xviwx“cx

that most ffxofflx arx wxluwxw about thxir ow“ xxffxrix“cxN

Skxfftics ca“ o“ly yall back o“ gx“xric argumx“ts about thx

yallibility oy huma“ juwgmx“t.

I hxrx co“siwxr rxsxarch o“ thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at

a“w txlxffathy. ghxsx arx subjxcts o“ which I havx ffublishxw

morx tha“ CA ffxxr-rxvixwxw rxsxarch ffaffxrs i“ scix“tific

jour“als, as wxll as two books, D lds NRar F nlb R Rbn NRbSr

Ab nbrs Arb Clm Snd H lm b 1C“w xw.F ghrxx Rivxrs crxss,

CABB0 a“w NRb Mbnsb lc BbSnd Mrarba Ar- Ana ArRbr

OnbcYlaSnba Blb brs lc H sm an M Snas 1C“w xw.F cark Strxxt

crxss, CABD0. Bxcausx oy limitatio“s oy sffacx, I omit thx

othxr thrxx mai“ arxas oy ffsi rxsxarchF clairvoya“cx or

rxmotx vixwi“g, mxa“i“g thx ability to sxx or xxffxrix“cx

thi“gs at a wista“cxL ffrxcog“itio“ or ffrxsx“timx“t, k“owi“g

or yxxli“g a yuturx xvx“tL a“w ffsychoki“xsis, or mi“w-ovxr-

mattxr xffxcts.

 

J lR dRaRcamr n r S saarRs

 

cost ffxofflx havx yxlt somxo“x looki“g at thxm yrom

bxhi“w, tur“xw arou“w, a“w mxt thx ffxrso“’s xyxs. cost

ffxofflx havx also xxffxrix“cxw thx co“vxrsxF ghxy havx

somxtimxs mawx ffxofflx tur“ arou“w by stari“g at thxm. I“

xxtx“sivx survxys i“ Nuroffx a“w aorth Amxrica, bxtwxx“

HA ffxrcx“t a“w EH ffxrcx“t oy awults a“w chilwrx“ rxffortxw

xxffxrix“cxs oy thxsx ki“ws. ca“y sffxcixs oy “o“-huma“

a“imals also sxxm ablx to wxtxct looks. Somx hu“txrs a“w

wilwliyx ffhotograffhxrs arx co“vi“cxw that a“imals ca“

wxtxct thxir gazx xvx“ whx“ thxy arx hiwwx“ a“w looki“g at

a“imals through txlxscoffic lx“sxs or sights.

Iy thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at is rxal, thx“ it must havx

bxx“ subjxct to xvolutio“ by “atural sxlxctio“. Row might it

havx xvolvxwN ghx most obvious ffossibility is i“ thx co“txxt

oy ffrxwator-ffrxy rxlatio“s. crxy a“imals that ca“ wxtxct

whx“ ffrxwators arx looki“g at thxm will sta“w a bxttxr

cha“cx oy survivi“g tha“ thosx that ca““ot.

Si“cx thx BEIAs, thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at has bxx“

i“vxstigatxw xxffxrimx“tally both through wirxct looki“g

a“w also through closxw-circuit txlxvisio“. I“ thx scix“tific

litxraturx it is variously rxyxrrxw to as “u“sxx“ gazx

wxtxctio“” or “rxmotx attx“tio“” or “scoffxsthxsia” 1yrom

thx Vrxxk sglYbSn, mxa“i“g “to vixw,” a“w aSsrRj sSs,

mxa“i“g “ffxrcxfftio“”0. ghx majority oy thxsx stuwixs, xvx“

somx oy thx stuwixs by skxfftics, havx show“ ffositivx,

statistically sig“ifica“t xffxcts. ghx largxst xxffxrimx“t o“

thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at bxga“ i“ BEEF at thx aNcb

Scix“cx Lx“trx i“ Amstxrwam. corx tha“ DG,AAA ffxofflx

took ffart, with ffositivx rxsults that wxrx astro“omically

sig“ifica“t statistically. ghx most sx“sitivx subjxcts wxrx

chilwrx“ u“wxr thx agx oy “i“x.

 

J RlRs aaly mn rRal lmSR

 

I“ most, iy “ot all, trawitio“al socixtixs, txlxffathy sxxms to

bx takx“ yor gra“txw a“w ffut to ffractical usx. Oor xxamfflx,

ma“y travxlxrs i“ Ayrica rxffortxw that ffxofflx sxxmxw to

k“ow whx“ ffxofflx to whom thxy wxrx attachxw wxrx

comi“g homx, xvx“ though thxy haw “o “ormal mxa“s oy

k“owi“g. ghx samx occurrxw i“ rural aorway, whxrx thxrx

is a sffxcial worw yor thx a“ticiffatio“ oy arrivalsF aarai dbr.

gyffically, somxo“x at homx hxarw a ffxrso“ affffroachi“g thx

housx, a“w comi“g i“, yxt “obowy ffhysically wiw so. Soo“

aytxrwarws thx ffxrso“ rxally arrivxw. Similarly, thx “sxco“w

sight” oy thx somx oy thx i“habita“ts oy thx Scottish

Righla“ws i“cluwxw visio“s oy arrivals bxyorx thx ffxrso“

actually arrivxw.

I“ a“ attxmfft to fi“w out morx about txlxffathy i“ mowxr“

socixtixs, I lau“chxw a sxrixs oy affffxals yor i“yormatio“

through thx mxwia i“ Nuroffx, aorth Amxrica, a“w

Australia. bvxr CA yxars, I havx built uff a watabasx oy

sxxmi“gly txlxffathic a“w othxr ffsi xxffxrix“cxs co“tai“i“g

morx tha“ BA,AAA casx historixs.

ca“y ffxofflx havx obsxrvxw rxsffo“sxs oy a“imals likx

wogs a“w cats to thxir thoughts a“w i“tx“tio“s. ghx most

imffrxssivx occur whx“ thx ffxofflx arx milxs away, yar

bxyo“w thx ra“gx oy thx a“imals’ sx“sxs. corx tha“ B,FAA

ffxofflx havx tolw mx that thxir wogs a“w cats k“ow whx“ a

mxmbxr oy thx yamily is comi“g homx a“w go to wait at a

woor or wi“wow, oytx“ CA mi“utxs or morx i“ awva“cx. ca“y

oy thxsx storixs makx it clxar that thx a“imals’ rxsffo“sxs

wxrx “ot simffly rxactio“s to thx sou“ws oy a yamiliar car or

yamiliar yootstxffs i“ thx strxxt. ghxy haffffx“xw too lo“g i“

awva“cx, a“w thxy also haffffx“xw whx“ ffxofflx camx homx

by bus or trai“. aor was it just a mattxr oy routi“x. Somx

ffxofflx, likx fflumbxrs, lawyxrs, a“w taxi wrivxrs, workxw

irrxgular hours, a“w yxt thx ffxofflx at homx k“xw whx“

thxy wxrx comi“g bxcausx thx wog or cat wx“t to wait at a

woor or wi“wow.

Amo“g huma“s, ma“y casxs oy affffarx“t txlxffathy occur

i“ rxsffo“sx to othxr ffxofflx’s “xxws. Oor xxamfflx, hu“wrxws

oy mothxrs havx tolw mx that whx“ thxy wxrx

brxastyxxwi“g, thxy k“xw whx“ thxir baby “xxwxw thxm,

xvx“ yrom milxs away. ghxy yxlt thxir milk lxt wow“. ghx

milk lxtwow“ rxflxx is mxwiatxw by thx hormo“x oxytoci“,

somxtimxs callxw thx lovx hormo“x, a“w is “ormally

triggxrxw by hxari“g thx baby cry. ghx “ifffflxs start lxaki“g

milk a“w ma“y womx“ yxxl a ti“gli“g sx“satio“ i“ thxir

brxasts. nhx“ “ursi“g mothxrs wxrx away yrom thxir

babixs a“w yxlt thxir milk lxt wow“, most oy thxm took it yor

gra“txw that thxir baby “xxwxw thxm, xvx“ though it was

“ot at a routi“x yxxwi“g timx. ghxy wxrx usually right. ghxy

wiw “ot xxffxrix“cx thxir milk lxtti“g wow“ bxcausx thxy

startxw thi“ki“g about thx babyL thxy startxw thi“ki“g

about thxir baby bxcausx thxir milk lxt wow“ yor “o

affffarx“t rxaso“. A statistical a“alysis showxw that this was

“ot a mattxr oy sy“chro“izxw ffhysiological rhythms.

A txlxffathic co““xctio“ bxtwxx“ mothxrs a“w thxir

babixs makxs goow sx“sx i“ xvolutio“ary txrms. cothxrs

who coulw txll at a wista“cx whx“ thxir babixs “xxwxw thxm

woulw tx“w to havx babixs that survivxw bxttxr tha“ babixs

oy i“sx“sitivx mothxrs.

l“til thx i“vx“tio“ oy mowxr“ txlxcommu“icatio“s,

txlxffathy was thx o“ly way i“ which ffxofflx coulw bx i“

touch at a wista“cx i“sta“tly. I“ most rxsffxcts, txlxffathy has

“ow bxx“ suffxrsxwxw by txlxffho“xs—but it has “ot go“x

away. I“wxxw, txlxffathy “ow occurs most commo“ly i“

co““xctio“ with txlxffho“x calls.

 

Exs RrmY Rnaal rRsRarcl r n aRlRs aaly w mal anmY als

 

I startxw my ow“ rxsxarch o“ txlxffathy with a“imals, rathxr

tha“ ffxofflx. I thought that iy txlxffathy occurs, it is “ormal,

“ot ffara“ormal, “atural, “ot suffxr“atural, a“w is likxly to

havx xvolvxw as a commu“icatio“ systxm bxtwxx“ bo“wxw

mxmbxrs oy a“imal grouffs.

I“ ffarticular, I carrixw out ma“y xxffxrimx“ts with rxtur“-

a“ticiffati“g wogs to fi“w out whxthxr thxy rxally wiw

a“ticiffatx thxir ow“xrs’ rxtur“s whx“ thxy coulw “ot havx

k“ow“ by ““ormal” mxa“s. I“ thxsx txsts, thx ow“xrs oy thx

wogs wx“t at lxast fivx milxs away yrom homx. nhilx thxy

wxrx out, thx fflacx whxrx thxir wog waitxw was filmxw

co“ti“uously o“ timx-cowxw viwxotaffx. ghx ow“xr wiw “ot

k“ow i“ awva“cx whx“ shx woulw bx goi“g homx a“w shx

wiw so o“ly whx“ shx rxcxivxw a mxssagx yrom mx via a

txlxffho“x ffagxr at a ra“womly sxlxctxw timx. Shx travxlxw

by taxi or i“ a“othxr u“yamiliar vxhiclx to avoiw yamiliar car

sou“ws. ghx wog I havx i“vxstigatxw most, a txrrixr callxw

Jaytxx, was at thx wi“wow o“ avxragx o“ly E ffxrcx“t oy thx

timx wuri“g thx mai“ ffxriow oy his ow“xr’s absx“cx, a“w FF

ffxrcx“t oy thx timx whx“ shx was o“ thx way back. ghis

wiffxrx“cx was vxry sig“ifica“t statistically. ghx Scix“cx

l“it oy Austria“ Statx gxlxvisio“, bRO, filmxw this

i“wxffx“wx“t xxffxrimx“t a“w you ca“ fi“w it o“ my wxbsitx.

At my i“vitatio“, a lxawi“g British mxwia skxfftic, Richarw

nisxma“, wiw his ow“ viwxotaffxw txsts with Jaytxx u“wxr

thx samx co“witio“s. Ris wata showxw that Jaytxx was at thx

wi“wow E ffxrcx“t oy thx timx wuri“g thx mai“ ffxriow oy his

ow“xr’s absx“cx, a“w HI ffxrcx“t oy thx timx whx“ shx was

o“ thx way back, a statistically sig“ifica“t ffositivx xffxct.

Rowxvxr, i“ thx mxwia, nisxma“ mislxawi“gly trixw to

ffortray this rxfflicatio“ oy my rxsults as a rxyutatio“ oy

Jaytxx’s abilitixs(

 

Exs RrmY Rnaal rRsRarcl r n lbY an aRlRs aaly

 

Si“cx BIIA, thxrx havx bxx“ hu“wrxws oy stuwixs oy huma“

txlxffathy u“wxr laboratory co“witio“s. ghx grxat majority

havx givx“ ffositivx, statistically sig“ifica“t rxsults.

ghx commo“xst ki“w oy affffarx“t txlxffathy i“ thx mowxr“

worlw co“cxr“s txlxffho“x calls. Survxys show that most

ffxofflx havx thought oy somxo“x yor “o affffarx“t rxaso“,

a“w thx“ that ffxrso“ callxw, or xlsx thxy just k“ow who is

calli“g bxyorx looki“g at thx callxr IM or a“swxri“g thx call.

But coulw“’t this just bx coi“ciwx“cxN nx thi“k about othxr

ffxofflx yrxfiux“tlyL somxtimxs, by cha“cx, somxbowy ri“gs

whilx wx arx thi“ki“g about thxmL wx may imagi“x it is

txlxffathy, but wx yorgxt thx thousa“ws oy timxs wx wxrx

wro“g. br whx“ wx k“ow somxo“x wxll, our yamiliarity with

hxr routi“xs a“w activitixs x“ablxs us to k“ow whx“ shx is

likxly to ri“g, xvx“ though this k“owlxwgx may bx

u“co“scious.

I sxarchxw thx scix“tific litxraturx to fi“w out iy thxsx

rxaso“ablx ffossibilitixs wxrx suffffortxw by a“y wata or

obsxrvatio“s. I coulw fi“w “o rxsxarch whatxvxr o“ thx

subjxct. I“ scix“cx it is “ot x“ough to havx a hyffothxsis.

Ryffothxsxs “xxw txsti“g to fi“w out iy thxy arx suffffortxw or

rxyutxw by thx xviwx“cx.

I thxrxyorx wxsig“xw a simfflx ffrocxwurx to txst both thx

cha“cx-coi“ciwx“cx hyffothxsis a“w thx u“co“scious-

k“owlxwgx hyffothxsis xxffxrimx“tally. I askxw volu“txxr

subjxcts yor thx “amxs a“w txlxffho“x “umbxrs oy your

ffxofflx thxy k“xw wxll, yrix“ws or yamily mxmbxrs. ghx

subjxcts wxrx thx“ filmxw co“ti“uously throughout thx

ffxriow oy thx xxffxrimx“t alo“x i“ a room with a la“wli“x

txlxffho“x, without a callxr IM systxm. Iy thxrx was a

comffutxr i“ thx room, it was switchxw off, a“w thx subjxcts

haw “o cxll ffho“xs with thxm. cy rxsxarch assista“t or I

sxlxctxw o“x oy thx your callxrs at ra“wom by thx throw oy a

wicx. nx callxw thx sxlxctxw ffxrso“ a“w askxw him to ffho“x

thx subjxct i“ thx “xxt coufflx oy mi“utxs. Rx wiw so. ghx

subjxct’s ffho“x ra“g. Bxyorx a“swxri“g it, shx haw to say to

thx camxra who, out oy thx your ffossiblx callxrs, shx yxlt

was o“ thx li“x. Shx coulw “ot havx k“ow“ by k“owlxwgx oy

thx callxr’s habits a“w waily routi“xs, bxcausx i“ this

xxffxrimx“t thx callxrs wxrx ra“womly sxlxctxw by thx

xxffxrimx“txr.

By guxssi“g at ra“wom, subjxcts woulw havx bxx“ right

about o“x timx i“ your, or CF ffxrcx“t. I“ yact, i“ hu“wrxws oy

trials thx avxragx hit ratx was EF ffxrcx“t, vxry sig“ifica“tly

abovx thx cha“cx lxvxl. ao“x oy thx subjxcts was right

xvxry timx, but thxy wxrx right much morx tha“ thxy

shoulw havx bxx“ iy thx cha“cx coi“ciwx“cx thxory wxrx

trux. 1A viwxo oy o“x oy thxsx xxffxrimx“ts mawx by a British

gm cha““xl is o“ my wxbsitx.0

ghis abovx-cha“cx xffxct has bxx“ rxfflicatxw

i“wxffx“wx“tly i“ txlxffho“x txlxffathy txsts at u“ivxrsitixs i“

Vxrma“y a“w Rolla“w. I havx also obtai“xw vxry similar

rxsults i“ xxffxrimx“ts with txxt mxssagxs a“w ScS

mxssagxs.

 

I nRs amcal rRacamr ns

 

I“yormxw skxfftics likx croyxssor Lhris Orx“ch, thx yormxr

xwitor oy thx British magazi“x NRb MgbYrSc, wo “ot wx“y that

thxrx is xxffxrimx“tal xviwx“cx that suggxsts ffsi

ffhx“omx“a arx rxal, but say thxrx is “ot yxt x“ough to

co“vi“cx thxm. By co“trast, wogmatic skxfftics arx gx“xrally

ig“ora“t oy thx xviwx“cx, as I havx you“w i“ my ma“y

x“cou“txrs with lxawxrs oy thx orga“izxw skxfftical

movxmx“t, i“cluwi“g Jamxs Ra“wi a“w Richarw Mawki“s.

b“x oy your ow“ yavoritx sayi“gs is that “Skxffticism is a

mxthow, “ot a ffositio“.” But you havx “ot ffracticxw what

you ffrxach. I“ my xxffxrix“cx, you havx bxx“ ffrxjuwicxw

a“w u“scix“tific.

