Arabic Alphabet

Arabic Alphabet

Semitic languages are written from right to left. Ancient Mesopotamians wrote on stones with chisels, and since that most inscribers were right-handed, it was easier and more natural to them to write from right to left (I think it still makes more sense today to write from right to left!).

The Arabic script, which is derived from that of Aramaic, is based on 18 distinct shapes. Using a combination of dots above and below 8 of these shapes, the full complement of 28 characters can be fully spelled out.

Those 28 Arabic letters are all consonants.

In the table below:

The first column to the right shows the Arabic letters.

The second column shows their names in Arabic. Click on the letter to hear its name.

The third column shows the Romanized version of the Arabic letters. I will use these when I write Arabic words in Roman letters.

The last column shows how the letters are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet. This is unimportant for most people, I guess. To see these IPA figures you may need to install a font.

Some letters (the gutturals) can be hard to pronounce by non-natives, so it should be tried to pronounce them in the closest possible way to the original sounds.

International Phonetic Alphabet

Romanized Version

Name Letter

[ʔ] glottal plosive

' 'alif ل�ف�أ أ

[b]voiced bilabial plosive

as in "bat"b baa'< �ء� با ب

[t ] voiceless dental

plosiveas in "tap"

t taa'< �ء� تا ت

[θ] voiceless inter-dental

fricativeas in "thumb"

th thaa'< �ء� ثا ث

[dʒ]voiced post-alveolar

affricateas in "jar"

j jeem �م� ي ج� ج

[ħ]voiceless pharyngeal

fricativeh haa'< �ء� حا ح

[x]voiceless velar

fricativeas in German "nacht"

or Scottish "loch"

kh khaa'< �ء� ا خ خ

[d ]voiced dental plosive

as in "dark"

d daal �ل� دا د

[ð]voiced inter-dental

fricativeas in "this"

th thaal �ل� ذا ذ

[r]alveolar trillas in "run"

r raa'< �ء� را ر

[z]voiced alveolar

fricativeas in "zoo"

z zayn �ن� زي ز

[s]voiceless alveolar

fricativeas in "sad"

s seen �ن� ي س� س

[ʃ]voiceless post-

alveolar fricativeas in "she"

sh sheen �ن� ي ش� ش

[sˁ]emphatic voiceless alveolar fricative

s saad �د� صا ص

[d ˁ]emphatic voiced alveolar plosive

d daad �د� ضا ض

[t ˁ]emphatic voiceless

dental plosive t taa'< �ء� طا ط

[ðˁ]emphatic voiced alveolar fricative

z zaa'< �ء� ظا ظ

[ʕ]voiced pharyngeal

fricative" "ayn �ن� عي ع

[ɣ] voiced velar fricative(French R or guttural

R)

r rayn �ن� غي غ

[f]voiceless labiodental

fricativeas in "fan"

f faa'< �ء� فا ف

[q]voiced uvular plosive

q qaaf �ف� قا ق

[k]voiceless velar

plosiveas in "kite"

k kaaf �ف� كا ك

[l]alveolar lateral

as in "leg"l laam الم� ل

[m]bilabial nasalas in "man"

m meem �م� م�ي م

[n]alveolar nasalas in "nose"

n noon cو�ن� ن ن

[h]voiceless glottal

fricativeas in "hat"

h haa'< �ء� ها هـ

[W]voiced labialized

approximant as in "wool"

w waaw �و� وا و

[j]palatal approximant

as in "yes"y yaa'< �ء� يا ي

*Note: This figure ( '< ) means a still consonant letter 'alif '. Stillness means that the' sound is not followed by any vowel. Thus, it has an almost zero duration and does not leave the throat. Look in the pronunciation section for more information.

The 28 Arabic letters are all consonants.

However, there are vowels in Arabic of course. There are six vowels; three short vowels and three long ones. Only the three long vowels are written using the alphabet. The three short vowels have special marks which denote them.

The long vowels are letters but the short vowels are not letters.

The three long vowels are written using the three following letters: ي، و ، ا Because of this, those letters are called "weak letters;" we are going to talk about this in the vowels section.

The letter daad ض is characteristic to Arabic and does not exist in any

other language. This is why Arabs called their language sometimes the "daad language."

This ordering of Arabic letters is recent. Formerly, they were laid in the same order as that of other Semitic and Indo-European languages:

ر ق ص ف ع ث ن م ل ك ي ط ح ز و هـ د ج ب أت ش

This common ordering is a hint to the fact that all those alphabets have a common distant ancestor.

Pronunciation of Consonants

In Arabic, as in any language, proper pronunciation is best learned by imitating a native speaker. What follows here is meant to give only a general idea of how the letters sound. By carefully following the instructions here, you can arrive at a good enough first approximation to serve until you are able to listen to Arabs.

Except for the ones discussed below, the consonants are pronounced pretty much as they are in English.

Consonant 'alif ء (hamza(t))

The letter 'alif has two forms: a form that denotes a long vowel ا , and one

that denotes a consonant ء . The consonant form ء is called hamza(t) .

Phonetically, the hamza(t) is a "glottal stop". It sounds like a little "catch" in the voice. Although there is no letter representing this sound in English, the sound actually does exist.

It is the catch that occurs between vowels in the exclamation "oh - oh," (as though you're in trouble), or the separation of syllables the second of which begins with a vowel, as in the sequence "an aim" as opposed to "a name," or in "grade A" as opposed to "gray day." You should notice that little catch in the voice at the beginning of each syllable. If you did it properly and forcefully, that little catch in your voice between the two syllables is a perfect hamza(t).

In Arabic, the glottal stop is a full-fledged consonant and can appear in the strangest places: at the end of a word for example.

The traditional way to transcribe the hamza(t) in Roman characters is as an

apostrophe'.

English Phrase Arabic Online Transcription

An aim 'an 'aim

Grade A graid 'ai

However this symbolism may lead some people to ignore it, which is a problem when the letter is not followed by a vowel. I am going to use this

novel symbolism : '< for the hamza(t) that is not followed by any vowel; even if it looks funny, it is clearer.

Emphatic Consonants

(You may click on the Arabic letter to hear its sound)

Four Arabic letters: ظ , ط , ض , ص are known as "emphatic consonants".

Although there is no exact equivalent of them in English, they are not all that difficult to pronounce: it just takes a bit of practice.

The best way to do it is to start with their "unemphatic" equivalents.

For example, pronounce ص s as س S.

Now try to make the same sound, but as if your mouth was full of cotton wool, so that you have to say S with your tongue drawn back. Make the sound more forcefully and shorter in duration than a normal S. The back of your tongue should be raised up toward the soft palate, and the sound produced should have a sort of "dark" quality.

This is the letter Saad ص s .

There is a similar relationship between the following pairs:

d د d and ض

t ت t and ط

th ذ z and ظ

If you listen to native speakers of Arabic, one thing you will notice is that these "emphatic consonants" give a very distinctive sound to the language.

Kh خ (khaa'<) The letter Khaa'< is a voiceless velar fricative. It sounds like the ch in the Scottish loch or like the ch in the German nacht, but it is slightly more guttural than its Scottish or German counterparts.

Whatever you do, don't pronounce it as an H or a K. It is, better to exaggerate rather than underemphasize the guttural aspect.

R غ (rayn)

This is the the sound of the Parisian R, in French. Or, if you like, the sound you make when gargling.

The common Romanization for this letter is "gh"; but I am going to go here

with r .

Q ق (qaaf)

This sound usually gives European speakers a hard time. It sounds a bit like K, but it is pronounced very far back in the throat.

When you say the letter K, you touch the roof of your mouth with more or less the middle of your tongue. When you say a qaaf, you touch the very back of your tongue to the soft palate in the back of your mouth.

Most Europeans trying to learn Arabic have a lot of trouble doing this, and

pronounce qaaf as if it were kaaf ك . Arabs tend to be fairly tolerant of this mistake, and there are not very many words in which the difference between qaaf and kaaf determines a different meaning. Still, it's worth making the effort.

(ayn") ع "

This is a unique sound that only exist in Semitic languages. It is usually very hard for Europeans to make. Unfortunately, it is a very common letter so it must be mastered.

However, learners of Arabic can make this sound pretty well after practicing for some time. The best way to learn it is to listen to Arabs and to practice incessantly.

This letter is a pharyngeal voiced fricative. That means that the sound is made by constricting the muscles of the larynx so that the flow of air through the throat is partially choked off. One eminent Arabist once suggested that the best way to pronounce this letter is to gag. Do it, and you'll feel the muscles of your throat constrict the passage of air in just the right way.

The sound is voiced, which means that your vocal cords vibrate when making it. It sounds like the bleating of a lamb, but smoother.

Russell McGuirk described this sound in his "A Colloquial Arabic of Egypt" saying " if you sound like you are being strangled you will have mastered the 'voiced pharyngeal fricative." He also says to try to swallow the sound "ah".

An American learner of Arabic explained his technique as follows:

Reduce your air flow by putting pressure on your throat with your hand, or, in essence, choking yourself. Start by saying the sound 'ah' as in father and then hold your open hand out in front of your face with the palm facing the floor -- in other words parallel with the floor. You will be looking at the profile of your index finger and your thumb. Now, while saying the sound 'ah' slowly move your hand towards your throat, above the Adam's Apple or below where the chin meets the neck. When your hand reaches your throat keep pushing (slowly) until it sounds like you think it should. I looked at my profile in the mirror while doing this to try to judge how far I push my hand into my throat, but it is difficult to tell -- maybe anywhere from a half inch to an inch.

Anyway, this is a good exercise just to get you familiar with producing the sound, the muscles that produce it, and what they need to do to produce it. Eventually, with enough practice, one should be able to produce the sound without choking him/herself.

H ح (haa'<)

The last one, this letter sounds much like a very emphatic H. Imagine that you've just swallowed a spoonful of the hottest chilies imaginable: that "haaa" sound that results should be a good approximation of haa'<.

Strictly speaking, haa'< is an unvoiced version of "ayn. In other words, it is made just like the "ayn, except that when you say "ayn your vocal cords vibrate, but when you say haa'< they don't. (In English, for instance, t and d are exactly the same, except that t is unvoiced and d is voiced: your vocal cords vibrate when you say d, but not when you say t.)

Don't worry too much if you can't get qaaf, "ayn, and haa'< right away. Quite a few learned people have struggled for decades with them.

As a first approximation, you can pronounce qaaf like kaaf, "ayn like hamza(t), and haa'< like haa'< (like an English h). But this should be only a temporary measure, more or less equivalent to the Arab who says "blease" instead of "please"' (as you will have noticed, there is no letter P in Arabic).

Words

In most languages, putting letters next to each other simply creates a word.

However, In Arabic, putting letters as they are in a row does not create any word.

ر ح This is not a word ب

Ancient Arabs (or more precisely, Arameans) saw that it made more sense to join the letters of each word together, so the previous word will look like:

:Now this is a word, and it means ـرـحب = ر + ح +ب

sea

So to write and read Arabic you will have, in addition to knowing the letters, to know how each letter is joined when it is at the beginning, middle, or end of the word.

Examples:

Day مويـ = م + و +ي

Notice here that one of the letters و was joined from the right but wasn't joined from the left; this happens.

Book بـاتكـ = ب + ا + ت +ك

Supper ءـاشعـ = أ + ا + ش +ع

Figures of Joined LettersLetter

End Middle Beginning

Look below أ

ــب ــبــ بــ ب

ــت

ــتــ تــ ــة ت

ة

ــث ــثــ ثــ ث

ــج ــجــ جــ ج

ــح ــحــ حــ ح

ــخ ــخــ خــ خ

ــد ــد د د

ــذ ــذ ذ ذ

ــر ــر ر ر

ــز ــز ز ز

ــس ــســ ســ س

ــش ــشــ شــ ش

ــص ــصــ صــ ص

ــض ــضــ ضــ ض

ــط ــطــ طــ ط

ــظ ــظــ ظــ ظ

ــع ــعــ عــ ع

ــغ ــغــ غــ غ

ــف ــفــ فــ ف

ــق ــقــ قــ ق

ــك ــكــ كــ ك

ــل ــلــ لــ ل

ــم ــمــ مــ م

ــن ــنــ نــ ن

ــه ــهــ هــ هـ

ــو ــو و و

ــي ــيــ يــ ي

Joining Figures of Letter أ(hamza(t)/consonant 'alif)

Beginning أ إ ا

Middle ء ـؤ ـئـ ـأ

End ـئ ـأ ء ـؤ

Joining Figures of Letter ا(weak/extended/vowel 'alif)

Beginning ----

Middle ـا

End ـى ـا

Detailed information on the usage of different joining figures of letter 'alif is available on this page.

Special Figures

آ = ا +أ

ـأل /أل =أ +ل

ـإل/ إل =إ +ل

ـال /ال =ا +ل

Vowels

The Arabic 28 letters are all consonants. Nonetheless, Arabic have six vowels.

There are three short vowels and three long vowels.

Short vowels appear only in pronunciation but do not have letters that

represent them in writing. I will be Romanizing the short vowels as: a , i ,

and u .

Short vowels are sometimes denoted with special marks that appear above or

below the preceding letter. These marks are: , , respectively.

These marks are rarely seen in real life, so you should not count much on them.

The three long vowels will be Romanized as: aa , ee , oo .

Long vowels are denoted in writing with the letters: ا ، ي ، و respectively.

But we already know that these three letters are the three consonants: ' , y, w .

Therefore, these three letters can denote both the consonants and long

vowels. This is why they are called the "weak letters" ة�¦ �ع�ل ال cو�ف cرcح .

Arabic Name Arabic Online Romanization Vowel

fatha(t)

opening (of lips)�حة� فت a

Short A

aAs in "accept,"

"ascend"

x

'alif mamdooda(

t)

extended 'alif

�ف� ألمم�دودة�

aaLong A

āAs in "man,"

"can"

ا

kasra(t)

breaking (of sound)

رة� كس� iShort I

iAs in "sit," "hit"

x

yaa'< mamdooda(

t)

extended yaa'<

ياء�مم�دودة�

eeLong I

īAs in "feel,"

"deal"

ي

damma(t)

joining (of lips)ضم¦ة� u

Short U

uAs in "put,"

"foot"

x c

waaw mamdooda(

t)

extended waaw

واو�مم�دودة�

ooLong U

ūAs in "sure,"

"roof"

و

sukoon

stillnessسcكون� -----

No following vowel

As in "stay,"

"drag"

x �

* "X" means any consonant preceding the short vowel.

The three weak letters are joined when they denote long vowels just like when they denote consonants. There is no way to determine between the two possibilities by just looking at the word if you do not know which one is the one.

However, the exception is the weak ا .You have seen that it is missing the

sign ء .

If the 'alif has that sign, this means that the 'alif is definitely a hamza(t)

The hamza(t) is the consonant form of 'alif (the glottal stop, the . هم�زةzero-duration A vowel).

If the 'alif is not carrying the sign of hamza(t), then it must be a long vowel A EXCEPT when it occurs first letter in the word. In that case, the 'alif is a hamza(t) (consonant), but it is a special type of hamza(t) that is pronounced only when it is the first sound coming out of the mouth (i.e. when you begin speaking by pronouncing that hamza(t) ). This hamza(t) is called the

"connecting hamza(t)" الوص�ل� cهم�زة . The other outspoken hamza(t) at

the beginning of a word is called the "disconnecting hamza(t)" cهم�زة .that one is always pronounced ;القط�ع�

So a single 'alif can never denote a long vowel when it is the first letter of a word; there is no Arabic word that begins with a long-vowel-denoting 'alif. This is why the table of joining figures did not a have a figure for long vowel 'alif at the beginning of the word.

The hamza(t) is not a weak letter. The weak 'alif is only that 'alif which is not the first letter of a word and which doesn't carry the sign of hamza(t).

The ي and و have no such differentiation. The ي and و are always called weak letters, whether they were denoting long vowels or not.

Short vowels are called in Arabic "moves" ت�� . حركا

Long vowels are called "extensions" cف cالمد§ أح�ر .

A letter that is followed by a "move" is called a "moving letter" ف� ك� حر� مcتحر§ .

A letter that is not followed by any vowel is called a "still letter" ف� حر��ك�ن� .سا

The mark for "stillness" is: x The three letters that indicate long vowels (extended letters) are always still, i.e. never followed by any short vowel (move).

The letter that precedes any extended letter must be followed by the short vowel that corresponds to the extended letter.

Extended LetterCorresponding

Short Vowel

ا a x

ي i x

و u x c

Thus, the extended letter is always a still letter and is always preceded by the corresponding short vowel. This the definition of long vowel. Any weak letter that is still and preceded by the corresponding short vowel indicates a long vowel.

———————————————————————————————

Extra Note You will see when you get deep enough in Arabic that Arabic does not have

real long vowels but only the three short ones (a, i, u). The long vowel I is composed of a short I and a still consonant Y (iy = ee). The long vowel U is composed of a short U and a still consonant W (uw = oo). The long vowel A is composed of a short A and a weak 'alif that represents another short A (aa). The second short A is not a consonant 'alif in this case. However, this weak 'alif is not an original letter and it is always transformed from either a consonant Y or W (ay → aa , aw → aa); thus, again we have a long vowel that is composed of a short vowel and a following still consonant, but the consonant here is disguising in the form of a short A.

Arabic Long Vowels

aa � ـا

iy = ee ـي�

uw = oo ـو� This information will become useful later, but in the beginning, it is good idea to stick to the principles mentioned above without diving in these details.

———————————————————————————————

Here is the Romanization scheme for the hamza(t) with the vowels:

You may click on the letter to hear its sound

Romanization for letter أ

'a With a short A أ'u With a short U cأ'i With a short I � إ

'aa With a long A آ'ee With a long I إي'oo With a long U أو'< With no vowel �أ

There are some special transformations that often involve the hamza(t) :

'a + '< = 'a'< → aa � + أ �= أ آ ← أأ

'i + '< = 'i'< → ee � � + إ ـ� = أ �ئ إ

إيـ ←'u + '< = 'u'< c � + أ cؤ� = أ أو ←أ

→ oo

These transformations were meant to facilitate pronunciation.

►DiphthongsA diphthong means two vowels following each other and pronounced as one syllable. For example, the word "eye" is pronounced as a diphthong composed of a long A followed by an i (āi), and the word "mail" contains a diphthong composed of a long E and an i (mēil). Diphthongs are very common in English. In Arabic however, diphthongs are few. Important diphthongs in formal Arabic are the following:

aw ay aaw aay

►aw / aaw sound similar to "mount", "doubt" or the German "aus."

So the Arabic word waaw sounds: wow!

►ay / aay sound similar to "my", "dry" or "Einstein."

Click on the example to hear the pronunciation:

Pronunciation Example

'aw أو�

'ay أي�

Diphthongs like iw or uy do not exist in Arabic. When the combination iw

occurs, it is transformed to other things (usually to iy) and the combination

uy is usually transformed uw.

The concept of diphthongs is a western concept. From an Arabic point of view, the diphthongs are not combinations of vowels but combinations of

vowels and weak consonants (w and y are not vowels in Arabic but consonants, because when you say "wide" and "yard" you are pronouncing consonants not vowels). For example, diphthongs such as the one in the word "Iliad" are written in European languages with two vowels, i and a. If we were to transcribe this diphthong in Arabic, we would need to use three transcription symbols not just two:

Western Transcription Arabic Transcription

iliad iliyad � �ل د�يإmyriad miriyad د��يم�ر

The Arabic transcription identifies a full-blown consonant y between the two vowels i and a, whereas the western point of view is that this is a diphthong composed of two vowels connected by a "glide." The "glide" is a letter in

Arabic (either w or y), so the Arabic transcription system does not recognize

the western concept of diphthongs. Vowels NEVER follow each other in Arabic.

Western View Arabic View

vgvvowels connected by "glides" in

diphthongs

vCvvowels connected by weak

consonants

C: consonant v: vowel g: "glide"

In the modern spoken Arabic, the diphthongs aw and ay have evolved into

new, simple vowels. Aw has evolved into a long O (ō as in "loan") and ay

and has evolved into a long E (ē as in "hair.") This has happened in nearly all the modern dialects barring a few exceptions (e.g. modern rural Syrian dialects) where the classical vowels and diphthongs remain unchanged. Click to hear,

Modern Informal Classical/Formal Example

'ō 'aw أو�'ai 'ay أي�

yōm yawm يو�م

bait bayt �ت بي

Reading Out►'alifIf a letter 'alif is following another letter, it will be a long A vowel if it lacks the

sign of hamza(t) ا and a glottal stop (hamza(t)) if the sign is present أ .

Examples, click on the Arabic syllable to hear it:

ba'< � أ ب baa � ا ب

shu'< cؤ ش � shaa � ا شwi'<

� ئ و� waa� ا و

mar'<� ء مر� yaa � ا ي

You can see that the figure of the hamza(t) is related to the short vowel preceding it. This is explained in detail here.

Pronouncing a still hamza(t) '< may be approximated by saying an

extremely short a (or any other vowel.) If you can say an a and terminate it before it leaves your throat (zero duration,) you will have mastered the still hamza(t).

However, if the 'alif is the first letter of a word, it must be a hamza(t); a long A denoting 'alif cannot come first in any Arabic word. The difference between

when they are the first letter of a word was explained in the previous أ and اpage.

'al ل�ا 'al ل�أ'is �س�ا 'is � س�إ'un cن�ا 'un cن�أ

Arabic words cannot begin with a "still" letter (a letter that is not followed by a

vowel); this is why the ا hamza(t) is added in front of certain types of words that otherwise would be beginning with still letters.

A common terminal structure in Semitic nouns is a long A vowel followed by a

weak letter (-aaw or -aay). In Arabic, the final weak letter of such structures is almost always turned into a glottal stop or hamza(t). Hence, the

structure -aa'< ءــا is common in Arabic nouns.

Examples, click on the word to hear it:

Original Form (Not Used) Noun

maay �ي ما maa'<� ء ما

water water

samaay �ي سما samaa'<� ء سما

sky sky

masaay �ي مسا؟

masaa'<� ء مسا

evening evening

*Note: the classical teaching of Arabic grammar considers the original endings of these three nouns to be -aaw not -aay.

The final hamza(t) of the combination -aa'< is often dropped in the

modern spoken dialects so that it becomes just -aa.

When a long A vowel (aa) occurs terminally in any word, it will often not get full pronunciation but it will have shorter duration than usual. This shorter duration can be described as a middle duration between the durations of a

short A (a) and a long A (aa). However, it will often sound closer to the

duration of a short A than to a long A. This is why a terminal aa is called in

Arabic a shortened 'alif �مق�صcو�رة �أل�ف .

The other long vowels (ee and oo) will also be shortened when they occur terminal in words, and they will often sound closer to the corresponding short

vowels too (i and u).

►Waaw & Yaa'<

A letter و or ي following another letter can be denoting a long vowel or not

depending on the short vowels. A long vowel-denoting و or ي must be still (not followed by a vowel) and preceded by the corresponding short vowel.


kabeer� �ر ي كب

bayt �ت ي ب

big house

l-ee� � ي ل

layl �ل ي ل

to/for me nighttime

'aqoolcل و أق�

'uwaafiq c �ف�ق و أ ا

(I) say (I) agree

►Taa'<

The letter taa'< t has two versions at the end of a word:

An "open" version ـت

A "tied" version ـة

The tied taa'< cو�طةc ب المر� cء� ¦ا �ت is always preceded by a short A (-at); it الoccurs in nouns (and adjectives) and often serves as a feminine marker in singular nouns, but it can also occur in verbids and irregular plural nouns without being a feminine marker. This kind of taa'< is dropped from

pronunciation or pronounced as -h rather than -t when it is the last thing

pronounced, but it is pronounced fully as -t when it is followed by other talking. This is similar to the French "liaison."

The open taa'< cء� ¦ا �ت cو�حةcال �مف�ت ال occurs in the end of some conjugations of perfective verbs and pronouns, but can also occur at the end of some rare

nouns as a feminine marker (e.g. ت�� ن cخ�ت� , ب أ ). This kind of taa'< is always

pronounced -t.

No Pause Pause

-at -at ـت

-at -ah / -a ـة

Doubled letters

One last thing remains about Arabic transcription, which is this mark: xIt is called shadda(t) شد¦ة� = "stress." It indicates double consonants with no vowel in between (i.e. the first consonant is still). E.g.

م± = م + مm + m = mm


Nation 'umma(t) م¦ةc أ

Female cat qitta(t) ق�ط¦ة

Accent and StressAccent is just as important in Arabic as in English. In English, it is usually impossible to tell which syllable of a word should be stressed, and English is especially complicated in this, since the stress can fall on virtually any syllable, whereas in most languages there, are restrictions on where accents are allowed to fall.

The best way of getting a sense of the stress patterns of any language, of course, is to listen to native speakers and to build up an intuitive sense of rhythm for the language. This is just as true for Arabic as for any other language. But there are some clear guidelines about Arabic stress.

The first thing to note is that Arabic syllables are divided into two kinds: long and short. A short syllable is simply a single consonant followed by a single short vowel. The word kataba = "(he) wrote" for instance, is composed of three short syllables: ka-ta-ba. Any syllable that is not short is considered long.

There are various ways a syllable can be long: a consonant plus a long vowel; a consonant plus a diphthong; a consonant followed by a short vowel followed by another consonant. For instance, kitaab = "book' has two syllables, one short ki- and one long -taab. Another example: maktaba(t) = "library" has three syllables. The first one is long mak-, the second short -ta-, the third short -ba. Finally, take maktoob = "written;" it has two long syllables mak- and -toob.

Now, the basic rule of Arabic stress is this: the accent falls on the long syllable nearest to the end of the word. If the last syllable is long, then that syllable is stressed: kitaab, accent on the last syllable. If the second-to-last syllable of a word is long and the last is short, then the second-to-last syllable is stressed: 'aboohu = "his father," accent on the second-to-last syllable. If there is no long syllable in the word (like kataba), then the accent is on the third-to-last syllable. This will be the case with the great majority of past verbs, since these usually take the form of three consonants separated by short vowels (kataba, darasa, taraka, and so on - all accented on the first syllable).

Last point: the accent is not allowed to fall any further back than the third syllable from the end. So if you have a word of four (or more) short syllables, the stress has to fall on the third syllable from the end. For example: katabahu = "(he) wrote it" has four short syllables; the stress will therefore fall on the third syllable back: katábahu.

While we're on the subject of accent, we should note one other thing: in Arabic every syllable, long or short, should be clearly and distinctly pronounced, given its due weight. In this Arabic is like Spanish, and not like American English. Syllables do not disappear or get slurred just because they are unstressed.

Rules of Pause

In Arabic, the pronunciation of word endings differ when they are followed by other talking (the state of junction cوص�ل� from when they are the last thing (الpronounced, or when they are followed by a pause (the state of pause cوق�ف� .(ال

We have seen an example of this already when we talked about the

pronunciation of the tied taa'< ـة , which is pronounced -at when not

terminal in pronunciation, and -ah or -a when terminal in pronunciation or followed by a pause.

Another important rule of pause in Arabic is that any terminal short vowel of any word must be dropped from pronunciation when followed by a pause.

For example, a terminal -lu , -ba, or -ni will be pronounced as follows:

Pronunciation in state of junction

(not last thing pronounced)-lu -ba -ni

Pronunciation in state of pause(last thing pronounced) -l -b -n

Note that the rules of pause regard only the pronunciation but not the transcription of any word ending.

The rule of dropping a terminally pronounced vowel regards only the short vowels, but not the long vowels. We mentioned before that terminal long vowels are usually shortened in pronunciation, but this happens in all states not only at pause.

In Arabic terminology, letters that are followed by short vowels are called "moving letters." Letters that are not followed by short vowels are called "still letters."

The rule says that the final letter pronounced of any word must be "still" and cannot be "moving." A final moving letter must be turned into still by dropping the short vowel following it in pronunciation (which is not a letter itself— short vowels are not letters in Arabic).

This is the classic Arabic saying:

"Arabs do not stop on a moving" ²ك مcتحر§ على� cتق�ف ال cالعرب.

