INTRODUCTION 1

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ARCTIC FLORAAND FAUNA

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E D I T A H E L S I N K I

S T A T U S A N D C O N S E R V A T I O N

ARCTIC FLORAAND FAUNA

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EDITORIAL TEAM:Project lead: Paula Kankaanpää (Arctic Centre, University of Lapland/Ministry of Environment, Finland)Lead author: Henry P. Huntington (Huntington Consulting, USA),Project management: Snorri Baldursson (CAFF Secretariat, Iceland),Project coordination and technical layout: Anna-Liisa Sippola (Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, Finland)Graphics coordination: Seppo Kaitala (University of Helsinki, Finland)Species information and graphics coordination: Christoph Zöckler (UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre, UK)Other members: Anne Gunn (Government of Northwest Territories, Canada), Marina Mirutenko (All-Russian Institute of Nature Protection, Russia), PeterProkosch (WWF Arctic Programme, Norway), Arkady Tishkov (Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia).

CONTRIBUTORS:Preparation of maps and figures: S. Blyth, N. Cox, K. Kiviaho, I. Lysenko, L. Malm, J. NieminenMain review: O. W. HealChapter reviewers: T. Fenge, C. Freese, E. Helander, B. Stonehouse, J. Svoboda, S. Tuhkanen, W. Vincent

Contributing institutions: Arctic Centre, University of Lapland; BirdLife International; Norwegian Polar Institute; Institute of Biogeography, Russian Academy ofSciences; UNEP-GRID Arendal; UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre.Financial and other support: Nordic Council of Ministers; National Science Foundation (U.S.); Ministry of the Environment Finland; Canadian Wildlife Service– Environment Canada, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada; Ministry of Foreign Affairs Iceland; Swedish EnvironmentalProtection Agency; Greenland Homerule Government; Directorate for Nature Management, Norway.

Paintings and drawings: M. Rapeli (pages 15, 110-111, 134, 162, 182, 216-218), Gerald Kuehl (page 46)Cover photo: Snowy owls Nyctea scandiaca. Gilg & Sabard/GREA.Back cover photo: Roseroot, Rhodiola rosea. Gilg & Sabard/GREA.

Artistic layout: P. KivekäsPrinting and binding: Edita Plc

ISBN 9979-9476-5-9

Photographs:Antikainen, P.Arnalds, O.Bakke, T.A.Bangjord, G.Chardine, J.Dau, C.Einarsson, A.

Falk, K.Gilg, O.Gislason, B.Heikkinen, O.Hillmarsson, J.Ó.Ikävalko, J.Institute of Marine

Research, Norway

Kaikusalo, A.Kassens, H.Kristinsson, H.Leinonen, A.Luhta, J.Løfaldli, L.Magnusson, B.Mattsson, J.

Mikkola, K.Miller, P.Nicklen, P.Overholt, J.Prokosch, P.Sabard, B.Sippola, A-L.Svensen, E.

Talbot, S.L.Tolvanen, P.Tuominen, O.Tynys, T.Vasama, V.Vasander, H.Virtanen, R.Virtanen, T.

Vogt, P.Väre, H.Zöckler, C.

Box authors:Adrésson, Ó.S.Arnalds, Ó.Baldursson, S.Belikov, S.Burek, K.A.Byrd, V.Chardine, J.Chernov, Y.U.Cluff, H.D.Danks, H.V.Dyke, A.Eggertsson, Ó.

Einarsson, Á.Fedorova, N.Gau, R.J.Gulden, G.Gunn, A.Hamre, J.Heal, B.Helle, T.Henttonen, H.Huberth-Hansen, J-P.Huntington, H. P.Ikävalko, J.

Iljashenko, V.Ingimundarson, J.H.Itämies, J.Kalxdorff, S.Leggat, A.Magnússon, B.Mann, D. H.Marteinsson, V.McGovern, T.H.Meltofte, H.Miller, F.L.Miller, P.A.

Mulders, R.Ohenoja, E.Oksanen, T.Pagnan, J.Petersen, A.Pluzhnikov, N.Pospelova, E.Prokosch, P.Ragnarsson, S.A.Rasmus, S.Reist, J.Rätti, O.