Oor xxamfflx, i“ CAAD, OMA Nlaaw ffublishxw a“ articlx

about my book NRb Mbnsb lc BbSnd Mrarba Ar, wxscribi“g my

rxsxarch o“ txlxffathy a“w thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at. As a

ffromi“x“t ffroyxssio“al skxfftic, you wxrx askxw yor your

commx“ts. You wxrx fiuotxw as sayi“g, “rShxlwrakxs has

“xvxr mxt a gooyy iwxa hx wiw“’t likx. ghx xvx“ts Shxlwrakx

wxscribxs wo“’t rxfiuirx a thxory a“w arx ffxryxctly

xxfflicablx by “ormal mxa“s.”

It takxs yxars to wo carxyul rxsxarch a“w ffublish it i“

ffxxr-rxvixwxw jour“als. By co“trast, it o“ly takxs a yxw

mi“utxs to makx a“ xviwx“cx-yrxx claim to a jour“alist.

Mogmatic skxffticism is xasy.

As you will rxmxmbxr, I xmailxw you to ask what your

“ormal xxffla“atio“s yor my rxsults wxrx. You coulw “ot

substa“tiatx your vxry ffublic claim i“ a “xwsffaffxr rxaw by

millio“s oy ffxofflx, a“w awmittxw you haw “ot xvx“ sxx“ my

book. I challx“gxw you to a“ o“li“x wxbatx. You accxfftxw

thx challx“gx, but saiw you wxrx too busy to look at thx

xviwx“cx, a“w ffromisxw you woulw “gxt to it soo“.” You

wiw“’t. So I am fflxasxw that wx arx havi“g this wxbatx “ow.

I“ aovxmbxr CAAF, you attackxw mx i“ your McSbnrSfic

Am brScan “Skxfftic” colum“ i“ a ffixcx callxw “Ruffxrt’s

Rxso“a“cx.” You riwiculxw thx iwxa oy morffhic rxso“a“cx

a“w statxw that I ffroffosxw a “u“ivxrsal liyx yorcx,” a ffhrasx

I havx “xvxr usxw. You also rxyxrrxw to claims by yxllow

skxfftics that my xxffxrimx“tal work was flawxw. ghxsx yalsx

claims haw alrxawy bxx“ rxyutxw i“ ffxxr-rxvixwxw jour“als,

a“w xvx“ i“ thx MgbYrScal InnsSrbr. I wrotx a brixy lxttxr to

McSbnrSfic Am brScan to sxt thx rxcorw straight, but it was “ot

ffublishxw, “or xvx“ ack“owlxwgxw.

I“ CABA, you co“trastxw skxffticism with wx“ialism, as i“

climatx cha“gx wx“ial, or Rolocaust wx“ial, or xvolutio“

wx“ial, i“ your N bb McSbnrSsr articlx “Livi“g i“ Mx“ialF nhx“

a Scxfftic Is“’t a Scxfftic”F “nhx“ I call mysxly a skxfftic, I

mxa“ I takx a scix“tific affffroach to thx xvaluatio“ oy

claims.… A climatx wx“ixr has a ffositio“ stakxw out i“

awva“cx, a“w sorts through thx wata xmffloyi“g

‘co“firmatio“ bias’—thx tx“wx“cy to look yor a“w fi“w

co“firmatory xviwx“cx yor ffrx-xxisti“g bxlixys a“w ig“orx or

wismiss thx rxst.... ghus, o“x ffractical way to wisti“guish

bxtwxx“ a skxfftic a“w a wx“ixr is thx xxtx“t to which thxy

arx willi“g to uffwatx thxir ffositio“s i“ rxsffo“sx to “xw

i“yormatio“. Skxfftics cha“gx thxir mi“ws. Mx“ixrs just kxxff

o“ wx“yi“g.”

I“ my xxffxrix“cx, ma“y crusawi“g skxfftics arx wx“ixrs.

ghxy arx i“ yact ffsxuwoskxfftics. You havx bxhavxw likx a

wx“ixr yoursxly. But I hoffx your bxlixy i“ yrxx i“fiuiry will

comx out uffffxrmost.

 

—LsYbrr

M mclaRl I lRrY Rr RRss r nds

Mxar Ruffxrt,

 

bur lxttxrs sxxm to bx crossi“g “ot o“ly i“ thx xmail but i“

co“tx“t as wxll. I“ your latxst lxttxr, you havx “icxly

summarizxw thx rxsxarch you bxlixvx sufffforts your

hyffothxsis oy morffhic rxso“a“cx a“w its various

ma“iyxstatio“s, such as that ffxofflx k“ow whx“ thxy arx

bxi“g starxw at yrom bxhi“w a“w that wogs k“ow whx“ thxir

ow“xrs arx comi“g homx. Oor both oy thxsx sxts oy

xxffxrimx“ts a“w corrxsffo“wi“g ffublishxw ffaffxrs, I

outli“xw thx “umxrous mxthowological shortcomi“gs

iwx“tifixw by scix“tists who havx takx“ thx timx to xxami“x

carxyully your wata a“w, i“ somx casxs, xvx“ to try to

rxfflicatx your xxffxrimx“ts without succxss.

I“ thx ffaffxr “ghx ‘csychic cxt’ chx“omx“o“F A rxffly to

Ruffxrt Shxlwrakx” by Richarw nisxma“, cathxw Smith,

a“w Julix cilto“, yor xxamfflx, thx authors rxvxal what

haffffx“s whx“ you offxratio“ally wxfi“x what co“stitutxs a

“hit” i“ ffsychical rxsxarchF i“ this casx, whxthxr or “ot

Jaytxx thx wog k“xw whx“ his ow“xr, cam, was comi“g

homx. I“ i“itial obsxrvatio“s by thx ow“xr, it sxxmxw likx

Jaytxx haw yorxk“owlxwgx basxw o“ his movi“g yrom thx

housx to thx fforch. Somxtimxs Jaytxx wx“t to thx fforch

whx“ cam was comi“g homx, but thxrx wxrx fflx“ty oy timxs

whx“ Jaytxx wx“t to thx fforch with “o co““xctio“ to cam at

all. nisxma“ br al. i“sistxw o“ txsti“g thx claim by actually

cou“ti“g thx “umbxr oy such bxhaviors a“w xsffxcially thx

lx“gth oy timx Jaytxx woulw stay o“ thx fforch waiti“g yor

cam to rxtur“. l“wxr thxsx co“witio“s, Jaytxx wx“t to thx

fforch BC timxs without corrxlatio“ with cam’s rxtur“. b“x

xxffla“atio“ yor this “o“sig“ifica“t fi“wi“g is that Jaytxx was

wistractxw by thx “xighbor wog i“ hxat a“w thus wx“t to thx

fforch with somxthi“g xlsx i“ mi“w. nisxma“ xt al. rxtur“xw

mo“ths latxr a“w carrixw out two morx xxffxrimx“ts, but

yailxw to fi“w a“y ffattxr“ bxtwxx“ Jaytxx’s bxhaviors a“w

that oy his ow“xr.

Your attxmfft, aytxr thx yact, to fi“w a ffattxr“ i“ thx viwxo

wata by cha“gi“g thx critxria oy a two-mi“utx stay o“ thx

fforch to BA-mi“utx chu“ks oy timx—wuri“g which Jaytxx

allxgxwly sffx“t morx timx o“ thx fforch wuri“g thosx

ffxriows whx“ thx ow“xr was rxtur“i“g homx tha“ “ot—was

gai“saiw by thx authors. ghxy “otxw that such ffattxr“s

shoulw arisx “aturally by thx yact that a wog is likxly to wo

littlx aytxr its ow“xr wxffarts, but thx“ as thx way goxs o“ hx

is morx likxly to start a“ticiffati“g thx ow“xr’s rxtur“ 1just

by “ormal timx xlaffsx a“w thx wog’s mxmory oy thx ow“xr’s

usual timx away0 a“w makx morx triffs to thx fforch. As wxll,

sxarchi“g thx viwxo rxcorw Ylsr Rlc yor ffattxr“s is a yorm oy

wata s“ooffi“g that is subjxct to thx co“firmatio“ bias, a“w

allowi“g cam to wxtxrmi“x whx“ shx woulw comx homx

mxa“s hxr bxhavioral ffattxr“s might “ot bx ra“wom at all

but subjxct to hxr ow“ u“co“scious ffrxyxrx“cxs that Jaytxx

may havx lxar“xw ovxr timx.

ghxsx ffarticular mxthowological ffroblxms arx “ot

u“commo“ i“ ffsychical rxsxarch, a“w thus my offi“io“ oy all

such xxffxrimx“ts is similar to that oy thx rx“ow“xw

ffara“ormal rxsxarchxr a“w xxffxrimx“tal ffsychologist

Susa“ Blackmorx, who was o“cx a bxlixvxr i“ NSc but gavx

it uff whx“ shx coulw “ot fi“w x“ough co“vi“ci“g xviwx“cxF

ghx tightxr you makx thx co“trols a“w thx morx carxyully

you offxratio“ally wxfi“x thx bxhaviors to bx mxasurxw, thx

wxakxr thx ffsi xffxcts bxcomx. You accusx mx a“w othxr

skxfftics oy bxi“g closxw-mi“wxw matxrialists u“ablx to sxx

what is bxyorx our vxry xyxs. Yxt Blackmorx sxt out o“ hxr

ffroyxssio“al carxxr as a trai“xw xxffxrimx“talist a“w

bxlixvxr i“ ffsi to fi“w xviwx“cx yor thx ffara“ormal a“w

camx uff xmffty ha“wxw, as shx rxcalls i“ hxr xssay, “nhy I

Raw to Lha“gx cy ci“w,” ffublishxw i“ BswcRllldw- NRb

McSbncb lc M Sna ana BbRaaSls r, MScrR EaSrSln, by Richarw

Vross 1Rowwxr Nwucatio“, CABA0F

ghx rxsults wxrx a shock. nhxthxr I lookxw yor

txlxffathy or ffrxcog“itio“ or clairvoya“cx, I got

o“ly cha“cx rxsults. I trai“xw yxllow stuwx“ts i“

imagxryL cha“cx rxsults. I txstxw twi“s i“ ffairsL

cha“cx rxsults. I workxw i“ fflay grouffs with

vxry you“g chilwrx“L cha“cx rxsults. I trai“xw as

a garot rxawxrL cha“cx rxsults. bccasio“ally I

got a sig“ifica“t rxsult. bh thx xxcitxmx“t( ghx“

as a scix“tist must, I rxffxatxw thx xxffxrimx“t,

chxckxw yor xrrors, rxwiw thx statistics, a“w

varixw thx co“witio“s, a“w xvxry timx xithxr I

you“w thx xrror or got cha“cx rxsults agai“.

It takxs co“siwxrablx i“txllxctual i“txgrity to awmit whx“

your bxlixys arx wro“g, but Blackmorx has i“txgrity i“

sffawxs. As shx xxfflai“xw about thx way shx bxcamx a

skxffticF “At somx ffoi“t somxthi“g s“affffxw. I“stxaw oy

struggli“g to fit my cha“cx rxsults i“to yxt a“othxr woomxw

thxory oy thx ffara“ormal, I yacxw uff to thx awyul ffossibility

that I might havx bxx“ wro“g yrom thx start—that ffxrhaffs

thxrx wxrx “o ffara“ormal ffhx“omx“a at all. I haw to

cha“gx my mi“w.”

Ruffxrt, thx rxaso“ most oy us scix“tists arx skxfftical oy

ffsi is “ot bxcausx wx wo“’t wa“t it to bx truxL to thx

co“trary. As I’vx xxfflai“xw i“ my xarlixr lxttxrs, iy NSc,

txlxffathy, txlxki“xsis, or a“y othxr ffsi xffxcts tur“xw out to

bx rxal—a“w xsffxcially iy a“ xxffla“atio“ yor thx xffxcts

wxrx you“w 1through “xuroscix“cx or fiua“tum ffhysics or

whatxvxr0—it woulw just bx a“othxr rxmarkablx yxaturx oy

“aturx o“ thx shxly “xxt to thx othxr “atural wo“wxrs wx

alrxawy accxfft.

Likx most wog ow“xrs, I woulw lovx to bxlixvx that I havx

a sffxcial ffsychical co““xctio“ to my bxlovxw chocolatx lab

Ritch 1“amxw yor my yrix“w, thx latx Lhristoffhxr Ritchx“s0

bxcausx I alrxawy k“ow I havx a ffhysical a“w ffsychological

bo“w with him a“w it woulw bx xasy to bxlixvx that thxrx is

somxthi“g xvx“ morx. But what I woulw likx to bx trux a“w

what is actually trux may “ot always coi“ciwx 1a“w hx “xvxr

sxxms to k“ow whx“ I’m goi“g to crxst thx wrivxway hill o“

my bikx riwx homx as hx cluxlxssly s“oozxs o“ thx fforch0.

But thx bo“w wx havx is bxautiyul a“w wo“wxryul just yor

what it is, so I wo“’t yxxl thx “xxw to bxlixvx thxrx is morx iy

thxrx is“’t.

A“w likx so ma“y vixwxrs 1I susffxct0, my wiyx a“w I wxrx

movxw to txars—wxxffi“g rxally—wuri“g thx Richarw Vxrx

film H acRS- A D ldms Nalb, thx trux story oy thx yaithyul

Jaffa“xsx Akita I“u wog “amxw Rachiko, who ffatix“tly

waitxw yor his ow“xr Riwxsaburo lx“o to rxtur“ to thx trai“

statio“ yrom his officx—yruitlxssly, xvxry way yor “i“x yxars

—bxcausx his ow“xr wixw at work. 1A“yo“x who ca“ gxt

through this film without sobbi“g must bx hxartlxss.0 Iy

such co““xctio“s as you susffxct xxist, why wiw“’t Rachiko

k“ow that his ow“xr was “xvxr comi“g homxN Iy thxrx is a“

aytxrliyx, a“w thx wxffartxw ca“ commu“icatx yrom bxyo“w

to thosx whom thxy lovx o“ this siwx, why wiw“’t Riwxsaburo

givx Rachiko somx sig“alN nhy allow such suffxri“g to

co“ti“ux iy wx ca“ wo somxthi“g about itN Iy lovx co““xcts

us, thx“ why wo so ma“y ffxofflx 1a“w a“imals0 i“ lovx “ot

k“ow whx“ somxthi“g tragic likx this haffffx“sN nx hxar

about thx a“omalous li“ks bxtwxx“ lovxw o“xs through

ffowxryul a“xcwotxs that co“firm such bxlixys, but it is i“ thx

xxcxfftio“s to thx ffattxr“ that wx must comx to txrms with

a“w yacx thx yact that lovx i“ this worlw is x“ough yor you,

yor mx, yor Ritch, yor Rachiko, a“w yor xvxryo“x who has

xvxr lovxw—a“w xsffxcially xvxryo“x who has lovxw a“w lost.

 

lM ScRabl

Rbs Rra I lRldranR RRs lmRs

Mxar cichaxl,

 

crobably most oy our rxawxrs will havx xxffxrix“cxw thx

sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at a“w txlxffho“x txlxffathy. ca“y will

also havx comx across wogs or cats that k“ow whx“ thxir

ow“xrs arx comi“g homx. Survxys i“ thx l.S. a“w i“ Nuroffx

havx show“ that about IF ffxrcx“t oy ffxofflx havx

xxffxrix“cxw thx sx“sx oy bxi“g starxw at, about IA ffxrcx“t

oy ffxofflx havx thought oy somxo“x yor “o affffarx“t rxaso“

who thx“ callxw, a“w about FA ffxrcx“t oy wog ow“xrs a“w

DA ffxrcx“t oy cat ow“xrs say thxir ffxts a“ticiffatx thx

arrival oy a mxmbxr oy thx housxholw. ghxsx arx orwi“ary,

“ot xxtraorwi“ary, xxffxrix“cxs—“ormal, “ot ffara“ormal,

xvx“ts—a“w thx scix“tific xviwx“cx sufffforts thxir

xxistx“cx, as I wiscussxw i“ my offx“i“g statxmx“t a“w i“ my

rxsffo“sx to yours.

l“yortu“atxly, your wog Ritch sxxms to bx i“ thx FA

ffxrcx“t oy wogs that wo“’t sx“sx whx“ thxir ow“xr is

comi“g. ghx yact that thx Jaffa“xsx wog Rachiko, to whom

you rxyxrrxw, waitxw xvxry way at thx trai“ statio“ yor his

wxcxasxw ow“xr shows that this wog’s wxvotio“ was “ot

wimmxw by his ow“xr’s wxathF this was also thx casx with a

yamous Scottish wog, Vrxyyriars Bobby, who sffx“t BE yxars

guarwi“g his ow“xr’s gravx. But thxsx a“imals’ hxroic

loyalty is “ot a rxyutatio“ oy ma“y wogs’ a“w cats’ abilitixs to

k“ow whx“ thxir ow“xrs arx comi“g homx i“ “ormal

circumsta“cxs.

Lommittxw skxfftics try to wismiss ffsi ffhx“omx“a as

tricks oy thx mi“w, mistakx“ i“txrffrxtatio“s oy cha“cx

xvx“ts, sxly-wxlusio“s, or xxamfflxs oy “a“omalistic

ffsychology.” I“ xffxct, thxy arx aski“g ffxofflx to wisrxgarw

thxir ow“ xxffxrix“cx i“ yavor oy thx matxrialist thxory that

thx mi“w is “othi“g but thx brai“, mx“tal activity is “othi“g

but brai“ activity, a“w mi“ws arx co“fi“xw to thx i“siwx oy

hxaws. ghxrxyorx, mx“tal actio“ at a wista“cx is imffossiblx,

or at lxast so u“likxly as to mxrit “o sxrious attx“tio“.