ExerciseTry reading the following words on your own, then you can hear them by clicking them. (Ignore the rules of pause only for this exercise.)

(He) wrote كتب(He) traveled سافر

(He/it) was brought ح�ض�رc أ(He/it) was said ل� ق�ي

Color لو�نAppearance ظcهcو�ر

School مد�رسةYour opinion cك �ي رأ

Roots

In Indo-European languages such as English, the infinitive is usually the basic from of the verb of which the rest of the forms are derived.

For example, the infinitive "to talk" is the source of many derived words:

Talk Infinitive

Talking Present participle

Talked Past participle

Talk Present simple

Talked Past simple

Talk Noun

We see that the main stem of the infinitive stays preserved, while the inflection works by affixing other parts to the stem. At least it is so most of the time.

Unfortunately, in Semitic languages things are a little bit more complex than that.

In Arabic, the basic source of all the forms of a verb is called the "root" of the

verb الف�ع�ل� cجذ�ر .

The root is not a real word, rather it is a sequence of three consonants that can be found in all the words that are related to it.

Most roots are composed of three letters, very few are of four or five letters.

The root can be easily obtained from the 3rd person masculine singular past form (the perfective) of the verb.

Look at these roots:

Meaning of Verb Root 3rd person masc. sing. past (perfective) verb

(He) did F " L ل ع ف fa"al(a) فعل

(He) wrote K T B ب ت katab(a) ك كتب

(He) studied D R S س ر daras(a) ددرس

(He) drew (a picture) R S M م س ر rasam(a)

رسم

(He) ate ' K L ل ك أ 'akal(a) أكل(He) knew " L M م ل ع "alim(a) �م عل

(He) was/became bigger K B R ر ب ك kabur(a) cر كب

(He) rolled (something) D H R J ج ر ح د dahraj(a)

ر دح�ج

You see that the root is not a word; it is just a sequence of consonants. The consonants of the root are separated by different vowels in different words. They can also be separated by other extra consonants that do not belong to the root.

The root is used to make all the forms of a verb. It is used to make nouns as well.

Each root pertains to a certain meaning, e.g. K T B ب ك ت pertains to

"writing."

See the following example:

MeaningWords derived from the root ت ك

ب

Verbs

(he) wrote katab(a) كتب≈ (he) was/became written kutib(a) �ب cت ك(he) was/became written 'inkatab(a) �كتبان(he) made (somebody)

write kattab(a) ¦ب كت(he) made (somebody)

write 'aktab(a) �تبأ ك(he) exchanged writing with→ (he) corresponded with kaatab(a) تباك

(he) exchanged writing→ (he) corresponded takaatab(a) تباكت

(he) wrote himself→ (he) subscribed 'iktatab(a) �ا تبتك(he) sought writing 'istaktab(a) ت �س� �تبا ك

Nouns

writing katb �ب كتwriting

→ book/dispatch kitaab �ت باكwriting kitaaba(t) �ت اك ةبbooklet kutayyib cت §بيك

writing (man)→ writer kaatib �باك تwritten

→ letter maktoob �تم بوكdesk/office maktab �تبم ك

library/bookstore maktaba(t) م �تب ةك

phalanx kateeba(t) يكت ةب

So basically all these words were created by taking the root ب ت and ك

adding letters or vowels to it. This is how Semitic languages work.

Almost all Arabic words are structured on roots. Words in Arabic grammar belong to three categories:

Noun cم �س� .includes pronouns, adjectives and most adverbs : اال

Verb cف�ع�ل� .there are three main verbal structures in Arabic : ال

Letter (particle) cف �حر� .small words that do not have roots : ال

So small words without known roots were not even qualified enough to carry the title of a "word" in Arabic grammar. Many of these "letters" are prepositions and they do not undergo inflection.

The letters of the root are called the original letters of a word فcاألح�رc ¦ة �ي cاألص�ل .

The variable letters that appear between the root letters in different words are called the additional letters فcاألح�رc دة� cالزائ .

The letters that can serve as additional letters are ten: ا هـ تأ ن م ل س

ي وThese letters are rounded up in the word: � �ها �ي cمcو�ن �ت you asked me" = سأل

for/about it."

There are standard patterns for adding additional letters to the root. These

patterns are called 'awzaan ن� �أو�زا = "measures" or 'abniya(t) ية� �ن �أب = "structures."

For example:

'infa"al(a) fa"al(a)

�ن �فعلا did himself/itself (he/it)فعل (he/it) did

'inkasar(a) �ن �كسرا kasar(a) broke himself/itself (he/it)كسر (he/it) broke

'insabb(a)�ن �صب¦ا

sabb(a)

poured (he/it)صب¦himself/itself

(he/it) poured

So this structure 'in*a*a*(a) has a specific sense that is different from

the basic structure *a*a*(a).

Both structures are structures of active voice past (perfective) verbs. However, there is a difference between the two that is reminiscent of the Latin or French difference between faire and se faire. The 'in*a*a*(a) structure is called a "reflexive" verb because it denotes a self-directed action. You can put so many root letters in place of the stars and you will get the same outcome.

Usually stars are not used but instead the root ل ع do" is used for" = ف

giving prototypes of different structures.

So these two structures will be standardized:

(He/it) did fa"al(a) فعل(He/it) did himself/itself 'infa"al(a) � �ن فعلا

Etymology Note: Biliteral Roots

Arabic grammar recognizes three-letter, four-letter, and five-letter-roots, but not anything more or less than that. Five-letter-roots exist only in nouns but not verbs.

However, there are several Arabic nouns that have only two consonants in them, for example:

Father 'ab أبBrother 'akh أخ

Son 'ibn �نا �بName 'ism �س�ماMouth fam فمHand yad يدBlood dam دم

The ا is not an original letter but is only a "liaison" that is added in front of some words for a phonological reason. More about this is available on this page and this one.

Classical Arabic grammarians did not recognize biliteral roots and considered them all to be modified from triliteral roots. For example, grammarians of the

classical period (8th & 9th centuries) debated whether the root of س�ما� was

و م م or س س . و

However, the truth is that Arabic indeed has biliteral roots. Moreover, there was a time at which Arabic did not have any roots but biliteral roots.

This can be shown by comparing the meanings of different triliteral roots; for example:

Proto-Root ط ق(He) cut qata"(a) عقط(He) cut qatal(a) لقط(He) cut qat t (a) ¦طق

(He) stitchedoriginal sense:

(He) cutqatab(a) بقط

(He) picked (a plant part) qataf(a) فقط

(He) took a bite qatam(a) مقط(He) dripped qatar(a) رقط

Notice that all these triliteral roots have a common general meaning, and they all share the first and second root-letters. This indicates that all these roots

were derived from a common biliteral ancestor, which is the proto-root ط . ق

Surprisingly, this is also the root of the English verb "cut!" In fact, this has to do with more than mere chance. Such basic verbs are often related to the sound that an action produces, so it is not unusual that they be similar in totally unrelated languages.

Knowing this idea of proto-roots will be very helpful in determining the original meanings of a large number of roots.

For example, knowing that there was a proto-root ط whose meaning was قrelated to cutting and to "pieces" will help us figure out easily the original meaning of the following root:

قطنqatan(a)

(he) dwelled

This verb has an odd meaning compared to the meaning of the proto-root ق However, there is another word of the same root whose meaning seems . طmore original:

قcط�نqutn

cotton (masc.)

The English word "cotton" was borrowed from Arabic in Middle Ages. The meaning of "cotton" is more consistent with the general meaning of the proto-

root, so we can easily infer that the verb qatan(a) has an altered meaning

and that the original meaning of the root ن ط ".is related to "pieces ق

Hebrew has the same root:

נ ט' ק(qaaton

(He) became small(er)

Another interesting point is that there are several roots that were derived from the same proto-root but they look somewhat different these days. For example:

(He) killed qatal(a) لقت(He) was parsimonious qatar(a) رقت

Bowel qitb � بق�تDust

→ darkness qataam �ماقت

Kind of a thorny plant qataad �داقت

These words have the proto-root ت ط which is very similar to , ق and , ق

they probably were one thing initially. Because we know the meaning of ط ق, we can easily determine the original meaning of ت .("pieces") ق

Knowing these principles will help us figure out the original meanings of countless vague roots, and it will help us avoid making mistakes like, for

example, saying that the original meaning of the Arabic root ف ر is "to ع

know." This is clearly false as the proto-root ف has a totally different رmeaning.

Proto-Root ف ر(He) made deviate haraf(a) رفح

(He) swept away, carried along jaraf(a) رفج

(He) shed (tears) tharaf(a) رفذoriginal sense:

(He) moved fast zaraf(a) رفز(He) blinked (eye)

original sense:(He) moved fast

taraf(a) رفط(He) was/became

extravagant tarif(a) ر�فتoriginal sense:

(He) transgressed qaraf(a) رفق(He) was/became funny

original sense:(He) was nifty

zaruf(a) رcفظ

So it is clear that the proto-root ف had a meaning that is related to ر"moving," "flowing," or "straightness."

As for the root ف ر : ع

عرف"araf(a)

(he) knew, became acquainted with(used for "being familiar with people, things, etc.," equivalent to the French connaître )

This verb is irregular both in meaning and structure, as it is shown in the verb section.

However, another word from the same root is:

عcر�ف"urf

comb, crest (of rooster)This word is clearly related to the original meaning of the root ("moving,"

"flowing," or "straightness"). Thus, the original meaning of ف ر is not "to عknow."

The proto-root ف was originally ف is an interesting one. The Arabic letter رa P like the English P, so it is not surprising that roots derived from the proto-

root ب ف have similar meanings to the ones derived from ر . ر

For example:

Proto-Root ب رoriginal sense:

(He) flowed sarab(a) ربس

(He) soaked (intr.) sharab(a) ربش

(He) escaped harab(a) ربه

(He) approached qarib(a) ر�بقoriginal sense:(He) departed rarab(a) ربغ

(He) leaked, flowedModern North Syrian Arabic,

borrowed from Aramaiczarab(a) ربز

original sense:(He) became improper tharib(a) ر�بذ

(He) became ruined kharib(a) ر�بخoriginal sense:

(He) became improper warib(a) ر�بو

Road darb ر�بدAll these words, and others, are related to the same meaning which is "moving," "flowing," or "straightness."

So now that we have an understanding of the original meanings of ف ر & ر we can try to answer some famous questions, like the etymology of the , ب

word "Arab" عرب�.

A German man once said that the word "arab originally meant "arid land." This became so popular that it was taught at schools in some Arab countries; but when taking the meaning of the proto-root in consideration, this meaning appears unconvincing.

Another, better, theory said that this word was altered from "abar عبر, which is related to "passing" or "traversing." This root is also the root of the word "Hebrew," and they are all related to the nomadic lifestyles of those peoples.

However, by comparing many roots derived from the proto-roots ر ب &ف it appears clearly that the original meanings of these roots were related to ,ر

"filling" and "earth" not to "moving." So the truth is that the word "abar is

modified from "arab not the other way around.

Thus, the word "Arab" originally meant a "wanderer" or a "nomad." The roots

ب ر عand ب ر .carry related meanings in several Semitic languages غ

"Pieces"

Q T ت ق

Q T ط ق

Q S س ق

Q S ص ق

Q D ض ق

K T ت ك

K S س ك

"Moving"

R B ب رR F ف ر

Quadriliteral RootsTriliteral roots were created by adding a third letter to a biliteral roots. Quadriliteral roots were mostly created by doubling a biliteral root, and sometimes by adding a fourth letter to a triliteral root.

Many examples exist on this page. We will mention here only two examples based on the proto-roots we talked about above:

Proto-Root ط ق

(He) dripped qat q at(a) � قطقط

Proto-Root ف ر

(He) flapped, fluttered rafraf(a) رفرف

Quadriliteral and Pentaliteral roots were often extracted from foreign loanwords.

Example,

A traditional Arab currency is the dirham, which is still a currency unit in several Arab countries today. A dirham was a silver coin in old times. The name of the dirham comes from the Greek drachmē or drachma. It was

Arabized to follow the standard Arabic noun structure fi"lal ف�ع�لل� .

drachmē → dirham هم د�ر�

Some triliteral roots were also extracted from foreign loanwords. An

interesting example is the word siraat �ط� meaning "a way" or "a ص�راpath." This word comes from the Latin strata = "paved road." The Latin word

was rendered into the standard verbal noun structure fi"aal ل�اف�ع� . This is

the same structure as that of the word kitaab �ت �ك ب�ا = "a book" or "a dispatch."

strata → siraat �طاص�ر

Writing of Letter 'alif

The first letter in the Arabic alphabet, 'alif, is a weak letter that has two forms,

a consonant form or hamza(t) ء ' and a vowel form ا aa (a long A or an extended 'alif ).

Vowel 'alif

The vowel form can appear at the middle or the end of words, but never at the beginning. It can assume the following forms:

Joining Figures of Letter ا (weak or extended 'alif)


ـا ـا ----

ـى

Choosing Between the Two Forms at the End of the Word

I. Triliteral Nouns & Verbs

If a three-lettered noun in Arabic ends with a long vowel 'alif, that noun will be an irregular noun called a Shortened Noun. If a three-lettered verb in Arabic ends with a long vowel 'alif, that verb will be an irregular verb called a Defective Verb.

The common point between those two types of words is that the long vowel 'alif at the end of any triliteral noun or verb in Arabic is not an original letter or a root letter, rather it always substitutes for a different week letter.

The form ـا substitutes for a waaw ـو .

The form ـى substitutes for a yaa'< ـي .

Deciding which form to use requires knowing the root of the word. Natives and people with good knowledge of the language can usually guess the original vowel from other derivatives of the same root, like the infinitive and the imperfective verb when dealing with defective verbs, and the dual and plural when dealing with singular shortened nouns.

Triliteral Shortened Nouns

Root Original Version(Not Used)

Actual Version

" S W و ص ع و�عص �اعص

N D Y ي د ن ي�ند �´ىند

Triliteral Defective Verbs

Root Original Version(Not Used)

Actual Version

D " W ع ود ودع �ادع

R M Y م ير يرم �ىرم

II. Nouns & Verbs with More Than Three Letters

Those will always end with an 'alif of the type: ـى .

Proper name (female) �ل �ىلي(He) likes �ىيه�و

Hospital (masc.) ف تش� ى�مcس�(He) had (S.O) to stay �ق تب �س� �ىا

Such 'alif may be an original root letter, but it also may be not.

The exception is when the 'alif is preceded by a yaa'<. In that case, it will take the other form.

World (fem.) � �ايدcن

Chandelier (fem.) cر �¦يث اMirrors (sing. is fem.) � مرا �اي

However, the proper name يح�يى� will irregularly take the first form in order to be distinguished from the verb that looks like it.

Proper name (male) ي ى�يح�

(He) lives ي �يح� ا

Words of foreign origin that end with with long vowel 'alif's usually take the

form: ـا .

Proper name (male) ¦ �حن اProper name (female) �لود�ي �ك ا

Cinema (fem.) ينم �اس�France (fem.) �س �فرن ا

Italy (fem.) �ي �ل �طا �ي �إ اAsia (fem.) ي �اآس�

Geography (fem.) �ف�ي �اجcغ�را

However, there are few foreign words that end with ـى .

Music (fem.) �ق ي �ىمcو�س�

Moses �ىمcو�س

Jesus �س ي �ىع�

Matthew ¦ �ىمتBukhara (fem.)

(city in Uzbekistan) �ر cخا �ىبTitle of ancient Persian

shahs (masc.) ر ى�ك�س�

III. Particles

Particles (rootless words) that end with a long vowel 'alif are not few. As a

rule, all such particles will end with the form ـا except for the following four

particles:

To �ل �ىإOn �ىعلYes

(to a negative question)

�ىبلUntil / Even ¦ ى�حت

Writing of Letter 'alif (continued)

Consonant 'alif

The hamza(t) cهم�زة� "is the consonant form of 'alif. It is a "glottal stop الthat can appear anywhere in Arabic words, whether at the beginning, middle, or end of the word.

Joining Figures of Letter ء (hamza(t) / consonant 'alif)


أ ـأ ـأ

إ ـؤ ـؤ

ا ـئـ ـئ

ء ء

Choosing Between the Forms at the Beginning of the Word

The regular form for hamza(t) is the one with the sign ء showing.

The variations depend on the following vowel:

'a With a short A أ'u With a short U cأ'i With a short I � إ

'aa With a long A آ'ee With a long I إي'oo With a long U أو'< With no vowel �أ

This regular hamza(t) at the beginning of a word is called the "disconnecting

hamza(t)" القط�ع� cهم�زة. This is often an original letter and it must be pronounced always.

The other type of hamza(t) which lacks the sign ءis called the "connecting

hamza(t)" الوص�ل� cهم�زة . That one is never an original letter and it is only pronounced when it is the first thing that comes out of the mouth. Arabs added this kind of hamza(t) to some words for merely phonological reasons, namely because they hated to start talking by pronouncing a "still" letter, that is, a consonant that is not followed by any vowel. The connecting hamza(t) is somewhat similar to the French "liaison."

The connecting hamza(t) has only one figure and it usually appears in the following places:

I. Verbs

The imperative of triliteral perfective verbs which don't begin with a hamza(t).

(You) do ! �ف�عل�ا

(You) write ! cب�ا �ت cك

(You) know ! �ع�لم�ا

The perfective, imperative, and infinitive of five-lettered verbs.

(He) benefited �تفعا �ن

(You) benefit ! �تف�ع�ا �ن

Benefiting �ع�ا �فا �ت �ن

The perfective, imperative, and infinitive of six-lettered verbs.

(He) usedا

تع�مل �س�

(You) use !ا

تع�م�ل� �س�

Using

ا� �ع�ما ت �س�

ل�

II. Nouns

It appears in front of some nouns. Examples of commonly used ones are:

�ن�ا ما �س� م�ا �س�two names (masc.) a name (masc.)

�ن�ا �نا �ب �ن�ا �بtwo sons (masc.) a son (masc.)

�ن�ا �نتا �ب �نة�ا �بtwo daughters (masc.) a daughter (masc.)

� �ن�ا ؤا cم�ر � ؤ�ا cم�رtwo men (masc.) a man (masc.)

� �ن�ا م�رأتا � م�رأة�اtwo women (fem.) a woman (fem.)

Two (masc.) �ن�ا �نا �ث

Two (fem.) �ن�ا �نتا �ث

III. Particles

The connecting hamza(t) appears only in the definite article.

The ـ�ا ل


Consonant 'alif

Choosing Between the Forms at the Middle of the Word

All the different forms of hamza(t) at the middle and the end of words are pronounced the same way, which is a glottal stop. There is not any real reason for why the figures change so much. This is just one of the awkward aspects of Arabic.

Choosing between the different forms depend on the vowels before and after the hamza(t). To understand how the suitable form of hamza(t) is chosen, a simple principle must be introduced first, which is the "relative strength of different vowels."

The following figure demonstrates the relative strength of vowels. The vowels are arranged from the left to right respectively to their relative strength.

Strongest Weakest

Short I Short U Short A No Vowel (Stillness)

cرة �كس� ال cالض¦م¦ة cحة� �فت ال cو� ك الس¶cن

Short I is stronger than Short U. This one is stronger than Short A, and this is stronger than the stillness.

The stronger vowel before or after the hamza(t) will indicate its shape.

Example:

�ر� �ئ بA well (fem.)

Succeeding Vowel

The hamza(t) Preceding Vowel

Stillness ـئـ Short I

Short I is stronger than stillness. Therefore, the hamza(t) will be in the form

that suits the short I : . ـئـ

Suitable Form Stronger Vowel

ـئـ Short I

ـؤ Short U

ء / ـأ Short A

Stillness can never precede and follow a consonant at the same time (because still letters don't follow each others without separation), so there is not a form that suits that case.

More examples:

cؤر� بFoci

(sing. focus is fem.)

Succeeding Vowel


Short A ـؤ Short U

�ل ئ cس≈ (He/it) was asked

Succeeding Vowel


Short I ـئـ Short U

س�� فأ

An ax (fem.)

Succeeding Vowel


Stillness ـأ Short A

سأل(He) asked

Succeeding Vowel


Short A ـأ Short A

تو�أم�A twin

Succeeding Vowel


Short A ـأ Stillness

Long VowelsThe three long vowels in Arabic (aa, oo, ee) are not really discrete vowels; rather each one of these is composed of a short vowel (a, u, i) followed by the corresponding still consonants ( ' , w, y).

By understanding this, or more simply by just keeping in mind that the weak litters that denote long vowels are always still (i.e. not followed by any short

vowel), we can apply the same aforementioned rules to transcribe the hamza(t) that is followed or preceded by a long vowel.

Examples:

�ل� ؤا cسA question (masc.)

Succeeding Vowel


Short A ـؤ Short U

دؤcو�ب�persistent (masc. adjective)

Succeeding Vowel


Short U ـؤ Short A

�س� �ي رئ

A president (masc.)

Succeeding Vowel


Short I ـئـ Short A

هcدcو�ؤcهcم�(The) quietness (of) them

= their quietness (masc.)

Succeeding Vowel


Short U ـؤ Stillness

�ه�م� �هcدcو�ئ بBy (the) quietness (of) them

= by their quietness (masc.)

Succeeding Vowel


Short I ـئـ Stillness

� �ؤcنا ما(The) water (of) us

= our water (masc.)

Succeeding Vowel


Short U ـؤ Stillness

�ي� �ئ ر�دا(The) dress (of) me

= my dress (masc.)

Succeeding Vowel


Short I ـئـ Stillness

Special Cases

Case One

If the hamza(t) was preceded by a long vowel I (ee), it will take only the form

.no matter what vowel was following itـئـ

Example:

�ئة� �ي بAn environment (fem.)

Succeeding Vowel


Short A ـئـ Stillness

Note that in this case the hamza(t) should have been written ـأ because the Short A is the dominating "move" or short vowel. However, since that the hamza(t) is preceded by a long I (ee), the hamza(t) must be rendered in

the formـئـ .

Another example:

cو�ن �ئ جر�يBold (plu. masc. adj.)

Succeeding Vowel


Short U ـئـ Stillness

Case Two

If the hamza(t) was preceded by a long vowel A (aa) or a long vowel U (oo)

and followed by a short A (a), it will take the form ءinstead of ـأ .

Examples:

�ءة �ق�راA reading (fem.)

Succeeding Vowel


Short A ء Stillness

و�ءة� cرcمA magnanimity (fem.)

Succeeding Vowel


Short A ء Stillness


Consonant 'alif

Choosing Between the Forms at the End of the Word

Choosing between the different forms of hamza(t) at the end of the word is simpler than at the middle of the word. When we chose the correct form for hamza(t) at the middle of the word we looked at the vowel preceding and the vowel succeeding the hamza(t), compared their relative strength, then chose

the form that suits the stronger vowel. Here, we will practically do the same, but instead of comparing between the two vowels around the hamza(t), we will only occupy ourselves with the vowel preceding the hamza(t) but not the one following it.

Depending on which vowel precedes the hamza(t), we will choose one of the following forms:

Suitable Form Vowel

ـئ Short I

ـؤ Short U

ـأ Short A

ء Stillness

Examples:

�ر�ئ� قاA reader (masc.)


ـئ Short I

cؤ cيج�ر(He) dares


ـؤ Short U

قرأ(He) read (past)


ـأ Short A

ء� شي�A thing (masc.)


ء Stillness

ضو�ء�Light (masc.)


ء Stillness

�ء� ماWater (masc.)


ء Stillness

هcدcو�ء�Quietness (masc.)


ء Stillness

بر�ي�ء�Innocent (masc. adj.)


ء Stillness

Roots

In Indo-European languages such as English, the infinitive is usually the basic from of the verb of which the rest of the forms are derived.

For example, the infinitive "to talk" is the source of many derived words:

Talk Infinitive

Talking Present participle

Talked Past participle

Talk Present simple

Talked Past simple

Talk Noun

We see that the main stem of the infinitive stays preserved, while the inflection works by affixing other parts to the stem. At least it is so most of the time.

Unfortunately, in Semitic languages things are a little bit more complex than that.

In Arabic, the basic source of all the forms of a verb is called the "root" of the

verb الف�ع�ل� cجذ�ر .

The root is not a real word, rather it is a sequence of three consonants that can be found in all the words that are related to it.

Most roots are composed of three letters, very few are of four or five letters.

The root can be easily obtained from the 3rd person masculine singular past form (the perfective) of the verb.

Look at these roots:

Meaning of Verb Root 3rd person masc. sing. past (perfective) verb

(He) did F " L ل ع ف fa"al(a) فعل(He) wrote K T B ب ت katab(a) ك كتب

(He) studied D R S س ر daras(a) ددرس

(He) drew (a picture) R S M م س ر rasam(a)

رسم

(He) ate ' K L ل ك أ 'akal(a) أكل(He) knew " L M م ل ع "alim(a) �م عل

(He) was/became bigger K B R ر ب ك kabur(a) cر كب

(He) rolled (something) D H R J ج ر ح د dahraj(a)

ر دح�ج

You see that the root is not a word; it is just a sequence of consonants. The consonants of the root are separated by different vowels in different words. They can also be separated by other extra consonants that do not belong to the root.

The root is used to make all the forms of a verb. It is used to make nouns as well.

Each root pertains to a certain meaning, e.g. K T B ب ك ت pertains to

"writing."

See the following example:

MeaningWords derived from the root ت ك

ب

Verbs (he) wrote katab(a) كتب≈ (he) was/became written kutib(a) �ب cت ك(he) was/became written 'inkatab(a) �كتبان(he) made (somebody)

write kattab(a) ¦ب كت(he) made (somebody)

write 'aktab(a) �تبأ ك(he) exchanged writing with→ (he) corresponded with kaatab(a) تباك

(he) exchanged writing→ (he) corresponded

takaatab(a) تباكت

(he) wrote himself→ (he) subscribed 'iktatab(a) �ا تبتك(he) sought writing 'istaktab(a) ت �س� �تبا ك

Nouns

writing katb �ب كتwriting

→ book/dispatch kitaab �ت باكwriting kitaaba(t) �ت اك ةبbooklet kutayyib cت §بيك

writing (man)→ writer kaatib �باك تwritten

→ letter maktoob �تم بوكdesk/office maktab �تبم ك

library/bookstore maktaba(t) م �تب ةكphalanx kateeba(t) يكت ةب

So basically all these words were created by taking the root ب ت and ك

adding letters or vowels to it. This is how Semitic languages work.

Almost all Arabic words are structured on roots. Words in Arabic grammar belong to three categories:

Noun cم �س� .includes pronouns, adjectives and most adverbs : اال

Verb cف�ع�ل� .there are three main verbal structures in Arabic : ال

Letter (particle) cف �حر� .small words that do not have roots : ال

So small words without known roots were not even qualified enough to carry the title of a "word" in Arabic grammar. Many of these "letters" are prepositions and they do not undergo inflection.

The letters of the root are called the original letters of a word فcاألح�رc ¦ة �ي cاألص�ل .

The variable letters that appear between the root letters in different words are called the additional letters فcاألح�رc دة� cالزائ .

The letters that can serve as additional letters are ten: ا هـ تأ ن م ل س

ي وThese letters are rounded up in the word: � �ها �ي cمcو�ن �ت you asked me" = سأل

for/about it."

There are standard patterns for adding additional letters to the root. These

patterns are called 'awzaan ن� �أو�زا = "measures" or 'abniya(t) ية� �ن �أب = "structures."

For example:

'infa"al(a) �ن �فعلا fa"al(a) فعل(he/it) did himself/itself (he/it) did

'inkasar(a) �ن �كسرا kasar(a) broke himself/itself (he/it)كسر (he/it) broke

'insabb(a)�ن �صب¦ا

sabb(a)

poured (he/it)صب¦himself/itself

(he/it) poured

So this structure 'in*a*a*(a) has a specific sense that is different from

the basic structure *a*a*(a).