Schliebe, S.Sippola, A-L.Skúlason, S.Smith, D.Snorrason, S.Soppela, P.Sowls, A.Springer, A.M.Svoboda, J.Talbot, S.Thorpe, N.Timonen, M.

Tishkov, A.Vasander, H.Vigfússon, O.Vincent, W.Virtanen, R.Vogt, P.Vongraven, D.Wielgolaski, F.E.Zöckler, C.

Estes, J.Ewins, P.Falk, K.Feder, H. M.Feldman, K.Forbes, B.Fossum, P.Fosså, J.H.Fritts, E.Gilchrist, G.Gilg, O.Grady, S.Grebmeier, J. M.Hario, M.Heal, O.W.Heath, M.Hebert, P.

Hebert, P. N. D.Hik, D.Hines, J.Hodkinson, I. D.Hoefs, M.Hummel, H.Høegh, K.Jefferies, R. L.Johnson, L.Johnson, V.Johnston, J.D.Kaissl, T.Kampp, K.Kephart, J.Klein, D. R.Kline, T.Kolpashnikov, L.

Kojola, I.Kovacs, K.Kullerud, L.Kurvits, T.Legare, G.Lunn, N.Machtans, C.Markon, C.McCormick, K.McFarland, F.McNair, M.Mela, M.Meltofte, H. D.Merkel, F.Moore, S. E.Mortensen, P.B.Muir, M.

Neuvonen, S.Nilsson, A.Ollila, T.Orlov, V.Pike, D.Raillard, M.Reid, J.Rothe, T. C.Rugh, D. J.Russell, D.Rydahl, K.Semyonova, T.Simon, P.Sittler, B.Smol, J. P.Solovieva, D.Stephenson, B.

Stirling, I.Strøm, H.Sulyandziga, P.Sutherland, P.Svensen, E.Touborg, K.Tyler, N.Tynan, C.Valkenburg, P.Weller, G.Whiting, A.Williams, M.Yurtsev, B.

Contributing experts:Aamlid, D.Aiken, S.Alisauskas, R.T.Anderson, M.E.Anker-Nilssen, T.Arnbom, T.Bakken, V.Bogardus, D.Bogstad, B.Burch, E.S.Burn, C.Carriere, S.De Groot, P.DeCicco, F.Dickson, L.Douglas, M.Duffy, D.

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CONTENTS

Preface ........................................................................................................................ 9

1. INTRODUCTION 11

The Report ............................................................................................................... 11Defining the Arctic ................................................................................................... 11

Box 1. The mission of CAFF ............................................................................................. 12Box 2. The Arctic Council ................................................................................................. 13

2. ECOLOGY 17

Climate ..................................................................................................................... 17Shaping the climate .............................................................................................. 17Characteristics of the Arctic climate ..................................................................... 18Box 3. Snow: physics, ecology, and climate change ............................................................... 20Spatial climatic variation ...................................................................................... 21Climate variation with time ................................................................................. 21Box 4. The effects of past climates in the North American Arctic .......................................... 22

Life in the Arctic ....................................................................................................... 24The physical setting ............................................................................................. 24Box 5. The North Atlantic Oscillation and reindeer husbandry ............................................ 25Responding to climate ......................................................................................... 29Finding favorable habitats .................................................................................... 29Box 6. Variations in snow cover affect plants ....................................................................... 30Box 7. How land animals adapt to cold and snow .............................................................. 32Box 8. Insect adaptations in the High Arctic ....................................................................... 36Box 9. Staying warm in a cold climate ........................................................................ 38The importance of movement .............................................................................. 39Ecological relationships ........................................................................................ 39Box 10. The volcanic island Surtsey: a natural experiment in colonization ........................... 40Box 11. The role of fungi ................................................................................................... 41Ecosystem relationships ........................................................................................ 42Box 12. The Arctic as a theater of evolution ........................................................................ 44

The Concept of Biodiversity in the Arctic ................................................................. 44Box 13. Microbes everywhere ............................................................................................. 45Box 14. The diversity of arctic char .................................................................................... 46Box 15. North-south trends in terrestrial species diversity ..................................................... 48