Lrusawi“g skxfftics also try to muwwy thx watxrs by maki“g

it sou“w as iy ffositivx rxsults i“ ffsi rxsxarch arx yalsx, or at

lxast scix“tifically u“rxliablx.

ghxrx is “othi“g wro“g with yair criticismL scix“cx thrivxs

o“ it. But scix“cx woxs “ot thrivx o“ bias, ffrxjuwicx, a“w

willyul attxmffts to causx co“yusio“ a“w miswirxct attx“tio“.

croyxssio“al skxffticism is all too xasyF b“ly thx offi“io“s oy

othxr skxfftics cou“t, a“w thxrx is “o “xxw to wo timx-

co“sumi“g xxffxrimx“ts, or xvx“ to rxaw about thxm.

corxovxr, skxffticism ffays, a“w it offx“s thx way to a “ichx

carxxr i“ thx mxwia. nhx“ Susa“ Blackmorx gavx uff hxr

u“succxssyul xxffxrimx“tal rxsxarch a“w joi“xw thx skxfftic

movxmx“t, hxr mxwia carxxr took off.

You a“w I havx both rxyxrrxw to Richarw nisxma“’s claims

to havx wxbu“kxw thx “ffsychic ffxt” ffhx“omx“o“. Bxlow is

my rxffly to his articlx, to which you rxyxrrxw our rxawxrs.

I“ awwitio“, I mawx a short film—Eawrbb, Bam Mm arr, LsYbrr

MRblaragb, ana LScRara R Ssbm an- MbrrSnd rRb Lbclra

MrraSdRr, which ca“ bx sxx“ o“ Yougubx a“w my wxbsitx—

that summarizxs nisxma“’s claims a“w shows how

mislxawi“g thxy arx. A“w nisxma“’s thxory that Jaytxx wx“t

to thx wi“wow morx a“w morx thx lo“gxr cam was out has

alrxawy bxx“ rxyutxw xxffxrimx“tally. You ca“ sxx thx wata

yrom thx co“trol xxffxrimx“ts, filmxw o“ occasio“s whx“

cam was “ot comi“g homx, i“ Oigurx D i“ my summary oy

this lo“g-ru““i“g co“trovxrsy, “Richarw nisxma“’s claim to

havx wxbu“kxw thx ‘ffsychic ffxt ffhx“omx“o“,’” which is

also availablx o“ my wxbsitx.

Orom thx Els rnal lc rRb MlcSbrw clr BswcRScal LbsbarcR

1CAAA0, 6 - , BCG-BCIF

I“ thx Ja“uary issux oy thx Els rnal Richarw

nisxma“, catthxw Smith 0 Julix cilto“

ffublishxw a rxffly to my “otx 1Shxlwrakx, BEEEa0

about thxir claim to havx rxyutxw thx “ffsychic

ffxt” ffhx“omx“o“. ghis claim was mawx i“ thx

BrSrSsR Els rnal lc BswcRllldw 1nisxma“, Smith

0 cilto“, BEEI0 a“w wiwxly ffublicizxw i“ thx

mxwia. It was rxffxatxw as rxcx“tly as Oxbruary

C this yxar i“ a ffrxsx“tatio“ givx“ by thx first

author at thx Royal I“stitutio“ x“titlxw

“I“vxstigati“g thx cara“ormal.”

At my i“vitatio“, nisxma“ a“w Smith carrixw

out your viwxotaffxw xxffxrimx“ts with a wog

callxw Jaytxx, with whom I havx carrixw out

morx tha“ BAA viwxotaffxw xxffxrimx“ts

1Shxlwrakx, BEEEb0. cy xxffxrimx“ts showxw

that Jaytxx usually waitxw by thx wi“wow yor a

yar highxr ffroffortio“ oy thx timx whx“ his

ow“xr was comi“g homx tha“ whx“ shx was

“ot. ghis occurrxw xvx“ whx“ his ow“xr, cam

Smart, camx at “o“-routi“x, ra“womly-sxlxctxw

timxs a“w travxllxw by u“yamiliar vxhiclxs such

as taxis. ghis ffattxr“ was alrxawy clxarly

affffarx“t mo“ths bxyorx nisxma“ br al. carrixw

out thxir txsts.

I“ thx thrxx xxffxrimx“ts that nisxma“ a“w

Smith carrixw out at cam’s ffarx“ts’ flat, thx

ffattxr“ oy rxsults was vxry similar to my ow“.

ghxir wata show a largx a“w statistically

sig“ifica“t xffxctF Jaytxx sffx“t a yar highxr

ffroffortio“ oy timx at thx wi“wow whx“ cam was

o“ thx way homx tha“ whx“ shx was “ot

1Shxlwrakx, BEEEa0.

ghx wiffxrx“cx bxtwxx“ our i“txrffrxtatio“s oy

thxsx xxffxrimx“ts arosx bxcausx nisxma“ xt

al. haw a wiffxrx“t agx“wum yrom mi“x. I was

x“gagxw i“ a lo“g-txrm stuwy oy this wog’s

a“ticiffatory bxhaviour, whxrxas thxy sxxmxw

morx i“txrxstxw i“ tryi“g to wxbu“k a “claim oy

thx ffara“ormal.”

ghxy thxmsxlvxs wxfi“xw a“ arbitrary “claim”

yor Jaytxx’s “sig“al” a“w juwgxw this by

wisrxgarwi“g most oy thxir ow“ wata. ghxy

argux that si“cx thxy sffxcifixw thxir critxrio“ i“

awva“cx 1or rathxr critxria, si“cx thxy cha“gxw

thx critxrio“ as thxy wx“t alo“g0, thx

agrxxmx“t oy thxir ffattxr“ oy rxsults with mi“x

is irrxlxva“t. “gxsti“g this claim wiw “ot rxfiuirx

fflotti“g our wata a“w looki“g yor a ffattxr“”

1nisxma“, Smith 0 cilto“, CAAA, ff. EG0.

Although thy rxyusxw to look at thx ffattxr“

show“ by thxir ow“ wata, I fflottxw thxir wata yor

thxm, togxthxr with fflots oy my ow“ wata

showi“g thx samx obvious ffattxr“. I gavx thxm

thxsx graffhs bxyorx thxy submittxw thxir ffaffxr

to thx British Jour“al oy csychology i“ BEEG.

Both i“ thxir ffaffxr a“w i“ thxir skxfftical claims

i“ thx mxwia, thxy chosx to ig“orx what thxir

ow“ wata showxw.

“nx trixw thx bxst wx coulw to caffturx this

ability a“w wx wiw“’t fi“w a“y xviwx“cx to

suffffort it,” Smith was fiuotxw as sayi“g, i“ a“

articlx x“titlxw “csychic ffxts arx xxffosxw as a

myth” 1Irwi“, BEEI0. “A lot oy ffxofflx thi“k thxir

ffxt might havx ffsychic abilitixs but whx“ wx

ffut it to thx txst, what’s goi“g o“ is “ormal “ot

ffara“ormal,” nisxma“ assxrtxw i“ thx ffrxss

rxlxasx accomffa“yi“g thxir ffaffxr. ghxsx arx

xxamfflxs oy thx commx“ts thxy “ow wxscribx as

“rxsffo“siblx a“w accuratx.”

nisxma“, Smith 0 cilto“ try to justiyy

ig“ori“g thx ffattxr“ show“ by thxir wata o“ thx

grou“ws that it was “ffost hoc.” I ca““ot accxfft

this argumx“t. Oirst, I haw bxx“ fflotti“g wata o“

graffhs right yrom thx bxgi““i“g oy my rxsxarch

with Jaytxx. Sxco“w, thxir wismissal oy ffost hoc

a“alysis woulw wx“y thx valiwity oy a“y

i“wxffx“wx“t xvaluatio“ oy a“y ffublishxw wata.

ghx wholx ffoi“t oy ffublishi“g scix“tific wata is

to x“ablx othxr ffxofflx to xxami“x a“w a“alyzx

thxm. by “xcxssity, thx critical a“alysis oy

ffublishxw wata i“ a“y fixlw oy rxsxarch ca“ o“ly

bx ffost hoc. A“w thirw, thx fflotti“g oy graffhs is

“ot “ormally rxgarwxw as a co“trovxrsial

ffrocxwurx i“ scix“cx. Lo“sxfiux“tly, I wo “ot

agrxx with thxm that my rxffrxsx“tatio“ oy thxir

rxsults i“ my book 1Shxlwrakx, BEEE, Oigurx

C.F0 is “mislxawi“g.”

I“ thxir rxcx“t “otx, thxy raisx two scix“tific,

as offffosxw to lxgalistic, ffoi“ts. Oirst, thxy

suggxst that Jaytxx may simffly havx go“x to thx

wi“wow morx a“w morx thx lo“gxr cam was out,

a“w hx“cx bxx“ thxrx most whx“ shx was o“

thx way homx. But a comffariso“ oy Jaytxx’s

bxhaviour wuri“g cam’s short, mxwium a“w lo“g

absx“cxs shows that this was “ot thx casx

1Shxlwrakx, BEEEb0. corxovxr, i“ co“trol

xxffxrimx“ts i“ which cam wiw “ot comx homx,

Jaytxx wiw “ot go to thx wi“wow morx a“w morx

as timx wx“t o“ 1Shxlwrakx, BEEEb, Oigurx B.C0.

Sxco“w, thxy say that my xxffxrimx“ts

“affffxar to co“tai“ wxsig“ ffroblxms

1Blackmorx, BEEE0.” Susa“ Blackmorx’s

commx“ts wxrx mawx i“ a“ articlx i“ thx NSm bs

H SdRbr EascarSln MsYYlbm bnr, which

co“cluwxwF “ghxrx arx bxttxr ways to sffx“w

ffrxcious rxsxarch timx tha“ chasi“g aytxr

somxthi“g that lots oy ffxofflx wa“t to bx trux,

but almost cxrtai“ly is “ot.” Shx thought shx

haw sffottxw “wxsig“ ffroblxms” i“ my

xxffxrimx“ts with Jaytxx 1Shxlwrakx BEEEb0

bxcausx “cam was “xvxr away yor lxss tha“ a“

hour.” 1I“ nisxma“, Smith 0 cilto“’s

xxffxrimx“ts cam was likxwisx “xvxr away yor

lxss tha“ a“ hour.0

ghis is why Blackmorx thought thxrx was a

ffroblxmF “Shxlwrakx wiw BC xxffxrimx“ts i“

which hx blxxffxw cam at ra“wom timxs to txll

hxr to rxtur“..... nhx“ cam first lxavxs, Jaytxx

sxttlxs wow“ a“w woxs “ot bothxr to go to thx

wi“wow. ghx lo“gxr shx is away, thx morx oytx“

hx goxs to look.

rYsxt thx comffariso“ is mawx with thx xarly

ffxriow whx“ thx wog rarxly gxts uff.” But

a“ybowy who looks at thx actual wata

1Shxlwrakx, BEEEb, Oigurx B.E0 ca“ sxx yor

thxmsxlvxs that this is “ot trux. I“ fivx out oy

thx BC xxffxrimx“ts, Jaytxx wiw “ot sxttlx wow“

immxwiatxly shx lxyt. I“ yact hx wx“t to thx

wi“wow morx i“ thx first hour tha“ wuri“g thx

rxst oy cam’s absx“cx, right uff u“til shx was o“

thx way homx, or just about to lxavx.

I“ thx light oy Blackmorx’s commx“ts, I havx

rxa“alyzxw thx wata yrom all BC xxffxrimx“ts

xxcluwi“g thx first hour. ghx ffxrcx“tagx oy timx

that Jaytxx sffx“t by thx wi“wow i“ thx mai“

ffxriow oy cam’s absx“cx was actually lowxr

whx“ thx first hour was xxcluwxw 1D.B,0 tha“

whx“ it was i“cluwxw 1D.H,0. By co“trast, Jaytxx

was at thx wi“wow FF.C, oy thx timx whx“ shx

was o“ thx way homx. gaki“g Blackmorx’s

objxctio“ i“to accou“t strx“gthx“s rathxr tha“

wxakx“s thx xviwx“cx yor Jaytxx k“owi“g whx“

his ow“xr was comi“g homx, a“w i“crxasxs thx

statistical sig“ifica“cx oy thx comffariso“.

1I“cluwi“g thx first GA mi“utxs oy cam’s absx“cx

i“ thx a“alysis, by thx ffairxw-samfflx t txst,

tM-F.HC, ffMA.AAABL xxcluwi“g thx first GA

mi“utxs, tM-F.EE, ff<A.AAAB.0

Blackmorx’s claim illustratxs o“cx agai“ thx

“xxw to trxat what scxfftics say with scxffticism.

I“ co“clusio“, I agrxx with nisxma“, Smith 0

cilto“ 1CAAA, ff.EE0 that my a“alysis oy thxir

wata “woulw “ot ffroviwx comffxlli“g xviwx“cx oy

ffsi ability u“lxss it wxrx suffffortxw by a largxr

bowy oy rxsxarch.” It is i“ yact suffffortxw by a

largx bowy oy rxsxarch, summarizxw i“ my book

1Shxlwrakx, BEEEb0 a“w soo“ to bx ffublishxw i“

wxtail i“ a ffxxr-rxvixwxw jour“al.

 

as daaR M ay 1 ( 0 00A - I nRs amc

dRY r nsaraaRs s sm Richarw nisxma“ awmittxw

i“ his rxcx“t MgbYrSgl i“txrvixw that his wata

woxs corrxsffo“w with Shxlwrakx’s.

I wish thxrx was a way to movx our argumx“t yorwarw. It

sxxms to mx that your rxjxctio“ oy ffsi ffhx“omx“a is a

rxsult oy your worlwvixw a“w co“firmatio“ bias. Basxw o“

my xxffxrix“cx oy our wialoguxs so yar, I wo “ot xxffxct that

a“ythi“g I writx, or a“y xviwx“cx I wraw to your attx“tio“,

will lxaw you to cha“gx your bxlixys. But I livx i“ hoffx. I wo

“ot k“ow what you will say i“ your rxffly, ffublishxw

simulta“xously with this. I will rxaw it with your ow“

critxrio“ i“ mi“wF “b“x ffractical way to wisti“guish

bxtwxx“ a skxfftic a“w a wx“ixr is thx xxtx“t to which thxy

arx willi“g to uffwatx thxir ffositio“s i“ rxsffo“sx to “xw

i“yormatio“. Skxfftics cha“gx thxir mi“ws. Mx“ixrs just kxxff

o“ wx“yi“g.”

Somx oy our rxawxrs may wa“t to fi“w out morx about

mx“tal actio“ at a wista“cx. ghxy wo “ot “xxw to takx my

worw yor it, or yours agai“st it. I x“couragx thosx who arx

i“txrxstxw to wiscuss thxir ow“ xxffxrix“cxs with thxir

yrix“ws a“w yamilixs, to rxaw somx oy thx ma“y ffublishxw

ffaffxrs o“ ffsi rxsxarch 1availablx o“ thx wxbsitx

bffx“Scix“cx.org0, a“w to try somx xxffxrimx“ts yor

thxmsxlvxs. b“ my wxbsitx, you ca“ fi“w two xxffxrimx“ts

that ca“ bx carrixw out with o“x or two othxr ffxofflx o“li“x

or via ffho“x.

 

lL sYbrr

VFRJ ,

L OI FN I I HNEN HE

Mr. Shxlwrakx wxyx“ws thx ffositio“ that thxrx is “o co“flict

bxtwxx“ scix“cx a“w thx xxistx“cx oy VowL xviwx“cx yrom

co“scious xxffxrix“cx rx“wxrs bxlixy i“ Vow rxaso“ablx.

Mr. Shxrmxr offffosxs Mr. Shxlwrakx’s ffositio“, argui“g

that scix“cx i“ “o way sufffforts thx xxistx“cx oy VowL i“

yact, scix“cx u“wxrcuts thx rxaso“ablx“xss oy bxlixy i“ Vow.

Hlas aRr .

Rbs Rra I lRldranRhs O s Rnmng I aaaRY Rna

Mxar cichaxl,

 

I bxlixvx i“ Vow, a“w I am a church-goi“g Lhristia“, a“

A“glica“ 1Nffiscoffalia“ i“ thx l“itxw Statxs0. You arx a

matxrialist, athxist, a“w sxcular huma“ist. I thi“k yaith i“

Vow a“w thx ffracticx oy scix“cx arx comffatiblx a“w

mutually x“ha“ci“g. I warx say you wisagrxx.

axvxrthxlxss, wx ffrobably agrxx about ma“y thi“gs.

Oirst, wx both bxlixvx that thx u“ivxrsx has a u“ity that

makxs scix“cx ffossiblx. ghis bxlixy is sharxw by Lhristia“s,

athxists, a“w by yollowxrs oy othxr yaiths. Sxco“w, wx both

agrxx that thx u“ivxrsx is i“txlligiblx, at lxast i“ ffart—

othxrwisx, scix“cx a“w rxaso“ woulw bx yutilx.

Oor thosx who bxlixvx i“ Vow, thx i“txlligibility oy “aturx

a“w thx ability oy huma“ mi“ws to u“wxrsta“w somx asffxcts

oy thx “atural worlw makx sx“sx bxcausx thxy havx a

commo“ sourcx, “amxly Vow. Vow’s co“scious“xss is thx

ultimatx sourcx oy huma“ co“scious“xss, a“w all othxr

yorms oy co“scious“xss i“ thx u“ivxrsx.

cost athxists a“w matxrialists also bxlixvx i“ somxthi“g

likx thx mi“w oy Vow, but striffffxw wow“ to mathxmatical

ffri“cifflxs, or “thx laws oy ffhysics,” which wxrx thxrx yrom

thx bxgi““i“g, a“w arx cha“gxlxss, u“ivxrsal, a“w

om“iffotx“t. ghis sxxms to bx thx offi“io“ oy your yrix“w

Lawrx“cx arauss, yor xxamfflx. ghx mai“ wiffxrx“cx is that

i“ Lhristia“ thxology, thx orwxri“g ffri“cifflxs oy thx

u“ivxrsx arx asffxcts oy Vow, whxrxas yor a“ athxist thx laws

oy “aturx sffra“g i“to bxi“g miraculously at thx momx“t oy

thx Big Ba“g, or xxist i“ a tra“scx“wx“t clato“ic rxalm,

yrom which thxy somxhow gavx risx to thx u“ivxrsx.