Both structures are structures of active voice past (perfective) verbs. However, there is a difference between the two that is reminiscent of the Latin or French difference between faire and se faire. The 'in*a*a*(a) structure is called a "reflexive" verb because it denotes a self-directed action.

You can put so many root letters in place of the stars and you will get the same outcome.

Usually stars are not used but instead the root ل ع do" is used for" = ف

giving prototypes of different structures.

So these two structures will be standardized:

(He/it) did fa"al(a) فعل(He/it) did himself/itself 'infa"al(a) � �ن فعلا

Etymology Note: Biliteral Roots

Arabic grammar recognizes three-letter, four-letter, and five-letter-roots, but not anything more or less than that. Five-letter-roots exist only in nouns but not verbs.

However, there are several Arabic nouns that have only two consonants in them, for example:

Father 'ab أبBrother 'akh أخ

Son 'ibn �نا �ب

Name 'ism �س�ماMouth fam فمHand yad يدBlood dam دم

The ا is not an original letter but is only a "liaison" that is added in front of some words for a phonological reason. More about this is available on this page and this one.

Classical Arabic grammarians did not recognize biliteral roots and considered them all to be modified from triliteral roots. For example, grammarians of the

classical period (8th & 9th centuries) debated whether the root of س�ما� was

و م م or س س . و

However, the truth is that Arabic indeed has biliteral roots. Moreover, there was a time at which Arabic did not have any roots but biliteral roots.

This can be shown by comparing the meanings of different triliteral roots; for example:

Proto-Root ط ق(He) cut qata"(a) عقط

(He) cut qatal(a) لقط(He) cut qat t (a) ¦طق

(He) stitchedoriginal sense:

(He) cutqatab(a) بقط

(He) picked (a plant part) qataf(a) فقط

(He) took a bite qatam(a) مقط(He) dripped qatar(a) رقط

Notice that all these triliteral roots have a common general meaning, and they all share the first and second root-letters. This indicates that all these roots

were derived from a common biliteral ancestor, which is the proto-root ط . ق

Surprisingly, this is also the root of the English verb "cut!" In fact, this has to do with more than mere chance. Such basic verbs are often related to the sound that an action produces, so it is not unusual that they be similar in totally unrelated languages.

Knowing this idea of proto-roots will be very helpful in determining the original meanings of a large number of roots.

For example, knowing that there was a proto-root ط whose meaning was قrelated to cutting and to "pieces" will help us figure out easily the original meaning of the following root:

قطنqatan(a)

(he) dwelled

This verb has an odd meaning compared to the meaning of the proto-root ق However, there is another word of the same root whose meaning seems . طmore original:

قcط�نqutn

cotton (masc.)

The English word "cotton" was borrowed from Arabic in Middle Ages. The meaning of "cotton" is more consistent with the general meaning of the proto-

root, so we can easily infer that the verb qatan(a) has an altered meaning

and that the original meaning of the root ن ط ".is related to "pieces ق

Hebrew has the same root:

נ ט' ק(qaaton

(He) became small(er)

Another interesting point is that there are several roots that were derived from the same proto-root but they look somewhat different these days. For example:

(He) killed qatal(a) لقت(He) was parsimonious qatar(a) رقت

Bowel qitb � بق�تDust

→ darkness qataam �ماقت

Kind of a thorny plant qataad �داقت

These words have the proto-root ت ط which is very similar to , ق and , ق

they probably were one thing initially. Because we know the meaning of ط ق, we can easily determine the original meaning of ت .("pieces") ق

Knowing these principles will help us figure out the original meanings of countless vague roots, and it will help us avoid making mistakes like, for

example, saying that the original meaning of the Arabic root ف ر is "to ع

know." This is clearly false as the proto-root ف has a totally different رmeaning.

Proto-Root ف ر

(He) made deviate haraf(a) رفح(He) swept away, carried

along jaraf(a) رفج

(He) shed (tears) tharaf(a) رفذoriginal sense:

(He) moved fast zaraf(a) رفز(He) blinked (eye)

original sense:(He) moved fast

taraf(a) رفط(He) was/became

extravagant tarif(a) ر�فتoriginal sense:

(He) transgressed qaraf(a) رفق(He) was/became funny

original sense:(He) was nifty

zaruf(a) رcفظSo it is clear that the proto-root ف had a meaning that is related to ر"moving," "flowing," or "straightness."

As for the root ف ر : ع

عرف

"araf(a)


This verb is irregular both in meaning and structure, as it is shown in the verb section.

However, another word from the same root is:

عcر�ف"urf

comb, crest (of rooster)This word is clearly related to the original meaning of the root ("moving,"

"flowing," or "straightness"). Thus, the original meaning of ف ر is not "to عknow."

The proto-root ف was originally ف is an interesting one. The Arabic letter رa P like the English P, so it is not surprising that roots derived from the proto-

root ب ف have similar meanings to the ones derived from ر . ر

For example:

Proto-Root ب رoriginal sense:

(He) flowed sarab(a) ربس

(He) soaked (intr.) sharab(a) ربش

(He) escaped harab(a) ربه

(He) approached qarib(a) ر�بقoriginal sense:(He) departed rarab(a) ربغ

(He) leaked, flowedModern North Syrian Arabic,

borrowed from Aramaiczarab(a) ربز

original sense:(He) became improper tharib(a) ر�بذ

(He) became ruined kharib(a) ر�بخoriginal sense:

(He) became improper warib(a) ر�بو

Road darb ر�بدAll these words, and others, are related to the same meaning which is "moving," "flowing," or "straightness."

So now that we have an understanding of the original meanings of ف ر & ر we can try to answer some famous questions, like the etymology of the , ب

word "Arab" عرب�.

A German man once said that the word "arab originally meant "arid land." This became so popular that it was taught at schools in some Arab countries; but when taking the meaning of the proto-root in consideration, this meaning appears unconvincing.

Another, better, theory said that this word was altered from "abar عبر, which is related to "passing" or "traversing." This root is also the root of the word "Hebrew," and they are all related to the nomadic lifestyles of those peoples.

However, by comparing many roots derived from the proto-roots ر ب &ف it appears clearly that the original meanings of these roots were related to ,ر

"filling" and "earth" not to "moving." So the truth is that the word "abar is

modified from "arab not the other way around.

Thus, the word "Arab" originally meant a "wanderer" or a "nomad." The roots

ب ر عand ب ر .carry related meanings in several Semitic languages غ

"Pieces"

Q T ت ق

Q T ط ق

Q S س ق

Q S ص ق

Q D ض ق

K T ت ك

K S س ك

"Moving"

R B ب رR F ف ر

Quadriliteral Roots

Triliteral roots were created by adding a third letter to a biliteral roots. Quadriliteral roots were mostly created by doubling a biliteral root, and sometimes by adding a fourth letter to a triliteral root.

Many examples exist on this page. We will mention here only two examples based on the proto-roots we talked about above:

Proto-Root ط ق

(He) dripped qat q at(a) � قطقط

Proto-Root ف ر

(He) flapped, fluttered rafraf(a) رفرف

Quadriliteral and Pentaliteral roots were often extracted from foreign loanwords.

Example,

A traditional Arab currency is the dirham, which is still a currency unit in several Arab countries today. A dirham was a silver coin in old times. The name of the dirham comes from the Greek drachmē or drachma. It was

Arabized to follow the standard Arabic noun structure fi"lal ف�ع�لل� .

drachmē → dirham هم د�ر�

Some triliteral roots were also extracted from foreign loanwords. An

interesting example is the word siraat �ط� meaning "a way" or "a ص�راpath." This word comes from the Latin strata = "paved road." The Latin word

was rendered into the standard verbal noun structure fi"aal ل�اف�ع� . This is

the same structure as that of the word kitaab �ت �ك ب�ا = "a book" or "a dispatch."

strata → siraat �طاص�ر

NounsAs we have mentioned, Arabic words are three types:

Nouns

Verbs

Particles

We are going to begin by talking about the first branch, the nouns. A noun (or a substantive) (Arabic: م� �س� a name") is a name or an" = ا

attribute of a person (Ali), place (Mecca), thing (house), or quality (honor). The word "noun" comes from the Latin nomen = "name." The noun or substantive category in Arabic includes in addition to simple nouns the pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbids (participles and verbal nouns).

Nouns that designate material things (Ali, Mecca, house) are called concrete nouns. Nouns that designate immaterial things (honor) are called abstract nouns.

Permanent names of persons or places are called proper nouns cء� ما أس�² �سother nouns are called common nouns ² ,علم ج�ن cء� ما Proper nouns .أس�refer to unique or particular objects (cannot be preceded by words such as "some" or "any"); common nouns refer to non-unique or non-particular objects (can be preceded by words such as "some" or "any").

Common nouns are several types in Arabic:

►Count nouns are nouns that refer to single units when they are grammatically singular, and to plural units when they grammatically plural.

Examples:

Plural Count Nouns Singular Count Nouns

rijaal

�لار�جrajul

رجcلmen man

buyoot

c cي �توبbayt

�ت بيhouses house

kutub

cتcب كkitaab

�ت �باكbooks book

►Mass nouns are nouns that refer to single as well as plural units when they are grammatically singular, and to plural units when they are grammatically plural. These usually refer to plants or animals.

Examples:

Plural Mass Nouns Singular Mass Nouns

thimaar�م �راث

thamarثمر

fruits fruit/fruits

'ashjaarجأ �راش�

shajarشجر

trees tree/trees

tuyoor

c �روطcيtayr

�ر birdsطي bird/birds

When mass nouns refer to uncountable objects (such as water, sugar. etc.), the grammatically singular noun will refer to small or large amounts of the object, and the grammatically plural noun will refer to large amounts of the object.

Examples:

Plural Mass Nouns Singular Mass Nouns

miyaah

� هام�يmaa'<

�ء large amount ofماwater

small/large amount of water

dimaa'<�د�م ءا

dam large amount ofدم

bloodsmall/large amount of

blood

riyaah riyh

�حار�ي �ح ر�يlarge amount of

windsmall/large amount of

wind

Some nouns, like the names of materials, can indicate either a unit (a piece, a type) or a substance, so those can be both countable and uncountable. However, when plural, they usually refer only to multiple units (countable only).

Examples:

Plural Count Nouns Singular Mass Nouns

'awraaq

�و�رأ قاwaraq

ورقpapers

paper/papersor

small/large amount of paper

'akhshaab أ�خ�ش ا

ب

khashab

خشpieces of woodب

types of wood

piece/pieces of woodtype/types of wood

orsmall/large amount of

wood

zuyoot

c ي cتوز�zayt

زي�تtypes of oil

type/types of oilor

small/large amount of oil

►Collective nouns or irregular (broken) plural nouns are grammatically singular nouns that refer to plural units or to large amounts of uncountable objects. All the "plural" nouns listed in the above examples belong to this

category; I am calling them "plural" to avoid causing confusion and because this is how they are usually called.

Oddly enough, although these nouns are called irregular plurals they are in fact singulare tantum, which means that they do not have grammatically plural forms.

It is possible for irregular plural nouns that refer to humans to be treated grammatically as plural nouns; this is typical of Modern Standard Arabic.

DeclensionNouns and verbs undergo inflection ف� which means that parts of , تصر¶them change in order to express changes in gender, number, case, tense, voice, person, or mood. The inflection of nouns is called declension, and the inflection of verbs is called conjugation. The declension of Arabic nouns expresses changes in:

Gender— Arabic nouns have two grammatical genders.

Number— Arabic nouns have three grammatical numbers.

Case— Arabic nouns have three grammatical cases.

State— Arabic nouns have three grammatical states.

GenderThe two genders in Arabic are the masculine and feminine. Every Noun in

Arabic is either masculine or feminine— there is no neuter gender in Arabic. Each object and animal is either masculine or feminine.

Thus, nouns are four categories in Arabic:

True masculine: nouns that refer to male humans or animals. Figurative masculine: masculine nouns that refer to objects.

True feminine: nouns that refer to female humans or animals. Figurative feminine: feminine nouns that refer to objects.

►Gender MarkersThe are feminine markers for nouns but no masculine markers. The feminine

markers are three affixes (-a(t), -aa'<, and -aa), all apparently

originating from one ancestor that was something like -at or -t and which performed a dual augmentative-diminutive function rather than signifying the feminine gender. Relatively few count and mass nouns are feminine without having feminine markers. However, all collective nouns (irregular (broken) plurals) are feminine without having feminine markers.

NumberThe grammatical numbers in Arabic are:

Singular: nouns that refer to one person or thing. Dual: nouns that refer to two persons or things. Plural: nouns that refer to more than two persons or things.

►Number MarkersThe number markers are suffixes positioned following the feminine gender marker (if one existed).

stem(-feminine marker)-number marker

The number markers are composed of two parts, a first part that is inflected for case, and a second part that is inflected for state.

number marker = case marker-state marker The basic nominative-absolute marker for singular nouns, including collective

nouns (irregular (broken) plurals), is -un. This marker is inflected for three cases (has three forms for three cases) and two states (has two forms for two states) thus yielding a total of six possible combinations, all of which are

singular markers (-un,-an,-in,

-u,-a,-i).

The nominative-absolute marker for dual nouns is -aani. This marker is inflected for two cases (has two forms for two cases) and two states (has two forms for two states) thus yielding a total of four possible combinations, all of which are dual markers

(-aani,-ayni,-aa,-ay).

The nominative-absolute marker for masculine plural nouns is -oona and

for feminine plural nouns is -aatun. These two markers are inflected for two cases and two states like the dual marker, and each have four possible forms

(-oona,-eena,

-oo,-ee) (-aatun,-aatin,-aatu,-aati). When adding the feminine

plural marker to nouns with a feminine gender marker -a(t), the -a(t) is removed.

CaseNouns in formal Arabic have three grammatical cases:

Raf" (Nominative): case of nouns functioning as the subject of a sentence.

Nasb (Accusative/Dative/Vocative): a case with a myriad of uses (about ten uses); most importantly, it is the case of nouns functioning as objects.

Jarr (Genitive/Ablative): a case that indicates possession or being object of a preposition.

►Case MarkersThe case markers are the case-inflected parts of the number markers. They are the first parts of the number markers and the state markers are the second parts.

stem(-feminine marker)-case marker

For singular nouns, including collective nouns (the irregular (broken) plurals),

the raf" marker is -u, which changes to -a, the nasb marker, in the nasb

case, and to -i, the jarr marker, in the jarr case.

For dual nouns, the raf" marker is -aa , which changes to -ay in both the nasb and jarr cases. Thus, dual nouns are inflected for only two cases (has only two case-inflected forms). The nasb and jarr cases may be collectively called the "oblique case" for dual nouns.

The raf" masculine plural ending -oo, which becomes -ee in the nasb and

jarr cases; and the raf" feminine plural ending -aatu, which becomes -aati in the nasb and jarr cases. Thus, plural nouns, like dual nouns, are inflected for only two cases, the nominative and the "oblique."

Singular DualMasculine

pluralFeminine

plural

Raf" markers -u -aa -oo -aatu

Nasb markers -a

-ay -ee -aatiJarr markers -i

Grammatical case markers for singular nouns have been ignored so far on this site in order to make things less complicated. However, it is important to understand that case markers are NOT OPTIONAL in Standard Arabic (includes both Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic.) Unlike the two genders and three grammatical numbers, case inflection is not preserved in the modern spoken Arabic (modern colloquial Arabic.)

State An inflectional "state" of nouns is something characteristic of the Afro-Asiatic languages. Arabic nouns have three grammatical states:

Absolute: state of indefinite nouns.

Determinate: state of definite nouns. Construct: state of definite nouns governing other nouns in genitive

constructions.

►State MarkersUnlike the previous inflections, grammatical state markers involve a prefix as well as suffixes.

(state marker-)stem(-feminine marker)-case marker(-state marker)

The state prefix is 'al-, the definite article. It appears in the determinate (definite) state. The state suffixes are the state-inflected parts of the number markers. They are the second parts of the number markers whereas the case markers are the first parts.

These suffixes are -n for singular (including irregular plural) and feminine

plural nouns, -ni for dual nouns, and -na for masculine plural nouns. The inflection of the state suffixes is by either keeping or removing them. The

singular and feminine plural state suffix -n appears only in the absolute

(indefinite) state. The dual and masculine plural state suffixes -ni & -na appear in the absolute and the determinate states.

Singular &

Feminine pluralDual Masculine plural

Absolute stem-n stem-ni stem-na

Determinate 'al-stem 'al-stem-ni 'al-stem-na

Construct stem stem stem

The appearance of a state suffix (-n / -ni / -na) at the end of a noun is termed nunation.

Nomina Triptota and Nomina Diptota

These are two categories of singular nouns (including the irregular plurals) with regard to case and state declension.

Nomina triptota are the regular singular nouns whose declension was described above. They are inflected for three cases and three states.

Nomina diptota are singular nouns that are inflected for only two states

as they have identical absolute and construct state marking (no suffix -n in any state). Also, in the absolute state, these nouns are inflected for only two cases as the jarr marking becomes identical to the nasb one in that state. However, in the determinate and construct states, these nouns are inflected for all the three cases.

Declension�ء� ما األس� cف� تص�ر�ي

Gender Number Case State

Masculine

¦ مcذكر�

Singular

مcف�رد�

Raf"(nom.)

فcو� مر�ع�

Absolute �رة� نك

Feminine¦ مcؤنث�

Dual¸ مcثنى�

Nasb(acc./dat./

voc.)

�صcو� منب�

Determinate

مع�ر�فة�

Plural جم�ع� Jarr(gen./abl.)

و� cمج�رر�

Construct� مcضاف�

After this brief introduction, we are now going to talk in detail about all that has been mentioned.

Nouns (continued)

Gender of NounsThe "ground gender" of nouns in Arabic is the masculine gender; this was expressed by the classical Arab linguists in their famous quote "the origin regarding nouns is masculinity, and femininity is a branch."

Being so, nouns are supposed to be masculine unless there is a feminine marker affixed to them.

However, there is a marked exception to this rule, which is the irregular plural nouns (collective nouns). Irregular plural nouns are grammatically singular nouns that indicate plural objects. These nouns are feminine without having feminine markers, and they cannot take feminine markers because they are feminine already.

Other than that, most of the nouns without feminine markers are masculine.

Here is the rule:

Most feminine nouns other than the irregular plurals can be identified by spotting feminine markers affixed to them. There are few feminine nouns that do not carry such markers.

Masculine singular nouns have no markers. However, since that the overwhelming majority of feminine nouns (other than the irregular plurals) carry feminine markers, masculine nouns can be identified by the lack of feminine markers.

Feminine MarkersThere are three feminine markers:

Feminine taa'< ـة Extended 'alif ء� ـا Shortened 'alif / ـى� � ـا

1. Feminine taa'<

-a(t) ـة

The feminine taa'< ث�� ي ن� التأ cء� is the major feminine marker that appears at تا

the end of most of the feminine singular nouns. It almost always assumes the

"tied" figure ـة and very rarely the "open" figure ت . The tied taa'< cء� �تا الcو�طةc ب �مر� .is always preceded by a short A vowel ال

Examples, click on the Arabic word to hear it:

Male teacher mu"allim §م مcعلFemale teacher mu"allima(t) §م ةمcعلMale cat qitt ق�ط±Female cat qitta(t) ةق�ط¦Man rajul رجcل

Woman 'imra'a(t) * �م�رأ ةا Male child tifl ط�ف�ل

Female child tifla(t) ةط�ف�ل

Male American (adj.) 'amerikiyy أمريك�ي±

female American (adj.) 'amerikiyya(t) ¦ �ي ةأمريك

Female proper name faatima(t) �ط�م ةفا

Female proper name "aa'isha(t) �ش �ئ ةعا

Tree (fem.) shajara(t) *ةشجر

Hour (fem.) saa"a(t) �ع ةسا

Book (masc.) kitaab �ب �تا كPen (masc.) qalam قلم

*This is just another figure of the same letter (see joining figures for taa'< ).

As we have mentioned before, the difference between a tied taa'< ـة and an

open one ت is that a tied taa'< is pronounced -ah or -a at pause rather

than -at . It will be pronounced -at only if you kept speaking after saying it. If you halt your talk right after pronouncing the tied taa'<, you must turn it into

-ah or -a in regular Arabic.

In other words, the t of -at cannot be the last thing you pronounce. This is kind of similar to the rule of Arabs don't stop on a moving. It is also similar to the French liaison.

►Exceptions

Although the tied taa'< is primarily a feminine marker, it can appear at the end of the following kinds of nouns without being a feminine marker:

Irregular plural nouns . Participles functioning as agent nouns. Masculine proper names.

Examples:

Questions(fem. irregular plural) 'as'ila(t) أ �ل ئ ةس�Writers/scribes(masc. irregular plural) kataba(t) ةكتبBears(fem. irregular plural) dibaba(t) ةد�ببJudges(masc. irregular plural) qudaa(t) � ةقcضاCavalry(fem. irregular plural) khayyaala(t) ¦اخ ي ة�لTransgressor/tyrant(masc. sing. agent noun) taariya(t) �ط ا ي ةغ�Erudite(masc. sing. agent noun) "allaama(t) ¦ملع ةاMale proper name 'usaama(t) ة�ماcسأMale proper name huthayfa(t) ذ cة�فيح

Irregular plural nouns are collective nouns, which means that they are grammatically singular even though they are semantically plural. Irregular plural nouns are all inherently feminine. The presence of the tied taa'< in the above examples is not the reason for why they are feminine. There are many

other irregular plural structures that do not have any feminine marker attached yet they are still feminine.

It is possible though for irregular plurals that refer to humans to be treated grammatically as plural nouns rather than singular, and the gender of the noun in that case will match the gender of its singular (it will often be masculine). This is how such nouns are treated in Modern Standard Arabic.

The presence of the tied taa'< in those kinds of nouns without functioning as a feminine marker is related to an old original function of the tied taa'<; this suffix had originally two functions in Arabic:

1. An augmentative function, which included turning a singular "count noun" (a noun referring to a single unit, like "friend") into a "collective noun" (also a singular noun but refers to multiple units). This pluralistic function (represented in the irregular plurals) gave rise to another intensive or exaggerative function when the suffix was added to certain nouns (usually agent nouns).

2. A diminutive function that included turning a "mass noun" (a noun referring to both singular and plural units, like "fruit," "fish," etc.) into a singular count noun. This "singularistic" function gave rise to another function of belittlement and depreciation that, sadly, evolved to signify the feminine gender when attached to many nouns.

These original functions of the -a(t) were not dead by the time of Classical Arabic and the Quran; they were vividly in use along side the feminine function and they remained productive throughout the following ages giving

rise to countless new words in the modern spoken varieties. The -a(t) is still commonly used in modern spoken Arabic to coin diminutive nouns as well as to turn count nouns into collective nouns.

The open taa'< ت occurs as a feminine marker in very scarce nouns like:

Daughter bint � �ن تبSister 'ukht cخ� �تأ

These nouns are ancient and their terminal feminine taa'< somehow escaped the process of being turned into a tied taa'<. Apart from these two

nouns and maybe some few others, the open taa'< ت is not considered a feminine marker. In some classical dialects of Arabic, particularly classical southern Arabian

dialects (Himyarite), the feminine taa'< was pronounced -at invariably i.e. there was no "tied" taa'< in those dialects. This is why it is not considered

officially "wrong" to pronounce a tied taa'< always -at even at pause.

However, pronouncing a full -at at pause will doubtless sound awkward to most modern speakers of Arabic who are unfamiliar with this classical variety. N.B. there are still few rural dialects today in which the tied taa'< is fully

realized as -at at pause; this tends to be in dialects that are primarily derived from classical Yemeni Arabic, like modern southern Levantine Arabic (Palestine and Lebanon) and Egyptian Arabic. (The Maronite patriarch of Mount Lebanon often appears talking on Lebanese TV and he pauses

realizing a full -at .)

Extra Note: Modern Variations in the feminine -a(t) Some classical Arabian tribes had a habit of turning the vowel A into E. This is

called in Arabic لة�� ما ع� slanting" or" = إ lying-down-like" and it" = تضج¶happened particularly in central Arabia (Najd). For example, they would pronounce the word kitaab = "book" as kitaib (kitēb). Similar phenomena existed in other Semitic languages such as Syriac and Hebrew, and exist in English (the pronunciation of "make," hate," etc.) Today however, this transition is no longer present in Arabia (except for traces) but it has moved to Levant and North Africa. Levant is the region bordering the eastern shore of the Mediterranean. It was

classically known to Arabs as Shaam cم� ا Syria" and today it" = الش¦comprises the four countries of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Jordan. Many central Arabian tribes settled in Levant, especially the northern half (the southern half had been already settled by Yemeni tribes for centuries before Islam). After staying in Syria for a while, many of these tribes moved to Egypt and North Africa (which had been already settled by the early conquering

Muslim Yemeni tribes). These Syrian/central Arabian tribes kept relocating until they finally reached Spain and settled there— most of the Arab tribes that entered Spain during the Muslim conquest were from these Syrian/central Arabian tribes. This historical information helps in explaining some of the variations between modern dialects. Classically, Levantine Arabic strongly exhibited the transition from A to E (the "slanting.") However, with the passing of time and continuous influence from other regions, this feature has been lost from nearly all Levant up to central Syria (Hama,) with only traces remaining here and there. You can still hear today the A somewhat regularly slanted into E in northern Syria (Aleppo), but this is fading there as well. One of the traces of "slanting" that persist in almost all the modern Levantine

dialects is the pronunciation of the feminine marker as -e instead of -a. Examples, click on the Roman transliteration to hear:

Modern Rural Syrian

Arabic

Modern Urban Syrian

Arabic

Classical/Formal Arabic

madirsi madrase

madrasa(t) م

د�رسة

school (fem.)

tifli t e fle*

tifla(t) ط�ف�female childةل

faatmi faatme faatima(t) ف

�female properط�ماname

.An underlined e on this site means a schwa ə (as in telephone)*ة

Note that the vowels e and e do not exist in formal Arabic. Rural Syrian

dialects use only the classical vowels (a, i, u, ā, ī, ū) but no modern vowels

(e, e, o, ē, ē, ō). Hence, rural dialects "classicize" the feminine -e into -i.

The feminine marker is not invariably changed to -e in modern Levantine; as a general rule, a vowel A will not be slanted to E if it is preceded by letters produced from the throat (pharyngeal), from the roof of the mouth (velar or

uvular), emphatic consonants ( ظ، ط، ض، ص ), or the letter R (except in

the two words رة� �ي �ب �رة & ك ص�غ�ي ). Thus, the classical -a(t) becomes both -a and -e in modern Levantine.

The modern -a or -e will not be changed to -at or -et nor to anything else when they are followed by other talking. However, they will be changed to

-t (without a vowel) in the construct state, which is when a noun forms the first part of a genitive construction. The evolvement of different figures for nouns in the construct state in modern spoken Arabic is similar to what had happened at much more ancient times in other Semitic languages such as Hebrew and Aramaic.

A similar, less important, evolution lead to the feminine marker becoming -o or -u in some rare modern dialects of Arabic. This is similar to what happened in the ancient Aramaic/Syriac. N.B. Lebanese Arabic is famed in the modern Arab world for preserving the transition from A to E, but the fact is that this transition occurs natively in a very little geographic area in Lebanon (in central Mount Lebanon, where the once dominating Maronite elite lived) whereas most of the other Lebanese regions do not show real preservation of this transition but just traces of it. However, it is quite common for all Lebanese today to either fake or excessively exaggerate the transition from A to E in their talk in what appears to be part of the struggle by the different communities in that country to prove that they are "more Lebanese than" or "as Lebanese as" the others.

Irregular NounsIrregularly behaving nouns in Arabic are three types:

I. Shortened NounsA shortened noun cو�رcالمق�ص cم �س� is a noun which ends with an 'alif اال

denoting a long vowel aa . Such 'alif is also called "extended 'alif " or "weak 'alif."

Extended 'alif assumes either one of two figures when it comes at the end of a word:

ـى� � ـا

This alternation in figure has its significance as we shall see shortly.