HUMANS 51

The First People ........................................................................................................ 51Box 16. Driftwood in the Arctic ................................................................................ 52Box 17. Reindeer and the peopling of the Yamal .................................................................. 54

6 INTRODUCTION

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Later Migrations ....................................................................................................... 57Modern Development ............................................................................................... 59

Box 18. Northern farming in a long-term perspective ..................................................... 60Political Development ............................................................................................... 61Current Settlement Patterns ...................................................................................... 63

Box 19. Co-management in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region .............................................. 64Box 20. Environmental impacts of diamond mining in the Canadian Arctic ...................... 66

Use of Living Resources ............................................................................................ 67Box 21. The and the : Showing respect for caribou ......................... 69Box 22. Why pine trees have different names: a Khanty folk tale ...................................... 72

Cultural Significance of the Environment ................................................................. 73Box 23. The use of wild plants in northern Russia ............................................................... 74

4. CONSERVATION 77

Habitat ..................................................................................................................... 77The role of smaller areas ...................................................................................... 77Box 24. The Circumpolar Protected Areas Network (CPAN) ............................................... 78

Wildlife ..................................................................................................................... 81Box 25. Protected areas in northern Fennoscandia: an important corridor for taiga species .... 82Box 26. Protecting the Lena Delta-an example of the rapid growth

of protected areas in Russia ................................................................................... 84Box 27. Threats to Arctic biodiversity – overview ................................................................ 86Economic importance of harvests ........................................................................ 87

Industrial and Commercial Development ................................................................. 87Box 28. Unsustainable take of murres in Greenland ............................................................ 88Box 29. CAFF International Murre Conservation Strategy and Action Plan ........................ 90Box 30. Success with geese: proof that conservation is working? ............................................ 93

Diffuse Threats ......................................................................................................... 95Box 31. Oil development impacts on the North Slope of Alaska ............................................ 96Box 32. Habitat fragmentation: a threat to Arctic biodiversity and wilderness ...................... 98Box 33. Impacts of infrastructure: the Arctic 2050 scenario ................................................. 99

Understanding ........................................................................................................ 100Box 34. Preserving sacred sites in the Russian Arctic .......................................................... 100Box 35. Climate and caribou: Inuit knowledge of the impacts of climate change ................. 101Box 36. Tourism – threat or benefit to conservation? ......................................................... 102Box 37. Alien invasive species: a threat to global and Arctic biodiversity .......................... 104Box 38. International legal instruments for conservation ................................................... 106Box 39. U.S./Russia bilateral agreement on polar bears

breaks new ground in international conservation ................................................. 108

5. FROM FOREST TO TUNDRA 110

The region ......................................................................................................... 110Key characteristics ............................................................................................. 111Functionality ..................................................................................................... 115Interactions with other regions .......................................................................... 116Box 40. Mountain birch and the Nordic treeline .............................................................. 116Box 41. Paludification, fire, and topography structure the northern forest ............................ 117Natural variability .............................................................................................. 118

INTRODUCTION 7

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Human uses and impacts ................................................................................... 118Box 42. Ary-Mas: an island of remnant forest ................................................................... 121Box 43. The introduced Nootka lupine in Iceland: benefit or threat? .................................. 122Box 44. Management and biodiversity in Fennoscandian timberline forests ........................ 124Climate change .................................................................................................. 126Conservation ..................................................................................................... 128

6. THE TUNDRA AND THE POLAR DESERT 131

The region ......................................................................................................... 131Box 45. The tundra and polar desert: dissimilarities between North America and Eurasia ...... 132Key characteristics ............................................................................................. 133Box 46. Decomposition ensures recycling of nutrients ......................................................... 134Box 47. Mires and wetlands ............................................................................................ 136Box 48. Mosquitoes ......................................................................................................... 139Functionality ..................................................................................................... 139Box 49. Lemmings: key actors in the tundra food web ........................................................ 142Interactions with other regions .......................................................................... 144Box 50. Parasitism: an underestimated stressor of Arctic fauna? .......................................... 145Box 51. Sandpipers: birds of the tundra ........................................................................... 146Natural variability .............................................................................................. 147Human uses and impacts ................................................................................... 150Box 52. Erosion in Iceland .............................................................................................. 153Climate change .................................................................................................. 154Box 53. Peary Caribou: extreme demands on an endangered caribou ................................. 156Box 54. Rare endemic vascular plants of the Arctic ............................................................ 158Conservation ..................................................................................................... 160