Iy thxsx laws arx xxfflai“xw i“ txrms oy yxt morx

yu“wamx“tal laws, as i“ c-thxory, or suffxrstri“g thxory,

thx“ whxrx wo thosx ultimatx laws comx yromN Just likx thx

woma“ who thought thx worlw rxstxw o“ a turtlx, a“w that

turtlx o“ a“othxr turtlx, a“w so o“ all thx way wow“, i“

mowxr“ ffhysics, mathxmatical laws rxst o“ mathxmatical

laws all thx way wow“.

You will argux that to say that thx orwxri“g ffri“cifflxs oy

“aturx havx thxir ultimatx sourcx i“ Vow awws “othi“g

simffly to sayi“g thxrx arx laws. But it woxs aww somxthi“g.

Vow is by wxfi“itio“ a co“scious bxi“g, a“w wivi“x

co“scious“xss ffxrmxatxs thx u“ivxrsx, a“w is also thx

ultimatx sourcx oy huma“ co“scious“xss. By co“trast,

matxrialists bxlixvx that thx u“ivxrsx is u“co“scious,

govxr“xw by u“co“scious laws, a“w mawx uff oy u“co“scious

mattxr. ghxsx assumfftio“s makx huma“ co“scious“xss

ffroblxmatic, which is why ffhilosoffhxrs oy mi“w call thx

vxry xxistx“cx oy co“scious“xss “thx harw ffroblxm.”

A thirw arxa i“ which wx agrxx is xvolutio“. nx both

bxlixvx i“ xvolutio“, “ot o“ly at thx biological lxvxl, but also

at thx cosmic lxvxl. ghx wholx u“ivxrsx has bxx“ xxffa“wi“g

a“w wxvxloffi“g yor billio“s oy yxars, yormi“g xvxr morx

varixw structurxs withi“ it, i“cluwi“g galaxixs, solar

systxms, a“w biological liyx, at lxast o“ this ffla“xt. All thx

“xw yorms that comx i“to bxi“g, i“cluwi“g thx yorms oy

molxculxs, crystals, ffla“ts, a“w a“imals, rxfiuirx somx ki“w

oy crxativity. Likx you, I thi“k that crxativity is i“hxrx“t i“

“aturx, a“w I wo “ot thi“k that thx u“ivxrsx is wxsig“xw by

a“ xxtxr“al x“gi“xxri“g-tyffx Vow. Also, likx you, I wo “ot

thi“k that thx Biblx, or a“y othxr sacrxw book, is a scix“tific,

historical rxcorw to bx takx“ litxrally.

Somx biblical yu“wamx“talists thi“k oy Vow as a“ x“gi“xxr

who wxsig“xw a“w crxatxw sffxcixs oy a“imals a“w ffla“ts

likx a watchmakxr wxsig“i“g a watch. Iro“ically, this Vow oy

thx worlw machi“x has morx to wo with scix“cx tha“ with

thx Biblx or trawitio“al Lhristia“ woctri“xs. nhx“ thx

machi“x mowxl oy “aturx took holw i“ BHth-cx“tury scix“cx,

a “xw imagx oy Vow camx i“to bxi“g as a suffxr“atural

x“gi“xxr, a machi“x-makxr sxffaratx yrom “aturx.

You wo“’t bxlixvx i“ this ki“w oy Vow, a“w “xithxr wo I. I“

trawitio“al Lhristia“ thxology, Vow is “ot a ki“w oy

craytsma“, or wxmiurgx, who makxs thx worlw i“ thx first

fflacx a“w thx“ rxtirxs, lxavi“g it to work automatically,

xxcxfft yor occasio“al i“txrvx“tio“s whx“ hx arbitrarily

susffx“ws thx laws oy “aturx. Vow is “ot a wxmiurgx, a“w “ot

a mxwwlxr with machi“xry. Accorwi“g to thx trawitio“al

u“wxrsta“wi“g i“ Lhristia“ a“w othxr thxologixs, Vow is thx

grou“w oy all bxi“g, thx rxaso“ why thxrx is somxthi“g

rathxr tha“ “othi“g. Rx sustai“s thx worlw i“ its xxistx“cx

yrom momx“t to momx“t, a“w is woi“g so “ow.B

I“ a“y casx, thx biblical accou“t oy crxatio“ woxs “ot sxx

“aturx as mxcha“ical, or Vow as a“ x“gi“xxr. cla“ts a“w

a“imals wxrx “ot i“vx“txw by Vow i“ a ki“w oy cxlxstial

workshoff. ghx Lrxatio“ accou“t i“ thx book oy Vx“xsis

1B.BB0 rxaws, “ghx“ Vow saiw, ‘Lxt thx xarth ffut yorth

vxgxtatio“F ffla“ts yixlwi“g sxxw a“w yruit trxxs oy xvxry ki“w

o“ xarth that bxar yruit with thx sxxw i“ it.’ A“w it was so.”C

Likxwisx, Vow xmffowxrxw thx sxas a“w thx xarth to bri“g

yorth mari“x, txrrxstrial, a“w flyi“g a“imals 1Vx“xsis B.CA–

CE0. I“ thxology this is callxw “mxwiatx crxatio“.” Vow wiw

“ot crxatx ffla“ts a“w a“imals wirxctly, microma“agi“g thxir

wxtails, but x“wowxw aaturx with a“ i“hxrx“t crxativity.

Sffiritual trawitio“s i“ gx“xral, a“w rxligio“s i“ ffarticular,

wxrx “ot you“wxw o“ irratio“al ffroffositio“s, or o“ bli“w

yaith, or o“ wogma, or o“ yxar. ghxy arosx yrom statxs oy

co“scious“xss that go bxyo“w “ormal xvxryway xxffxrix“cx.

Shama“s, I“wia“ rSsRSs, thx Buwwha, thx Jxwish ffroffhxts,

Jxsus, a“w cuhammaw sffokx yrom thxir wirxct xxffxrix“cxs

oy co““xctio“ to a grxatxr co“scious“xss.

I“ your offx“i“g statxmx“t o“ catxrialism i“ Scix“cx

back i“ cay, you rxmarkxwF “Iy Vow 1or somx crxativx yorcx

—it “xxw “ot bx thx crxator Juwxo-Lhristia“-cuslim Vow0

xxists outsiwx oy “aturx, but ffxriowically rxachxs i“to our

worlw to cha“gx it i“ somx ma““xr ... thx“, i“ ffri“cifflx,

thxrx shoulw bx somx way to mxasurx thx xffxct.”

I wo “ot bxlixvx that Vow “ffxriowically rxachxs i“.” Rx is

co“ti“uously ffrxsx“t throughout all oy “aturx. But iy you

wa“t xviwx“cx oy thx xffxcts oy Vow, or a crxativx yorcx,

thx“ look at thx way grxat rxligious lxawxrs havx cha“gxw

thx coursx oy huma“ xvolutio“L iy you wa“t matxrial

xviwx“cx, thx“ look at txmfflxs, cathxwrals, a“w mosfiuxs.

ghroughout thx history oy huma“ity, somx ffxofflx havx

co““xctxw with rxalms oy co“scious“xss bxyo“w thx huma“

lxvxl, a“w ma“y still wo so toway. Somx ffxofflx havx

sffo“ta“xous mystical xxffxrix“cxsL somx havx thxir mi“ws

offx“xw by ffsychxwxlicsL somx co““xct with Vow, or sai“ts,

or a“gxls, or a“cxstors, through ffrayxrL somx mxwitatxL

somx co““xct to sffiritual rxalms i“ othxr ways. ghx British

biologist Sir Alistxr Rarwy, who stuwixw thx “atural history

oy rxligious xxffxrix“cxs i“ thx mowxr“ worlw, you“w that

thxy wxrx yar morx commo“ tha“ most ffxofflx assumxw.D

aot all rxligious ffxofflx havx haw such xxffxrix“cxs

thxmsxlvxs, just as “ot all ffxofflx who bxlixvx i“ a scix“tific

worlwvixw havx xxffxrix“cxw worki“g i“ a rxsxarch

laboratory or i“ a“ i“stitutx oy thxorxtical ffhysics. ca“y

rxligious a“w scix“tific bxlixys arx accxfftxw sxco“wha“w or

thirwha“w o“ thx basis oy rxligious or scix“tific authority.

I agrxx with you that thx wirxct xxffxrix“cx oy wivi“x

ffrxsx“cx is “ot a co“clusivx argumx“t yor thx xxistx“cx oy

Vow, howxvxr co“vi“ci“g it sxxms to ffxofflx who xxffxrix“cx

it. Aytxr all, somx athxists who havx takx“ ffsychxwxlics

rxmai“ athxists, a“w sxx thxir mi“w-xxffa“wi“g xxffxrix“cxs

as “othi“g morx tha“ chxmical wisturba“cxs oy “ormal

brai“ yu“ctio“i“g, rathxr tha“ offx“i“g thx woors oy

ffxrcxfftio“. A“ti-ffsychxwxlic rxligious ffxofflx agrxx. Somx

athxists ffracticx mxwitatio“ a“w xxffxrix“cx xxffa“wxw

statxs oy mi“w whilx rxmai“i“g athxists, i“cluwi“g Susa“

Blackmorx a“w Sam Rarris. ghxy—a“w ffrobably you, too—

woulw “o woubt xxfflai“ thxsx xxffxrix“cxs as bxi“g

ffrowucxw i“siwx thx brai“ as a rxsult oy ffhysiological

cha“gxs i“ thx “xrvous systxm, ffrovi“g “othi“g about

co“scious“xss bxyo“w huma“ brai“s. But this i“txrffrxtatio“

is itsxly a ffrowuct oy bxlixy. Iy you arx committxw to thx

matxrialist worlwvixw, it is a“ articlx oy yaith that thx mi“w is

co“fi“xw to thx brai“ a“w ca““ot co““xct with a grxatxr

mi“w that ffxrvawxs thx u“ivxrsx, bxcausx such a mi“w woxs

“ot xxist.

bur wiffxrx“cxs arx “ot simffly about bxlixys. ghxsx bxlixys

havx xffxcts i“ ffracticx a“w affxct thx way wx lxaw our livxs.

ghx matxrialist woctri“x that all co“scious xxffxrix“cx is

“othi“g but thx activity oy thx brai“ has a“ isolati“g xffxct,

ffulli“g ffxofflx back i“to our ow“ sxffaratx skulls. By

co“trast, yor thosx who accxfft thx rxality oy co“scious“xss

bxyo“w our ow“, such xxffxrix“cxs offx“ cha““xls oy

commu“icatio“ that ca“ bx ffursuxw through mxwitatio“,

ffrayxr, rituals, yxstivals, worshiff, a“w tha“ksgivi“g—

through ma“y oy thx trawitio“al ffracticxs oy rxligio“.

ghis xxffxrix“cx oy co““xctio“ with thx sffiritual rxalm

affxcts ffxofflx’s ffhysical a“w mx“tal hxalth, as wxll.

aumxrous stuwixs i“ thx l“itxw Statxs a“w xlsxwhxrx havx

show“ that ffxofflx who arx rxligious, xsffxcially thosx who

rxgularly attx“w rxligious sxrvicxs, livx sig“ifica“tly lo“gxr,

x“joy bxttxr hxalth, a“w suffxr lxss wxffrxssio“ tha“ ffxofflx

without rxligious ffracticxs. Both Lhristia“ a“w “o“-

Lhristia“ grouffs showxw thxsx xffxcts.E

I“ othxr stuwixs, ffxofflx who ffrayxw or mxwitatxw wxrx

comffarxw with similar ffxofflx who wiw “ot. ghxsx stuwixs

wxrx ffrosffxctivx, as offffosxw to rxtrosffxctivxF thx ffxofflx

u“wxr obsxrvatio“ wxrx iwx“tifixw at thx start oy thx stuwy,

a“w thx“ watchxw ovxr a ffxriow oy yxars to sxx iy thxir

hxalth a“w mortality tur“xw out wiffxrx“tly. ghxy wiw. b“

avxragx thosx who ffrayxw or mxwitatxw rxmai“xw hxalthixr

a“w survivxw lo“gxr tha“ thosx who wiw “ot. I“ o“x stuwy i“

aorth Laroli“a, Rarolw aox“ig a“w his collxaguxs trackxw

B,HED subjxcts ovxr GF yxars olw who haw “o ffhysical

imffairmx“ts at thx bxgi““i“g oy thx stuwy. Six yxars latxr,

thosx who ffrayxw survivxw GG ffxrcx“t morx tha“ thosx who

wiw “ot ffray.F

I“ our first wialogux, you wrotx, “I’m x“couragxw by thx

rxcx“t i“crxasx i“ thx “umbxr oy ffxofflx with “o rxligious

affiliatio“.” Orom thx ffoi“t oy vixw oy xva“gxlical athxism,

this must bx a“ x“couragi“g sig“. But will it bx“xfit thosx

who havx aba“wo“xw rxligio“N Somx ffxofflx brought uff i“ a

rxligious atmosffhxrx fi“w athxism libxrati“g, at lxast yor a

whilx. I wiw mysxly, a“w yor morx tha“ BA yxars, I iwx“tifixw

mysxly as a“ athxist. But I thx“ camx to sxx thx athxist

worlwvixw as “arrowly wogmatic, xsffxcially whx“ it wx“ixw

thx valux oy sffiritual xxffxrix“cxs that I you“w x“richi“g a“w

x“livx“i“g. covi“g bxyo“w athxism to a“ accxffta“cx oy thx

sffiritual rxalm yxlt likx lxavi“g a two-wimx“sio“al, black-

a“w-whitx i“txllxctual worlw yor a yull-color, thrxx-

wimx“sio“al rxality.

Iy rxligious ffracticxs ca“ lxaw to bxttxr hxalth, thx“, as a

corollary, thx loss oy yaith a“w thx cxssatio“ oy rxligious

ffracticxs ca“ wamagx hxalth a“w wxll-bxi“g. Athxism is “ot

just about i“txllxctual thxorixs a“w thx wx“u“ciatio“ oy

rxligio“. It ca“ havx sxrious awvxrsx xffxcts. Likx smoki“g,

it shoulw carry a hxalth war“i“g.

ghx British ffhilosoffhxr Alai“ wx Botto“, a sxco“w-

gx“xratio“ athxist, thi“ks much thx samx. I“ his bxstsxlli“g

book LblSdSln clr ArRbSsrs 1mi“tagx, CABD0, hx arguxs that

a“ athxist or ag“ostic liyxstylx is sxvxrxly imffovxrishxw, a“w

suggxsts that “o“-bxlixvxrs shoulw lxar“ yrom rxligio“s

“how to builw a sx“sx oy commu“ity, makx our rxlatio“shiffs

last, ovxrcomx yxxli“gs oy x“vy a“w i“awxfiuacy, xscaffx yrom

thx CE-hour mxwia worlw a“w gxt morx out oy art, litxraturx,

a“w music.” Ris ffractical suggxstio“s i“cluwx athxist

yxstivals, athxist txmfflxs, athxist sxrmo“s, a“w athxist

Su“way assxmblixs. I agrxx with his a“alysis oy thx “xxws

u“satisfixw by athxism a“w ag“osticism, but sxx “o “xxw to

rxi“vx“t rxligio“ whx“ wx havx fflx“ty alrxawy a“w arx

sffoilt yor choicx.

cichaxl, I agrxx with you that somx rxligious ffxofflx havx

wo“x txrriblx thi“gs i“ thx ffast, a“w somx still wo so. A

“otorious xxamfflx was thx Sffa“ish I“fiuisitio“, which

offxratxw yrom BEHI to BIDE a“w was rxsffo“siblx yor as

ma“y as F,AAA xxxcutio“s.

ca“y a“ti-rxligious ffxofflx havx also bxhavxw

murwxrously, i“cluwi“g Stali“, cao nxwo“g, a“w col cot, all

oy whom wxrx athxists a“w bxlixvxrs i“ scix“cx a“w rxaso“,

yollowi“g aarl carx. gogxthxr, thxsx commu“ist rxgimxs lxw

to at lxast CA millio“ wxaths. I k“ow that you arx tryi“g to

rxbra“w commu“ism as a “yaux rxligio“” to avoiw

ack“owlxwgi“g that athxists havx causxw huma“ misxry o“

a vast scalx. But thx yact is that somx ffxofflx arx caffablx oy

woi“g vxry baw thi“gs to othxr ffxofflx usi“g rxligio“,

athxism, “atio“alism, iwxology, ffrofit, or xvx“ rxaso“ as

thxir justificatio“. Rxaso“ was a major i“sffiratio“ yor thx

Orx“ch Rxvolutio“, a“w i“ BHED, thx Lathxwral oy aotrx

Mamx i“ caris was co“vxrtxw i“to a gxmfflx oy Rxaso“, a“w

thx Lult oy Rxaso“ was ffroclaimxw thx statx rxligio“. At thx

samx timx, at lxast EA,AAA ffxofflx wxrx xxxcutxw i“ thx

Rxig“ oy gxrror 1BHED–E0, a“w thx guilloti“x bxcamx a

symbol oy thx rxvolutio“ary causx.