Examples of shortened nouns:

Shortened Nouns

Stick (fem.) "asaa �عص ا

Dew (masc.) nadaa ى�ندDock (masc.) marsaa س ى�مر�

Hospital (masc.) mustashfaa ف تش� ى�مcس�Forces (plu. fem.) qiwaa ىق�و�

Nouns that end with extended 'alif's are called shortened nouns because when an extended 'alif comes last in the word it does not get full pronunciation, rather it will be shortened a little bit.

This is why extended 'alif is called "shortened 'alif " cف� األلcو�رةcمق�ص� .when it occurs last in a word ال

When a noun of three letters ends with a shortened 'alif , the 'alif must be original letter because every true word must consist of, at least, three original letters.

However, the long vowel 'alif will not be part of the tri-consonantal root of the word. In fact, this long vowel 'alif at the end of triliteral words is a substitute

for a changed ي or و consonant. Very long time ago, the original ي or و at the end of these words were changed into long vowel 'alif's. However, the

consonants ي or و will still be the true root-letters not the ـا or ـى . This phenomenon can happen only with the 'alif; it is the only letter that can be original letter but not one of the root letters.

Look at the table bellow:

Root Original Version Actual Version

ـو � ـاـي ـى�

" S W ص وع وعص �اعصN D Y د ين يند �ىند

Sometimes, the changed final letters will have to be changed back when we add endings to the noun, like the dual or plural endings. This is why it is important to be able to know the original letter.

Luckily, this is easy if you have the word written for you, because the figure of

the shortened 'alif clearly indicates the replaced original letter. The وis the

original letter for ـا and the ي is the original letter for ى .

Shortened words with more than three letters usually have at their ends this

kind of 'alif : ى, but in this case, the 'alif will not necessarily be an original

letter; it could be additional letter, although it would still need changing to ي when new endings are added to the noun, no matter if it were original or not. If we do not have the written word in front of us, we will not be able to determine the original letter from the figure of the 'alif. This case usually poses a problem for Arab school students, who need to know which form of 'alif to write when the word is being dictated on them. Actually, the only thing that a new learner can do is to look at the word in a dictionary, such as this one, to see how the word is written. Going to the dictionary is also the best sure way to find out the root of a word.

As we have mentioned already, shortened nouns with more than three letters

typically end with: ى. However, there are few words that end with the other form, you may look here for more details.

II. Extended Nouns

An extended noun �مم�دcو�د ال cم �س� cاال is a noun which ends with a long vowel

'alif aa ـا that is followed by a consonant 'alif ' ء , also called hamza(t) .

aa'< �ء ـا

Extended Nouns

Water (masc.) maa'< �ءم اHeaven (fem.) samaa'< ءسم� اSupper (masc.) "ashaa'< �ءعش اDesert (fem.) sahraa'< ر ء�اصح�

Friends (plu. masc.) 'asdiqaa'< �ءأص�د�ق cاThose words are called extended words because the presence of the ء hamza(t) at their ends allows the extended 'alif ـا to be fully pronounced; contrary to the case of shortened nouns. Thus the 'alif here is still called extended 'alif as usual.

The hamza(t) at the end of extended nouns can be a original root-letter,

transformed from an original root-letter ( ي or و ) , or it can be additional letter (does not belong to the root nor it is transformed from a letter that belongs to the root). In the last case, where the hamza(t) is an additional letter, the noun will be feminine and the hamza(t) will be serving as a feminine marker. The hamza(t) will be additional only if it was fifth letter or beyond in a word. Thus, the feminine marker can be found only in words with five letters or more. However, this does not mean that extended words with fewer than five letters cannot be feminine.

III. Defective NounsA defective noun cم �س� �قcو اال �من �صcال is a noun which ends with a long vowel -

ee that is original letter and belongs to the root. Proper names cannot �ـي�be defective nouns; and defective nouns are always masculine unless a

feminine taa'< ـة were attached, or they were irregular plurals.

-ee-iy ـي�

Defective Nouns

Judge qaadee �ض� ي�قاSponsor raa"ee �ع �ي�را

Attorney muhaamee �م� �يمcحا

Snakes (plu. fem.) 'afaa"ee �ع� �يأفا

The last original yaa'< of a defective noun should be differentiated from the common attributive "double yaa'<" that comes also at the end of nouns.

NounsGender of NounsFeminine Markers (continued)

2. Extended 'alif

-aa'< �ء ـا The second feminine marker in Arabic singular nouns is a terminal weak 'alif

(a long A vowel -aa � followed by a consonant 'alif or hamza(t) (a glottal ( ـا

stop ' ء).

This ending is called an "extended 'alif" cو�دةcمم�د� ال cف� because the األلpresence of the final hamza(t) allows for the long A to be fully pronounced rather than shortened. Nouns that end with an extended 'alif are called "extended nouns."

As far as I can guess, the -aa'< ـاء is altered from the following original form:

-aa(t) �ة ـا

-aat → -aah → -aa'<

The ending -aa(t) is the alternative version in Classical Arabic of the

standard feminine plural ending -aat ـا�ت , and it can also appear suffixed in irregular plural stems. The evolution of this marker seems to me quite similar

to that of the tied taa'< -a(t) as they are probably cognates.

Anyway, being a "marker" means that the ـاء is suffixed to stems, so it is composed of "additional letters" but not any "original letters" (i.e. not any letters that belong to the root of the word). Since that true nouns in Arabic must have a minimum of three original letters,

the ـا must be fourth letter or beyond in a noun (i.e. the noun has five letters

or more) in order for the two letters of the ـاء to be additional (and thus a

feminine marker). If the ـا is third letter, then one of the two letters of the ـاء (the ء) would have to be an original letter.

However, this does not mean that if the ـا is fourth letter or beyond the ـاء will be always an additional feminine marker. This is because derived nouns,

including ones with five letters or more, commonly end with ـاء that is not a feminine marker and which has a totally different origin. Derived nouns, or verbids, are nouns that are derived from verbs (particularly perfective verbs). Most nouns in Arabic are derived nouns. Derived nouns are several classes (verbal nouns, participles, agent nouns, time and place nouns, and tool nouns) and each class has its standard patterns or structures in which roots can be plugged. Some of the derived noun structures, particularly those of verbal nouns, emphatic active participles, and tool nouns commonly have the following ending:

Common Ending of Verbal Nouns(Case-ending removed)

-aal � لـاWhere l is a variable final root-letter, and the aa is fixed and additional. The problem arises when the final root letter is hamza(t), because the ending

will look just like the feminine marker -aa'< although it is not one.

A similar problem arises when the final root letter is a weak letter (w or y). In such case, the final weak letter is always turned to hamza(t) in Arabic:

-aaW → -aa'<

-aaY → -aa'<

These endings look like the feminine marker -aa'<, but they are not feminine markers. Derived nouns that have these endings are masculine nouns unless a

feminine marker (i.e. the tied taa'< -a(t)) is attached to them following the -aa'<. (There are specific cases in which some participle adjectives can be feminine without adding a tied taa'<, those are covered in the adjective section.)

The -aa'< ء� EndingـاOriginal

FormFound in

-aa(t

)�ة ـا

Suffixed to the three-letter stem of the fa"laa'< feminine adjective(feminine marker)

Suffixed arbitrarily to some Arabized loanwords and nouns of more than three original letters

(feminine marker)

Suffixed to few irregular plural stems(augmentative suffix, NOT feminine marker)

-a

a'<

� ءـا Part of verbal noun stems Part of emphatic active participle stems Part of tool noun stems Part of irregular plural stems

(part of the stem, NOT feminine marker)

-aaw

� وـا

-aay � يـا

Here is the algorithm for nouns ending with -aa'<:

1) Less than five letters

Usually verbal nouns or nouns structured as verbal nouns. The -aa'< is not a suffix. Such nouns are almost always masculine unless a feminine taa'< is

attached following the -aa'<. Very few of such words will be feminine on their own (I could only find one so far). Examples, click on the Arabic word to hear it:

Extended 'alif NOT a Feminine Marker

Water(masc.) maa'< �ءم اAir(masc. verbal noun)

hawaa'< �ءاهوMedication(masc. verbal noun)

dawaa'< �ءدو اAffliction(masc. verbal noun)

balaa'< الءبCall(masc. verbal noun)

nidaa'< �د �ءن ا

Call upon (praying) (masc. verbal noun)

du"aa'< �ءدcع اHeaven(fem. verbal noun)

samaa'< �ءسم اBlood(fem. irregular plural)

dimaa'< �ءد�م اBuckets(fem. irregular plural)

dilaa'< الءد� Irregular plurals are always feminine, unless they refer to male humans where they can be masculine.

Although verbal nouns ending with ـاء are masculine, it is common to see them used as female proper names. Rarely they are used as male names. Examples:

Female proper name sanaa'< �ءسن اFemale proper name du"aa'< �ءدcع اFemale proper name hanaa'< �ءهن اMale proper name diyaa'< �ءض�ي ا

2) Five letters or more In nouns with five letters or more, there are two possibilities:

I. Derived Nouns & Irregular Plurals

Derived Nouns with five letters or more are nothing different from the ones with less than five letters— they are all masculine. Examples:


Finding the way (masc. verbal noun) 'ihtidaa'< �ء�دت�ه�ا ا Beginning (masc. verbal noun) 'ibtidaa'< �ا �ء�دت�ب ا Seeking highness (masc. verbal noun) 'isti"laa'< � ت �س� الءع�ا Builder (masc. emphatic active participle)

bannaa'< �ء¦نب ا Very giving (masc./fem. emphatic active participle)

mi"taa'< �ء�ع�طم ا Very neat (obsolete classical)

(masc. emphatic active participle)

wud d aa'< cء¦ضو� ا Irregular plurals are always feminine unless they refer to male humans where

they can be masculine as well. It is possible for the -aa'< suffix to appear

attached in irregular plural structures ('af"ilaa'< & fu"alaa'<), but in that case it will NOT be a feminine marker; it will be just a remnant of an older

function of the -aa(t) ending where it served as a collective-pluralistic marker without gender distinction.

Irregular plurals that end with -aa'< usually refer to humans, and they are usually masculine. Examples:


Friends (masc. irregular plural) 'asdiqaa'< �ءص�د�قأ ا

Happy (masc. irregular plural) su"adaa'< عد cءس� ا

Bosses/chiefs (masc. irregular plural) zu"amaa'< عم cءز� ا

Enemies (masc. irregular plural) 'a"daa'< �ءع�دأ ا

In the last example, the -aa'< is not a plural suffix but part of the stem

'af"aal.

II. Fa"laa'< , Loanwords & Nouns of Four/Five-Letter Roots Nouns (usually adjectives) of the following structure are feminine:

fa"laa'< الءفع�

This is the only standard structure in which the -aa'< ending is a feminine marker.

The fa"laa'< structure is mostly used to indicate a color or bodily characteristic of the feminine referent (e.g. blond, brunette, blind, mute, deaf, lame, etc.). Examples, click on the Arabic word to hear it:

Extended 'alif as a Feminine Marker

Red (fem. adj.) hamraa'< �ءاحم�ر Yellow (fem. adj.) safraa'< �ءاصف�رGorgeous (fem. adj.) hasnaa'< ن �ءحس� اBlonde (fem. adj.) shaqraa'< �ءاشق�رHaggish (fem. adj.) shamtaa'< �ءشم�ط اDesert (fem.) sahraa'< ر �ءاصح�

The last word is literally an adjective but is used customarily as a noun, which is possible for any adjective in Arabic.

The -aa'< feminine marker appears also in the diminutive form of

fa"laa'<:

fu"aylaa'< الء�يفcع


Little red (fem. adj.)

humayraa'< �ءار�يحcم

Little yellow (fem. adj.) sufayraa'< �ءا�ريصcفLittle gorgeous (fem. adj.)

husaynaa'< يحcس �ء�ن ا

Little blonde (fem. adj.)

shuqayraa'

<ق cءا�ريش�

Little haggish (fem. adj.)

shumaytaa'

<م cء�طيش� ا

Little desert (fem.) suhayraa'< �ءار�يصcح

Fa"laa'< structure belongs to a category called in Arabic the "active-participle-like adjectives" which are basically the active participle structures whose primary function is as nomina agentis (agent nouns). There is no clear-cut distinction between participles and agent nouns in Arabic as both can function in place of the other.

The masculine form of fa"laa'< is:

'af"al ف�علأ The masculine form serves as a comparative structure when it is not denoting a color or a bodily characteristic, and in that case, it will have another feminine

form (fu"laa) that is probably cognate of fa"laa'<.

Both fa"laa'< and 'af"al belong to a category of nouns called the nomina diptota (Arabic: "the forbidden to declension nouns.") Nouns in this category undergo special declension characterized by inflection for only two states instead of three (the absolute state lacks nunation thus becoming identical to the construct state) and by two cases instead of three in the absolute state (the jarr marking becomes identical to nasb marking in the absolute state).

Aside from fa"laa'<, the -aa'< feminine marker appears in few nouns that are mostly Arabized loanwords or word salads that became single words

of four-letter or five-letter roots. The -aa'< was added to such words arbitrarily. Examples:


Green beans (sing. fem.)

faasooliyaa'<

� �صcو�ل فا �ءي ا

White beans (sing. fem.) loobiyaa'< �ي cو�ب �ءل اMummy (sing. fem.)

moomiyaa'< �ءمcو�م�ي ا

Physics (sing. fem.) feezyaa'< ي �ز� �ءف�ي اChemistry (sing. fem.) keemyaa'< ي �م� �ي �ءك ا

Mosaic (sing. fem.) fusayfisaa'<�ف� فcسي

�ءس ا

Gender of Nouns Ending with Extended 'alif

Less than five letters Derived nouns: masculineIrregular plurals: feminine

Five letters or more

Derived nouns: masculineIrregular plurals:

masculine/feminineFa"laa'< adjective: feminine

Others: feminine

Proper names Usually used for females

3. Shortened 'alif

-aa� ـا

ـى� The last feminine marker is the least specific to feminine nouns. It is simply a

terminal long A -aa. This ending is called the "shortened 'alif" cف� األلcو�رةcالمق�ص because it is shortened in pronunciation and sounds closer to a short A. Nouns that end with a shortened 'alif are called "shortened nouns."

The final hamza(t) of the extended 'alif ـاء is often dropped in the modern

spoken dialects, so the extended 'alif becomes a shortened 'alif ـا in these. I can think of only one origin of this marker, which is the same as last one's:

-aa(t) �ة ـا

Just like the ـاء , the / ـى ـا / can be a feminine marker only when the ـا .is fourth letter or beyond in a word (i.e. the word has four letters or more) ـى

If the / ـى is third letter, then it is an original letter of the word and can not ـاbe a marker.

Similarly to the previous marker, a terminal -aa can be altered from a

terminal weak root-letter (w or y). A terminal weak letter is turned to -aa only if it is preceded by a short A vowel:

-aW → -aa

-aY → -aa

Thus, a terminal shortened 'alif will be found in words that have the following ending:

-al �لـWhere l is a variable final root-letter, and a is fixed and additional (an a is always additional because it is not a letter to begin with). This ending is common in verbal nouns, passive participles, time and place nouns, tool nouns, and irregular plurals; and in none of these it is a suffix.

The -aa � EndingـاOriginal

FormFound in

-aa(t

)�ة ـا

Suffixed to the three-letter stems of fa"laa and fu"laa feminine adjectives

(feminine marker)

Suffixed to few verbal noun stems(feminine marker)

Arabized loanwords(feminine marker)

Suffixed to few irregular plural stems(augmentative suffix, NOT feminine marker)

-aw �وـ Part of verbal noun stems Part of passive participle stems Part of the 'af"al agent noun stem

Part of time/place noun stems Part of tool noun stems Part of irregular plural stems

(part of the stem, NOT feminine marker)

-ay �يـ

1) Shortened Nouns with Less than Four Letters Mostly verbal nouns, nouns structured as verbal nouns, or irregular plural

nouns. The ending -aa is part of the stem. Verbal nouns are masculine unless a tied taa'< is attached to them, which is uncommon in this case. Irregular plurals are feminine unless referring to male humans. Thus, unless irregular plurals, shortened nouns with less than four letters are masculine with rare exceptions (I found two exceptions.) Examples, click on the Arabic word to hear it:

Shortened 'alif NOT a Feminine Marker

Young man (masc.) fataa �ىفتRange (masc.) madaa �ىمد

Dew (masc.) nadaa �ىند

Approval (masc.) ridaa �ار�ض

Stick/cane (fem.) "asaa �اعص

Millstone (fem.) rahaa �ىرحForces(fem. irregular plural)

qiwaa �ىق�وPuppets(fem. irregular plural)

dumaa �ىدcم As usual, verbal nouns are commonly used as female names although they are masculine themselves. Examples:

Female proper name lamaa �ىلمFemale proper name hudaa �ىهcدMale proper name ridaa �ار�ض

2) Shortened Nouns with Four Letters or More In nouns with four letters or more, there are two possibilities:

I. Derived Nouns & Irregular Plurals Derived Nouns with four letters or more are, like those with less than four

letters, masculine. Derived nouns that can end with a non-suffix -aa are

verbal noun structures that begin with an additional m- ("meemic" verbal

nouns), passive participles, time and place nouns, tool nouns, and the 'af"al agent noun stem.



Meaning (masc. verbal noun) ma"naa م �ىع�نMeeting(masc. verbal noun)

multaqaa �Meeting placeىقتcل�م(masc. place noun)

Given (masc. passive participle)

mu"taa �ىمcع�طPurified (masc. passive participle)

munaq q aa م �ى¦قcنChosen (masc. passive participle)

mus t afaaم

�ىفطcص�(Night) club(masc. place noun) malhaa �هم �ىلWinter resort (masc. place noun) mashtaa م ت �ىش�

Passive participles are commonly used as male names.

Adjectives of the structure 'af"al have two situations:

When 'af"al is functioning as a comparative structure, it will modify both masculine and feminine nouns, and the feminine version of it

(fu"laa) will work as a feminine superlative adjective.

When 'af"al is not functioning as a comparative structure, it will be

exclusively masculine. It will have the feminine version fa"laa'< when it denotes a color or bodily characteristic, and the version

'af"ala(t) in other rare cases.

'af"al adjectives can end with -aa that is original and not a feminine

marker when the final root-letter is w or y. Examples, click on the Arabic word to hear it:

Shortened 'alif in 'af"al adjectivesHigher

(masc./fem. comparative adj.)

'a"laa أ �ىع�لNearer/lower


'adnaa أ �ىد�نStronger


'aqwaa �ىق�وأBlind (masc. non-comparative) 'a"maa ى�ع�مأSnake (fem. non-comparative) 'af"aa �ىف�عأ

The last word is an exception.

Irregular plurals are always feminine unless they refer to male humans where

they can be masculine as well. It is possible for the -aa suffix to appear

attached in irregular plural structures (fa"laa & fa"aalaa), but in this case it will NOT be a feminine marker. It will be just a remnant of an older

function of the -aa(t) ending where it served as a collective-pluralistic marker without gender distinction.

Irregular plurals that end with -aa usually refer to humans. Examples:


Killed(masc./fem. irregular plural)

qatlaa �ل �ىقت

Wounded(masc./fem. irregular plural)

jarhaa ح �ىجر�

Orphans(masc./fem. irregular plural)

yataamaa �ى�مايت

Widowed(fem. irregular plural)

thakaalaa اثك �ى�ل

II. Fa"laa, Fu"laa, Verbal Nouns, and Loanwords

Nouns and adjectives of the following structures are feminine:

fa"laa �ىفع�لfu"laa �ىفcع�ل

These are standard agent noun structures; the -aa ending in these structures is a feminine marker.

Fa"laa looks similar to fa"laa'<, and I would say that both come from

an ancient fa"laa(t). The masculine form of fa"laa is fa"laan and they are both nomina diptota. These structures usually denote qualities that are related to "emptiness" or "fullness," and they are common in female and male names, respectively. Examples, click on the Arabic word to hear it:

Shortened 'alif as a Feminine Marker

Thirsty (fem. adj.) "atshaa� عط

�ىشHappy (fem. adj.) farhaa ح �ىفر�Widowed (fem. adj.) thaklaa �ل �ىثكDrunk (fem. adj.) sakraa �ر �ىسك

Female proper name laylaa �ل ى�ليFemale proper name salmaa �م �ىسلFemale proper name najwaa ى�نج�و

The structure fu"laa differs from fa"laa in only one vowel. However, this structure has a distinguished and an important function which is that it functions as a feminine superlative adjective. Examples:


Smallest(fem. superlative adjective)

surraa ى�صcغ�رBiggest(fem. superlative adjective)

kubraa �ر cب �ىكHighest(fem. superlative adj.) "ulyaa �ي �عcل اLowest/nearest (fig. world)(fem. superlative adjective)

dunyaa �ي �دcن ا

Pregnant (fem. adj.) hublaa �ل ب cىح

Female proper name lubnaa �ن cب ى�ل

The masculine form of fu"laa is 'af"al which is a "bisexual" comparative

structure. When the definite article is added to 'af"al, it becomes the masculine superlative form.

Both fu"laa and 'af"al are nomina diptota (any noun ending with an

additional -aa'< or -aa is a nomen diptotum).

The -aa ending of a verbal noun will be a feminine marker if the verbal noun achieves the following:

Has four letters or more.

Does not begin with an additional m- (not a "meemic" verbal nouns).

Such verbal nouns with a suffixed feminine -aa are infrequent–verbal nouns more commonly take the tied taa'< as a feminine marker. They are usually of

the forms fi"laa and fu"laa and are commonly used as female names. Examples:


Memory (also name)(fem. verbal noun) thikraa �ر �ىذ�ك

Good news (also name)(fem. verbal noun) bushraa ر cش� �ىب

These are also diptota because they end with a feminine -aa.

The diminutive forms of structures carrying a feminine -aa also carry one. All

the structures carrying a feminine -aa that have been mentioned so far

share one diminutive form which is fu"aylaa. Finally, foreign nouns ending with an A sound (which are common) often end

with a feminine -aa in Modern Standard Arabic (but not in Classical Arabic, in which the tied taa'< was usually used). Examples, in modern Arabic:


Music (fem.) mooseeqaa �ق ي �ىمcو�س�Athena/Athens (fem.) 'atheenaa �ن �ي �اأث

Rome (fem.) rōmaa �اروم

Syria (fem.) sooryaa ي و�ر� cاس�

America (fem.) 'amerikaa �اأمريك

Same examples in Classical Arabic (some of them didn't really exist but the principles did):

Music (fem.) mooseeqa(t) �ق ي ةمcو�س�

Athena/Athens (fem.) 'atheena(t) �ن �ي ةأث

Rome (fem.) roomiyya(t) ¦ و�م�ي cةر

Syria (fem.) sooriyya(t) ¦ و�ر�ي cةس

America (fem.) 'amreeqiyya(t) ¦ �ق�ي ةأم�ر�ي

Gender of Nouns Ending with Shortened 'alif

Less than four letters Derived nouns: masculineIrregular plurals: feminine

Four letters or more Derived nouns: masculineComparative 'af"al: masculine/feminine

Irregular plurals: masculine/feminine

fa"laa & fu"laa: feminineVerbal nouns without m- prefix:

feminineOthers: feminine

Proper names Passive participles: malesOthers: females

Feminine Without Markers Although feminine markers identify most of the feminine nouns, there will still be few feminine nouns that do not have any of these markers. We will cover here most of these. ►Some nouns that refer to female persons do not have feminine markers.

Mother 'umm cم± أDaughter bint �ن�ت *ب

Sister 'ukht cخ�ت *أ

Wifein classical Arabic zawj زو�جBride "aroos و�س cعر

*The open taa'< ت is not standardly considered a feminine marker. ►Some nouns that refer to female animals.

Female scorpionalso male

"aqrab عق�رب

Female spider "ankabo

otcو� �كب عن

تFemale horsealso male faras فرسFemale donkey 'ataan �ن أتا

►All country and town names are feminine except for some Arab countries that were named after geographical features (such as mountains, seas, rivers, etc.) which will follow the geographical features they were named after in masculinity. These masculine country names are namely Iraq, Lebanon, Jordan, and Morocco. Examples:

Egypt (fem.) misr م�ص�رPalestine (fem.) filisteen � ف�ل�س�ط�ي

نDamascus (fem.) dimashq ق د�مش�India (fem.) 'al-hind �د �ه�ن الChina (fem.) 'as-seen �ن �ص§ي ال

New Hampshire (fem.)

nyoo hampsher

نيوهمبشر

Iraq (masc.) 'al-"iraaq �ق �ع�را الJordan (masc.) 'al-'urdun دcن ر�

c األ

►For names of body parts that don't have feminine markers, a general rule is that all the parts of which there are more than one are feminine and the rest are masculine.

In a more comprehensive approach:

In the head, all the parts are masculine barring the eye, ear, and tooth. In the trunk, all the parts are masculine. In the limbs, all the parts are feminine barring the elbow and the

forearm. All the internal organs are masculine barring the liver.

That was, of course, for parts that don't have feminine markers in their names. Examples:

Eye (fem.) "ayn �ن عيEar (fem.) 'uthun cذcن أHand (fem.) yad يدFoot (fem.) qadam قدم

Liver (fem.) kabid �د كبHead (masc.) ra'<s رأ�سBack (masc.) zahr ظه�ر

►The following list contains nearly all the singular feminine nouns without feminine markers and which have not been mentioned above.

Land/earth (fem.) 'ard أر�ضHeaven (fem.) samaa'< �ء سماSun (fem.) shams شم�سFire (fem.) naar �ر ناResidence (fem.) daar �ر داRoute/way (fem.) tareeq طر�ي�قMarket (fem.) sooq سcو�قWine (fem.) khamr خم�رWell (fem.) bi'<r �ر �ئ بMillstone (fem.) rahaa رحى�

Stick/cane (fem.) "asaa � عصاWar (fem.) harb حر�بAxe (fem.) fa'<s فأ�سKnife (fem.) sikkeen �ن §ي ك س�Pot (fem.) qidr ق�د�رCup (fem.) ka'<s كأ�سWind (fem.) reeh �ح ر�يSoul/spirit (fem.) rooh و�ح cرSoul/being (fem.) nafs نف�سState (fem.) haal �ل حاHell (fem.) jahannam ¦م جهنShip (Ark) (fem.) fulk فcل�ك

Exercise

Can you guess the gender of the following singular nouns?

Court مح�كمة

Largest �رى� cب ك

Death مو�ت

White �ء �ضا بي

Sad �ن حز�ي

Germany� �يا �ن �ما أل

Peas ¦ء �ز�ال با

Constructing �ء �شا �ن إ

Paper ورقة

Sea بح�ر

Evening �ء مسا

Female proper name �ء �سا مي

Helping (help) �عدة مcسا

Thirsty عط�شى�

Nile �ل §ي �ن ال

Turkey� �يا ك cر� ت

Leg �ق سا

Drunk �ن �را سك

Pen قلم

Knife �ن §ي ك س�

Answers

Court (fem.) مح�كمة

Largest (fem. adj.) �رى� cب ك

Death (masc.) مو�ت

White (fem. adj.) �ء �ضا بي

Sad (masc. adj.) �ن حز�ي

Germany (fem.)� �يا �ن �ما أل

Peas (fem.) ¦ء �ز�ال باConstructing (construction)

)masc(.�ء �شا �ن إ

Paper (fem.) ورقة

Sea (masc.) بح�ر

Evening (masc.) �ء مسا

Female proper name (fem.)

�ء �سا مي

Helping (help) (fem.)

�عدة مcسا

Thirsty (fem. adj.) عط�شى�

Nile (masc.) �ل §ي �ن ال

Turkey (fem.)� �يا ك cر� ت

Leg (fem.) �ق سا

Drunk (masc. adj.) �ن �را سك

Pen (masc.) قلم

Knife (fem.) �ن §ي ك س�

Nouns (continued)

Number of NounsSingular Nouns The grammatical number of nouns is easily identified by their endings. Singular nouns, including the grammatically singular but semantically plural irregular plural nouns, can have six different endings.