7. RIVERS, LAKES, AND WETLANDS 163

The region ......................................................................................................... 163Key characteristics ............................................................................................. 164Box 55. Conserving arctic char ........................................................................................ 166Functionality ..................................................................................................... 167Box 56. Freshwater food webs .......................................................................................... 168Interactions with other regions .......................................................................... 170Natural variability .............................................................................................. 171Box 57. The Atlantic salmon: a species in trouble .............................................................. 172Human uses and impacts ................................................................................... 172Box 58. Food web contaminants in Arctic freshwaters ....................................................... 177Box 59. The Lake Myvatn ecosystem: many uses, many threats ........................................... 178Climate change .................................................................................................. 180Conservation ..................................................................................................... 180

8. THE OCEANS AND SEAS 183

The region ......................................................................................................... 183Key characteristics ............................................................................................. 184Box 60. The BIOICE Research Program maps benthic biodiversity .................................... 184Box 61. Vent and seep communities on the Arctic seafloor ............................................. 186

8 INTRODUCTION

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Functionality ..................................................................................................... 187Interactions with other regions .......................................................................... 190Box 62. Life within sea ice .............................................................................................. 190Box 63. Living water in the frozen Arctic: the Great Siberian Polynya ............................... 192Natural variability .............................................................................................. 193Box 64. The Anadyr Current and ocean productivity in the Bering Strait area .................... 194Human uses and impacts ................................................................................... 198Box 65. Beluga whale hunting in Russia .......................................................................... 200Box 66. The interaction of climate and fish stocks in the Barents Sea .................................. 202Box 67. Bycatch: a threat to seabirds in Arctic waters ........................................................ 203Box 68. Impacts of trawling on seabed animals and habitats ............................................. 204Box 69. Seabirds, foxes, and rats: conservation challenges on Bering Sea islands .................. 206Climate change .................................................................................................. 207Conservation ..................................................................................................... 208

9. STATUS AND TRENDS IN SPECIES AND POPULATIONS 211

Box 70. Black guillemots in Iceland: a case-history of population changes 212Population Levels and Trends .................................................................................. 214

Marine mammals .............................................................................................. 215Seabirds ............................................................................................................. 215Marine fishes ..................................................................................................... 226Terrestrial mammals .......................................................................................... 231Terrestrial birds .................................................................................................. 232Box 71. Population fluctuations in Svalbard reindeer ........................................................ 232Box 72. Wolves ............................................................................................................... 234Box 73. Wolverine .......................................................................................................... 236Box 74. Brown bear ........................................................................................................ 238Shorebirds ......................................................................................................... 239Passerines ........................................................................................................... 239Box 75. Muskoxen .......................................................................................................... 240Globally Threatened Species .............................................................................. 247

10. CONCLUSIONS 253

Ecology ................................................................................................................... 253Humans ............................................................................................................ 253Overexploitation ............................................................................................... 253Habitat disturbance ........................................................................................... 254Biological disturbance........................................................................................ 254Contamination and pollution ............................................................................ 254Climate change .................................................................................................. 255Knowledge gaps ................................................................................................. 255Conservation ..................................................................................................... 255

List of English and Russian common names and Latin scientificnames of species mentioned in this book ............................................................................. 257List of Figures .................................................................................................................. 265List of Tables ................................................................................................................... 267

INTRODUCTION 9

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GILG

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Gyrfalcon, Falco rusticolus

PREFACE

� It is with great pleasure that we present Arctic Flora and Fauna: Status and Conserva-tion. This report draws on the diversity of projects that the Program for the Conserva-tion of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF) has undertaken in its first decade, underscoringthe need to address conservation on a circumpolar basis. We thus find it highly appropri-ate that its publication coincides with the tenth anniversary of circumpolar Arctic envi-ronmental cooperation, initiated in Rovaniemi, Finland, with the creation of the ArcticEnvironmental Protection Strategy, now a central part of the Arctic Council.