Oi“ally, you a“w I ffrobably agrxx that a grxat wxal oy

rxligio“ is culturally wxtxrmi“xw a“w subjxct to huma“

limitatio“s. You may sxx this as a“othxr rxyutatio“ oy

rxligio“, but I sxx it wiffxrx“tly. ghx corx oy all rxligio“s is

thx xxffxrix“cx oy co““xcti“g with thx grou“w oy bxi“g, or

thx mi“w oy Vow, or ultimatx co“scious“xss, but whx“ thxsx

xxffxrix“cxs arx talkxw about a“w i“txrffrxtxw, thxy arx

rxyractxw through huma“ la“guagxs a“w cultural trawitio“s

that arx “xcxssarily limitxw, a“w i“xvitably wiffxrx“t yrom

o“x a“othxr.

Iy I haw bxx“ bor“ to Si“halxsx ffarx“ts i“ Sri La“ka, I

woulw ffrobably bx a Buwwhist toway. Iy I haw bxx“ bor“ to

cuslim ffarx“ts i“ Ngyfft, I woulw ffrobably bx a cuslim. I“

yact, I was bor“ to Lhristia“ ffarx“ts i“ N“gla“w, a“w thx

yorm oy rxligio“ that I fi“w most co“gx“ial is thx Lhristia“

yaith, a“w i“ ffarticular thx A“glica“ yorm oy Lhristia“ity.

ghis woxs “ot mxa“ I bxlixvx othxr Lhristia“ churchxs arx

i“ xrror, a“w that othxr rxligio“s arx wro“g. It woxs “ot

mxa“ that I thi“k that ffxofflx who arx sffiritual but “ot

rxligious arx lost. ghxrx arx wiffxrx“t ffaths to Vow, or to

ultimatx rxality, a“w all havx thxir strx“gths a“w

wxak“xssxs.

I sxx yaith i“ Vow a“w thx ffracticx oy scix“cx as

comfflxmx“tary, “ot co“trawictory. Lo“flicts arisx yrom

wogmas o“ both siwxs. Rxligious a“w scix“tific

yu“wamx“talists arx still lockxw i“ olw battlxs, a“w somx

ffxofflx o“ both siwxs rxlish thx fighti“g. Oortu“atxly, thx

scix“cxs thxmsxlvxs arx movi“g bxyo“w thx wogmas oy

matxrialism, a“w “xw ffossibilitixs yor wialogux bxtwxx“ thx

scix“cxs a“w rxligious trawitio“s arx offx“i“g uff.

 

lL sYbrr

M mclaRl I lRrY Rr RRss r nds

Mxar Ruffxrt,

 

You arx corrxct, I wo “ot bxlixvx that “yaith i“ Vow a“w thx

ffracticx oy scix“cx arx comffatiblx a“w mutually

x“ha“ci“g.” I“ yact, whx“ ffhrasxw this way thxy arx

comfflxtxly wiffxrx“t thi“gsF “o“-ovxrlaffffi“g magistxria

1abcA0 i“ thx mxmorablx wxscrifftio“ oy my latx yrix“w

Stxffhx“ Jay Voulw. I“ “o way is scix“cx basxw o“ yaith—a“w

this yact ffuts thx lix to thx yatuous claim by a“ti-scix“tism

yolks that scix“cx is a rxligio“, or that it is just a“othxr way

oy k“owi“g, “o bxttxr tha“ a“y othxr. Oaith, i“ thx biblical

mxa“i“g, has “othi“g to wo with scix“cx. It is, as yamously

wxfi“xw i“ Rxbrxws BBFB, “thx assura“cx oy thi“gs hoffxw

yor, thx co“victio“ oy thi“gs “ot sxx“.”

Scix“cx rxsts o“ thx assura“cx oy thi“gs ffrxwictxw, thx

co“victio“ oy thi“gs ffrxviously sxx“. Although scix“tists,

bxi“g huma“, may hoffx that thxir u“sxx“ co“victio“s arx

suffffortxw by thx wata, as a systxm oy k“owlxwgx thx

ffracticx oy scix“cx has morx i“ commo“ with fflumbi“g tha“

it woxs rxligio“, i“ thx sx“sx that at lxast fflumbxrs txst

hyffothxsxs whx“ thxy attxmfft to wiscovxr a“w fix lxaky

ffiffxs, cloggxw toilxts, ffluggxw si“ks, a“w thx likx. Rxaso“,

logic, xmffiricism, mathxmatics, a“w xxffxrimx“tatio“—thx

corx tools i“ thx ffracticx oy scix“cx—arx thx xxact offffositx

oy yaith i“ thx biblical sx“sx. Ravi“g yaith i“ thi“gs is most

assurxwly a huma“ trait, but it is “ot a ffart oy thx scix“tific

mxthow bxcausx it is “ot a rxliablx xffistxmology.

You assxrtF “Vow’s co“scious“xss is thx ultimatx sourcx oy

huma“ co“scious“xss.” nhxrx is thx xviwx“cx yor this

claimN As I challx“gxw you ffrxviously with rxgarw to thx

rxsurrxctio“ oy Jxsus, whxrx’s your co“trol grouffN I“ a“y

casx, iy huma“ co“scious“xss comxs yrom Vow’s

co“scious“xss, what is thx sourcx oy Vow’s co“scious“xssN Iy

you argux that you havx to stoff thx causal chai“

somxwhxrx, why stoff at VowN Iy thxrx’s a chai“ oy bxi“g

yrom lowxr to highxr co“scious“xss, why woulw thxrx “ot bx

a“ übxr-Vow co“scious“xssN Iy you bxlixvx that

co“scious“xss is a ffroffxrty oy thx u“ivxrsx 1which you sxxm

to argux i“ your thxory oy morffhic rxso“a“cx0, thx“ why wo

you “xxw Vow at allN It sxxms x“tirxly rxaso“ablx to mx to

argux 1alo“g thxsx li“xs0 that iy co“scious“xss xxists itsxly

sxffaratx yrom a“y x“titixs, thx“ thxrx is “o “xxw yor Vow. Iy

Vow is “xcxssary yor thx xxistx“cx oy co“scious“xss, thx“

o“cx agai“ I woulw challx“gx you to go o“x stxff yurthxr i“

i“fiuiri“g i“to thx sourcx oy Vow a“w Vow’s co“scious“xss.

You ask whxrx thx laws oy “aturx comx yrom without

ffostulati“g Vow as thx sourcxL that is, i“ a ffurxly

matxrialistic “aturalistic worlwvixw. As you k“ow, this is o“x

oy thx biggxst fiuxstio“s i“ thx ffhilosoffhy oy scix“cx. ao

o“x k“ows yor surx, but I am x“couragxw by thx work oy

Stxffhx“ Rawki“g a“w Lxo“arw clowi“ow, outli“xw i“ thxir

book NRb G rana D bsSdn 1Ba“tam, CABA0, that cxrtai“

co“figuratio“s oy thx laws oy “aturx i“xvitably lxaw to thx

sffo“ta“xous crxatio“ oy u“ivxrsxs. ghxy show how thx laws

u“wxrlyi“g fiua“tum mxcha“ics a“w rxlativity, yor xxamfflx,

coulw lxaw to u“ivxrsxs bxi“g yormxw out oy “othi“g. ghxy

writxF

Bxcausx thxrx is a law such as gravity, thx

u“ivxrsx ca“ a“w will crxatx itsxly yrom “othi“g.

Sffo“ta“xous crxatio“ is thx rxaso“ thxrx is

somxthi“g rathxr tha“ “othi“g, why thx

u“ivxrsx xxists, why wx xxist. It is “ot “xcxssary

to i“vokx Vow to light thx blux touch ffaffxr a“w

sxt thx u“ivxrsx goi“g.

A“othxr xxffla“atio“ is thx multivxrsx thxory. I“ his book

G la- NRb FaSlba H wYlrRbsSs 1cromxthxus Books, CAAH0, thx

latx ffhysicist mictor Stx“gxr shows how thxrx coulw bx as

ma“y as BArFAA ffossiblx u“ivxrsxs. ghosx u“ivxrsxs with

thx laws oy “aturx that lxaw to thx ffrowuctio“ oy atoms a“w

molxculxs a“w liyx a“w sx“tix“t bxi“gs who i“fiuirx as to

thxir sourcx, will “aturally sxxm almost miraculously

wxsig“xw by thosx yortu“atx sx“tix“t bxi“gs, but with that

ma“y u“ivxrsxs thxrx was bou“w to bx somx co“figurxw

ffurxly by cha“cx to bx co“wucivx to thx xvolutio“ oy liyx a“w

sx“tix“t bxi“gs, but thxrx’s “othi“g wxsig“xw about it.

I“ a“y casx, scix“cx is you“g—just a yxw cx“turixs olw—

a“w thxrx is much wx wo “ot k“ow, so bxyorx wx sffxculatx

about such ultimatx fiuxstio“s as whxrx thx laws oy “aturx

camx yrom, lxt’s wait to sxx what scix“cx comxs uff with i“

thx “xxt coufflx oy cx“turixs bxyorx wx ffostulatx a wivi“x

bxi“g as thx sourcx. I“ thx mxa“timx, it’s okay to say “I

wo“’t k“ow” a“w lxavx it at that. Ruma“s havx always fillxw

i“ such gaffs i“ our k“owlxwgx with gows, a“w it “xvxr lxaws

to a“y usxyul or ffrowuctivx thxory. Lxt’s try to ovxrcomx

this ffsychological ffroffx“sity to fill i“ thx gaffs with

suffxr“atural yorcxs a“w yollow thx ffath oy scix“cx i“

sxarchi“g yor “atural yorcxs.

You writxF “Vow is by wxfi“itio“ a co“scious bxi“g.” Row

wo you k“owN nhosx wxfi“itio“N Sourcxs a“w xviwx“cx,

fflxasx.

You claim that “wivi“x co“scious“xss ffxrmxatxs thx

u“ivxrsx” a“w that wx matxrialists “bxlixvx that thx

u“ivxrsx is u“co“scious, govxr“xw by u“co“scious laws, a“w

mawx uff oy u“co“scious mattxr.” Oirst, whxrx is wivi“x

co“scious“xss i“ thx u“ivxrsxN I“ what way arx, say, stars

co“sciousN Stars arx massivx collxctio“s oy hywrogx“ atoms

bxi“g co“vxrtxw to hxlium atoms through “uclxar yusio“. I“

what way is this ffrocxss “co“scious”N Arx galaxixs

co“sciousN Is gravity co“sciousN Arx ffla“xts, moo“s, a“w

comxts co“sciousN nhat wo you mxa“ by co“scious“xss

hxrxN Llxarly this has “o rxsxmbla“cx to huma“

co“scious“xss—thx ffhx“omx“o“ oy bxi“g awarx a“w sxly-

awarx—so it woulw bx hxlffyul to offxratio“ally wxfi“x

co“scious“xss.

Your iwxa about what Vow is sxxms to wiffxr wramatically

yrom that oy most Lhristia“s 1a cosmic x“gi“xxr or wivi“x

craytsma“0, a“w you rxjxct thx iwxa that Vow rxachxs i“to

thx worlw to stir thx ffarticlxs “ow a“w thx“. I“stxaw, you

i“vokx thx u“hxlffyul ffhrasx “grou“w oy bxi“g” as your

wxfi“itio“ oy Vow, a“w you claim that “hx sustai“s thx worlw

i“ its xxistx“cx yrom momx“t to momx“t, a“w is woi“g so

“ow.” I ffrxsumx you mxa“ that Vow woxs so through thx

laws oy “aturx—hx yorms solar systxms through thx yorcx oy

gravity, hx yorms stars through thx “uclxar yorcxs, xtc. I yail

to sxx how this is a“y wiffxrx“t yrom just sayi“g that thx

u“ivxrsx itsxly is thx “grou“w oy bxi“g” a“w that it sustai“s

itsxly yrom momx“t to momx“t through thx laws oy “aturx.

nhat’s thx wiffxrx“cx bxtwxx“ a“ i“visiblx Vow that is

i“wisti“guishablx yrom “aturx a“w a “o“xxistx“t VowN

 

—M ScRabl

Rbs Rra I lRldranR RRs lmRs

Mxar cichaxl,

 

You bxlixvx that a“ u“co“scious, ffurffosxlxss u“ivxrsx

ffrowucxw mi“ws i“ huma“ brai“s aytxr about BE billio“

yxars oy mi“wlxss mxcha“ical activity. You trust that scix“cx

will xvx“tually justiyy this bxlixy. I bxlixvx that co“scious“xss

comxs first, a“w is thx sourcx oy “aturx a“w oy mi“ws withi“

“aturx.

You ask mx how I k“ow that Vow is co“scious, a“w ask yor

“sourcxs a“w xviwx“cx.” ghxrx arx ma“y rxligious sourcxs.

I“ thx blw gxstamx“t, yor xxamfflx, i“ Nxowus DFBE, cosxs

asks Vow yor his “amx a“w Vow rxfflixs, “I am who I am”

1N“glish Sta“warw mxrsio“0. Vow wxfi“xs himsxly as

subjxctivx co“scious bxi“g, i“ thx ffrxsx“t. As I mx“tio“xw

ffrxviously, o“x oy thx I“wia“ “amxs yor ultimatx rxality is

sarcRSrananaa, bxi“g-co“scious“xss-bliss, agai“

xmffhasizi“g co“scious bxi“g. Nviwx“cx comxs yrom

mystical xxffxrix“cxs a“w through momx“ts oy illumi“atio“,

i“ which ffxofflx yxxl thxmsxlvxs i“ thx ffrxsx“cx oy a grxatxr

co“scious“xss tha“ thxir ow“. Nviwx“cx oy co“scious“xss

comxs through co“scious xxffxrix“cxs, “ot yrom ffhysical

mxasurxmx“ts.

You ffroffosx that thx sourcx a“w sustai“xr oy all thi“gs is

“ot Vow, but thx “laws oy “aturx.” Rowxvxr, this co“cxfftio“

oy “atural laws is “ot as athxistic as it sxxms, bxcausx it

builws o“ thx bxlixy that thx laws oy “aturx arx asffxcts oy

thx mi“w oy Vow, a bxlixy sharxw by thx you“wi“g yathxrs oy

mowxr“ scix“cx i“ thx BHth cx“tury, i“cluwi“g Valilxo,

axfflxr, Mxscartxs, a“w axwto“. But laws arx iwxas rathxr

tha“ matxrial objxcts, a“w thxy makx “o sx“sx without a

mi“w to thi“k thxm.

You x“worsx thx sffxculatio“s oy Stxffhx“ Rawki“g a“w

Lxo“arw clowi“ow that “Lxrtai“ co“figuratio“s oy thx laws

oy “aturx i“xvitably lxaw to thx sffo“ta“xous crxatio“ oy

u“ivxrsxs.” Somxhow, thxsx laws “coulw lxaw to u“ivxrsxs

bxi“g yormxw out oy “othi“g.” ghis is agai“ vxry likx BHth-

cx“tury thxology, but lxss cohxrx“t, bxcausx you imagi“x

that timxlxss laws xxist i“ a yrxx-floati“g, tra“scx“wx“t

rxalm—Vow’s mi“w without Vow—a“w gx“xratx a u“ivxrsx

without a sourcx oy x“xrgy or activity. I“ thx BHth cx“tury,

Vow was sxx“ as thx sourcx oy all activity, as wxll as thx

basis oy cosmic law a“w orwxr.

axvxrthxlxss, you oytx“ co“trawict yoursxly. I“ our first

wialogux you wrotx, “‘Laws’ arx thx li“guistic a“w

mathxmatical wxscrifftio“s wx huma“s givx to “aturally

occurri“g rxffxati“g ffhx“omx“a. ghxrx arx “o laws oy

“aturx ‘out thxrx.’” But iy thxy arx mxrxly wxscrifftio“s oy

thx rxgularitixs oy “aturx, how ca“ laws ffrxcxwx thx

u“ivxrsx a“w givx risx to itN Bxyorx thx origi“ oy thx

u“ivxrsx thxrx wxrx “o rxgularitixs oy “aturx a“w “o

huma“s to wxscribx thxm.

A“w why arx thxsx hyffothxtical laws just right yor our

u“ivxrsx, x“abli“g it to ffrowucx liyx a“w ultimatxly huma“sN

Rxrx, you yall back o“ thx sffxculatio“s oy mictor Stx“gxr,

who arguxs that wx haffffx“ to bx i“ thx o“ly u“ivxrsx just

right yor us, out oy BArFAA u“ivxrsxs. Rx a“w othxr

cosmologists avoiw awkwarw ffroblxms by fiua“titativx

xasi“g, co“juri“g uff myriaw u“ivxrsxs, just as thx Oxwxral

Rxsxrvx Ba“k co“jurxw uff trillio“s oy wollars. It may bx

xasixr to ffroliyxratx u“ivxrsxs tha“ to rxco“siwxr thx

xxistx“cx oy Vow. But, as ffhilosoffhxrs ffoi“t out, a“ i“fi“itx

Vow coulw bx thx Vow oy a“ i“fi“itx “umbxr oy u“ivxrsxs.

ghx multivxrsx gambit yails to gxt riw oy Vow, a“w it is thx

ultimatx violatio“ oy bckham’s Razor, thx ffri“cifflx that

“x“titixs shoulw “ot bx multifflixw u““xcxssarily.”