Singular EndingsCase

Indefinite State

Definite/Construct State

Raf"(nom.)

-un -u

Nasb(acc./dat./voc.)

-an -a

Jarr(gen./abl.)

-in -i Since that the rules of pause prohibit pronouncing a terminal short vowel when followed by a pause, the definite/construct endings are dropped from pronunciation when they occur terminal in speech. Moreover, even the

indefinite endings which contain terminal letter noon's are dropped when they occur terminal in speech. Short vowels are not letters, and they are indicated in transcription by the three short vowel marks that appear above or below the preceding letter. Since that the vowel marks are not usually written, the definite/construct endings are not usually shown in writing at all and they are left for the reader's good sense. The noon of the indefinite endings (the presence of this noon is called nunation) is a letter that has an obligatory written form. However, it was decided not to write the noon of the indefinite endings and replace it by doubling the mark of the preceding short vowel. Thus, the indefinite endings also became unwritten except for special purposes when the diacritic marks are added. So since that the singular endings are not usually apparent in writing, written singular nouns can be identified by the lack of an apparent ending. Examples:

رجcلrajul

Man

State Case Noun

Indefinite

Raf" rajul(un) رجcل�Nasb rajul(an) رجcلJarr rajul(in) رجcل²

Construct

Raf" rajul(u) cلcرجNasb rajul(a) رجcلJarr rajul(i) رجcل�

�م�رأة ا'imra'a(t)

Woman

State Case Noun

Indefinite

Raf"'imra'a(

tun) �م�رأة� ا

Nasb'imra'a(

tan) �م�رأة´ ا

Jarr 'imra'a(tin) �م�رأة�² ا

Construct Raf" 'imra'a(tu) cم�رأة� ا

Nasb 'imra'a(ta) �م�رأة ا

Jarr 'imra'a(ti) �م�رأة� ا

�ل ر�جاrijaal

Men

State Case Noun

Indefinite

Raf" rijaal(un) �ل� ر�جا

Nasb rijaal(an) �ل ر�جا

Jarr rijaal(in) �ل² ر�جا

ConstructRaf" rijaal(u) cل� ر�جا

Nasb rijaal(u) �ل ر�جا

Jarr rijaal(u) �ل� ر�جا The last example is a plural noun yet it has singular endings; this is because it is an irregular or broken plural noun (collective noun), and irregular plural nouns are grammatically singular. Although irregular plurals that refer to humans, like the example, are often treated as plurals in Standard Arabic, this does not include the declension of the noun itself which will still be declined as a singular noun (it will still have the same endings as a singular noun).

Dual NounsA dual noun ى�¦ �مcثن .is a noun that refers to two persons or things ال

Dual nouns are easily identified by their common dual ending. The dual ending is inflected for two cases and two states as follows:

Dual EndingsCase

Indefinite/Definite State

Construct State

Subject(Raf")

-aan(i) -aa

Object(Nasb & Jarr)

-ayn(i) -ay Unlike the singular endings, the dual endings are pronounced at pause except for the final short I vowel, and they are apparent in writing except also for the final short I vowel which is indicated by an optional diacritic mark.


Stem Noun: mu"allim م§ "teacher" = مcعل

One male teacher mu"allim(un) §م �مcعلOne female teacher mu"allima(tun) §مة �مcعلTwo male teachers (subject) mu"allimaan(i)

§ مcعل�نم �ا

Two male teachers (object) mu"allimayn(i)

§ مcعل�نم �ي

Two female teachers (subject)

mu"allimataan(i)

§م مcعل �نت �ا

Two female teachers (object)

mu"allimatayn(i)

§م مcعل�نت �ي

You can see how the feminine taa'< -at ought to be fully pronounced in the dual; since it is no longer terminal, there is no possibility that one pauses at it.

The case declension of dual nouns (and regular plural nouns) is special in that it involves only two cases instead of three (but this for all the states and there is nunation, so they are not diptota). The nasb and jarr marking of these

nouns is identical, this is why these two cases of the dual (and regular plural) may be collectively called the "oblique case" by linguists.


Raf" (subject)

The two male teachers are here.mu"allimaan(i) §م �نمcعل �ا

The two female teachers are here. mu"allimataan(i) §مت �نمcعل �اNasb (object)

I saw the two male teachers.mu"allimayn(i) §م �نمcعل �ي

I saw the two female teachers. mu"allimatayn(i) §مت �نمcعل �يJarr (possession/object of preposition)

This is the two male teachers' class.I gave it to the two male teachers.

mu"allimayn(i) §م �نمcعل �يThis is the two female teachers' class.I gave it to the two female teachers.

mu"allimatayn(i) §مت �نمcعل �ي

Irregular NounsFor description of irregular noun types, you may click here

I. Shortened Nouns

Shortened nouns are nouns that end with a long A vowel (-aa ـى / ـا ).

۩ Shortened Nouns With Three LettersThe weak 'alif of the ending will be changed back to its origin (either w or y)

when attaching the dual ending. This form of 'alif : ـاwill be changed back to

w, and this one: ـى will be changed back to y. The short A vowel preceding the weak 'alif will remain intact.

-aa → -aW-dual ending

-aa → -aY-dual ending

Endings of Triliteral Shortened Nouns

Singular Dual Subject Object

-aa �اـ -awaan(i) �نوـ �ا

-a

wayn(i)�نوـ �ي

-aa �ىـ -ayaan(i) �نيـ �ا -ayayn(i) ـ �ني �ي

۩ Shortened Nouns With More Than Three Letters

The weak 'alif will be always changed to y when attaching the dual ending, regardless of its origin.

-aa → -aY-dual ending

Endings of Shortened Nouns With More Than Three Letters

SingularDual

Subject Object

-aa �اـ -ayaan(i) �نيـ �ا -

ayayn(i) ـ �ني �ي-aa �ىـ

A final weak 'alif of any Arabic word with more than three letters takes this

figure ـى regardless of its true origin. This suits well the rules of declension. However, there is one exception, which is when the letter preceding the final

weak 'alif in such words is y ; in that case, the 'alif takes the figure ـا even though the rule still stands as it is.

Examples:

Dual Singular"asawaan(i) ع

�نوص �ا

"asaa

stick/cane (fem.)

�عص ا

"asawayn(i)ع

�نوص �يfatayaan(i) �نيفت �ا fataa

boy (masc.)ى�فت

fatayayn(i) �نيفت �ي

maqhayaan(i) �نيمق�ه �ا maqhaa

café (masc.)ى�مق�ه

maqhayayn(i) �نيمق�ه �ي

"atshayaan(i)� عط

�نيش �ا "atshaa

thirsty (fem.)

� عط�ىش

"atshayayn(i)� عط

�نيش �يdunyayaan(i) �ي �نيدcن �ا dunyaa

lowest/nearest (fem.)

�ي �ادcنdunyayayn(i) �ي دcن �ني �ي

musatshfayaan(i)

تش� مcس��نيف �ا

mustashfaa

hospital (masc.)

ت مcس�ف musatshfى�ش�

ayayn(i)تش� مcس�

�نيف �ي

II. Extended NounsExtended nouns are nouns that end with a long A vowel followed by a terminal

glottal stop or hamza(t) (-aa'< ء� .( ـا

۩ Extended Nouns With Four Letters or FewerIn extended nouns with four letters or fewer, the final hamza(t) ء is always

an original letter. When attaching the dual ending, the ء will be changed back

to its origin (w or y) if the ء itself is not the origin.

-aa'< → -aa'-dual ending-aa'< → -aaW-dual ending-aa'< → -aaY-dual ending

Endings of Extended Nouns With Four Letters or Fewer

SingularDual

Subject Object

-aa'< ء�اـ -aa'aan(i) �نء�اـ �ا -aa'ayn(i) �نء�اـ �ي-aa'< ء�اـ -aawaan(i) �نو�اـ �ا -

aawayn(i) �نو�اـ �ي-aa'< ء�اـ -aayaan(i) �ني�اـ �ا -

aayayn(i) �ني�اـ �يUnlike the shortened 'alif whose figure denotes its origin, the origin of the hamza(t) of an extended 'alif cannot be told from its written figure.

It is possible, though not ideal, to keep the hamza(t) of the extended 'alif always without change when attaching the dual ending. This is typical of Modern Standard Arabic.

Examples:

Dual Singulardaa'aan(i) �ءد �نا �ا daa'<

disease (masc.) �ءد اdaa'ayn(i) �ءد �نا �ي

binaayaan(i) �نا ب �ن�ي �ا binaa'<

building (masc.) �ن �ءب اbinaa'aan(i) �ن �ءب �نا �ا

binaayayn(i) �ن ب �ي �نا �يbinaa'ayn(i) �ن �ءب �نا �ي

samaawaan(i) �وسم �ن�ا ا

samaa'<

heaven (fem.)�ءاسم

samaa'aan(i) �ءسم �ن�ا اsama

awayn(i) �وسم �ن�ا يsama

a'ayn(i) �ءسم �ن�ا ي

۩ Extended Nouns With More Than Four LettersIn extended nouns with more than four letters, there is a chance that the

hamza(t) ء of the extended 'alif is an additional letter (i.e. the extended 'alif is a suffix).

If the hamza(t) is an original letter, it will be changed back to its origin (w ,

y, or kept ' ) when adding the dual suffix.

-aa'< → -aa'-dual ending-aa'< → -aaW-dual ending-aa'< → -aaY-dual ending

However, it is possible to always keep the hamza(t) unchanged when attaching the dual ending. This is typical of Modern Standard Arabic.

Examples:

Dual Singular

'inshaa'aan(i)

� �ن إ�نء�اش �ا 'inshaa'<

construction (masc.)

�ش �ن ء�اإ'insha

a'ayn(i)� �ن إ

�نء�اش �يbanna

ayaan(i) ¦ �ابن �ني �ا

bannaa'<

builder (masc.)ء�¦ابن

bannaa'aan(i) �نء�¦ابن �اbanna

ayayn(i) �¦ابن �ني �يbannaa'ayn(i) ¦ �نء�ابن �ي

mi"taawaan(i)

م�ع��ط �ن�وا ا

mi"taa'<

giving, generous (masc./fem.)

م�ع��ءط ا mi

"taa'aan(i) م�ع�

�ن�ء�اط اmi

"taawayn(i)م�ع�

�ط �ن�وا يmi

"taa'ayn(i)

ء�ام�ع�ط�ن� ي

When the -aa'< is a feminine marker, the hamza(t) is always turned into w when attaching the dual ending.

-aa'< → -aaW-dual ending

Dual Singular

khadraawaan(i) خض��نو�ار �ا khadraa'<

green (fem.)

خض�ء�ار

khadraawayn(i) خض��ور �نا �ي

samraawaan(i) سم��ور �ن�ا ا samraa'<

brunette (fem.)�ءسم�ر ا

samraawayn(i) سم��ور �ن�ا ي

moomiyaawaan(i)

مcو�م��وي �ن�ا ا moomiya

a'<

mummy (fem.)

ء�امcو�م�يmoomiyaawayn(i)

مcو�م� �ن�و�اي ي

III. Defective Nouns

Defective nouns are nouns that end with a long I vowel (-iy whose ( �ـي�

terminal y belongs to the root.

Defective nouns take the dual ending just as regular nouns.

-iY → -iY-dual ending

Endings of Defective Nouns

Singular Dual Subject Object

-iy �يـ -iyaan(i) �نيـ �ا -iyayn(i) �نيـ �ي

Examples:

Dual Singular

qaadiyaan(i)� قا

ض� �ني �اqaadiy

a finalizing/finalizer (masc.)

→ a judge (masc.)

� قا�يض�

qaadiyayn(i)� قا

�نيض� �يdaa"iyaan(i) �ع� �نيدا �ا daa"iy

Inviting/inviter (masc.)

�ع� ي�داdaa"iyayn(i) �ع� �نيدا �ي

Annexed DualsThere are five dual nouns in Arabic of which there are no singulars; these are

called the "annexed duals" ى�¦ �مcثن ال cت� �حقا . مcل

Annexed DualsMeanin

gObject Case Subject Case

Two (masc.) 'ithnayn(i) �ن �ث �نا �ي 'ithnaan(i)

� �ث ا �نن �ا

Two (fem.)

etymology:

thnataanithnatayni

'ithnatayn(i) �نت �ث �نا �ي 'ithna

taan(i) �ن �ث ا

�نت �ا

thintayn(i) �ت �ن �نث �ي thintaan(i)� �ن ث

�نت �اBoth (of) (masc.) kilay �ل �يك kilaa � الكBoth (of)

(fem.) kiltay �ت �ل �يك kiltaa �ت �ل �اكThe last two words lack their final -n(i) because they exist only in the construct state that is used to form genitive constructions. Dual nouns (as well

as the regular masculine plurals) lose their final -n(i) in the construct state; this will be covered later.

Etymology Note

This is just my personal conjecture.

Dual Endings-awni Subject ـو�ن�-ayni Object �ن� ـي

The dual suffix -aani, like the feminine -at, apparently had an original augmentative/diminutive meaning that was not restricted to the dual number.

Many noun structures in Arabic have -aan suffixes denoting what appears to be an augmentative meaning (and infrequently a diminutive meaning).

For example, -aan suffixes occur in verbal noun, participle/agent noun, and irregular plural structures:

Example Structure

Deprivation ر� ح��ن�م ا

fi"laan(un)

verbal noun الن�ف�ع�Big loss

خcس� fu"laan(un) الن�فcع�

�ن�ر ا verbal noun

Boiling �ن�غلي ا f

a"alaan(un)

verbal noun

الن�فع

Thirsty

� عط�نش cا

fa"laan(u)

participle/agent noun

فالنcع� *

Children �د �ن�و�ل ا fi"laan(un)

irregular plural الن�ف�ع�

Herds

قcط��ن�ع ا

fu"laan(un)

irregular pluralالن�فcع�

*Diptote.

Other common nouns with -aan suffixes are:

rahmaan(un) نرح�م� �ا ≈ "a merciful" (agent noun of "have mercy")

'insaan(un) �س �ن �نإ �ا = "a human being"

qur'aan(un) ر�cآنق� = "a reading (out), the Koran"

Many of such -aan nouns are often considered to be loanwords from other

Semitic languages (often Aramaic). The -aan suffix is commonly used in Semitic languages as an adjectival suffix.

Proper nouns with -aan suffixes are nomina diptota (e.g. م� �نعcث حم�د ا ، ccن� ا �م سل �ن، cا ). Fa"laan(u) adjectives are diptota when their feminine form is

fa"laa; which are most of them.

The suffix -aan is common in Aramaic as a diminutive suffix. E.g.

ktovaan = "a booklet, little book"

baytaan = "a little house"

The -aan develops later to -ōn then to -oon (-ūn).

The suffix -ōn is commonly found in Syrian Arabic (due to Aramaic influence).

For example,

jardōn = "rat" (Standard Arabic: رذ� cج)

Extra Note: Modern Variations

In modern spoken Arabic, the dual declension is still productive. However, there is no case declension in modern spoken Arabic, so the dual ending retains only forms derived from the classical object form.

The most common form of the dual ending in modern spoken Arabic is:

-ain (-ēn)Examples:

yōmain = two days

ktaabain = two books

televizyōnain = two televisions

This is the mainstream form. Other forms include:

-een

-iyen

The classical object form is preserved in rural Syrian (but without the final short I). However, it is not an "object" form anymore:

-ayn

In modern spoken Arabic, the dual (and masculine plural) endings are not

inflected for state as they retain the final -n in the construct state.

E.g. in urban Syrian Arabic:

ktaabain ('e)l-walad = (the) two books (of) the boy

ktaabain-ee = (the) two books (of) me

Other Semitic languages that we know of had the dual marking, but it was not productive in any of them. It was limited to very few words for things that usually come in pairs like two eyes, two hands, two days, etc.

Examples:

Subject Object

Old Akkadian "two eyes" 'eenaan 'eeneen

Aramaic "two hundred" maathain

Hebrew "two days" yōmayim

Exercise 1Can you change the following singular nouns to dual nouns in the subject case?

Pen (masc.) قلم

Paper (fem.) ورقة

Fulgurating(fulguration) (masc.)

� سنا

Forum (masc.) �تدى� مcن

Black (fem.) �ء سو�دا Self-sufficing

)self-sufficiency) (masc(.

�ء �فا �ت �ك ا

Medication (masc.) �ءدوا

Judge (masc.) �ض�ي� قا

Answers

�ن� قلما

�ن� ورقتا

�ن� سنوا

�ن� �تديا مcن

�ن� �وا سو�دا

�ن� �ءا �فا �ت �ك ا

�ن�دوا �ءا

�ن� �ض�يا قا

Exercise 2

Can you change the following dual nouns to singular nouns?

Two apples �ن� �حتا cف¦ا ت

Two bones �ن� �مي عظ

Two ranges �ن� مديا

Two gorgeous (women) �ن� �وي نا حس�

Two afflictings (two afflictions) ن�� بالءي

Two giftings � �ن�إ �ءا ه�دا

Two sponsors �ن� يتي �ع� را

Answers

Apple (fem.) �حة cف¦ا ت

Bone (masc.) عظ�م

Range (masc.) مدى�

Gorgeous (fem.) �ء نا حس�

Afflicting (affliction) (masc.)

بالء

Gifting (masc.) � �ءإ ه�دا

Sponsor (fem.) ع�ية� را

NounsNumber of Nouns (continued)

Plural NounsPlural nouns cجم�ع� .are nouns that refer to more than two things or persons ال

There are two types of plural nouns in Arabic:

Regular Plural (suffix, grammatically plural)

Irregular Plural (different stem, grammatically singular)

The regular plural is very similar to the dual, it works by adding suffixes to noun stems. The irregular plural, on the other hand, is nasty. This kind of plural does not work by adding suffixes but rather by taking the root letters (called radicals) of the singular noun and applying them into a totally different structure derived from a verbal noun structure. This is why this kind of plural is known as the "broken plural;" because it does not preserve the singular stem . There are many irregular plural structures as this kind of plural is common in Arabic, unfortunately. The regular plural suffixes are two kinds:

Masculine Plural Feminine Plural

Each one of these is inflected for two cases, the nominative (raf", subject case) and the oblique (nasb & jarr, object case), which is similar to the dual suffix inflection. However, whereas the masculine plural retains nunation in the definite state (like the dual), the feminine plural does not.

An important fact to know is that, for many nouns, the same singular noun has multiple plural words of more than one type.

Masculine plural nouns are always masculine and they have only masculine singulars. Feminine plural and irregular plural nouns are always feminine but they can have both masculine and feminine singulars. Irregular plurals can be masculine when they refer to male humans.

Masculine Plural Nouns

The masculine plural cم� �ل ا �س¦ ال ¦ر� �مcذك ال cجم�ع is used primarily to pluralize participles that refer to more than two male humans or to groups of male and female humans. Masculine plural nouns are identified by their masculine plural ending that is inflected for two cases and two states as follows:

Masculine Plural EndingsCase

Indefinite/Definite State

Construct State

Subject(Raf")

-oon(a) -oo

Object(Nasb & Jarr)

-een(a) -ee The masculine plural endings are pronounced at pause except for the final short A vowel, and they are apparent in writing except also for the final short A vowel, which is indicated by an optional diacritic mark.

Example, click on the Arabic word to hear it:

Stem Noun: mu"allim م§ = مcعل"teacher"

One male teacher mu"allim(un) §م �مcعل2< male teachers (subject)

mu"allimoon(a) cم§ و�نمcعل

2< male teachers (object)

mu"allimeen(a) §م� �نمcعل ي

The case inflection of the masculine plural (and feminine plural) ending is similar to that of the dual in that it involves only two cases because the nasb and jarr marking is identical.


Raf" (subject)

The male teachers are here.mu"allimoon(a)

§ مcعلcو�نم

Nasb (object)

I saw the male teachers.mu"allimeen(a)

§ مcعل�نم� ي

Jarr (possession/object of preposition)

This is the male teachers' class.I gave it to the male teachers.

mu"allimeen(a)§ مcعل

�نم� ي

However, masculine plural nouns, like the dual and feminine plural nouns, are not nomina diptota because they have nunation and they are inflected for two cases in all the three states not only in the absolute state like the diptotes.

Initially, in ancient times, the masculine plural suffix was used to pluralize all masculine nouns without distinction, including those referring to nonhumans. However, as the trend of the irregular (broken) plural arose, Arabs began to abandon this suffix and use the irregular plural instead. As they did that, restrictions began to appear on the use of the masculine plural and kept appearing and increasing until the masculine plural finally became restricted to derived nouns referring to male humans, and particularly to participles referring to male humans.

For example, masculine nouns that refer to humans but are not derived from verbs cannot take the masculine plural ending and they are pluralized via the irregular plural. Such nouns are like the following:

Irregular Plural

Singular

'aabaa'(un) �ء �آبا 'ab(un)a father �أب

'ikhwa(tun) �خ�وة �إ 'akh(un)a brother �أخ

bu"ool(un) cعcو�ل �بba"l(un)a husband (classical)

بع�ل�

Derived nouns include verbal nouns, participles (including agent nouns), time and place nouns, and tool nouns.

Verbal nouns are abstract nouns that refer to ideas (e.g. eating, going, helping); they cannot refer to humans, so they cannot take the masculine

plural ending unless they are used as male proper names. Time, place, and tool nouns also cannot take the masculine plural ending.

Remains the participles. The participles in Arabic are several categories:

Active participles Emphatic active participles Active-participle-like adjectives (agent nouns) Passive participles

Nouns belonging to any of these categories can function as agent nouns in addition to their primary function as participles. However, the active-participle-like structures are mostly used as agent nouns in Standard Arabic and rarely as participles; this is why I refer to them often as "the agent nouns."

Note: if you are not sure what "participles" and "agent nouns" are, the active participles in English are simply adjectives ending with -ing, like a "talking robot" and a "boring movie." The passive participles are adjectives that look like words after "have" like a "beaten kid" and a "freed prisoner." Agent nouns are nouns ending with -er, -or or the likes, like "teller," "liar", and "conductor."

The active participle structures are two types, a simple, basic type that is derived from triliteral perfective verbs (form I verbs), and a "meemic" type (begins with a mu- prefix) that is derived from the rest of the verb forms.

The meemic active participles are relatively complex structures that are hard to "break" and remake into irregular plurals (though it is possible to add to them an augmentative tied taa<). This is why those are pluralized primarily via the regular plural suffixes when they refer to male humans (and infrequently via the addition of an augmentative tied taa<).

On the other hand, the non-meemic active participles that are derived from triliteral verbs and refer to male humans have two situations: the ones that are functioning as participles or adjectives take the masculine plural ending, whereas those functioning as non-adjective agent nouns are irregularly pluralized.

Examples, active participles:

Masculine Singular

Pluralkaatiboon(a) c �ب �ت و�نكا kaatib(un)

a writing (masc.)�ت�ب �كا

kaatibeen(a) � �ب �ت �نكا ي

mudarrisoon(a)

مcدر§cو�نس

mudarris(un)

a teaching/teacher

(masc.)

مcدر§mudarriس�

seen(a)مcدر§

�نس� يmustakshi

foon(a)

� تك مcس�cو�نش�ف

mustakshif(un)

an exploring/explore

r (masc.)

� تك مcس�mustakshiش�ف�

feen(a)

� تك مcس�ف� �نش� ي

All these examples are active participles referring to male humans. The second and third ones are meemic active participles, so these are always pluralized by the addition of the masculine plural ending. However, the first example is non-meemic, so it takes the masculine plural ending only when it is functioning as a participle (when it means "writing," like in a "writing man"), but it will be irregularly pluralized when it functions as a non-adjective agent noun (when it means "writer").

Examples on non-meemic active participles functioning as agent nouns:

Irregular Plural

Singular

kuttaab(un) �ب� ¦ا cت ك kaatib(un)a writer (masc.) �ت�ب �كا

kataba(tun) �كتبة

'ashaab(un)� أص�حا

ب�saahib(un)

a companion (masc.)

�ح� صاب�

suhba(tun) بة� صcح�sahb(un) صح�ب�

sahaaba(tun) �ب صحاة�

shuhood(un) هcو�د� cشshaahid(un

)a witness (masc.)

�ه�د� شا

The emphatic active participles that refer to male humans are all standardly pluralized by the addition of the masculine plural ending to them regardless of

whether they were participles or agent nouns, except for the structure

fa"eel which is often pluralized irregularly.

Examples:

Masculine Plural

Singulark

aththaaboon(a)

c �ب ¦ا و�نكذk

aththaab(un)

a very lying/professional

liar (masc.)

� ¦ا كذ�kب

aththaabeen(a) � �ب ¦ا �نكذ ي

rafooroon(a) غفcو�cو�نر rafoor(un)

a very forgiving/forgiver

(masc.)

غفcو�rafooreen(a)ر� غفcو�

�نر� ي

mi"taa'oon(a)� م�ع�طا

cو�نؤ mi"taa'(un)

a very giving/generous

(masc.)

م�ع�ط�ء� ا

mi"taa'een(a)� م�ع�طا

� �نئ ي

N.B. in perfect Classical Arabic, fa"eel, mif"aal, and mif"eel do not take the masculine plural ending. A general rule is that participles that can modify feminine nouns as adjectives without having feminine markers (q.v.) do not take the masculine plural ending.

Active participles and emphatic active participles referring to male humans can have an augmentative tied taa'< suffixed to them; in that case, they cannot take the masculine plural ending just as if the tied taa'< were feminine.

The standard passive participle structures are all meemic; they all begin with m- prefixes (ma- for form-I-derived and mu- for the rest). These words are all pluralized by the addition of the masculine plural suffix to them when they refer to male humans.

Examples:

Masculine Plural

Singular

ma"roofoon(a)

و� cمع�رcو�نف ma"roof(un

)

a known (masc.)

و� cمع�ر�ma"rooف

feen(a)و� cمع�ر

�نف� يmas'ooloon(a)

ؤcو� مس�c و�نل

mas'ool(un)

an asked (masc.)

→ an official (noun)

cؤ مس�mas'ooو�ل�

leen(a) ؤcو� مس�

� �نل يm

uharraroon(a)

مcحر¦cو�نر m

uharrar(un)

a freed (masc.)ر� mمcحر¦

uharrareen(a)

مcحر¦�نر� ي

The primary function of the active-participle-like structures in Standard Arabic is as agent nouns. This is why these structures are the least among the participles to take the masculine plural ending. Structures that can take the

masculine plural ending include fa"il, fay"il, fa"ool, and 'af"al when it is functioning as a comparative adjective.

Examples:

Masculine Plural

Singular

farihoon(a) نcو�فر�ح farih(un)

a happy (masc.)�فر�ح

fariheen(a) �نفر�ح� ي

tayyiboon(a) c §ب و�نطي tayyib(un)

a fine/kind(hearted) (masc.)

§ب� طيtayyibeen(a) � §ب �نطي ي

rayooroon(a) cو�ر cو�نغيrayoor(un)

a jealous (masc.)cو�ر �غي

rayooreen(a) cو�ر �ن�غي يFa"ool does not take the masculine plural ending in pure Classical Arabic.

Comparative 'af"al does take it in Classical Arabic but rarely does so in modern Arabic.

Active-participle-like structures that do not take the masculine plural ending

are the rest of the structures, which include fa"l, fi"l, fu"l, fa"al, fu"ul, fa"aal, fu"aal, fa"eel, 'af"al whose feminine form is fa"laa'<,

and fa"laan whose feminine form is fa"laa.

۩ SummaryThe masculine plural ending used to be added to all masculine nouns, but in the current Arabic it is added only to participles referring to male humans provided that they function as participles not as nomina agentis.

The masculine plural ending cannot be added to the following:

Feminine nouns Masculine nouns not referring to humans Masculine nouns referring to humans but not derived from verbs

Masculine nouns derived from verbs and referring to humans but not participles

Participles referring to humans but ending with a tied taa'< Non-meemic, non-emphatic participles referring to humans and

functioning as non-adjective agent nouns Participles that can modify feminine nouns as adjectives without having

feminine markers Masculine nouns that do not take the masculine plural ending are pluralized irregularly or by means of the feminine plural suffix.