The Arctic Council, at its meeting in Iqaluit, Canada, in 1998, requested that CAFFprepare an overview of Arctic ecosystems, habitats, and species. The resulting report is nota comprehensive scientific document, but a scientifically-based overview of the mainfeatures of the Arctic ecoregion, its ecology, and the status of its flora and fauna. Writtenfor the non-specialist, the report highlights the importance of Arctic resources and proc-esses for Arctic residents and for the world as a whole. General conclusions address thecurrent status of Arctic biodiversity and the main conservation challenges that face us.This report is a major step in CAFF’s efforts to look at conservation issues from acircumpolar perspective. We will use it as the basis for developing, in the months andyears to come, specific assessments, recommendations, and actions to conserve theunique natural heritage of the Arctic region.

This report is a collective product of the member countries, permanent partici-pants, and observers of the CAFF Program. Without their commitment and sup-port, the project could not have been undertaken, much less successfully completed.In addition, we thank all those who provided material for the report, reviewed drafts,and contributed in other ways. In particular, however, we commend the Editorialteam for the admirable job it has done.

Projects of this kind do not happen solely as a result of good intentions and hardwork. They also require financial and other support. We are grateful to the NordicCouncil of Ministers, the U.S. National Science Foundation, WWF-Arctic Pro-gramme, and the governments of the eight Arctic nations, all of which have providedfunding support for the report.

It is our sincere hope that readers of this report will learn more about a fascinatingregion of the planet, better understand its conservation challenges, and renew theircommitment to meeting those challenges so that future generations will continue toenjoy Arctic flora and fauna.

Sune Sohlberg Chair of CAFFEsko Jaakkola National Representative of Finland

10 INTRODUCTION

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R he in

Kolyma R iver

L enaR iver

Aldan

Amur

Yenisey R iver

Yenisey

L ena R iver

Ob R iver

Ob R iver

Ob R iver

Irtysh

R iver

Irtysh R iver

KamaRiver

Volga

Vo

lgaR iver

Mackenzie R iver

YukonRiver

Great SlaveLake

Great BearLake

LakeAthabasca

LakeWinnipeg

Hudson Bay

FoxeBasin

Baffin Bay

JamesBay

LakeSaint Jean

LakeLadoga

LakeOnega

LakeBaikal

Bering Sea

Chukchi Sea

LaptevSea

EastSiberian

Sea

KaraSea

BarentsSea

White

NorwegianSea

NorthSea

BalticSea

Gulf ofBothnia

GreenlandSea

AtlanticOcean

PacificOcean

OkhotskSea

EllesmereIsland

BaffinIsland

VictoriaIsland

BanksIsland

Labrador

Aleu

tian Is la

nds

CanadaBasin

MakarovBasin

NansenBasin

Lomon

osov

RidgeAlph

a Ridge

AmundsenBasin

Nansen

Gakkel

Ridge

FramStrait

Bering Strait

ArcticOcean

Ural Mountains

NovayaZemlya

Svalbard

SevernayaZemlya

NewSiberianIslands

FranzJosefLand West

SiberianPlain

CentralSiberianUpland

Verkhoyans

kR

idge

Chers

kyi R

idge

Kamchatka

KoryaksMts.

KolymaMts.

B roo

ksR ange

Alas ka

R ang

e

MackenzieMountains

R o c k y Mou n t a in s

Sea North Dvina

DavisStrait

Faeroe Islands

KolaPeninsula

Bear Island

Jan Mayen

NORWAY

SWEDEN

FINLAND

RUSSIA

GREENLAND(Denmark)

ALASKA(USA)

T aymir P en insu

la

CANADA

ICELAND

BeaufortSea

CAFF Boundary

Elevation and Bathymetry

- 5 000 - 3 000 - 2 000 - 1 000 - 500 - 100 0 50 100 200 300 500 1 000 1 500 2 000 3 000 4 000 m

Figure 1. The Arctic.