You co“trawict yoursxly agai“. I“ somx ffaragraffhs, you

sxx scix“cx “as thx co“victio“ oy thi“gs ffrxviously sxx“,”

a“w thx ffracticx oy scix“cx likx fflumbi“g, fixi“g lxaky ffiffxs

a“w cloggxw toilxts, basxw o“ harw yacts. You sxx this as

“thx xxact offffositx oy yaith i“ thx biblical sx“sx.” But a

bxlixy i“ BArFAA u“obsxrvxw u“ivxrsxs is “ot a harw yact.

aor is ffromissory matxrialism. Iy scix“cx ca““ot xxfflai“

somxthi“g, “o ffroblxm( Just givx us timx, you say, “Lxt’s

wait to sxx what scix“cx comxs uff with i“ thx “xxt coufflx oy

cx“turixs bxyorx wx ffostulatx a wivi“x bxi“g as thx sourcx.”

ghis is yaith as wxscribxw i“ Rxbrxws BBFB, “thx assura“cx

oy thi“gs hoffxw yor, thx co“victio“ oy thi“gs “ot sxx“.”

I thi“k Vow is withi“ “aturx, a“w “aturx withi“ Vow. You

thi“k thx u“ivxrsx is ffurffosxlxss a“w u“co“scious, a“w that

it origi“atxw yrom mi“wlxss yxt immatxrial laws.

Oor mx, Vow comxs bxyorx huma“ityL yor you, as a sxcular

huma“ist, huma“ity comxs bxyorx Vow, who is a wxlusio“ i“

huma“ mi“ws, a“w hx“cx i“ huma“ brai“s.

bur bxlixys affxct our livxs. ao o“x ca“ wait CAA yxars to

makx a choicx.

 

lL sYbrr

Hlas aRr 6

M mclaRl I lRrY Rrhs O s Rnmng I aaaRY Rna

Mxar Ruffxrt,

 

Oor our fi“al thrxx rou“ws o“ thx xxistx“cx 1or “ot0 oy Vow, I

will bx xsffxcially curious to k“ow how you arrivx at

orthowox Lhristia“ity out oy your u“orthowox thxory. As you

tolw my McSbnrSfic Am brScan collxagux Joh“ Rorga“F

I bxlixvx i“ Vow. I am a ffractici“g Lhristia“,

sffxcifically a“ A“glica“ 1i“ thx l.S.,a“

Nffiscoffalia“0. I wx“t through a lo“g athxist

ffhasx, a“w bxga“ to fiuxstio“ thx matxrialist

orthowoxy oy scix“cx whilx I was still a“ athxist.

I latxr camx to thx co“clusio“ that thxrx arx

morx i“clusivx yorms oy co“scious“xss i“ thx

u“ivxrsx tha“ huma“ mi“ws.

Alrxawy, I’m susfficious—a“w skxfftical. Row co“vx“ix“t that

thx Vow you bxlixvx i“ haffffx“s to bx thx samx Vow that

most oy your yxllow cou“trymx“ 1a“w, morx broawly, your

yxllow nxstxr“xrs0 bxlixvx i“. Vxograffhy, i“ yact, is thx

“umbxr o“x ffrxwictor oy a“yo“x’s rxligio“—whxrx thxy

haffffx“ to havx bxx“ bor“ a“w raisxw. Raw you bxx“ bor“

a“w raisxw i“, say, I“wia, it woulw bx yar morx likxly that you

woulw wxyx“w Ri“wuism as thx b“x grux Rxligio“, thx gow

Va“xsha as your wxity oy choicx, a“w xmffloy morffhic

rxso“a“cx thxory to xxfflai“ rxi“car“atio“ a“w aarma

1mxmory oy ffast livxs a“w wxxws0.

But lxt mx “ot ffrxsumx too much, a“w await your

statxmx“t—a“w i“ thx mxa“timx, i“fiuirx why bxlixy i“ thx

suffxr“atural 1as you havx wxfi“xw a“w wxyx“wxw it0 a“w

bxlixy i“ Vow shoulw bx co“flatxw at all. Ristorically

sffxaki“g, most commx“tators havx lumffxw thx two

togxthxr, but it sxxms to mx x“tirxly ffossiblx that thx two

coulw bx sxffaratx. Although I wo “ot bxlixvx this mysxly,

assumi“g yor a momx“t that you arx corrxct that thxrx is a

worlw bxyo“w thx “atural worlw 1or, iy you agrxx with mx

that thxrx is o“ly thx “atural worw, thx“ yorcxs hxrxtoyorx

u“accxfftxw by mai“strxam scix“cx such as ffsi rxally wo

xxist0, such a worlw coulw co“tai“ “o Vow, o“x Vow, or a

multituwx oy Vows. I“ ffri“cifflx, ffsi-likx yorcxs coulw xxist

whxthxr or “ot thxrx’s a Vow. You coulw bx a suffxr“atural

athxist i“ this sx“sx.

Likxwisx, thxrx coulw bx a Vow a“w “o suffxr“atural

yorcxs. Vow coulw just usx thx k“ow“ yorcxs oy “aturx 1or

ffxrhaffs somx hxrxtoyorx u“k“ow“ yorcxs oy “aturx0 to

ffxryorm miraclxs. A“w iy thxrx is a Vow, why “ot multifflx

gowsN ghxrx is “othi“g i“hxrx“tly sffxcial about

mo“othxism, savx yor its historical triumffh as a rxligio“—

ffxrhaffs suffxrior at u“iti“g tribxs agai“st othxr tribxs or

fflayi“g a ffromi“x“t rolx i“ thx first civilizatio“s to rxi“yorcx

grouff cohxsio“ a“w act as a“ x“yorcxr oy morals a“w

ultimatx ffu“ishxr oy violators. ghis is, i“ yact, my thxory oy

thx origi“ oy rxligio“ 1wxvxloffxw i“ my books H lb Rb

BblSbab rn.R. Orxxma“ 0 Lo., BEEEs a“w NRb BblSbaSnd

BraSn rgimxs Books, CABBs0, which I wxfi“x as a social

i“stitutio“ to crxatx a“w ffromotx myths, to x“couragx

co“yormity a“w altruism, a“w to sig“al thx lxvxl oy

commitmx“t to cooffxratx a“w rxciffrocatx amo“g mxmbxrs

oy a commu“ity. ghxrx arx multifflx li“xs oy xviwx“cx that

huma“s crxatxw gows, “ot aScb abrsa.

Oirst, thxrx arx ma“y huma“ u“ivxrsals that

a“throffologists havx wiscovxrxw amo“g all ffxofflxs oy thx

worlw rxlatxw to rxligio“ a“w bxlixy i“ wxitixs, such as

sacramx“ts surrou“wi“g wxath, suffxr“atural bxlixys about

yortu“x a“w misyortu“x, a“w xsffxcially wivi“atio“, yolklorx,

magic, myths, a“w rituals. nith such u“ivxrsals wx ca“

ffrxsumx that thxrx is a gx“xtic ffrxwisffositio“ yor thxsx

traits to bx xxffrxssxw withi“ thxir rxsffxctivx culturxs, a“w

that thxsx culturxs, wxsffitx thxir co“siwxrablx wivxrsity a“w

varia“cx, “urturx thxsx “aturxs i“ a co“sistx“t yashio“

towarw bxlixy i“ gows a“w rxligious rituals.

Sxco“w, twi“ stuwixs havx co“sistx“tly you“w a stro“g

gx“xtic comffo“x“t to rxligiosity a“w bxlixy i“ Vow—roughly

sffxaki“g, about EA ffxrcx“t to FA ffxrcx“t oy thx varia“cx is

accou“txw yor by gx“xtics. Vx“xs, oy coursx, wo “ot makx

o“x a Jxw, Latholic, cuslim, or a“y othxr rxligio“. Rathxr,

gx“xs cowx yor cog“itivx a“w bxhavioral tx“wx“cixs that

makx o“x morx or lxss likxly to bxlixvx i“ suffxr“atural

agx“ts 1Vow, a“gxls, wxmo“s0 a“w morx or lxss likxly to

commit to cxrtai“ rxligious ffracticxs 1church attx“wa“cx,

ffrayxr, rituals0.

ghirw, thx comffarativx stuwy oy rxligio“s lxaws to this

back-oy-thx-x“vxloffx calculatio“F ovxr thx ffast BA,AAA

yxars oy history huma“s havx crxatxw about BA,AAA

wiffxrx“t rxligio“s a“w about B,AAA gows. nhat is thx

ffrobability that your Vow, Yahwxh, is thx b“x grux Vow,

a“w Amo“ Ra, Affhrowitx, Affollo, Baal, Brahma, Va“xsha,

Isis, cithras, bsiris, Shiva, ghor, mish“u, nota“, nxus, a“w

thx othxr EIG gows arx yalsx gowsN As skxfftics likx to say,

xvxryo“x is a“ athxist about thxsx gows—somx oy us just go

o“x gow yurthxr.

Oourth, si“cx you arx a Lhristia“, I must ffoi“t out that

xvx“ withi“ thx thrxx grxat Abrahamic rxligio“s thxrx is

much wisagrxxmx“t. Lhristia“s bxlixvx Jxsus is thx savior

a“w that you must accxfft him to rxcxivx xtxr“al liyx i“

hxavx“. Yxt, both Jxws a“w cuslims rxjxct this cx“tral tx“xt

oy your rxligio“. I“ yact, o“ly roughly two billio“ oy thx

worlw’s six billio“ bxlixvxrs accxfft Jxsus as thxir ffxrso“al

savior. cost Lhristia“s bxlixvx that thx Biblx is thx i“xrra“t

gosffxl ha“wxw wow“ yrom thx wxity. cuslims bxlixvx that

thx aora“ is thx ffxryxct worw oy Vow, a“w yxt Lhristia“s wo

“ot. As wxll, whilx most Lhristia“s bxlixvx that Jxsus was

thx last ffroffhxt, cuslims bxlixvx that cuhammaw is thx

last ffroffhxt, whilx cormo“s bxlixvx that Josxffh Smith is

thx last ffroffhxt. nho’s to say which o“x is rightN By what

critxrio“ is o“x to juwgx amo“g thxsx comffxti“g claimsN

A“w whilx thxy arx usually callxw “yaith-basxw” bxlixys,

bxlixvxrs i“ yact holw thxsx tx“xts oy thxir rxligio“ to bx

rxally trux—actually a“w yactually corrxct—“ot just

rxlativxly or ffsychologically trux. Vivx“ that yact, Ruffxrt,

how wo you wxciwx which amo“g thx ma“y worlw’s rxligio“s

is thx right o“xN You’rx a scix“tist—iy you bxlixvx Jxsus was

rxsurrxctxw yrom thx wxaw thrxx ways aytxr bxi“g crucifixw,

whxrx’s your co“trol grouffN

Oiyth, thx stuwy oy comffarativx mythology lxaws to thx

rxcog“itio“ oy commo“alitixs amo“g floow myths, virgi“

birth myths, a“w rxsurrxctio“ myths, all oy which co“vxrgx

to thx stro“g i“yxrx“cx that thxy arx “ot u“ifiux to your

rxligio“ but wxrx—likx Vow—i“vx“txw by huma“s.

Fllla m wrRsF ghx aoachia“ floow story is ffrxwatxw by thx

Nffic oy Vilgamxsh by about your cx“turixs. nar“xw by thx

Babylo“ia“ Narth-gow Na that othxr gows wxrx about to

wxstroy all liyx by a floow, lt“affishtim was i“structxw to

builw a“ ark i“ thx yorm oy a cubx BCA cubits 1BIA yxxt0 o“

all siwxs, i“to which hx was i“structxw by gow to ffut o“x

ffair oy xach livi“g crxaturx.

VSrdSn LSrrR m wrRsF Amo“g thosx co“cxivxw sa“s a

biological yathxr wxrx Mio“ysus, cxrsxus, Buwwha, Attis,

arish“a, Rorus, cxrcury, Romulus, a“w, oy coursx, Jxsus.

ghx Vrxxk Vow Mio“ysus, yor xxamfflx, was bor“ yrom a

virgi“ mortal mothxr imffrxg“atxw by thx ki“g oy hxavx“.

Rx was saiw to bx ablx to tra“syorm watxr i“to wi“x 1hx

was, aytxr all, thx Vrxxk gow oy wi“x0, a“w it was hx who

i“trowucxw thx iwxa oy xati“g a“w wri“ki“g thx flxsh a“w

bloow oy thx crxator, “ot thx Latholics cx“turixs latxr.

Lbss rrbcrSln m wrRsF ghx a“cix“t Ngyfftia“ gow oy liyx,

wxath, a“w yxrtility, bsiris, first affffxars i“ thx ffyramiw txxts

arou“w CEAA B.L. niwxly worshiffffxw u“til thx comffulsory

rxffrxssio“ oy ffaga“ rxligio“s i“ thx xarly Lhristia“ xra,

bsiris was “ot o“ly thx rxwxxmxr a“w mxrciyul juwgx oy thx

wxaw i“ thx aytxrliyx, hx was also li“kxw to yxrtility, most

“otably thx floowi“g oy thx ailx a“w growth oy croffs. ghx

ki“gs oy Ngyfft thxmsxlvxs wxrx i“xxtricably co““xctxw with

bsiris i“ wxath, such that whx“ bsiris rosx yrom thx wxaw,

so woulw thxy i“ u“io“ with him. By thx timx oy thx axw

ai“gwom, “ot o“ly ffharaohs but commo“ ffxofflx bxlixvxw

that thxy coulw bx rxsurrxctxw by a“w with bsiris at wxath—

iy, oy coursx, thxy ffracticxw thx corrxct rxligious rituals.

Si“cx you arx a Lhristia“, I ffrxsumx that you bxlixvx Vow

to bx all0Ylb brcsl (lm nSYlrbnr-, all gnlb Snd (lm nSscSbnr-,

ana all dlla (lm nSLbnballbnr-. b Rl crbarba lsr lc nlrRSnd

rRb snSabrsb ana babrwrRSnd Sn Sr. b Rl Ss sncrbarba ana

brbrnal, a nln0clrYlrbal sYSrSr b Rl crbarba, llabs, ana can

dranr brbrnal lScb rl Rsm ans. I wo “ot bxlixvx i“ this Vow.

ghat makxs mx a“ athxist. Yxs, I k“ow, txch“ically sffxaki“g,

I ca““ot ffrovx a “xgativx—I ca““ot ffrovx Vow woxs “ot

xxist. But “xithxr ca“ I ffrovx that nxus woxs “ot xxist, a“w

yxt I wo“’t bxlixvx i“ him, xithxr. A“w as I showxw abovx, I

ca“ ffroviwx stro“g xviwx“cx i“wicati“g that it is vxry likxly

Vow woxs “ot xxist xxcxfft i“ thx mi“ws oy ffxofflx. 1ghat Vow

is vxry ffowxryul i“wxxw, as hx ca“ gxt ffxofflx to fly ffla“xs

i“to builwi“gs a“w to blow thxmsxlvxs uff i“ crowwxw

sfiuarxs.0

As wxll, I ca“ show that thx trawitio“al argumx“ts yor

Vow’s xxistx“cx arx rxyutablx—a“w havx bxx“ rxyutxw,

starti“g with Rumx’s wxvastati“g critifiuxs. ghx first causx,

ffrimx movxr, a“w cosmological argumx“ts, thx argumx“t

yrom thx fi“x-tu“i“g oy thx u“ivxrsx, thx argumx“t yor thx

origi“ a“w i“txlligx“t wxsig“ oy liyx, thx moral origi“

argumx“t, thx origi“ oy co“scious“xss argumx“t, a“w thx

likx, all havx xfiually fflausiblx 1a“w i“ most casxs morx

ffrobablx0 xxffla“atio“s yrom scix“cx, a“w i“ a“y casx

co“stitutx what is callxw thx “gow oy thx gaffs” stylx oy

rxaso“i“g—a“ythi“g that scix“cx ca““ot currx“tly xxfflai“

1a gaff i“ our k“owlxwgx0 is bxst fillxw with Vow as thx

xxffla“atio“.

ghxrx arx sxvxral yallacixs with this li“x oy rxaso“i“g.

Oirst, thx xithxr6or yallacy, or thx yalsx wilxmma, is thx

tx“wx“cy to wichotomizx thx worlw such that iy you wiscrxwit

o“x ffositio“ it mxa“s thx othxr ffositio“ must bx corrxct.

aot so. It is “ot x“ough to call out thx wxak“xssxs i“ a

thxoryL you must also ffroviwx xviwx“cx that your

altxr“ativx thxory is suffxrior—that is, it xxfflai“s morx wata

tha“ thx altxr“ativx.

Sxco“w, scix“cx is you“g a“w thxrx is much wx still wo “ot

k“ow. Bxyorx wx say somxthi“g is out oy this worlw, lxt’s

first makx surx that it is “ot i“ this worlw. nx havx somx

cogx“t “atural xxffla“atio“s yor thx origi“ oy thx u“ivxrsx,

liyx, co“scious“xss, a“w morality, but much rxmai“s

u“k“ow“.

ghirw, what will haffffx“ to thx Vow hyffothxsis that rxlixs

o“ thxsx gaffs whx“ thx gaffs arx fillxw by scix“cxN

Oi“ally, thxrx is o“x Vow I coulw bxlixvx i“ basxw o“ a

ffurxly “aturalistic worlwvixw. I“ ho“or oy Arthur L. Llarkx

a“w his yamous thrxx laws, I havx callxw this Shxrmxr’s Last

LawF a“y sufficix“tly awva“cxw Nxtra-gxrrxstrial

I“txlligx“cx 1NgI0 is i“wisti“guishablx yrom Vow. 1Llarkx’s

ghirw Law statxsF “A“y sufficix“tly awva“cxw txch“ology is

i“wisti“guishablx yrom magic.”0

cy gambit is basxw o“ thrxx obsxrvatio“s a“w thrxx

wxwuctio“sF

• ALsbraarSln I. Biological xvolutio“ is glacially slow

comffarxw to cultural a“w txch“ological xvolutio“.

• ALsbraarSln II. ghx cosmos is vxry big a“w sffacx is

vxry xmffty, so thx ffrobability oy maki“g co“tact with

a“ NgI is rxmotx.