Masculine Plural for Male-Indicating, Suffix-Free Derived Nouns

Verbal nounsonly when used as male proper

namesTime/place/tool nouns

Non-meemic active participles

only when functioning as participles or adjectives

Meemic active participles always

Emphatic active participles always except for fa"eel

Passive participles always

Active-participle-likes(nomina agentis)

only fa"il, fay"il, fa"ool, and

comparative 'af"al

Extra Note: The Faa"il Participles

The non-meemic active participles (faa"il) that function as participles appear to be more resistant to change over time than other words. An interesting example from modern spoken Arabic is found in the dialect of the northern Syrian city of Aleppo (Halab).

In standard North Syrian, the long A vowel (aa = ā) is changed to long E

(ai = ē). However, as the dialect of urban Aleppo began to lose this feature,

the long E in the faa"il participles (fai"el) was changed back to a long A

(faa"el). Interestingly, this happened only in participles functioning as agent nouns but not ones functioning as participles. Examples:

Modern Dialect of Aleppo Standard Arabic

kaiteb kaateb �ب� �ت كاa writing a writer a writing/writer (masc.)

"aimel "aamel �م�ل� عاa doing/making a worker a working/worker (masc.)

haires haares �ر�س� حاa guarding a guardian

a guarding/guardian (masc.)

So participles in Aleppo have two pronunciations for each, an original

pronunciation with an ē sound that indicates "doing," and another one with an

ā sound that indicates "doer" (there are exceptions though, like jaime" (mosque), baired (cold), saikhen (hot), "ailiy (high) 'aikher (last), etc.).

I see this similar to how the participles functioning as participles retained the regular pluralization in Arabic, whereas ones functioning as agent nouns became irregularly pluralized.

Irregular nounsFor description of irregular noun types, you may click here

I. Shortened Nouns


Shortened nouns that can take the masculine plural are all masculine singulars, so the final weak A can never be a suffix in this case; it will always

be part of the stem and turned from w or y.

When attaching the masculine plural ending to a shortened noun, the final

weak letter will be deleted and the masculine plural ending will change to -wn(a) / -yn(a).

-aa → -aW-uwn(a) → -a-wn(a)

-aa → -aW-iyn(a) → -a-yn(a)

-aa → -aY-uwn(a) → -a-wn(a)

-aa → -aY-iyn(a) → -a-yn(a)

Endings of Shortened Nouns

SingularMasculine Plural

Subject Object

-aa �اـ-awn(a) و�نـ -ayn(a) �نـ ي

-aa �ىـ

Example:

�ر�ض اridaa

Approval (masc., used as a male proper name)

ridaa �ر�ض اr

idawuwn(a) و�نcور�ض

ridawn(a) �نور�ض

ridaa �ر�ض ا

ridawiyn(a) �ن�ور�ض ي

ridayn(a) �نر�ض ي

Masculine Plural Singular

"a"lawn(a) و�نأع�ل"a"laa ى�أع�ل

higher (masc.)"a"layn(a) �نأع�ل ي

mujtabawn(a) تب و�نمcج� mujtabaa

chosen (masc. literary)تب ى�مcج�

mujtabayn(a) تب �نمcج� ي

mustafawn(a)مcص�ط

و�نف mustafaa

chosen (masc.)

مcص�طmustafayn(a)ى�ف

مcص�ط�نف ي


consonant 'alif or hamza(t) (-aa'< ء� .( ـا Extended nouns that can take the masculine plural are all masculine singulars, so the extended 'alif can never be a suffix in this case; it will always be part of the stem (an exception are some rare, obsolete male proper names

that have a feminine -aa'<).

When attaching the masculine plural ending, the ء will be changed back to its

origin (w or y) if the ء itself is not the origin.

-aa'< → -aa'-masc. plu. ending

-aa'< → -aaW-masc. plu. ending

-aa'< → -aaY-masc. plu. ending

Endings of Extended Nouns


Subject Object

-aa'< ء�اـ

-a

a'oon(a)

ـcو�ؤ�ا

ن

-a

a'een(a)�ئـ �ن�ا ي

-aa'< ء�اـ

-a

awoon(a)

ـcو�و�ا

ن

-a

aween(a)�نو�اـ �ي

-aa'< ء�اـ

-a

ayoon(a)

ـcو�ني�ا

-a

ayeen(a)�ني�اـ �ي

*The figures: ؤ ، see joining) أ are just alternative joining figures for the hamza(t) ئـfigures for hamza(t) ).

It is possible to always keep the hamza(t) unchanged when attaching the dual ending. This is typical of Modern Standard Arabic.

Examples:

Masculine Plural

Singular

qarraa'oon(a)

ق�ؤcر¦ و�نا

qarraa'<

professional reciter (masc.)

�ءقر¦ اq

arraa'een(a) �قر¦ �ئ �نا يbanna

ayoon(a) ¦ �cابن و�نيbannaa'<

builder (masc.)bannaء�¦ابن

a'oon(a) و�نؤ�c¦ابنbanna

ayeen(a) ��¦ابن �ني ي

bannaa'een(a) ¦ ��ابن �نئ ي

mi"taawoon(a)

م�ع��ط و�نوcا

mi"taa'<

giving, generous (masc./fem.)

م�ع��ءط ا

mi"taa'oon(a)

م�ع�و�نؤ�cاط

mi"taaween(a)

م�ع��ط �نو�ا ي

mi"taa'een(a)

م�ع��ط �ا �نئ ي




When attaching the masculine plural ending to defective nouns, the final -

iy .will be deleted all together �ـي�

-iY → -iY-uwn(a) → -uwn(a)

-iY → -iY-iyn(a) → -iyn(a)



Subject Object

-iy �يـ -oon(a) و�نـ -een(a) �نـ ي

Examples:

Masculine Plural

Singular

qaadoon(a)� قا

cو�نض qaadiy

judging (masc.)

� قاqaadeen(a)ي�ض� � قا

�نض� �ي

raa"oon(a)� را

cو�نع raa"iy

sponsoring (masc.)�ع �ي�را

raa"een(a) �ع� �نرا �ي

muhaamoon(a)

� مcحاcو�نم

muhaamiy

defending/defender (masc.)

→ attorney

� مcحا�mي�م

uhaameen(a)

� مcحا�نم� ي

Annexed Masculine PluralsAnnexed masculine plurals � �م �ل ا �س¦ ال ¦ر� �مcذك ال جم�ع� cت� �حقا are either مcلmasculine plurals to which there are no singulars, or masculine plurals whose singulars do not achieve the conditions for receiving the masculine plural ending (e.g. do not refer to male persons, not derived from verbs).

These are remnants from the old days when the use of the masculine plural was not as restricted as it is today. There are several of these words in the classical language; the important ones are the following:

Annexed Masculine PluralsMeaning Masculine Plural Singular

Sons

banoon(a) c و�نبن 'ibn

son (masc.)�ن �ب ا

baneen(a) � �نبن ي

Years

sinoon(a) ن cو�نس� sana(t)

year (fem.)سنة

sineen(a) ن �نس� �ي

Households

'ahloon(a) c و�نأه�ل'ahl

household

(masc.)original sense:

tent

أه�ل'ahleen(a) � �نأه�ل ي

Worlds

"aalamoon(a)

�ل عاcو�نم "aalam

world (masc.)�لم عا

"aalameen(a)

�ل عا�نم� ي

Earths, lands

'ardoon(a) أر�cو�نض 'ard

land, earth (fem.)

أر�ض'ardeen(a) ض� �نأر� ي

Hundreds

mi'oon(a) c و�نم�ئ mi'a(t)

hundred (fem.)

م�ئةmi'een(a) � �نم�ئ ي

Name of place in paradise

"illiyyoon(a) ¶ §ي ل و�نع� --- ---

"illiyyeen(a) § §ي ل �نع� ي

Possessors (of)

'uloo و�لc ا�cوأ *

--- ---'ulee و�ل

c ��يأ*The final ا is silent.

The last word 'uloo / 'ulee lacks its final -n(a) because it exists only in the construct state that is used to form genitive constructions. Masculine

plural nouns (as well as dual nouns) lose their final -n(a) in the construct state; this will be covered later.

The most commonly used annexed masculine plural nouns are the "decade

words" و�د�cقcع� ال cظ� �فا .أل

Annexed Masculine Plurals"Decade Words"

Meaning Object Case Subject Case

Twenty "ishreen(a)ع�ش�

�نر� ي"ishroon(a)

ع�ش�cو�نر

Thirtythalaatheen(a) � �نثالث ي thalaat

hoon(a) c و�نثالث

Forty 'arba"een(a) ب أر��نع� ي

'arba"oon(a) ب أر�cو�نع

Fifty khamseen(a) خم��نس� ي

khamsoon(a) خم�cو�نس

Sixty sitteen(a) § ت �نس� ي sittoon(a) ¶ ت و�نس�

Seventy sab"een(a) � سب�نع� ي

sab"oon(a) � سبcو�نع

Eightythamaaneen(a)

� ثما� �نن ي

thamaanoon(a) c �ن و�نثما

Ninety tis"een(a) �س� ت�نع� ي

tis"oon(a) �س� تcو�نع

Extra Note: Modern Variations

In modern spoken Arabic, the masculine plural declension used similarly to Classical Arabic. The usual form of the masculine plural ending in modern spoken Arabic is:

-eenThis form is used for all cases as there is no case declension in modern spoken Arabic.

Examples (Urban Central Syrian):

bayyaa"een = male sellers

kazzaabeen = male liars

Syrian Arabic shows a phenomenon of adding the masculine plural ending to irregular plural nouns.

Examples (Urban North Syrian):

wlaideen = male children (ن� (أو�الد�ي

shaibeen = male companions (ن� �ي �ب (أص�حا

This might be related to confusion by the early Syriac-speaking inhabitants who apparently couldn't grasp the Arabic irregular plurals easily.

In modern spoken Arabic, the masculine plural (and dual) endings are not

inflected for state as they retain the final -n in the construct state.

E.g. in Urban Central Syrian:

bayyaa"een ('e)l-falaafel = (the) sellers (of) falafel

Examples from other Semitic languages (absolute state):

Subject Object

Akkadian "fathers" 'abboo 'abbee

Aramaic "men" gavreen

Hebrew "kings" mlaakheem

Exercise 1Can you change the following singular masculine nouns to masculine plural nouns in the subject case?

Fighter �ر�ب مcحا

Stronger (adj.) أق�وى�

Upset (adj.) �ء تا مcس�

Proper name �د�ي� ها

Answers

cو�ن �ر�ب مcحا

أق�وو�ن

�ؤcو�ن تا مcس�

�دcو�ن ها

Exercise 2

Can you change the following masculine plural nouns to singular nouns?

Defenders �ف�عcو�ن مcدا

Smarter (adj.) �ن أذ�كي

Proper name �ن �ي عالئDissemblers

(root: R ' Y)cو�ن �ئ مcرا

Answers

�ف�ع مcدا

أذ�كى�

عالء

�ي� �ئ مcرا

NounsNumber of NounsPlural Nouns (continued)

Feminine Plural NounsThe feminine plural ل�م� ا ال�س¦ ¦ث� �مcؤن ال cجم�ع� is the second type of the regular (suffixal) plural. It is quite more common than the masculine plural.

The primary use of the feminine plural is to pluralize nouns and adjectives with feminine markers in addition to some masculine derived nouns and masculine nouns referring to objects.

Feminine plural nouns have the following ending that is inflected for two cases and two states:

Feminine Plural EndingsCase Indefinite State

Definite/Construct State

Subject(Raf")

-aat(un) -aat(u)

Object(Nasb & Jarr)

-aat(in) -aat(i)

The t of these endings is always pronounced, so it is an "open" t. Other

nonstandard versions in Classical Arabic included a "tied" t (-aa(tun), -aa(tin), -aa(tu), and -aa(ti)) with pronunciation similar to that of the

feminine -a(t).

When adding the feminine plural ending to nouns with additional -a(t), the -a(t) is removed.


Stem Noun: mu"allim م§ = مcعل"teacher"

One male teacher mu"allim(un) §م �مcعلOne female teacher

mu"allima(tun) §م �ةمcعل

2< female teachers (subject)

mu"allimaat(un)

§ مcعل�تم �ا

2< female teachers (object)

mu"allimaat(in)

§ مcعل�تم ²ا

The pronunciation and state inflection of the feminine plural ending is similar to that of singular nouns. On the other hand, the case inflection of the

feminine plural ending is similar to that of the dual and masculine plural endings in that it involves only two cases (the nasb and jarr marking is identical).

Stem Noun: mu"allim م§ "teacher" = مcعلRaf" (subject)

Female teachers are here.

mu"allimaat(un) §م �ت�مcعل ا

Nasb (object)

I saw female teachers.

mu"allimaat(in) §م �ت²مcعل ا

Jarr (possession/object of preposition)

This is a female teachers' class.I gave it to female teachers.

mu"allimaat(in) §م �ت²مcعل ا

It looks like the feminine plural ending developed as follows:

-(a)atoona → -aatun-(a)ateena → -aatin

The feminine plural ending is added to nouns with feminine markers whether they refer to female humans or not.

For example,

Feminine Plural

Singular

kalimaat(un) �م �ت�كل ا kalima(tun)

a word (fem.)�مة� كل

kalimaat(in) �م �ت²كل اbawwaabaat(un) �ب �تبو¦ا �ا bawwaaba(t

un)

a gate (fem.)�بة� بو¦ا

bawwaabaat(in) �ب �تبو¦ا ²ا

muhaawalaat(u

n)

� مcحا�ت�و ال

muhaawala(tu

n)

an attempt (fem.)

�و مcحاmلة�

uhaawalaat(in)

� مcحا�ت²و ال

musaa"adaat(un)

�ع مcسا�ت�د ا musaa"ada(t

un)

a help (fem.)

� مcساmusaa"aعدة�

daat(in)�ع مcسا

�ت²د ا Nouns used as female names can take the feminine plural ending even if they are masculine themselves.

Feminine nouns without feminine markers are irregularly pluralized. Examples:

Irregular Plural Singular

huroob(un) cر cب�وح� harb(un)a war (fem.) ب� حر�

niraan(un) � ��رين ن�ا naar(un)a fire (fem.) �ر� نا

turuq(un) ق� cرcطtareeq(un)

a route/way (fem.) �طر� ق�ي However, adjectives that modify feminine nouns without feminine having markers can take the feminine plural ending.

Fa"laa'< feminine adjectives do not take the feminine plural ending but

are pluralized irregularly through the structure fu"l(un). However, this is often breached and the feminine plural ending is often added to such adjectives. Examples:

Plural Singular

humr(un) �حcم�رhamraa'<

red (fem.)�ءحم�ر ا

"umy(un) عcم�ي�"amyaa'<

blind (fem.) �ءعم�ي cا

Fa"laa feminine adjectives do not take the feminine plural ending but are

pluralized irregularly through the structure fu"aalaa. Examples:

Plural Singular

"utaashaacع

�ط �ىشا"atshaa

thirsty (fem.)

� عط�ىش

sukaaraa �سcك �ىراsakraa

drunk (fem.)�ر �ىسك

Some basic feminine nouns, including ones with feminine markers, do not take the feminine plural ending or have altered figures when they take it. Examples:

Plural Singular'

ummahaat(un)

c أ�هم¦ ا

'umm(un)a mother (fem.) ºمc أ

ت�

'ummahaat(in

)

c أ�هم¦ ا

ت²banaat(un) �ت�بن ا bint(un)

a daughter/girl (fem.)

� �ن �تبbanaat(in) �ت²بن ا

'akhawaat(un

)

أ�وخ ا

�ت 'ukht(un)a sister (fem.) cخ� �تأ

'akhawaat(in)

أ�وخ ا

²تs

anawaat(un) س �تون �ا

sana(tun)a year (fem.) �ةسن

sanawaat(in)س

�تون ²ا

shifaah(un)ش��ه�اف

shafa(tun)a lip (fem.) �ةشف

shiyaah(un) ي �ه�اش�shaa(tun)shaah(un)shaa'(un)

a goat (masc./fem.)

�ة� شا

�ه� شا�ء� شا

milal(un) م�لل�milla(tun)a denomination

(fem.)¦ �ةم�ل

The last three plurals are irregular plurals. Etymologies'ummun (mother), bantun (daughter), 'akhtun (sister).

Another word for "a daughter" in Standard Arabic is 'ibna(tun) �ن �ب �ةا . A possible common ancestor of bantun and 'ibnatun is bnatun. The feminine plural ending is also added to masculine derived nouns that do not refer to male humans.

Many of these are verbal nouns, for example:

Feminine Singular

Plural'i"laanaat(un) �ع�الن �تإ �ا 'i"laan(un)

an announcement

(masc.)

�ع�الن �إ'i"laanaat(in) �ع�الن �تإ ²ا

'ijtimaa"aat(u

n)

� �ما ت �ج� ا�ت�ع ا

'ijtimaa"(un

)

a meeting (masc.)

� �ما ت �ج� ا'ع�

ijtimaa"aat(in)

� �ما ت �ج� ا�ت²ع ا

muqtarahaat(u

n)

مcق�تر�ت�ح ا

muqtarah(un

)

a proposition (masc.)

مcق�ترmح�

uqtarahaat(in)

مcق�تر�ت²ح ا

mashroo"aat(u

n)

و� cر مش��ت�ع ا

mashroo"(un

)

a project (masc.)

cر مش�mو�ع�

ashroo"aat(in و� cر مش�

) �ت²ع ا

Masculine place and time nouns can also take the feminine plural ending:

Feminine Plural

Singular

mataaraat(un)

� مطا�ت�ر ا mataar(un)

an airport (masc.) �ر� مطاm

ataaraat(in)

� مطا�ت²ر ا

maqarraat(un)

مق�ت�ر¦ ا maqarr(un)

a location, a residing place

(masc.)ºمقر

maqarraat(in)

مق�ت�²ر¦ ا

mamarraat(un) مم

�ت�ر¦ ا

mamarr(un)

a passageway (masc.)

ºممر

mamarraat(in)

مم�ت²ر¦ ا

Masculine agent nouns with an augmentative -a(t) are pluralized by the feminine plural ending:

Feminine Plural Singular

"allaamaat(un) ¦م �ت�عال ا "allaama(tun)

an erudite (masc.)¦مة� عال

"allaamaat(in) ¦م �ت²عال ا

rahhaalaat(un) � ا �ت�رح¦ ال rahhaala(tun)

an experienced traveler (masc.)

�لة� ا رح¦rahhaalaat(in) � ا �ت²رح¦ ال

Some masculine nouns that refer to objects and have too many letters (five or more) or assume complex structures are pluralized via the feminine plural instead of the irregular plural. Examples,

Feminine Singular

Pluralh

ammaamaat(un)

� حم¦ا�ت�م ا

hammaam(u

n)

a bath (masc.)

�م� حم¦اh

ammaamaat(in)

� حم¦ا�ت²م ا

'istablaat(un)�ص�ط إ

� الت�ب 'istabl(un)

a stable (masc.)

�ص�ط إ�ل� ب

'istablaat(in)�ص�ط إ

� الت²ب

tilifōnaat(un)�ل�فو ت

�ت�ن ا tilifōn(un)

a telephone (masc.)

�ل�فو تن�

tilifōnaat(in)�ل�فو ت

�ت²ن ا The feminine plural ending can sometimes be added to collective nouns (irregular plural nouns) as an augmentative suffix. Examples,


rijaalaat(un) � الت�ر�جا rijaal(un)

men (masc.)�ل� ر�جا

rijaalaat(in) � الت²ر�جا

buyootaat(un) cو�ت cي �ت�ب ا buyoot(un)

houses, families (masc.)

cو�ت� cي بbuyootaat(in) cو�ت cي �ت²ب ا

When -aatun / -aatin is added to "men" the meaning becomes "prominent men:" and when it is added to "families" the meaning becomes "prominent families."The irregular plurals can also take the dual and masculine plural endings as augmentative suffixes, but all these are rare cases.

۩ SummaryThe feminine plural ending is added to:

Feminine nouns (and adjectives) with feminine markers (-a(t), -aa'<, & -aa).

Feminine adjectives without feminine markers (q.v.) Nouns used as female names regardless of their gender.

Nouns with non-feminine (augmentative) suffixes -a(t), -aa'<, or -aa.

Arbitrarily, some masculine derived nouns (mostly verbal nouns). Some nouns referring to objects and which have too many letters or are

too complex to fit into an irregular plural structure. Few irregular plural nouns as an augmentative suffix.

Irregular nounsFor description of irregular noun types, you may click here

I. Shortened Nouns


۩ Shortened Nouns With Three LettersThe weak 'alif of the ending will be changed back to its origin (either w or y)

when attaching the feminine plural ending. This form of 'alif : ـاwill be

changed back to w, and this one: ـى will be changed back to y. The short A vowel preceding the weak 'alif will remain intact.

-aa → -aW-fem. plu. ending

-aa → -aY-fem. plu. ending


Singular Feminine Plural

Subject Object

-aa �اـ -awaat(un) �توـ �ا -awaat(in) �توـ ²ا

-aa �ىـ -ayaat(un) �ت�يـ ا -ayaat(in) �ت²يـ ا

۩ Shortened Nouns With More Than Three LettersThe weak 'alif will be always changed to y when attaching the feminine plural ending, regardless of its origin.

-aa → -aY-fem. plu. ending


SingularFeminine Plural

Subject Object

-aa �اـ-ayaat(un) �ت�يـ ا -ayaat(in) �ت²يـ ا

-aa �ىـ A final weak 'alif of any Arabic word with more than three letters takes this

figure ـى regardless of its true origin. This suits well the rules of declension. However, there is one exception, which is when the letter preceding the final

weak 'alif in such words is y ; in that case, the 'alif takes the figure ـا even though the rules still stand.

Examples:


shathawaat(un)

ش�ت�وذ ا shathaa

female name (fem.)

�شذ اshathawaat(in)

ش�ت²وذ ا

hudayaat(un) �ت�يهcد ا hudaa

female name (fem.)

ى�هcدhudayaat(in) �ت²يهcد ا

thikrayaat(un)� ذ�ك

�ت�ير ا thikraa

reminiscence (fem.)

�ر ى�ذ�كthikrayaat(in)

� ذ�ك�ت²ير ا

dunyayaat(un) �ي �ت�يدcن ا dunyaa

lowest/nearest (fem.)

�ي �ادcنdunyayaat(in) �ي �ت²يدcن ا

mustashfayaat(un)

تش� مcس��ت�يف ا

mustashfaa

hospital (masc.)

ت مcس�ف mustashfى�ش�

ayaat(in)تش� مcس�

�ت²يف ا


glottal stop or hamza(t) (-aa'< ء� .( ـا

۩ Extended Nouns With Four Letters or FewerIn extended nouns with four letters or fewer, the final hamza(t) ء is always

an original letter. When attaching the dual ending, the ء will be changed back

to its origin (w or y) if the ء itself is not the origin.

-aa'< → -aa'-fem. plu. ending

-aa'< → -aaW-fem. plu. ending

-aa'< → -aaY-fem. plu. ending

Endings of Extended Nouns With Four Letters or Fewer


Subject Object

-aa'< ء�اـ -aa'aat(un) �ت�ء�اـ ا -

aa'aat(in) �ت²ء�اـ ا-aa'< ء�اـ

-a

awaat(un)�وـ �تا �ا

-a

awaat(in)�وـ �تا ²ا

-aa'< ء�اـ-a

ayaat(un)�يـ �ت�ا ا

-a

ayaat(in)�يـ �ت²ا ا

Unlike the shortened 'alif whose figure denotes its origin, the origin of the hamza(t) of an extended 'alif cannot be told from its written figure.

It is possible, though not ideal, to keep the hamza(t) of the extended 'alif always without change when attaching the feminine plural ending. This is typical of Modern Standard Arabic.

Examples:

Feminine Plural

Singular

samaawaat(un)

س�وم �ت�ا ا

samaa'<

heaven (fem.)�ءاسم

samaa'aat(un)

س�ءم �ت�ا ا

samaawaat(in)

س�وم �ت²ا ا

samaa'aat(in)

س�ءم �ت²ا ا

wafaayaat(un)

وف �ي �ت�ا ا

wafaa'<

female name�wafaءوفا

a'aat(un)و

�ءف �ت�ا اwafa

ayaat(in) وف

ا �ت�²ي ا

wafaa'aat(in) و�ءف �ت²ا ا

۩ Extended Nouns With More Than Four LettersIn extended nouns with more than four letters, there is a chance that the

hamza(t) ء of the extended 'alif is an additional letter (i.e. the extended 'alif is a suffix).

If the hamza(t) is an original letter, it will be changed back to its origin (w ,

y, or kept ' ) when adding the feminine plural suffix.

-aa'< → -aa'-fem. plu. ending


-aa'< → -aaY-fem. plu. ending

However, it is possible to always keep the hamza(t) unchanged when attaching the feminine plural ending. This is typical of Modern Standard Arabic.

Examples:


'inshaa'aat(un)

� �ن إ�ت�ء�اش ا 'inshaa'<

construction (masc.)�ش �ن ء�اإ

'inshaa'aat(in)� �ن إ

�ت²ء�اش ا'ihda

ayaat(un) �ه�د �اا �ت�ي ا

'ihdaa'<

gifting (masc.) �ه�د �ءا ا'ihdaa'aat(un) �ه�د �ت�ء�اا ا

'ihdaayaat(in) �ه�د �اا �ت²ي ا

'ihdaa'aat(in) �ه�د �ت²ء�اا ا

'i"tidaawaat(un)

� �ع�ت ا�د �ت�وا ا 'i"tidaa'<

assault/aggression (masc.)

�د �ع�ت �ءا ا

'i"tidaa'aat(un) � �ع�ت ا

�د �ت�ءا ا'i"tida

awaat(in)� �ع�ت ا

�د �ت²وا ا

'i"tidaa'aat(in)� �ع�ت ا

�د �ت²ءا ا

When the -aa'< is a feminine marker, the hamza(t) is always turned into w when attaching the feminine plural ending.



khadraawaat(un) خض��ت�و�ار ا khadraa'<

green (fem.)

خض�ء�ار

khadraawaat(in) خض��ور �ت²ا ا

shaqraawaat(un)شق�

�ت�و�ار ا shaqraa'<

blonde (fem.)�ءشق�را

shaqraawaat(in)شق�

�ت²و�ار اmoomiyaawaat(un)

مcو�م��وي �ت�ا ا moomiya

a'<

mummy (fem.)

ء�امcو�م�يmoomiyaawaat(in)

مcو�م� �ت²و�اي ا

In the language of the Koran, which is the source of Standard Arabic,

fa"laa'< adjectives are never pluralized regularly but always through the

irregular structure fu"l(un).




Defective nouns take the feminine plural ending just as regular nouns.

-iY → -iY-fem. plu. ending



Subject Object

-iy �يـ -iyaat(un) �ت�يـ ا -iyaat(in) �ت²يـ ا

Examples:


qaadiyaat(un) �ض� قا �ت�ي ا qaadiya(tun)

a finalizing/finalizer (fem.)

→ a judge (fem.)

�ض� ة�يقاqaadiyaat(in) �ض� قا �ت²ي ا

daa"iyaat(un) �ع� �يدا ت�ا daa"iya(tun)

Inviting/inviter (fem.)�ع� دا �ةي

daa"iyaat(in) �ع� �يدا ت²ا

Extra Note: Man & Woman The standard word for "a man" in Arabic is:

رجcل�

rajul(un)A man

This is an agent noun of the structure fa"ul(un); it literally means "a walker." Other words for "a man" in Standard Arabic include:

ؤ� ا cء /�م�ر �مر�

'imru'(un) / mar'(un)A man

Etymology: mra'un

In modern spoken Arabic, words of the root R J L are used standardly:

Man("walker," active participle)

Used in Egypt and southern Levant with variable pronunciations

(e.g. "raagil" in Lower Egyptian [Cairo])

raajil �ج�لار Man

("very walker → very man" emphatic active participle)

Used in Arabia, Levant, Iraq, etc. with variable pronunciations

(e.g. "rejjaal" in Urban Syrian [Damascus])

rajjaal ار ل�ج¦

The standard classical word rajul(un) can still be heard today in some rare dialects with varying pronunciations (e.g. "rajil" in Palestinian Arabic).