INTRODUCTION 11

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The Report

� What is the overall state of the Arctic’s natural en-vironment? The aim of this report is to answer themany aspects of this seemingly straightforward ques-tion. Although several national and international ef-forts have looked at parts of the Arctic, this is the firstattempt to assess the state of Arctic flora and fauna asa whole. Clearly, a brief report cannot cover all therelevant aspects and areas of the Arctic in detail. Thechief criterion used to determine what to include hasbeen international interest or significance. Whilemuch has of necessity been left out, we hope that thereport nonetheless gives a thoughtful and compellingreply to our opening question.

Many volumes have been written, and will contin-ue to be written, about the ecology, conservation, in-digenous peoples, environmental threats, economics,oceanography, politics, and other aspects of the Arcticregion. Adding this report has a threefold purpose:

• To summarize, in one place, the information re-quired to assess the state of the Arctic’s naturalenvironment today, providing a marker fromwhich to measure progress in conservation

• To provide a useful reference to a wide audienceof policy makers, Arctic residents, researchers, andothers active in the conservation of Arctic floraand fauna

• To point the way to improving our collective un-derstanding and facilitating the international co-operative action required to conserve the Arctic’snatural environment

The report is structured to strike a balance betweencovering many aspects of the Arctic in general terms

1. INTRODUCTION

and covering a few in more detail. This Introduc-tion gives an overview of the Arctic region and itsboundaries. Chapter 2 describes the characteristicsof the Arctic and basic principles of ecology and bi-odiversity as they apply to the Arctic. Chapter 3outlines the history and role of humans in the Arc-tic environment. Chapter 4 reviews the various ap-proaches to conservation as they have been appliedin the Arctic. Chapters 5 through 8 give an over-view of the major biological regions of the Arctic.Chapter 9 reports on the status and trends of cer-tain species and groups. Chapter 10 offers brief con-clusions. Throughout, graphics and boxes examinespecific topics in detail to illuminate the generalpoints made in the main text.

Defining the Arctic

� The word Arctic comes from the Greek word forbear, arktos, after the constellations Ursa major and Ursaminor that are visible year round in the northern nightsky. Astronomically, the boundary of the Arctic is thelatitude at which the sun does not set on the summersolstice, about 66°33' N, known as the Arctic or PolarCircle. This definition has been used for many things,among them identifying the eight Arctic nations thatcomprise the Arctic Council. Nonetheless, in biologi-cal terms, the Arctic Circle is merely an abstraction.

One botanical feature used to delineate the Arcticis the treeline. This marker is attractive because it seemseasy to define, but in practice the exact location of the

12 INTRODUCTION

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treeline is harder to pin down. For instance, in north-ern Russia, the transition zone from boreal forest toopen tundra covers up to 300 kilometers. On the oth-er hand, in mountainous terrain, altitude can be themain factor in determining where trees grow, and in-deed Arctic-like conditions are found on mountain-tops far to the south. Furthermore, isolated stands oftrees exist well to the north of the transition zone. Forgeneral purposes, however, and at regional or circumpo-lar scales, the treeline is a good practical boundary.

In terms of climate, a commonly used boundary

Several major new initiatives are underway:

– CAFF is developing a program to monitor circumpolarbiodiversity. Expert networks have already been estab-lished to harmonize monitoring of several key speciesand species groups, including reindeer/caribou, Arcticchar, ringed seals, seabirds, polar bears, waders/shore-birds, geese, and vascular plants.

– In cooperation with its sister working group AMAP, CAFFis involved in the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment,which will deliver in 2004 a major scientific assessmentof the impacts of climate variability and change andUV-B radiation on ecosystems and societies in the cir-cumpolar region.

– Together with the Russian Association of Indigenous Peo-ples of the North (RAIPON), CAFF is assessing the con-servation value and status of sacred sites of indigenouspeople in two regions of Arctic Russia as preparationfor a nationwide assessment.