• D bascrSln I. ghx ffrobability oy maki“g co“tact with a“

NgI who is o“ly slightly morx or lxss awva“cxw tha“ us

is virtually “il. A“y NgIs wx woulw x“cou“txr will xithxr

bx way bxhi“w us or way ahxaw oy us.

• ALsbraarSln III. Scix“cx a“w txch“ology havx cha“gxw

our worlw morx i“ thx ffast cx“tury tha“ i“ thx

ffrxvious hu“wrxw cx“turixs. coorx’s Law oy comffutxr

ffowxr woubli“g xvxry BC mo“ths afffflixs to wozx“s oy

othxr txch“ologixs. Iy Ray aurzwxil is right i“ his book

NRb MSndslarSrw Ss N bar 1miki“g, CAAF0, thx“ thx worlw

will cha“gx morx i“ thx “xxt cx“tury tha“ it has i“ thx

ffrxvious thousa“w cx“turixs.

• D bascrSln II. Nxtraffolatx thxsx trx“w li“xs out tx“s oy

thousa“ws, hu“wrxws oy thousa“ws, or xvx“ millio“s oy

yxars—mxrx xyx bli“ks o“ a“ xvolutio“ary timx scalx—

a“w wx arrivx at a rxalistic xstimatx oy how yar

awva“cxw a“ NgI will bx.

• D bascrSln III. Iy toway wx ca“ x“gi“xxr gx“xs, clo“x

mammals, a“w ma“iffulatx stxm cxlls with scix“cx a“w

txch“ologixs wxvxloffxw i“ o“ly thx last FA yxars, thi“k

oy what a“ NgI coulw wo with FA,AAA yxars oy

xfiuivalx“t ffowxrs oy ffrogrxss i“ scix“cx a“w

txch“ology. Oor a“ NgI who is a millio“ yxars morx

awva“cxw tha“ wx arx, x“gi“xxri“g thx crxatio“ oy

ffla“xts a“w stars may bx x“tirxly ffossiblx. A“w iy

u“ivxrsxs arx crxatxw out oy collaffsi“g black holxs—

which somx cosmologists thi“k is ffrobablx—it is “ot

i“co“cxivablx that a sufficix“tly awva“cxw NgI coulw

xvx“ crxatx a u“ivxrsx by triggxri“g thx collaffsx oy

star i“to a black holx.

nhat woulw wx call a“ i“txlligx“t bxi“g caffablx oy

x“gi“xxri“g liyx, ffla“xts, stars, a“w xvx“ u“ivxrsxsN Iy wx

k“xw thx u“wxrlyi“g scix“cx a“w txch“ology usxw to wo thx

x“gi“xxri“g, wx woulw call it a“ Nxtra-gxrrxstrial

I“txlligx“cxL iy wx wiw “ot k“ow thx u“wxrlyi“g scix“cx a“w

txch“ology, wx woulw call it Vow.

 

Nithxr that Vow alrxawy xxists, or wx arx bxcomi“g that

Vow. Nithxr way, thx mxrx co“txmfflatio“ oy thx ffossibilitixs

simffly blows o“x’s mi“w. Iy you wa“t to bx awxstruck by a

rxligious-likx xxffxrix“cx, tur“ to scix“cx.

 

lM ScRabl

Rbs Rra I lRldranR RRss r nds

Mxar cichaxl,

 

bur most yu“wamx“tal wisagrxxmx“t is about co“scious“xss

bxyo“w thx huma“ lxvxl. As a matxrialist a“w athxist, you

rxgarw it as imffossiblx or at lxast highly u“likxly, u“lxss it

takxs thx yorm oy Nxtra-gxrrxstrial i“txlligx“cx i“ a

civilizatio“ with txch“ologixs yar morx awva“cxw tha“ our

ow“. nhat you call “Shxrmxr’s Last Law” is that “a“y

sufficix“tly awva“cxw Nxtra-gxrrxstrial I“txlligx“cx is

i“wisti“guishablx yrom Vow.” You imagi“x huma“oiws that

havx bxcomx om“iffotx“t through scix“cx a“w txch“ology

“x“gi“xxri“g thx crxatio“ oy ffla“xts a“w stars” a“w “xvx“

crxati“g a u“ivxrsx by triggxri“g thx collaffsx oy a star i“to

a black holx.” A“w aytxr wxvxloffi“g your ya“tasy scx“ario,

you co“cluwx, “Iy you wa“t to bx awxstruck by a rxligious-

likx xxffxrix“cx, tur“ to scix“cx.” But this is scix“cx fictio“,

“ot scix“cx.

axvxrthxlxss, wx havx sxvxral arxas oy agrxxmx“t. Likx

you, I wo “ot thi“k that ffsychic ffhx“omx“a such as

txlxffathy arx xviwx“cx yor Vow or a suffxr“atural rxalm. As

I ffoi“txw out i“ our last wialogux, I sxx ffsi ffhx“omx“a as

ffart oy thx “atural worlwL thxy havx xvolvxw i“ ma“y

sffxcixs oy social a“imals. ghx xxistx“cx or “o“-xxistx“cx oy

Vow is a sxffaratx fiuxstio“. ca“y ffsi rxsxarchxrs a“w

rxligious ffxofflx agrxx with us. Sxvxral lxawi“g

ffaraffsychologists arx athxistsF ghxy accxfft thx xxistx“cx oy

ffsi but “ot oy Vow. cxa“whilx, somx bxlixvxrs i“ Vow

wisbxlixvx i“ ffsi ffhx“omx“a, or wisaffffrovx oy thxm. b“x oy

thx you“wxrs oy orga“izxw skxffticism i“ thx l.S., carti“

Varw“xr, was a thxist who was vxhxmx“tly offffosxw to

rxsxarch i“ ffaraffsychology bxcausx hx thought it was

“txmffti“g Vow” a“w sxxki“g “sig“s a“w wo“wxrs.”

nx also agrxx that thxrx arx similar yxaturxs i“ wiffxrx“t

rxligious trawitio“s, i“cluwi“g storixs oy floows, virgi“ births,

a“w rxsurrxctio“s. I sxx thxsx thxmxs as archxtyffal,

rxflxcti“g yu“wamx“tal ways oy u“wxrsta“wi“g thx worlw, or

as cultural mxmorixs. Oloow myths may wxll bx rxlatxw to

thx actual floows that haffffx“xw at thx x“w oy thx last icx

agx whx“ sxa lxvxls rosx wramatically. b“x asffxct oy virgi“

birth myths is thxir xmffhasis o“ thx crxativx ffowxr oy thx

liyx-givi“g mothxr. ao woubt thx cult oy thx Blxssxw mirgi“

cary i“ thx Roma“ Latholic a“w brthowox churchxs

i“hxrits asffxcts oy ffrx-Lhristia“ gowwxss worshiff, i“ which

thx Vrxat cothxr gavx birth to gows. I wo “ot sxx this as a

ffroblxm. I“ yact, I sxx it as a strx“gth oy thx Lhristia“

trawitio“ that it i“cluwxs ffrx-Lhristia“ xlxmx“ts such as

ffilgrimagxs a“w sxaso“al yxstivals. ca“y Lhristia“ sacrxw

fflacxs wxrx sacrxw to olwxr rxligio“s firstF Oor xxamfflx, thx

shri“x oy bur Lawy oy Vuawaluffx i“ cxxico was built ovxr

thx txmfflx oy thx Aztxc mothxr gowwxss. Rxligio“s xvolvx,

likx xvxrythi“g xlsx.

ghx thxmx oy wxath a“w rxsurrxctio“ is commo“ to ma“y

trawitio“s, a“w is a“ archxtyffal yxaturx oy ritxs oy ffassagx.

But wyi“g a“w bxi“g bor“ agai“ is morx tha“ a myth or

symbolF it is a“ actual xxffxrix“cx yor ffxofflx who havx haw a

“xar-wxath xxffxrix“cx.

I thi“k that Joh“ thx Bafftist was a wrow“xr. A ffxrso“

bxi“g bafftizxw i“ thx Jorwa“ Rivxr, iy hxlw u“wxr watxr just

lo“g x“ough, woulw havx haw a “xar-wxath xxffxrix“cx

through wrow“i“g. I“ othxr worws, bafftism by total

immxrsio“ coulw havx bxx“ a simfflx, raffiw, a“w xffxctivx

way oy wxlibxratxly i“wuci“g a “xar-wxath xxffxrix“cx.

Myi“g a“w bxi“g bor“ agai“ woulw havx bxx“ a liyx-

cha“gi“g ffxrso“al xxffxrix“cx. Joh“ may somxtimxs havx

go“x too yar, a“w somx ffxofflx may “ot havx comx back. But

that was bxyorx liability litigatio“.

nx “xxw myths, a“w scix“cx crxatxs its ow“. ghx Big

Ba“g thxory, yor xxamfflx, is a vxrsio“ oy thx a“cix“t

crxatio“ myth oy thx hatchi“g oy thx cosmic xgg. As thx

ffrimal xgg crackxw offx“, thx u“ivxrsx xmxrgxw yrom it,

just as it xmxrgxw yrom thx ffrimal si“gularity oy thx Big

Ba“g.

I agrxx with you that o“x oy thx major ffrxwictors oy

ffxofflx’s rxligio“ is whxrx thxy wxrx bor“ a“w thx yamily

a“w culturx thxy wxrx bor“ i“to. ghx samx goxs yor athxists.

I“ commu“ist cou“trixs, chilwrx“ wxrx i“woctri“atxw i“to

athxism, a“w ma“y bxlixvxw what thxy wxrx taught. I“ thx

Sovixt l“io“, thx statx-sffo“sorxw Lxagux oy thx cilita“t

Vowlxss haw F.F millio“ mxmbxrs by BEDC, a“w camffaig“xw

yor thx closurx oy churchxs, a“w yor thxir bxlls to bx mxltxw

wow“ yor i“wustrializatio“. carx“ts wxrx war“xw, “Rxligio“

is ffoiso“, ffrotxct your chilwrx“(” Such ffroffaga“wa

camffaig“s wxrx vxry xffxctivx. By BEEA, CF rxgio“s oy thx

Sovixt l“io“ wxrx wxclarxw comfflxtxly churchlxss, a“w

yxwxr tha“ B,AAA churchxs, chaffxls, a“w mo“astxrixs

survivxw, comffarxw with FE,AAA at thx timx oy thx

Rxvolutio“ i“ BEBH.B I“ Nast Vxrma“y, whxrx thx

commu“ist statx vigorously ffromotxw athxism yrom thx

BEEAs to thx BEIAs, a“ abRL l“ivxrsity oy Lhicago survxy

—“‘Bxlixys’ About ‘Vow’ Across ‘gimx’ a“w ‘Lou“trixs,’”

co“wuctxw i“ CAAI, BE yxars aytxr thx yall oy thx Bxrli“ nall

—showxw that FC ffxrcx“t oy thx ffoffulatio“ wxrx athxists,

comffarxw with BA ffxrcx“t i“ nxst Vxrma“y. Llxarly, ffxofflx

xwucatxw to bx athxists arx morx likxly to bxcomx athxists

tha“ thosx with a “o“-athxist xwucatio“.

ao woubt somx Lhristia“s, cuslims, Ri“wus—a“w athxists

—thi“k that thxirs is thx b“x grux Oaith, but i“ ffracticx thx

vast majority wo “ot. I livxw yor sxvx“ yxars i“ I“wia, whxrx

Ri“wus, cuslims, Jai“s, carsxxs, Sikhs, Lhristia“s,

Buwwhists, a“w tribal a“imists coxxist a“w havx wo“x yor

cx“turixs. cost I“wia“s simffly accxfft that wiffxrx“t ffxofflx

yollow wiffxrx“t rxligious ffaths, without yxxli“g thx “xxw to

co“vxrt xvxryo“x xlsx to thxir ow“ rxligio“. Likxwisx, i“

aorth Amxrica a“w i“ Nuroffx, ma“y rxligio“s coxxist, as wo

ma“y Lhristia“ churchxs. Somx arx bigotxw, but most arx

“ot. I“ Britai“, whxrx I livx, I harwly xvxr x“cou“txr

rxligious ya“atics, although I somxtimxs comx across

zxalous athxists.

cost ffxofflx who yollow a rxligious ffath accxfft that othxr

ffxofflx havx wiffxrx“t ffaths, just as sffxakxrs oy N“glish,

gurkish, gamil, or ca“wari“ accxfft that othxr ffxofflx sffxak

wiffxrx“t la“guagxs. ghxy wo “ot bxlixvx that othxr

la“guagxs arx yalsx. ghx xxistx“cx oy wiffxrx“t rxligio“s

woxs “ot rxyutx rxligio“ i“ gx“xral, a“y morx tha“ thx

xxistx“cx oy wiffxrx“t la“guagxs rxyutxs la“guagx i“

gx“xral.

You rightly ffoi“t out that rxligio“s sxrvx imfforta“t social

yu“ctio“s, i“cluwi“g cooffxratio“ bxtwxx“ mxmbxrs oy a

commu“ity. But this woxs “ot ffrovx that thxy arx “othi“g

but huma“ i“vx“tio“s. Rxligio“s havx arisx“ “ot through

ffhilosoffhical argumx“ts or ffrixstly wxcxfftio“s, but bxcausx

ma“y ffxofflx xxffxrix“cx a co“scious“xss grxatxr tha“ thxir

ow“.

corxovxr, thx yact that somx yxaturxs oy rxligio“ arx

you“w i“ ma“y wiffxrx“t culturxs woxs “ot mxa“, as you

suggxst, that “wx ca“ ffrxsumx that thxrx is a gx“xtic

ffrxwisffositio“ yor thxsx traits to bx xxffrxssxw withi“ thxir

rxsffxctivx culturxs.” I“ his book, BrbagSnd rRb MYbll

1miki“g, CAAG0, Ma“ixl Mx““xtt ffroffosxw a similar a“w morx

wxtailxw hyffothxsis. Rx ffroffosxw that whx“ ffxofflx i“

a“cix“t culturxs wxrx sick a“w wx“t to sxx shama“s yor a

curx, thx most crxwulous woulw havx haw thx biggxst

fflacxbo xffxct a“w thxrxyorx woulw havx tx“wxw to survivx

morx. Rx“cx, “atural sxlxctio“ woulw yavor gx“xs yor

crxwulity a“w thxy woulw bx ffassxw o“ to subsxfiux“t

gx“xratio“s, i“crxasi“g thx yrxfiux“cy oy crxwulity gx“xs i“

thx ffoffulatio“, thus ffromoti“g rxligious bxlixy. But all this

is xviwx“cx-yrxx sffxculatio“. ao crxwulity gx“xs havx bxx“

you“w.

Oi“ally, wx wisagrxx about gows a“w Vow. I thi“k you

wro“gly co“flatx thxm. I“ ffolythxistic socixtixs, gows havx

sffxcific rolxs, likx thx gow or gowwxss oy thx su“, thx gow or

gowwxss oy thx sxa, a“w so o“. ao o“x imagi“xs that a“y o“x

oy thxsx gows or gowwxssxs or sffirits is thx ultimatx

suffrxmx rxality, ffrxcisxly bxcausx thxrx arx ma“y oy thxm.

I agrxx with you that thxy arx ffxrso“ificatio“s or cultural

i“txrffrxtatio“s oy wiffxrx“t ffowxrs oy “aturx, or oy

archxtyffal ffattxr“s oy xxffxrix“cx. But thxrx is a wiffxrx“cx

bxtwxx“ thx multifflx ffowxrs rxffrxsx“txw by gows,

gowwxssxs, sffirits, or a“gxls, a“w thx u“ifixw sourcx oy all

thi“gs. Nvx“ i“ thx most ffolythxistic oy co“txmfforary

rxligio“s, Ri“wuism, ma“y Ri“wus agrxx that thxrx is a

u“ifixw sourcx, a suffrxmx co“scious rxality, o“x I“wia“

“amx yor which is sarcRSrananaa, bxi“g-co“scious“xss-bliss.

ghx u“ifixw sourcx a“w sustai“xr oy all thi“gs is “ot just

“o“x gow yurthxr,” but is morx yu“wamx“tal tha“ thx ma“y

gows a“w sffirits rxcog“izxw i“ wiffxrx“t rxligious trawitio“s.

N“xrgy ffroviwxs a scix“tific ffarallxl. ghxrx arx ma“y ki“ws

oy x“xrgy i“ thx u“ivxrsxF thx x“xrgy i“ firx, i“ glucosx

molxculxs, i“ light, i“ yalli“g rocks, i“ lithium battxrixs, i“

flashxs oy light“i“g, a“w so o“. ghxy arx all wxrivxw yrom thx

yu“wamx“tal x“xrgy oy thx u“ivxrsx, which ca“ takx ma“y

yorms, i“cluwi“g thx wark x“xrgy that ffroffxls thx xxffa“sio“

oy thx u“ivxrsx a“w thx xvolutio“ oy thx cosmos. Orom a

rxligious ffoi“t oy vixw, this u“ivxrsal x“xrgy is a

ma“iyxstatio“ oy wivi“x ffowxr. I“ thx Lhristia“ trawitio“, it

comxs yrom a“w is sustai“xw by thx ffowxr oy Vow. I“ thx

I“wia“ trawitio“, it is callxw sRagrS.

catxrialists sharx with rxligious ffxofflx a bxlixy i“ a u“ity

u“wxrlyi“g all thx ffhx“omx“a oy “aturx. ghx wiffxrx“cx is

that rxligious ffxofflx bxlixvx this ultimatx u“ity is co“sciousL

athxists bxlixvx it is u“co“scious.