The feminine form of this word, rajula(tun) ل cةرج� = "a woman" was uncommon in Classical Arabic and it is not a standard word. Rather, the standard word for "a woman" in formal Arabic is the feminine of 'imru'(un)/ mar'(un):

ا /� ة�م�رأ أ ة�مر�

'imra'a(tun) / mar'a(tun)A woman

Etymology: mra'atun This word is used in many modern dialects (e.g. Arabia, Northern Levant, Iraq) with variable pronunciations (most commonly, "mara"). Another word

that is common in modern Arabia is "hurma" م ةحcر� (plural: "hareem"

�حر� مي ). Dialects that are derived mostly from classical Yemeni Arabic (Egyptian and South Levantine) use a non-Arabic word for "a woman":

س�ت±

sitt

A woman This is not an Arabic word but a word that is commonly found in South Semitic languages (e.g. Ethiopian languages). It appears that this word was also used in Old South Arabian languages (ancient Yemeni languages spoken before Arabic).

Anyway, this word has found its way into modern Egyptian, Palestinian, and

Lebanese Arabic. The plural is sittaat ¦ ت �تس� ا . This word is used in other modern dialects as a word for a "grandmother." This is found in dialects that started out as Yemeni-based dialects but deviated later (North Levantine). The plural of rajul(un) is:

�ل� ر�جا

rijaal(un)Men

Note that rajul(un) cannot be regularly pluralized (cannot take -oona). However, the words 'imru'(un), mar'(un), 'imra'a(tun), and mar'a(tun) cannot be pluralized at all. This leaves the word for "a woman" without a plural. The plural word for "a woman" in Standard Arabic is:

�س �ءن �ا

nisaa'(un)Women

Another less common variant:

�س� وة�ن

niswa(tun)Women

Both words do not have singulars (plurale tantum). These words are related to the following words:

A male human being

'ins(un) �س� �ن إ

'insaan(un) �س �ن �نإ �ا The roots ' N S and N S are apparently cognates and they mean "man, human." Etymologiesnsun → 'insun (man/human)nsaatun → nisaa'un (women) The root N S / N SH is common in Semitic languages (e.g. Akkadian nishoo (people), Aramaic 'anaash / 'eesh (man), Hebrew 'anōsh / 'eesh (man)). In modern spoken Arabic, the following words are used for "men":

Used in Arabia, Levant, Iraq, North Africa etc. with variable pronunciations rjaal �ل جا ر�

Used mostly in Egypt("riggaala" in Lower Egypt [Cairo]) rajjaala

را ةل�ج¦

Other rare forms include rajaajeel (Eastern to Central Arabia). The words for "women" include:

Found in most dialects niswaan �س� ن�نو ا

In Egypt sittaat ¦ ت �تس� اMostly in Arabia hareem �حر� مي

Extra Note: Modern Spoken Arabic

In modern spoken Arabic, the feminine plural declension is used similarly to Classical Arabic but without the terminal case/state inflected part:

-aatHowever, some Arabian dialects preserve the state inflection; like Najdi Arabic (central Arabian Arabic):

Indefinite -aatenDefinite/construct -aat

Najdi dialect preserves the state inflection in singular nouns too; but it does not preserve any case inflection. The feminine plural ending is overused in Syrian Arabic. It is added to many masculine nouns referring to objects and also to nouns referring to male humans in a way totally inadmissible in Classical Arabic. For example,

Modern Urban Syrian Standard Arabic

'abfather

'abbahaatfathers �ء� - آبا أب�

'akhbrother

'ekhwaatbrothers �ن� - �خ�وا إ أخ�

rfee'<male companion

ref'aatmale companions - cء� فقا cر �ق� رف�ي

This is believed to be related to the Syriac substratum.

Since that the long A vowel is usually very changeable between the different dialects, the feminine plural ending will sound different from one place to the

other. The spectrum of changeability extends between -ēt and -ōt, with these two themselves being very rare in the modern pronunciation. Most commonly today, the long A will be pronounced either like the a in an American "man," or "can;" or it will be pronounced similar to the a in "father." The first pronunciation is typical of North Africa, southern Levant (Palestine and Lebanon), and northernmost Levant (northern Syria). These may be called the "E-regions." The second pronunciation is heard mainly in western and central Syria, in the Persian Gulf region and in some parts of southern Arabia (the "O-region"). A "normal" long A is generally heard elsewhere. Examples from other Semitic languages:

Subject Object

Akkadian "years" shanaatum shanaatim

Aramaic "queens" malkhaat

Hebrew "daughters" ylaadōt

In later western dialects of Aramaic (later dialects are called Syriac), the long A vowel becomes a long O like in Hebrew.

Exercise 1Can you change the following singular nouns to feminine plural nouns in the subject case?

Friend (fem.) �قة صد�ي

Forum (masc.) �تدى� مcن

Female proper name لمى�

Gorgeous (fem. adj.) �ء نا حس�

Eliminating (elimination) (masc.)

�ء �ق�صا إ

Female proper name �ية �ن را

Answers

Friends (fem.) �ت� �قا صد�ي

Forums (fem.) �ت� �تديا مcن

Female proper name �ت� لميا

Gorgeous (fem. adj.)

� �وا نا حس�ت�

Eliminating (elimination) (fem.)

� �ءا �ق�صا إت�

Female proper name �ت� �يا �ن را

Exercise 2Can you change the following feminine plural nouns to singular nouns?

Princesses (fem.) �ت� �را أم�ي

Female proper name �ت� رنوا

Red (fem. adj.) �ت� �وا حم�را

Aggressions (fem.) �ت� �ءا �دا �ع�ت ا

Answers

Princess (fem.) �رة� أم�ي

Female proper name� رنا

Red (fem. adj.) �ء حم�را

Aggression (masc.) �ء �دا �ع�ت ا

NounsNumber of NounsPlural Nouns (continued)

Irregular Plural NounsAs we have seen, turning a singular noun into a regular plural noun is done by adding a suffix while the main stem of the noun is preserved.

Irregular plurals work in another way. Here, there are no added suffixes but rather the radicals (root-letters) of the singular noun are taken and applied into a different pattern or structure to form the plural. Thus, the stem of the singular noun is not preserved in this kind of plural.

This is why it is called the broken Plural (the Arabic name is literally the

"breaking plural" �ر� ي �س� ¦ك الت cجم�ع). This name refers to the fact that this kind of plural involves "breaking" the stem of the singular noun.

Examples of irregular plurals:

Irregular Plural

Singular

rijaal(un)�ر�ج �لا

rajul(un)�رجcل

men (masc.) a man (masc.)

tujjaar(un)cج �ر�¦ات

taajir(un) �ت �ج�را

merchants (masc.) a merchant (masc.)

huroob(un)

cر cبو�ح�harb(un)

�حر�بwars (fem.) a war (fem.)

'ashjaar(un) جأ ��راش�shajara(tun) شج

�trees (fem.)ةر a tree (fem.)

'ayyaam(un) ¦أ ��مايyawm(un)

يو�م�days (fem.) a day (masc.)

haqaa'iq(u)

�حق �ئ cقاhaqeeqa(tun) ح

�facts (fem.)ة�قيق� a fact (fem.)

Irregular plurals are in fact a kind of collective nouns. They are semantically plural, but grammatically they are singular. For example, when you use huroob(un) = "wars" in a sentence you won't say "these are wars" but "this is wars."

________________________________________

Origins

It appears that the irregular plural structures were derived from verbal noun structures because of the obvious similarity. A verbal noun in English is a gerund (like in "I love eating much"). For example, they used "warring" to say "wars" and "trading" to say "traders." The sentence "this is warring" meant to them "these are wars" and "that is trading" meant "those are traders." This is the origin of the irregular plurals.

However, unlike verbal nouns, the irregular plurals are always feminine.

We showed in the previous sections how the grammatical feminine gender markers had an original augmentative/diminutive function. This relationship

between the grammatical feminine gender and the meaning of augmentation/diminution in Arabic makes it no surprise that the irregular plurals are feminine.

What is now a "feminine gender" of the irregular plural nouns was initially a mere indication of plenitude. For example, "this is much warring (neut.)" became this is "this is wars (neut.)" and eventually "this is wars (fem.)" when the feminine connotation emerged.

Some irregular plural structures have obvious "feminine markers" attached, while most of them do not. Some structures have other kinds of

augmentative/diminutive suffixes like the -aan suffix which is now standardly a "dual" marker in Arabic.

Initially, Semitic peoples used the two regular plural suffixes (the masculine & feminine plural suffixes) to pluralize all nouns whether they were referring to persons, animals, or objects. However, Semites slowly started to develop a tendency toward using the broken plural instead of the regular suffixes. This phenomenon had not yet been very extensive when Akkadians (ancient Mesopotamian Semites) started to write their language. There were few irregular plural nouns in the Akkadian language, which is the oldest known Semitic language. Even Hebrew, which was still spoken until the first century CE, shows minimal presence of this phenomenon in comparison to Arabic.

It appears that Arabs and other South Semitic peoples enjoyed this kind of pluralization so much that they kept doing it until, by the time of Muhammad and Classical Arabic, the use of the masculine plural suffix -oona/-eena became restricted to participles referring to male humans.

However, there were few remnants in Classical Arabic of nouns referring to masculine objects which were pluralized by suffixing the masculine plural ending to them. Such words that were used in the Koran (the Muslim holy book) included:

"aalamoon(a) cلم� و�نعا = "worlds" (sing. "aalam(un) لم�� ("a world" = عا

sinoon(a) c ن و�نس� = "years" (sing. sana(tun) سنة� = "a year")

These plurals are called in Arabic grammar the "annexed masculine plurals" because they go against the rule of keeping the masculine plural declension

for only participles referring to male humans. There is a list of all of the words that matter of this type in this page.

The usage of the irregular plural has been growing even more since the time of the Koran and more words today are irregularly pluralized. For example, adjectives referring to male humans were generally regularly pluralized in Classical Arabic, today however, they are commonly irregularly pluralized.

________________________________________

It is important to know that nouns can be irregularly pluralized by more than one way, that is by using more than one structure or pattern. Moreover, many nouns can be regularly and irregularly pluralized in the same time.

For example:

Plural Singular

cه cر�وش� هcر�أ ش� شه�ر�shuhoor(un) 'ashhur(un) shahr(un)

months (fem.) months (fem.) a month (masc.)

ة�قتل �لاق cو�ن�ت �ل�اق �تqatala(tun) qaatiloon(a) qaatil(un)

killers (masc.) killing (masc.) a killing/killer (masc.)

Irregular plural nouns are always feminine, unless they refer to male humans where they can be masculine.

When irregular plurals refer to humans, they can be treated grammatically as plural nouns instead of singular. For example, one would say "these are the writers" instead of "this is the writers;" the latter is purer but less common, especially in modern Arabic. However, the declension of an irregular plural noun will not change even if it is treated as a plural — it will always have the endings of a singular noun.

When an irregular plural noun is treated as a plural (when it refers to humans), the gender of the noun will match the gender of its singular. For example, one would say "those men know what is best for them" instead of "that men knows what is best for her." The latter is purer but less common in Standard Arabic.

Since that nouns referring to female humans are usually pluralized through the feminine regular plural, irregular plurals referring to humans usually refer to male humans.

Irregular Plural StructuresThe possible structures for irregular plural nouns are many. However, not all the structures are equally important. Some of the structures are used much more often than the others.

Following is a comprehensive listing of all the structures from a "structural" (morphological) point of view. The singular endings are removed. Note that many of the following structures are uncommon.

1) Structures of the Basic Forms CvCC & CvCvC

►Without affixes

Example Structure

humrfu"l Red (plu. adj.)فcع�ل

"arabfa"al Arabsفعل

qiwaafi"al Forcesف�عل

duwalfu"al States/countriesفcعل

rusulfu"ul Messengersفcعcل

►With geminated (doubled) second radical (root-letter)

Example Structure

suth th ajfu""al cلعف¦

Fools

►With -a(t), -aa'< , or -aa (common ancestor -(a)at )

Example Structure

fitya(t)fi"la(t) ةف�ع�ل

Young people

jahala(t)fa"ala(t) ةفعل

Ignorant (plu. adj.)

fiyala(t)fi"ala(t) ةف�عل

Elephants

ruzaa(t)fu"ala(t) ةفcعل

Invaders

ru'asaa'<fu"alaa'< ءالفcع

Presidents

qatlaafa"laa Killed (plu. adj.)ى�فع�ل

►With -aan

Example Structure

sibyaanfi"laan نالف�ع�

Boys

buldaanfu"laan نالفcع�

Countries

►With prefix 'a- ('aCvCvC → 'aCCvC)

Example Structure

'anfus'af"ul ف�عcلأ

Souls/beings

►With prefix 'a- and suffixes -a(t) and -aa'<

Example Structure

'ajwiba(t)'af"ila(t) أ Answersةف�ع�ل

'anbiyaa'

<'

af"ilaa'< ءالف�ع�أ

Prophets

2) Structures of the Form CvCvvC

►Without affixes

Example Structure

"abeedfa"eel �ليفع�

Slaves

jibaalfi"aal �لاف�ع

Mountains

suhoolfu"ool cعcلو�ف

Plains

►With geminated second radical

Example Structure

"ummaalfu""aal �فcع¦ لا

Workers

►With -aa

Example Structure

kasaalaa fa"aalaa ى��لافع

Lazy (plu. adj.)

►With -iy / -iyy

Example Structure

sahaariyfa"aaliy �ي��لافع

Deserts

sahaaliyy fa"aaliyy �فع �ا ±يل

Lizards

►With infix -'i- (originally -wi- or -yi-)

Example Structure

"ajaa'ibfa"aa'il �فع �ئ لا

Wonders

►With prefix 'a- ('aCvCvvC → 'aCCvvC)

Example Structure

'atfaal'af"aal �لاف�عأ

Children

3) Structures of the Forms CaaCiC & CaaCeeC

►With prefix 'a-

Example Structure

'afaa"iy'afaa"il �فأ ع�لا

Snakes

'asaaleeb'afaa"eel ��ع�افأ لي

Methods

►With prefix ma-

Example Structure

madaarismafaa"il �فم ع�لا

Schools

mafaateehmafaa"eel �فم �ليع�ا

Keys

►With prefix ya-

Example Structure

yahaamid yafaa"il

ي�ع�لاف

Plural of the name yahmad

yanaabee" y

afaa"eel

ي��ع�اف ي

لSprings (of water)

►With prefix ta-

Example Structure

tamaathee

lt

afaa"eel

ت��عاف �ي

Statuesل

►With infix -wa- or -ya-

Example Structure

"awaalimfawaa"il �ع�لواف

Worlds

sayaariffayaa"il �ع�لياف

Money exchangers

tawaaheenfawaa"eel �لي�ع�واف

Mills

rayaaheenfayaa"eel �ف �ل�يعيا

Scents

4) Structures with Four Radicals

Example Structure

qanaabilfa"aalil �لافع �Bombsل

baraameel fa"aaleel �افع �لي�ل

Barrels

Next, we are going to talk about the structures in terms of their usage.

Nouns

Number of NounsPlural NounsIrregular Plural Nouns (continued)

I. Fewness Structures ة�¦ �ق�ل ال cو�عcمcج These structures are supposed to be used for plurals that refer to no more than ten unites, but this is not obligatory.

'af"ul ف�عcلأ'af"ila(t) أ ةف�ع�ل'af"aal �لاف�عأfi"la(t) ةف�ع�ل

In order to be able to use these structures you will need to know the root of the singular noun.

The truth is that there are no real solid rules for when to use each one of these structures, however, there are some general directions that could be mentioned.

۞ 'af"ul لأcف�عThis structure is generally used for the singular nouns that are of the following structures:

1. fa"l فع�لExamples:

Plural Singular

'anhur�هcرأ ن

nahrrivers (fem.)نه�ر river (masc.)

'abhur �حcرأ بbahr

بح�رseas (fem.) sea (masc.)

'ashhurهcرأ ش�

shahrmonths (fem.)شه�ر month (masc.)

'awjuhو�جcهأ

wajhوج�ه

faces / aspects (fem.) face / aspect (masc.)

However, there are many irregularities to this rule.

Examples:

Plural Singular

quloob c بو�قcلqalb

قل�بhearts (fem.) heart (masc.)

huroob cحبcو�ر

harb

حر�بwars (fem.) war (fem.)

shuhoor

cه cروش�shahr

months (fem.)شه�ر month (masc.)

wujooh

cجcهوو�wajh

وج�هfaces / aspects (fem.)

face / aspect (masc.)

'anhaar�هأ �ن را

nahrrivers (fem.)نه�ر river (masc.)

bihaar�ح �راب

bahrبح�ر

seas (fem.) sea (masc.)

kilaab

� بالكkalb

كل�بdogs (fem.) dog (masc.)

Most of the fa"l nouns that have middle weak-letters in their triliteral roots don't follow this rule.

Most of the fa"l nouns that haveو as first letter of their triliteral roots don't follow this rule.

Again, it should be known that many nouns can be irregularly pluralized using more than one structure.

2. f*"aal / f*"eel / f*"oolFigurative feminine quadriliteral nouns that have a long vowel as third letter

will be pluralized as 'af"ul لأcف�ع .

Plural Singular

'athru" عأ cذ�رthiraa"

�عاذ�رarms (fem.) arm (fem.)

'aymun

�مcنأ يyameen

�يم� نيright hands (fem.) right hand (fem.)

۞ 'af"ila(t) ف�ع�لةأThis structure is generally used for the following singulars:

1. f*"aal / f*"eel / f*"oolMasculine quadriliteral nouns that have a long vowel as their third letter.

Plural Singular

'at"ima(t) أةط�ع�م

ta"aam ط�ع foods (fem.)ما food (masc.)

'a"mida(t) أةع�م�د

"amood عcدو�مpoles (fem.) pole (pillar) (masc.)

There are irregularities.

2. fa"aal ل� �ل fi"aal / فعا ف�عاProvided that the second and the third root-letters be the same, any noun of

these structures will be pluralized as 'af"ila(t) ف�ع�لةأ .

Plural Singular'abniya(t)

أ �ي �ن ةبbinaa'<

�ن �ءابbuildings (fem.) building (masc.)

'arrifa(t) أف غ� ةر�

rareef ر�غ� loafs (fem.)في loaf (masc.)

There are irregularities.

۞ 'af"aal ف�عأ� لاThis structure is generally used for all the triliteral nouns that do not take the

first structure 'af"ul لأcف�ع . This includes:

fa"l فع�ل nouns that have a middle weak-letter in their triliteral roots.

fa"l فع�ل nouns that haveو as first letter of their triliteral roots don't follow this rule.

Every triliteral noun that is not of the structure fa"l فع�ل . Examples:

Plural Singular'abwaab

�وأ �ب باbaab

�ب باdoors (fem.) door (masc.)

'awqaat�تاو�قأ

waqtوق�ت

times (fem.) time (masc.)

'ajdaad�ج�دأ دا

jadd

جد±grandfathers (masc.) grandfather (masc.)

'aqlaamاملق�أ

qalamقلم

pens (fem.) pen (masc.)

'akbaad�بأ �ك دا

kabid�د livers (fem.)كب liver (fem.)

'a"daad�داع�ضأ

"adudعضcد

upper arms (fem.) upper arm (masc.)

'asmaa'<مأ �ءاس�

'ism�س�ما

names (fem.) name (masc.)

'a"naab *أ �باع�ن

"inab

grapes (fem.)ع�نب* grapes (masc.)

'aabaat

*�طاآب'Ibit

�ب�ط armpits (fem.)إ armpit (masc.)

'aqfaal�ق�فأ لا

quflقcف�ل

locks (fem.) lock (masc.)

'artaab *طأ �ر� ا

ب

rutab

*unripe dates (fem.)رcطب unripe dates (masc.)

'ahlaamاملح�أ

hulumdreams (fem.)حcلcم dream (masc.)

*Both the singular and plural nouns here refer to plural fruits (the singular is a singulare tantum noun).

*See: special transformations of hamza(t) .

۞ fi"la(t) ةف�ع�لThis is a rare structure that is used with few nouns.

Examples:

Plural Singularfitya(t)

�ي ةف�تfataa

فتى�boys (masc.) boy (masc.)

sibya(t)

�ي ةص�بsabiyy

�ي± boys (masc.)صب boy (masc.)

II. Plentifulness Structures رة�� كث ال cو�عcمcج Those structures are used for plurals without regard of their numbers. They also enjoy a large deal of irregularity in usage, just like the previous ones.

More information about these structures is to be added later

Gender of Plural Nouns

1) Masculine Plurals

Nouns that end with a masculine plural ending are always masculine words.

2) Feminine Plurals

Nouns that end with a feminine plural ending are always feminine words.

3) Irregular Plurals

The gender of an irregular plural noun will not always match the gender of its singular. Classically, all irregular plurals were considered and treated as singular feminine nouns, no matter what the gender of the referents were. E.g. one would say "this men" or "this dishes" instead of "these men" and "these dishes" if "men" and "dishes" were irregular plurals. Also one would say "the men does what she promises" instead of "the men do what they promise."

However, irregular plurals of nouns referring to persons (like men and women) had another possibility; such plurals could be treated as regular plural nouns alongside the general rule of treating them as singular feminines.

In the modern language, irregular plurals referring to persons are usually treated as regular plural nouns in terms of grammar, except for declension, where they will still be declined as singulars.

Grammatical Treatment of Irregular Plurals

Reference Gender Number

to personsmatches the gender

of the referentsplural

to persons (classical) feminine singular

to objects or animals feminine singular

Examples on the gender of irregular plurals:

Plural Singular

rijaal�ل ر�جا

rajulرجcل

men (masc.) man (masc.)

rijaal�ل ر�جا

rajul men (fem.)رجcل

in classical Arabicman (masc.)

banaat�ت بنا

bint�ن�ت girls/daughters (fem.)ب girl/daughter (fem.)

'awraaq�ق أو�را

waraqa(t)ورقة

papers (fem.) paper (fem.)

'aqlaamأق�الم

qalamقلم

pens (fem.) pen (masc.)

Type of Plural UseGender of the plural

word

Masculine Plural

For nouns that refer to definite male persons Masculine

Feminine Plural

For nouns that refer to female persons For nouns that end with feminine

markers For some nouns that refer to feminine or

masculine objects

Feminine

Irregular Plural

For nouns that refer to persons Masculine

Feminine

For nouns that refer to masculine or feminine objects Feminine

The Definite Article

In English, the indefinite articles are “a” and “an,” and the definite article is “the.”

In Arabic, there is no indefinite article like the English one, but there is instead

a declension that indicates "indefiniteness," this is called "Nunation" cن� �و�ي ¦ن �ت . الIn order to be able to talk about this declension, we will need to talk first about case inflection . So we will leave the indefinite declension for later, and talk now about the definite article.

There is one definite article that does not change in whatever case.

This article is:

The Definite Article

�ف� ¦ع�ر�ي �ت ال cة� أدا

The 'al- ـ� ال

Examples:

Nouns in the Definite State

(Status Determinatus)

The male teacher 'al-mu"allim §ملا �مcعلThe female teacher 'al-mu"allima(t) §مةال �مcعل

The two male teachers'al-

mu"allimaan(i)

ا§مل �ن�ا�مcعل

The two female teachers

'al-mu"allima

taan(i)

ال §مت ��مcعل ا

ن�

The 2< male teachers'al-

mu"allimoon(a)

ا§مcل �و�مcعل

ن

The 2< female teachers 'al-mu"allimaat

ا�ل §ما �مcعل

ت*The letters colored in pink are changeable with different grammatical cases. This will be covered again later.

The 'al- will be always joined to the noun after it, and they will form a single word that is in the definite state.

Pronunciation of the Definite ArticleThe definite article 'al- is composed of two letters, the first one of which is a

consonant hamza(t) ' . However, this hamza(t) is of the type that is called

the "hamza(t) of connection" الوص�ل� cهم�زة . Connection hamza(t) is pronounced only when it is the first sound that comes out of the mouth (i.e. when you begin speaking by pronouncing that hamza(t)).

The other type of hamza(t) at the beginning of a word is the "hamza(t) of

disconnection" القط�ع� cهم�زة, that hamza(t) is always pronounced.

Differentiating between the two types is easy when you can see the word,

depending on the presence or not of this sign: ء over or under the ا .

Solar and Lunar laamWe now know that the hamza(t) as a first letter of a word can be omitted in speech if it was a connecting hamza(t). The following rule is a special one

for the second letter of the definite article, the laam l . This rule will apply only to the laam of the definite article but to any other laam. This specific laam can also be omitted in speech depending on the letter that follows it.

The laam which will be omitted is called the "solar laam" الال¦ cمcة¦ ي م�س� الش¦ .

The laam which will not be omitted is called the "lunar laam" الال¦ cة¦ القمر�ي cم .

The solar laam is the laam of any 'al- that is followed by one of the following letters:

ل ، ن ، ظ ، ط ، ض ، ص ، ش ، س ، ز ، ر ، ذ ، د ، ث ، ت

The lunar laam is the laam of any 'al- that is followed by one of the following letters:

، و ، هـ ، م ، ل ، ك ، ق ، ف ، غ ، ع ، خ ، ح ، ج ، ب ، يأ The solar laam will be omitted in speech and replaced by a shadda(t) on the following letter (i.e. the following letter will be doubled). Examples:

Solar 'al-

The sun (fem.)'al-shams » 'ash-

shamsم� �ش¦ الس

The man (masc.) 'al-rajul » 'ar-rajul جcل �ر¦ ال

The night (masc.) 'al-layl » 'al-layl �ل ¦ي �ل ال

I will try to always color the letter replacing the solar laam in this color. It should be noted that the shadda(t) (doubling of letter, or heavy stress) never appears on the first letter of any word unless it was preceded by a solar 'al- (i.e. solar laam).

The lunar laam will be left without any change in pronunciation.

Example:

Lunar 'al-

The moon (masc.) 'al-qamar �قمر ال

The woman (fem.) 'al-mar'a(t) أة �مر� ال

The evening (masc.) 'al-masaa'< �ء �مسا ال

Solar 'al- Lunar 'al-

Before ، ر ، ذ ، د ، ث ، ت ، ص ، ش ، س ز،ل ، ن ، ظ ط، ، ض

Before ، خ ، ح ، ج ، ب ، أ ، ك ، ق ، ف ، غ ع،

، و ، هـ م، ، يل

The laam is changed to the following letter

'al-x → 'ax-x

The laam is kept intact

'al-x → 'al-x

Special Writing Considerations for 'al-The connecting hamza(t) is not omitted in writing, except in the following two cases:

1. la- +'al-

When the emphatic particle la- = "certainly, indeed" precedes a word

beginning with the definite article 'al-, the hamza(t) of the 'al- will be deleted in writing as well as in pronunciation.

� + لـ �قمرلل =قمر الla- + 'al-qamar = la-l-qamar

certainly + the moon = certainly the moon

� + لـ م�س ال م�سلل =ش¦ �ش¦la- + 'ash-shams = la-sh-shams

certainly + the sun = certainly the sun

2. li- +'al-

When the preposition li- = "for, to, in order to" precedes a word beginning

with the definite article 'al-, the hamza(t) of the 'al- will be deleted in writing as well as in pronunciation.

ـ� � + ل � =قمر ال �قمرللli- + 'al-qamar = li-l-qamar

for/to + the moon = for/to the moon

ـ� � + ل م�س ال م�سل�ل =ش¦ �ش¦li- + 'ash-shams = li-sh-shams

for/to + the sun = for/to the sun

Definite Nouns in Arabic The definite nouns مع�ر�فة� cال in Arabic are:

Proper nouns: names of people, places, etc. Pronouns and demonstratives. Nouns preceded by the definite article 'al-. Nouns forming the first part of a genitive construction. Nouns in the vocative case.