– In collaboration with the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) and the Global Environment Facili-ty (GEF), CAFF is working to reduce disturbance andfragmentation of Russia’s extensive undisturbed tundraand taiga ecosystems.

In the 10 years of its existence, CAFF has made significantprogress. Perhaps CAFF’s greatest achievement has beento create working links among Arctic scientists, managers,and indigenous peoples who share similar challenges andinterests. These links have changed the face of conserva-tion work in the Arctic. They represent the seeds from whichfuture successes will grow.

BOX 1. THE MISSION OF CAFF

� The Program for the Conservation of Arctic Flora andFauna is a distinct forum to discuss and address Arctic con-servation issues. As one of the working groups of the ArcticCouncil, its primary role is to advise the Arctic governmentson conservation matters of international significance andcommon concern.

Since its first meeting in 1992, CAFF has sponsored avariety of research projects and analyses and launchedseveral circumpolar conservation strategies:

– CAFF’s conservation strategies and action plans formurres (guillemots) and the four eider species inhabit-ing the Arctic are being implemented and have greatlyimproved the conservation status of these seabirds.

– CAFF has created the unique Circumpolar ProtectedAreas Network, which aims to maintain in perpetuitythe diverse habitats and biodiversity of the circumpolarArctic.

– A CAFF/Inuit Circumpolar Conference project on tradi-tional ecological knowledge of the beluga whale haspaved the way for using indigenous knowledge in con-servation work.

– The Atlas of Rare Endemic Vascular Plants is a majorstep in protecting a vital class of species unique to theArctic.

– The Circumpolar Vegetation Map, soon to be finished,represents a step towards a harmonized habitat classifi-cation system for the circumpolar region on which tobase future monitoring activities and assessments.

is the line at which the average temperature in thewarmest month is 10°C, known as the 10°C sum-mer isotherm. This line corresponds roughly to thetreeline, though they may diverge by 100 km or morein some areas. Both the treeline and the 10°C sum-mer isotherm diverge from the Arctic Circle. Innorthern Norway, both lines extend near or beyond70°N, while in the area around Hudson Bay, Cana-da, they extend as far south as 55°N. The area northof the treeline is also typically underlain by perma-frost-ground that remains frozen all year.

INTRODUCTION 13

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In the marine environment, the Arctic boundaryis also problematic. An oceanographic definition isthe meeting point of the relatively warm, salty waterfrom the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and the colder,less salty waters of the Arctic Ocean. Like the treeline,

the latitude of the ocean boundary varies greatly, fromabout 63°N in the Canadian Archipelago to 80°Nnear Svalbard. The subarctic marine environment canbe defined as the area of mixed Arctic and Atlantic orPacific water, extending as far south as 44°N off New-

BOX 2. THE ARCTIC COUNCIL

� The Arctic Council was established in 1996 as a highlevel intergovernmental forum for addressing the commonconcerns and challenges faced by the Arctic governmentsand the people of the Arctic. Priorities of the Council areprotection of the Arctic environment and the promotion ofsustainable development as a means of improving the eco-nomic, social, and cultural well-being of Arctic residents.

The members of the Council are Canada, Denmark, Fin-land, Iceland, Norway, the Russian Federation, Sweden,and the United States of America. The Russian Associationof Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON), the Inuit Cir-cumpolar Conference (ICC), the Saami Council, the Aleu-tian International Association (AIA), the Arctic AthabaskanCouncil, and the Gwich’in Council International are Per-manent Participants in the Council.

Several non-Arctic states, inter-governmental and inter-parliamentary organizations, and non-governmental organ-izations are Observers to the Council.

The Council meets biennially at the ministerial level. TheChair and Secretariat of the Council rotate every two yearsamong the eight Arctic States. Canada served first from1996-1998, followed by the United States from 1998-2000.Finland has assumed the Chair for 2000-2002.

The environmental protection work of the Arctic Councilbuilds on the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS)which was adopted by the Arctic States through a Minister-ial Declaration at Rovaniemi, Finland in 1991.