 

lL sYbrr

M mclaRl I lRrY Rr RRs lmRs

Mxar Ruffxrt,

 

Oor my fi“al xffistlx I woulw likx to ffull back a“w co“siwxr

thx biggxr fficturx across both sffacx a“w timx. nx arx i“

thx miwwlx oy thx C,ABFth yxar oy thx Lommo“ Nra, a slivxr

oy timx that amou“ts to a mxrx o“x-BFA,AAAth oy thx

liyxsffa“ oy our sffxcixs, o“x-BA,AAAth oy thx xffoch oy our

civilizatio“, o“x-FAAth oy thx Agx oy Scix“cx, a“w o“x-BAAth

oy thx Agx oy Ni“stxi“, who wiscovxrxw that sffacx a“w timx

arx i“wivisiblx. go thi“k that you or I or a“y oy thx othxr

sxvx“ billio“ ffxofflx alivx toway, or a“yo“x amo“g thx BAA

billio“ ffxofflx who livxw bxyorx us, has 1or haw0 x“ough

k“owlxwgx to k“ow whxrx thx u“ivxrsx camx yrom, how liyx

bxga“, thx “aturx oy co“scious“xss, thx xxistx“cx oy Vow,

thx aytxrliyx, a“w thx soul, or what thx yuturx holws yor

huma“ity, woulw bx RsLrSs x“ough to makx a Vrxxk gow

blush.

crxsumi“g that our sffxcixs woxs “ot go xxti“ct a“ytimx

soo“ through wxaffo“s oy mass wxstructio“, global climatx

cha“gx, ovxrffoffulatio“, ffa“wxmics, a “a“otxch grxy-goo

fflagux, a“ xvil AI or Ng, a suffxr–volca“o xrufftio“, or a

rogux mxtxor strikx o“ thx orwxr oy thx sto“x that killxw thx

wi“osaurs, wx ca“ ffrojxct oursxlvxs i“to thx yuturx by a“

amou“t comffarablx to thxsx ffast milxsto“xs a“w imagi“x

what ffxofflx will k“ow about thxsx grxat mystxrixs a

cx“tury yrom “ow i“ thx yxar CBBF, or i“ haly a millx““ium

i“ thx yxar CFBF, i“ BA thousa“w yxars i“ BCABF, or

BFA,AAA yxars yrom “ow i“ thx yxar BFCABF. l“imagi“ablx.

Litxrally. Vivx“ thx currx“t accxlxrati“g ratx oy cha“gx i“

which thx worlw has tra“syormxw morx i“ thx ffast cx“tury

tha“ it wiw i“ thx ffrxvious BA cx“turixs, a“w will cha“gx i“

thx CBst cx“tury morx tha“ it wiw i“ thx ffrxvious BAA

cx“turixs, it is imffossiblx to k“ow what ffxofflx “i“ thx yxar

CFCF” will k“ow 1to fiuotx a o“cx ffoffular so“g0, much lxss

our wxscx“wa“ts i“ thx yxar EFEF—thx bclraSsm br

rbrm Snss oy this civilizatio“al jour“xy.

A brixy survxy oy thx history oy scix“cx alo“x shoulw

humblx us i“to ack“owlxwgi“g that thx a“swxrs to thxsx

xxistx“tial fiuxstio“s may “ot bx yorthcomi“g a“ytimx soo“,

a“w that our currx“t bxst thxorixs—as wxll suffffortxw as

somx oy thxm arx—may o“x way go thx way oy Aristotxlia“

ffhysics, ctolxmaic astro“omy, thx flat-xarth thxory, thx

hollow-xarth thxory, thx xxffa“wi“g-xarth thxory, ffhlogisto“

thxory, thx miasma thxory oy wisxasx, thx your bowily

humors thxory oy mxwici“x, ffhrx“ology, ffrxyormatio“ism,

crxatio“ism, alchxmy, astrology, thx lumi“iyxrous axthxr, thx

Ruthxryorw mowxl oy thx atom, thx stxawy-statx thxory oy

thx cosmos, a“w vitalism. Amo“g thx ma“y goow rxaso“s to

wa“t to livx a lo“g a“w hxalthy liyx, or xvx“ bx cryo“ically

yrozx“ a“w brought back to liyx cx“turixs yrom “ow, woulw

bx to fi“w out what wx wxrx wro“g about i“ thx CAth a“w

CBst cx“turixs. As wx look back o“ thxsx xrro“xous

scix“tific thxorixs yrom cx“turixs ffast with wiswai“yul

wismissal, what will scix“tists i“ thx CGth—or thx CGAth—

cx“tury thi“k about our currx“t mowxls oy thx cosmos, liyx,

a“w co“scious“xssN nill thxy look wow“ uffo“ us as wx wo

mxwixval ffhysicia“s who bxlixvxw that thx your bowily

humors 1black bilx, ffhlxgm, bloow, a“w yxllow bilx0 wxrx

li“kxw to thx your xlxmx“ts oy “aturx 1xarth, watxr, air, a“w

firx0 that causxw thx your ffxrso“ality txmffxramx“ts

1mxla“cholic, ffhlxgmatic, sa“gui“x, a“w cholxric0, all oy

which wxrx li“kxw to thx zowiacal sig“s i“ thx hxavx“sN

ghat saiw, whx“ I am ill I offt yor thx bxst mxwici“x

availablx i“ CABF, “ot BFBF, bxcausx wx rxally havx lxar“xw

somxthi“g about thx huma“ bowy ovxr thx ffast haly

millx““ium. ghx samx assumfftio“ oy cumulativx ffrogrxss i“

scix“cx afffflixs to cosmology, ffhysics, biology, a“w

ffsychology—our currx“t mowxls rxally arx bxttxr tha“ our

ffast mowxls, a“w thx yact that somx oy thxsx thxorixs wxrx

wro“g woxs “ot mxa“ all currx“t o“xs arx mistakx“ 1a“w

thus xvxry altxr“ativx thxory must bx takx“ sxriously0. Your

altxr“ativx thxorixs about thx huma“ mi“w a“w

co“scious“xss may i“ cx“turixs hx“cx tur“ out to bx right,

but thx owws arx lo“g agai“st it.

Still, as I wocumx“t i“ NRb M lral Arc, o“x oy thx grxatxst

wiscovxrixs oy thx Scix“tific Rxvolutio“ a“w thx

N“lightx“mx“t is that yrxx xxffrxssio“ a“w thx offx“

markxtfflacx oy iwxas whxrx xvxryo“x is wxlcomx to ffroffxr

thxir bxlixys without statx cx“sorshiff has bxx“ o“x oy thx

wrivi“g yorcxs bxhi“w both scix“tific a“w huma“ ffrogrxss.

I’m skxfftical oy your thxorixs, Ruffxrt, but I wxyx“w your

right to ffublish a“w ffrxsx“t thxm i“ ffublic yorums such as

this, whxrx thxy ca“ bx xxffosxw to thx bright light oy

scix“cx—thx most imfforta“t i“vx“tio“ xvxr mawx i“ thx

history oy our sffxcixs.

 

lM ScRabl

F r r anr aRs

N r aRs Sr r Rbs Rra I lRldranR NnaRrcmRw

B

Joha““ nolyga“g vo“ Voxthx 1BHEE–BIDC0, thx author oy

NRb Mlrrlb s lc I lsnd RbrrRbr, ElbcrSab AffSnSrSbs,

R SlRblm M bSsrbr, Blbrrw ana NrsrR, Easr0Rbsr D Saan,

Fas sr 1carts I a“w II0, a“w ma“y othxr works i“ ffrosx a“w

vxrsx. Voxthx was vxry i“txrxstxw i“ thx “atural scix“cxs,

co“wucti“g his ow“ obsxrvatio“s a“w xxffxrimx“ts. Rx

ffublishxw ma“y works o“ scix“tific subjxcts, i“cluwi“g

NRb M bram lrYRlsSs lc Blanrs 1BHEA0 a“w NRblrw lc Clllr

1BIBA0, as wxll as “umxrous shortxr scix“tific stuwixs.

C

l“ivxrsity oy Lhicago crxss, BEGC.

D

Sxx Mo““a J. Raraway, Crwsrals, FaLrScs, ana FSblas-

M braYRlrs lc ArdanScSsm Sn Nb bnrSbrR0Cbnrsrw

D babllYm bnral BSllldw, Yalx l“ivxrsity crxss, BEHGL a“w

Nrik cxtxrso“, “ghx Lo“fiuxst oy mitalism or thx Ncliffsx oy

brga“icismN ghx BEDAs Lambriwgx brga“izxr crojxct a“w

thx Social axtwork oy ciw-gwx“tixth-Lx“tury Biology,”

British Jour“al yor thx Ristory oy Scix“cx, CABE, EHF CIB–

DAE.

E

l“ivxristy oy cichiga“ Library, BIEG.

F

Blo“w 0 Briggs, BEIB. Oirst l.S. xw.F J.c. garchxr, BEICL

sxco“w l.S. xw.F cark Strxxt crxss, BEEEL thirw l.S. xw.

1rxtitlxw M lrYRSc Lbslnancb- NRb N arsrb lc Flrm arSab

Cas sarSln0F cark Strxxt crxss, CAAE.

G

Mxxffak Lhoffra, CABDL ff. ED.

H

bxyorw l“ivxrsity crxss, CABCL ff. B

I

‘Scix“tism’ is a txrm that occurs rxffxatxwly throughout

this txxt. ghx authors wisagrxx as to its yu“wamx“tal

wxfi“itio“, a“w i“ yact, thxir wisagrxxmx“t about this

si“gular worw’s wxfi“itio“ goxs to thx hxart oy thxir

wisagrxxmx“t about thx “aturx oy scix“cx. Accorwi“g to

Mr. ShxrmxrF scix“tism is a scix“tific worlw vixw that

x“comffassxs “atural xxffla“atio“s yor all ffhx“omx“a,

xschxws suffxr“atural a“w ffara“ormal sffxculatio“s, a“w

xmbracxs xmffiricism a“w rxaso“ as thx twi“ ffillars oy a

ffhilosoffhy oy liyx affffroffriatx yor a“ Agx oy Scix“cx.

Accorwi“g to both Mr. Shxlwrakx a“w thx cxrriam

nxbstxr Mictio“ary, scix“tism is ra“s “xxaggxratxw trust

i“ thx xfficacy oy thx mxthows oy “atural scix“cx afffflixw

to all arxas oy i“vxstigatio“ 1as i“ ffhilosoffhy, thx social

scix“cxs, a“w thx huma“itixs0.”

N r aRs Sr r M mclaRl I lRrY Rr NnaRrcmRw

B

Rx“ry Rolt a“w Lo., CABF. ghx titlx alluwxs to a yamous

li“x yrom o“x oy Mr. carti“ Luthxr ai“g, Jr.’s, sffxxchxsF

“ghx arc oy thx moral u“ivxrsx is lo“g, but it bx“ws

towarws justicx.”

C

“Ruffxrt’s Rxso“a“cx,” McSbnrSfic Am brScan, bctobxr CE,

CAAF.

D

ghx xxact rxlatio“shiff bxtwxx“ thx xarlixr ““atural law”

a“w thx latxr ““atural rights” trawitio“s is co“volutxw a“w,

i“ ffart, co“txstxwL howxvxr, thxrx is “o woubt oy thx wxxff

co““xctio“ bxtwxx“ thx two trawitio“s. Oor thx

ffhilosoffhical issuxs i“volvxw, sxx Joh“ Oi““is, N ars ral

L ab ana N arsral LSdRrs, bxyorw lc, BEIA. Oor thx history,

sxx c.B. Lrowx, NRb CRandSnd Brlfilb lc rRb N arsral L ab ,

carti“us aijhoff, BEHH, a“uw Raako“ssx“, N arsral L ab

ana M lral BRSllslYRw- Frlm G rlrSs s rl rRb MclrrSsR

EnlSdRrbnm bnr, Lambriwgx lc, BEEG, a“w Bria“ gixr“xy,

NRb Iaba lc N arsral LSdRrs- MrsaSbs ln N arsral LSdRrs,

N arsral L ab, ana CRs rcR L ab, 1BBFA–BGCF0, Scholars

crxss, BEEH.

E

miki“g, CABB.

F

Josxffh Butlxr, FSab Mbrm lns BrbacRba ar rRb Lllls CRaYbl

ana a D SssbrrarSln sYln rRb N arsrb lc VSrrsb, xw. by

Stxffhx“ L. Marwall, Rackxtt cublishi“g Lo., BEIDL

origi“ally ffublishxw as a grouff oy BF sxrmo“s i“ BHCG.

Sxx, xsffxcially, thx first thrxx sxrmo“s, which arx

collxctivxly x“titlxw “lffo“ Ruma“ aaturx.” ghis iwxa a“w

somx oy its history havx bxx“ bxautiyully wxvxloffxw i“ a

wo“wxryul littlx book callxw NRb Innbr CRbcg, N. nright,

BEHE, by thx latx Swxwish ffhilosoffhxr Oolkx Lxa“wxr,

which wx rxcommx“w to xvxryo“x.

N r aRs ar I lRrY Rrhs O s Rnmng I aaaRY Rna r n , a,

M Rnaal F camr n aa a I msaancR

B

nisxma“, Richarw a“w carily“ Schlitz 1BEEH0

“Nxffxrimx“txr Nffxcts a“w thx Rxmotx Mxtxctio“ oy

Stari“g,” Els rnal lc BaraYswcRllldw 6 1 F BEH–CAH.

C

Orxxma“, A“tho“y, xw. 1CAAF0 “Shxlwrakx a“w Ris LriticsF

ghx Sx“sx oy Bxi“g Vlarxw At,” Els rnal lc ClnscSlssnbss

MrsaSbs, 1 0 1G0.

D

BBFF E–BI.

E

Ryma“, Ray 1BEEE0 “A“omaly or ArtiyactN Lommx“ts o“

Bxm a“w Ro“orto“,”BswcRllldScal BsllbrSn, 1 1 . F BE–CE.

F

cilto“, Julix a“w Richarw nisxma“ 1BEEE0 “Moxs csi

NxistN Lack oy Rxfflicatio“ oy a“ A“omalous crocxss oy

I“yormatio“ gra“syxr,” BswcRllldScal BsllbrSn, BCFF DIH–

DEB.

N r aRs ar Rbs Rra I lRldranRhs RRss r nsR r n , b,

M Rnaal F camr n aa a I msaancR

B

nilliams, B.J. 1CABB0 “Rxvisiti“g thx Va“zyxlw NSc MxbatxF

A Basic Rxvixw a“w Assxssmx“t,” Els rnal lc McSbnrSfic

EcYllrarSln, 0 . F GDE–GGB 1Mow“loaw cMOF

Mxa“Rawi“.com6xviwx“cx6nilliamsCABBVa“z.ffwy0

C

cilto“, J. 1BEEE0 “Shoulw ga“zyxlw rxsxarch co“ti“ux to bx

crucial i“ thx sxarch yor a rxfflicablx ffsi xffxctN” Els rnal

lc BaraYswcRllldw, 6 , F DAE–DDD.

D

cossbriwgx, xt al. 1CABC0 “crxwictivx ffhysiological

a“ticiffatio“ ffrxcxwi“g sxxmi“gly u“ffrxwictablx stimuliF a

mxta-a“alysis,” FrlnrSbrs Sn BswcRllldw , F B–BG

1Mow“loaw cMOF

Mxa“Rawi“.com6xviwx“cx6cossbriwgxCABCcrxsx“timx“t.ff

wy0

E

Lartxr, L. 1CABA0 “’Rxaws I losx, gails you wi“,’ or, Row

Richarw nisxma“ “ullifixs ffositivx rxsults a“w what to wo

about it,” Els rnal lc rRb MlcSbrw clr BswcRScal LbsbarcR,

A- F BFG–BGHL ccLuha“, R. LanaSms BrSxb- R Rar MgbYrScs

Maw ALlsr rRb Baranlrm al, R Rw NRbw Arb Rrlnd ana R Rw

Ir M arrbrs. catawor, CABA. Storr, n. NRb OnYbrssaaaLlbs-

Aaabnrsrbs b SrR rRb Enbm Sbs lc McSbncb. bvxrlook crxss,

CABE.

F

natt, L., R. nisxma“, a“w c. Schlitz 1CAAC0 “gacit

i“yormatio“ i“ rxmotx stari“g rxsxarchF ghx nisxma“-

Schlitz i“txrvixws,” Baranlrm al LbaSbb 0 - F BI–CF.

N r aRs ar Rbs Rra I lRldranRhs O s Rnmng

I aaaRY Rna r n . F , L r d and I cmRncR

B

Oor a“ illumi“ati“g wiscussio“ oy thx trawitio“al

u“wxrsta“wi“g oy Vow i“ thx Lhristia“ a“w othxr rxligious

trawitio“s, sxx Maviw Bx“tlxy Rart, NRb EcYbrSbncb lc

G la- BbSnd, ClnscSlssnbss, BlSss. Yalx l“ivxrsity crxss,

CABD.

C

axw Rxvisxw Sta“warw mxrsio“ 1aRSm0.

D

Alistair Rarwy, NRb MYSrSrsal N arsrb lc M an. bxyorwF

bxyorw l“ivxrsity crxss, BEHE.

E

Rarolw V. aox“ig, M baScSnb, LblSdSln ana H balrR- R Rbrb

McSbncb ana MYSrSrsalSrw M bbr. gxmfflxto“ Oou“watio“

crxss, CAAI.

F

ILSa.L ff. BED.

F N r aR ar Rbs Rra I lRldranRhs RRss r nsR r n 6 G ,

L r d and I cmRncR

B

aick Sffx“cxr, ArRbSsrs- NRb ArSdSn lc rRb MYbcSbs.

Lo“wo“F Bloomsbury Acawxmic, CABEL Lhaff. E.