The Council has currently five working groups to ad-dress its priorities. The first four mentioned below were es-tablished as a part of the AEPS and later incorporated intothe Arctic Council:

– AMAP (Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme)provides reliable and sufficient information on the statusof, and threats to, the Arctic environment from contami-nants. It also provides scientific advice on actions to betaken in order to support Arctic governments in theirefforts to take remedial and preventive actions relatingto contaminants.

– CAFF (Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna) addressesand provides advice on the needs of Arctic species and

their habitats. It is a forum for scientists, conservationmanagers and groups, and indigenous peoples of theNorth to tackle a wide range of Arctic conservation andsustainable use issues at the circumpolar level.

– EPPR (Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Re-sponse) evaluates the adequacy of existing emergencyand prevention arrangements in the Arctic, to improvecooperation for mutual aid in case of accidents, and torecommend necessary cooperative mechanisms.

– PAME (Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment) ad-dresses policy and non-emergency pollution preventionand control measures related to the protection of theArctic marine environment from both land- and sea-basedactivities. These include coordinated action programsand guidelines complementing existing legal arrange-ments.

– SDWG (Working Group on Sustainable Development)was established at the Second Arctic Council meetingin 1998 to oversee programs and projects aimed atprotecting and enhancing the economies, culture, andhealth of the inhabitants of the Arctic, in an environmen-tally sustainable manner.

Other recently adopted major programs of the Arctic Councilare:

– RPA (Regional Programme of Action for the Protection ofthe Arctic Marine Environment from Land-Based Activi-ties), adopted in 1998 to strengthen regional coopera-tion and capacity building, particularly in relation toaddressing regional priority pollution sources found inthe Russian Federation.

– ACAP (Arctic Council Action Plan to Eliminate Pollutionof the Arctic) adopted in 2000 to strengthen and sup-port mechanisms that will encourage national actions toreduce emissions and other releases of pollutants.

– ACIA (Arctic Climate Impact Assessment), adopted in2000 to evaluate and synthesize knowledge on climat-ic variability, climate change, and increased ultravioletradiation and their consequences for Arctic ecosystemsand societies.

14 INTRODUCTION

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foundland, Canada, and as far north as 68°N offNorway.

Finding or choosing one definition of the Arcticto satisfy all purposes is nearly impossible. Finlandand Sweden both extend north of the Arctic Circle,but lie south of the treeline and the 10°C summerisotherm. Administrative districts relevant to conser-vation measures – provinces, territories, national parks,management units – rarely follow consistent biogeo-graphic boundaries. Migratory species travel well out-side the Arctic, and water and air currents carry sub-stances from across the globe that affect plants andanimals that reside exclusively in the Arctic. For thepurpose of this report, we consider the species andissues found from the forest-tundra transition zonenorthwards on land, and in the marine area north ofthe CAFF boundary.

While a practical definition of the Arctic is neces-sary, if only to determine what physical and ecologi-cal processes should be covered by this report, theArctic is intimately linked with the rest of the world.Ocean water circulates to and from the Arctic Ocean.Air masses move north and south. There is virtuallyno place on the earth that is not connected to theArctic by migratory species. The Arctic is a distinc-tive region of the planet, and as such is worthy of adedicated review of its environment, but its conser-vation and its future are tied to what happens through-out the world.

SOURCES/FURTHER READING

Murray, J.L. 1998. Physical/geographic characteristics of the Arctic. In:Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program. AMAP assessment report:Arctic pollution issues. Oslo: AMAP. p. 9-24.

Stonehouse, B. 1989. Polar ecology. London: Blackie. viii + 222 p.

Figure 2. The limits of the Arcticaccording to various definitions.

CAFF Boundary

Arctic Circle (Latitude: 66° 33´North)

Maximum sea ice extent (February)

Minimum sea ice extent (August)

Discontinuous permafrost

Continuous permafrost

Alpine permafrost

Treeline

+10°C - July isotherm

RUSSIA

FINLAND

SWEDEN

ICELAND

GREENLAND

CANADA

ALASKA

Labrador

NORWAY

DavisStrait

BaffinBay

KaraSea

BarentsSea

LaptevSea

EastSiberian

Sea

ChukchiSea

OkhotskSea

BeringSea

HudsonBay

NorthSea

INTRODUCTION 15

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