All of these things will be covered later on this site.

Etymology Note

It appears that 'al- was originally hal- in ancient Arabia. Arabs often changed

the letter h هـ to ' أ , we are going to see other examples of this transition on this site.

Knowing that Arabs omitted the l of 'al- or hal- before certain letters, it is not surprising that classical Hebrew used ha- as a definite article, with the doubling of the following letter, just like in Arabic. They simply carried the trend further ahead and stopped pronouncing the l completely.

Example:

שה מ0 ש0hash-shemesh

the sun

Exercise 1

Can you make the following nouns in the definite state?

Court (fem.) مح�كمة

Largest (fem. sing. adj.) �رى� cب ك

Death (masc.) مو�ت

Sad (masc. plu. adj.) cو�ن �ن حز�ي

Happy (fem. plu. adj.) �ت �دا سع�ي

Papers (fem.) �ق أو�را

Answers

The court (fem.) �مح�كمة ال

The largest (fem. sing. adj.) �رى� cب �ك ال

The death (masc.) �مو�ت ال

The sad (masc. plu. adj.) cو�ن �ن �حز�ي ال

The happy (fem. plu. adj.) �ت �دا ع�ي الس¦

The papers (fem.) �ق األو�را

Exercise 2

Can you tell which of the following are solar or lunar 'al-'s?

The class (masc.) الص¦ف

The house (masc.) cت� �بي ال

The country(side) (masc.) ي�ف الر§

The light (masc.) الض¦و�ء

The sky (fem.) �ء ما الس¦

The neighbor (fem.) �ر �جا ال

Answers

Solar الص¦ف

Lunar cت� �بي ال

Solar ي�ف الر§

Solar الض¦و�ء

Solar �ء ما الس¦

Lunar �ر �جا ال

Case Inflection Unlike the other living Semitic languages such as Hebrew, formal Arabic is a language that exhibits vigorous case and mood inflection. Case inflection means that a noun (which includes in Arabic adjectives) has multiple declensions, or endings, for different grammatical cases.

For example, the noun 'al-walad ولد� the child" is not written" = الcompletely this way. We have to complete the noun by adding the appropriate case-ending for the grammatical case.

There are three grammatical cases in Arabic, so this word can have three different case-endings.

Case Declension of a Regular Singular Noun

Case Noun

Nominative'al-

walad(u) c �ولد ال

Accusative'al-

walad(a) �ولد الGenitive 'al-walad(i) �ولد� ال

These designations of the cases are the ones traditionally used to refer to the Arabic/Semitic three cases. However, these designations do not adequately express the multiple usages of each case. The "accusative" case, for example, is used for about ten cases other than the actual accusative (the direct object case).

The Arabic names for the three cases are the following:

Names of Arabic/Semitic Grammatical Cases

Western Name Arabic Name

Nominative'ar-raf"(u)

cف�ع الر¦= the raising

Accusative'an-nasb(u)

cص�ب¦ الن= the erecting

Genitive'al-jarr(u)

�جر¶ ال= the dragging

In order to see description of each case and its uses, you may go to this page.

Case-inflected & Non-case-inflected WordsNot every Arabic word goes under case or mood inflection (case inflection is for nouns, including adjectives, and mood-inflection is for verbs). There are Arabic words that do not show any changes with regard to grammatical case or mood.

Each Arabic word belongs to either one of two categories:

Built words ة�¦ �ي �ن مب �ت� �ما words that do not exhibit case or mood : كلinflection.

Arabized words ع�ربة�cم �ت� �ما words that do exhibit case or : كلmood inflection.

The "built words" are generally the pronouns, the perfective (past) and imperative verbs, and all the particles.

Case inflection is called in Arabic 'i"raab ع�را�ب� �إ = "Arabization." This speaks of the mentality of ancient Arabs who held very dear eloquence in their language.

However, most regular speakers of Arabic are, and were, not very talented in Arabizing their talk. Case inflection is no longer present in the modern spoken dialects of Arabic. It is still taught at schools as part of studying the formal Arabic, but there are really not many regular speakers who are good enough at it.

For most words, the case/mood-inflected endings will be nothing but different short vowels. Some words, however, show variations in letters, like the case inflection for the dual and masculine plural endings already mentioned in previous sections. Thus, most of the case/mood-inflected endings do not appear in writing, because short vowels are not usually written.

Case inflection in Arabic is difficult, and it is not important for a beginning learner to spend much time on it. In these pages, the case-inflected parts of words will be called the "case-signs." This designation is inspired from the Arabic one, and it is better than "case-endings" because the case-inflected parts are not always the "endings" of the words.

Case-signs will be always colored in pink. You can see the case-signs of all the kinds of Arabic words on this page.

Arabs Don't Stop on What is MovingIn Arabic, letters that are followed by short vowels are called "moving letters." Letters that are not followed by short vowels are called "still letters." Some words end with still letters, others end with moving letters.

While speaking proper Arabic, you cannot finish talking by pronouncing a moving letter, that is, you must make the final letter "still" by dropping the final short vowel if there were one.

This is the old saying: "Arabs do not stop on a moving على� cتق�ف ال cالعربك² ".مcتحر§

Example:

�يو�م ال �مد�رسة� ال �لى� إ c �ولد ال �ء جاThe boy came to school today

*You may click on the Arabic phrase in order to hear it pronounced.

Actual Pronunciation Romanized Version Part Uttered

jaa'< jaa'(a) �ء جا

jaa'a l-walad jaa'(a) ('a)l-walad(u) �ولد ال �ء cجا

jaa'a l-waladu ilaa l-madrasa

jaa'(a) ('a)l-walad(u) 'ilaa ('a)l-madrasa(ti)

�مد�رسة� ال �لى� إ cولد� ال �ء جا

jaa'a l-waladu ilaa l-madrasati l-yawm

jaa'(a) ('a)l-walad(u) 'ilaa ('a)l-madrasa(ti)

('a)l-yawm(a)�ء c جا �ولد �لى� ال �مد�رسة� إ �يو�م ال ال

The short vowels between brackets were not pronounced unless they were followed by other sounds. This kept the lastly uttered letters always still letters.

Long vowels, on the other hand, must be pronounced. This is because long vowels are still letters. we made this clear in the vowels section (a long vowel is a short vowel followed by the corresponding still consonant).

The feminine taa'< -a(t) ـة has its own comparable rule. If you stop on

the taa'<, it will become -a or -ah rather than -at. If you continue speaking after it, you should fully pronounce it.

Although the rule for ـة is not obligatory, it is so widely observed that almost

nobody today stops on a fully pronounced -at .

Throughout these pages, I am putting the short vowels and the ـة at the end of words between brackets, to help you remember the rule of not to stop on a moving letter or on a fully pronounced feminine taa'<.

Noonation

Noonation (Nunation) cن� �و�ي ¦ن �ت to ن is the adding of a letter noon (tanween) الthe end of a noun. The main purpose of tanween is to confer the sense of "indefiniteness" on the noun, or to make the noun in the "indefinite state"

cرة� ¦ك . الن

Tanween used to appear in writing as a letter ن at the end of singular nouns, but grammarians decided long time ago that it was better not to write it to avoid confusion. They agreed instead to indicate it by doubling the mark of the case-sign, or the "move" (the short vowel), on the last letter.

Definite State the male cat 'al-qitt(u) � ق�ط¶الIndefinite State a male cat qitt(un) ºق�طDefinite State the female cat 'al-qitta(tu) �ق�ط¦ةcال

Indefinite State a female cat qitta(tun) ق�ط¦ة�

Example on different cases:

� ولدa child (masc.)

Case-Sign Case Noun

Estimated Short U

مcقد¦رة� ضم¦ة�'ar-raf"(u)

ف�ع �ر¦ cال walad(un) � ولد

Apparent Short A

�ه�رة� ظا �حة� فت'an-nasb(u)

¦ص�ب �ن cال walada(n) �ولداEstimated Short I

مcقد¦رة� رة� كس�'al-jarr(u)

�جر± cال walad(in) ولد²The -an version of tanween will be followed by an extended 'alif in writing.

When stopping on this particular tanween, it will be pronounced -aa instead of totally disappearing from pronunciation like the other two types of

tanween. The -un and -in tanweens will not be pronounced at all when one stops at them, just similarly to the rule of not stopping on a moving letter.

N.B. most speakers of formal Arabic today do not change -an to -aa when

they stop at it, rather it is usually kept a pronounced -an. So it might be said that this rule is a classical rule that is not a rule anymore in modern standard Arabic.

The -an tanween after a feminine taa'< will not be followed by an extended 'alif in writing; but the pronunciation rules are still the same.

A school (fem.) madrasata(n) مد�رسةA young woman (fem.) fataata(n) �ة´ فتا

A marked difference from English about the indefinite marker is that all nouns in Arabic can take it; whether singular, dual or plural. Dual and plural masculine nouns have inherent tanween in their structures. The tanween for these two types of words stands out with three characteristics:

It is written down as a letter ن at the end of the word. It is always pronounced, irrelevantly to whether one stops on it or not. It does not disappear with the presence of the definite article.

Examples:

Indefinite State

two children (masc.)

waladaan(i) �ن�اولدDefinite State

the two children

(masc.) 'al-waladaan(i) �ن�ا�ولدال

Indefinite State

teachers (masc.)

mu"allimoon(a)§ مcعل

cن�وم

Definite State

the teachers

(masc.)

'al-mu"allimoon(a)

ا� §مcل �ومcعل

ن

Tanween for feminine and irregular plural nouns is just like that of singular nouns:

Indefinite State

female teachers (fem.)

mu"allimaat(un) �ت� §ما مcعلDefinite State the female

teachers (fem.)

'al-mu"allimaat(u) ا� �ل §ما مcعل

cتIndefinite

State children (masc.) 'awlaad(un) أو�الد�

Definite State the children (masc.) 'al-'awlaad(u) أو�الدcال

Tanween does not always indicate indefiniteness; tanween is used with people's proper names and those are always definite nouns. This is just one of the peculiarities of Arabic.

Examples:

Muhammad muhammad(un) مcحم¦د�Ali "aliyy(un) ºي� عل

However, proper names do not take the definite article 'al- ; except if it was part of the name itself. Proper names of places, rivers etc. can sometimes take tanween but not always, because tanween is NOT used for proper names of foreign origin that have more than three letters.

Nouns that are the first part of a genitive construction, or in other words, nouns that are in the construct state, are always definite nouns and do not take tanween too, as we are going to see. The only definite singular nouns that take tanween are usually people's first names.

External Note: Aramaic Nouns

Knowing that the accusative Nunation (-an) becomes (-aa) in the state of pause makes it easier to explain why nouns in the Aramaic language always

end with -aa.

Aramaic is a major Semitic language that was at one time the lingua franca of much of the ancient world. It is the language that Jesus spoke. A weird thing

about Aramaic is that nearly all nouns in that language end with an -aa.

For example:

English Arabic Ancient Aramaic

A father (masc.) أب� ܐܒܐ'ab(un) 'abaa

A mother (fem.) ºمc أ ܐܡܐ'umm(un) 'emaa

A name (masc.) م� �س� ا ܫܡܐ'ism(un) shmaa

A year (fem.) سنة� ܫܢܛܐsana(tun) shantaa

This -aa can be hard to explain, but for me as a speaker of Arabic, it looks as if the Arameans froze all their nouns in the indefinite accusative case.

This is like how languages such as Hebrew, the modern spoken Arabic, and Aramaic itself use the -een or -eem accusative declension for the masculine plural all the time, but never the nominative version -oon or -oom.

The Aramaic -aa became later a long O (-ō); like in Hebrew.

Noonation (continued)

Irregular nouns (For definitions of irregular noun types, you may click here)

Shortened Nouns

Shortened nouns are nouns that end with a shortened 'alif ـىا / ـ .

These nouns will always take the -an tanween ح�� فت ال cن� �و�ي and in all تنcases. When adding the tanween to a shortened noun, it will be placed on the litter preceding the final shortened 'alif not on the 'alif itself.

فتى�a lad (masc.)

Case-Sign Case NounEstimated Short U

مcقد¦رة� ضم¦ة�'ar-raf"(u)

ف�ع �ر¦ cال fata(n) �فتىEstimated Short A

مcقد¦رة� �حة� فت

'an-nasb(u)

¦ص�ب �ن cالfata(n) �فتى

Estimated Short I


�جر± cال fata(n) �فتى*The word "estimated" means to Arabic grammarians "assumed" or "supposed."

Extended Nouns

Extended nouns are nouns that end with a long vowel 'alif aa اـ that is

followed by a consonant 'alif ء (hamza(t)).

Extended nouns will take tanween just like regular nouns, except that when

we add the -an tanween we will not add an extended 'alif after it in writing. However, the pronunciation rules remain the same of those of the regular singular nouns.

�ء �ماa water (masc.)

Case-Sign Case Noun

Apparent Short U

�ه�رة� ظا ضم¦ة�'ar-raf"(u)

ف�ع �ر¦ cالmaa'(un) �ء� ما

Apparent Short A

�ه�رة� ظا �حة� فت'an-nasb(u)

¦ص�ب �ن cالmaa'a(n) �ء´ ما

Apparent Short I

�ه�رة� ظا رة� كس�'al-jarr(u)

�جر± cال maa'(in) �ء² ما*There is no distinction in Arabic when it comes to countable and uncountable singular nouns. They are all singular nouns.

Defective Nouns

Defective nouns are nouns that end with a long vowel -ee which �ـي�belongs to the root.

When adding tanween to a defective noun, the final -ee must be deleted in both writing and pronunciation, except in the nasb (accusative) case. The

added tanween will be always -in ر� �كس� ال cن� �و�ي except in, also, the nasb تنcase.

�ض² قا

a judge (masc.)

Case-Sign Case NounEstimated Short

U

مcقد¦رة� ضم¦ة�

'ar-raf"(u)

ف�ع �ر¦ cال qaad(in) �ض² قاApparent Short A

�ه�رة� ظا �حة� فت'an-

nasb(u)q

aadiya(n�ض�يا قا

¦ص�ب �ن cال )Estimated Short I


�جر± cال qaad(in) �ض² قا

Case-Endings of Nouns in the Indefinite State

NounNominativ

eAccusativ

eGenitive

R

E

G

U

L

A

R

Singular -un -an -in

Dual -aan -ayn -ayn

Masculine Plural -oon -een -een

Feminine Plural -un -in -in

Irregular Plural -un -an -in

I

R

R

E

G

U

L

A

R

Shortened -n -n -n

Extended -un -an -in

Defective -in -an -in

When to Use Noonation?

Tanween must be added to every indefinite noun ك�رة¦ �ن cال . The only definite nouns that will take tanween are first names of people and some rare names of places, rivers etc.

The definite nouns مع�ر�فة� :in Arabic are ال

Proper names: names of people, places, etc. Pronouns and demonstratives. Nouns preceded by the definite article 'al-. Nouns forming the first part of a genitive construction.

Nouns in the vocative case.

The ن of the dual and muscular plural nouns will be always there except in one condition: when the noun is the first part of a genitive construction. In this case the noon will be deleted just like any tanween.

There is a category of irregular nouns that is called the "forbidden to

noonation" ف� ال�ص¦ر� م�ن cو�عc �مم�ن These nouns will not take tanween .الeven if they were indefinite.

Most of names of places and rivers, etc. are forbidden to noonation. Any proper name of non-Arabic origin that have more than three letters is forbidden to noonation. Proper names of unknown Arabic origins include most of the names of towns and geographical features even in Arabia itself. This is why we said that noonation usually happens only with first names of people but not with other proper names (in general), because most of those are forbidden to noonation. Of course, first names have to be of a known Arabic origin too in order to be noonated.

Exercise 1

Can you transform the following nouns from the nominative definite state into the nominative indefinite state?

The apple (sing. fem.) cحة� ¶ف¦ا الت

The observers (plu. masc.) cو�ن �ق�ب �مcرا ال

The two students (dual masc.) �ن� �با �ل الط¦ا

The friends (plu. masc.) cء� األص�د�قا

The colleagues (plu. fem.) cالت� م�ي الز¦

The forces (plu. fem.) �ق�وى� ال

The states/countries (plu. fem.) cولcد� ال

The snakes (plu. fem.) �ع�ي� األفا

Answers

An apple (sing. fem.) �حة� cف¦ا ت

Observers (plu. masc.) cو�ن �ق�ب مcرا

Two students (dual masc.) �ن� �با �ل طا

Friends (plu. masc.) �ء� أص�د�قا

Colleagues (plu. fem.) �الت� زم�ي

Forces (plu. fem.) ق�وى�

States/countries (plu. fem.) دcول�

Snakes (plu. fem.) �ع² أفا

Exercise 2

Can you transform the following indefinite nouns from the genitive into the accusative case?

A kiss (sing. fem.) �لة² قcب

Assistants (plu. masc.) �ن �ع�د�ي مcسا

Two signs (dual fem.) �ن� عالمتي

Relatives (plu. masc.) �ء² أق�ر�با

Young women (plu. fem.) فتيات²

Dolls (plu. fem.) دcمى�

Books (plu. fem.) cب² cت ك

A high (sing. masc. adj.) �ل² عا

Answers

A kiss (sing. fem.) �لة قcب

Assistants (plu. masc.) �ن �ع�د�ي مcسا

Two signs (dual fem.) �ن� عالمتي

Relatives (plu. masc.) �ء´ أق�ر�با

Young women (plu. fem.) فتيات²

Dolls (plu. fem.) دcمى�

Books (plu. fem.) � cبا cت ك

A high (sing. masc. adj.) � �يا �ل عا

Adjectives

Adjectives in Arabic follow the nouns or pronouns they modify in gender, number, grammatical case, and the state of definiteness. They always come after the words they modify. Adjectives in Arabic belong to the "noun" category, and there are several types of nouns that can serve as adjectives. This will be covered later.

A comprehensive example on adjectives matching the modified word:

mu"allim(un)§م �مcعل

A male teacher

jayyid(un)

§د� جيA good (sing. masc. adj.)

mu"allim(un) jayyid(un)§م §د�� مcعل جي

A good male teacher

mu"allima(tun) jayyida(tun)

§م §د ة�مcعل ة�جيA good female teacher

'al-mu"allim(u) ('a)l-jayyid(u) � §مال �c مcعل §دcال جيThe good male teacher

'al-mu"allima(tu) ('a)l-jayyida(tu)

� §مال ةcمcعل §دال The good female teacherة�cجي

mu"allimaan(i) jayyidaan(i) §م �مcعل ن�ا §د ��Two good male teachersناجي

'al-mu"allimaan(i) ('a)l-jayyidaan(i)

� §مال �مcعل ن�ا §دال ��The two good male teachersنا�جي

mu"allimataan(i) jayyidataan(i) §م مcعل �ن�ات

§د جي �ت Two good female teachersنا

'al-mu"allimataan(i) ('a)l-jayyidataan(i) §مال �مcعل �ن�ات

� §دال جي �ت The two good female teachersنا

mu"allimoon(a) jayyidoon(a) cم§ �نومcعل cد§ good male teachers >2�نوجي

'al-mu"allimoon(a) ('a)l-jayyidoon(a) §مcال �نو�مcعل

§دcال The 2< good male teachers�نو�جي

mu"allimaat(un) jayyidaat(un) §م �ت�مcعل ا §د �ت�جي good female teachers >2ا

'al-mu"allimaat(u) ('a)l-jayyidaat(u) §مال �ت�cمcعل ا

§دال �ت�cجي The 2< good female teachersا

Adjectives in general behave regularly. They are always feminized by adding one of the three feminine markers to them; and they are always pluralized by adding one of the regular plural endings to them (masculine or feminine). However, there are exceptions to this.

Feminine Adjectives

Feminine adjectives always have one of the three feminine markers attached; however, there are a few structures that will not carry any of such markers.

Case One

Adjectives that can be used only in reference to females but not males (e.g. pregnant) do not usually have the feminine taa'< attached, even though they modify true feminine nouns and they should have one:

Meaning Literal translation Phrase

A pregnant wife

zawja(tun) haamil(un) �ةزو�ج

�م�ل� a wife a pregnant حا

A divorced woman

'imra'a(tun) taaliq(un)

�م�رأ �ةا ��ق� a woman a divorcedطال

Here, the noun had a feminine marker but the modifying adjective did not.

Other adjectives of this kind:

Female-Only Adjectives

A spinster "aanis(un) �س� �ن عا

A barren "aaqir(un) �ق�ر� عا

A nursing murdi"(un) ض�ع� مcر�

A menstruating

haa'id(un) �ض� �ئ حا

taamith(un) �م�ث� طا

A virgin

bikr(un) �ر� �ك ب

batool(un) cو�ل� بت

A widowed or divorced thayyib(un) §ب� ثي

A contumacious (wife) naashiz(un) ز� �ش� نا

A large-breasted naahid(un) �ه�د� نا

kaa"ib(un) �ع�ب� كا

An aged menopausal qaa"id(un) د� �ع� قا

A fecund walood(un) cو�د� ول

A milch (cow) haloob(un) cو�ب� حل

All of these adjectives lack the feminine taa'<. The other feminine markers (the extended 'alif and the shortened 'alif) cannot be removed from an adjective here as simply as the feminine taa'<, or the adjective will become a senseless word.

If a feminine adjective of this kind ends with either one of the two feminine markers other than the feminine taa'<, it will be kept there because there will not usually be a masculine form of that adjective (one without feminine markers), and we can't just remove the marker because that would be mutilation of the word.

Examples:

A virgin "athraa'(u) �ءعذ�ر cا

A pregnant hublaa �ل ب cىح�

*Note: nouns ending with feminine extended 'alif or feminine shortened 'alif are forbidden to noonation.

Case Two

Adjectives will not have any feminine markers when they assume one of the following structures:

ExampleType of

StructureStructure

rayoor(un)

c �رو�غي Active-participle-like fa"ool(un)

فcلو�ع� A jealous ...

qateel(un)��ل�يقت Passive participle fa"eel(un) �فع� �لي

A killed ...

mi"taa'(un) م

��ءا�ع�ط Emphatic

mif"aal(un)

م��لا�ف�ع A very giving ...

mi"teer(un) م

��ع�ط� �ري Emphatic

mif"eel(un)

م ��A very using ofلي�ف�ع�

perfume ...

"adl(un)�عد�ل Verbal noun fa"l(un) �فع�ل

A just, fair ...

Those five structures don't take feminine endings when they modify feminine nouns. However, case two is not always followed in the modern language.

Example:


A jealous man rajul(un) rayoor(un)

cو�ر� غي رجcل�a man a jealous

A jealous woman

'imra'a(tun) rayoor(un)

�م�رأ �ةا cو�ر� a woman a jealousغي

A jealous woman(modern Arabic)

'imra'a(tun) rayoora(tun)

�م�رأ �ةا cو�ر �a woman a jealousةغي

Another thing about the structures of case two is that they do not take regular plural endings, as will be mentioned shortly.

Plural AdjectivesIn perfect Classical Arabic, irregular plurals were not supposed to be used in adjectives. Adjectives had to be pluralized only by adding the regular plural endings (masculine or feminine).

However, there are certain adjective structures in Arabic that can not have the regular plural endings when their nouns have it. Instead they are pluralized irregularly.

All of the structures mentioned lastly (the ones that don't carry feminine markers) can not accept masculine plural endings too. However, the structure

fa"ool(un) is often pluralized regularly against the rule.

Other structures that do not take regular plural endings are:

۞ 'af"al(u) ف�علcأ Adjectives following this structure are several kinds, they differ from each other by the structure of the feminine form of the adjective. The kind that cannot take regular plural endings is the one whose feminine form is:

fa"laa'(u)This kind belongs to a category called in Arabic "active-participle-like adjectives." It usually refers to a color or to bodily characteristic (e.g. blond, brunette, blind, mute, deaf, lame, etc.).

N.B. this kind is forbidden to noonation, which means that it will not be noonated in addition to having an irregular case-sign in the genitive case ( -a instead of -i ).

Examples:

A red (sing. masc.) 'ahmar(u) cح�مرأA red (sing. fem.) hamraa'(u) �ءحم�ر cا

Red (plu. masc./fem.) humr(un) �حcم�ر

A blond (sing. masc.) 'ashqar(u) قرcأ ش�A blonde (sing. fem.) shaqraa'(u) �ءcشق�ر ا

Blond (plu. masc./fem.) shuqr(un) ق�ر� cش

A blind (sing. masc.) 'a"maa ع�مى�أA blind (sing. fem.) "amyaa'(u) �ءcعم�ي ا

Blind (plu. masc./fem.) "umy(un) عcم�ي�* 'a"maa is a shortened noun. The root is " M Y.

However, it is rather common for the feminine form of this structure to be pluralized regularly; so the following three plural adjectives, for example, are common:

Red (plu. fem.)

hamraawaat(un

)

حم��تر �وا �ا

Blonde (plu. fem.)

shaqraawaat(un)

شق��ت�ر �وا ا

Blind (plu. fem.)"am

yaawaat(un)عم�

�ت�ي �وا ا

۞ fa"laan(u) انفع�لc Similarly to the previous one, adjectives following this structure are two kinds that differ by the structure of their feminine forms. The kind that cannot take

the regular plural ending is the one whose feminine structure is: fa"laaThis kind is also forbidden to noonation. The other kind has the feminine form

fa"laana(tun) and is rarer. There are 13 fa"laan adjectives in Arabic

that are feminized as fa"laana(tun) instead of fa"laa. Those are not forbidden to noonation, and they are listed here.

A thirsty (sing. masc.) "atshaan(u) �نعط�ش cا

A thirsty (sing. fem.) "atshaa ى�عط�ش

Thirsty (plu. masc./fem.) "itaash(un) ��شاع�ط

Comparative Structure

۞ 'af"al(u) ف�علcأWe talked above about 'af"al(u) adjectives that refer to colors and to bodily characteristics. This same structure is also the comparative structure in Arabic. However, when it is being a comparative structure it will have a different feminine form from the one mentioned above. The feminine of the

comparative 'af"al(u) is: fu"laa

Nevertheless, fu"laa is NOT a comparative structure but is a superlative

structure, even though it is the feminine of comparative 'af"al(u). The

comparative structure in Arabic is only one, 'af"al(u), and it is used for both masculine and feminine, and singular and plural nouns. More details will be added in the section about comparison.

The important point here is that comparative adjectives in Arabic do not follow their nouns neither in gender nor in number.

Examples:

Plu. Masc. Adj. Sing. Masc. Adj.

'afdal(u) = a better cف�ضلأ 'afdal(u) = a

better

أف�ضcل

'akbar(u) = a bigger �برأ cك


Plu. Fem. Adj. Sing. Fem. Adj.

'afdal(u) = a better cف�ضلأ 'afdal(u) = a

better أ

ف�ضcل



N.B. all 'af"al(u) structures are forbidden to noonation except for ones

whose feminine form is 'af"ala(tun). Those are rare and are not

comparatives (e.g. بع أر� ، مل� �أر� ).

Example:


A better male assistant

musaa"id(un) 'afdal(u)

د� �ع� مcسا cأف�ضل

A better female assistant

musaa"ida(tun) 'afdal(u)

�ع�د �ةمcساcأف�ضل

Two better male assistants

musaa"idaan(i) 'afdal(u)

د �ع� �نمcسا �اcأف�ضل

Two better female

assistants

musaa"idataan(i) 'afdal(u)

د �ع� �ن�مcسا تاcأف�ضل

Better 2< male assistants

musaa"idoon(a) 'afdal(u)

cد �ع� و�نمcساcأف�ضل

Better 2< female assistants

musaa"idaa(tun) 'afdal(u)

د �ع�� ت�مcسا اcأف�ضل

Adjective Irregularities in Arabic

Structure PluralMatching of

Noun Noonation

Masculine FeminineMasculi

neFemini

neIrregul

arGender Number

Adjectives that can refer only to females

(e.g. pregnant)NO YES

YES NO YES YES

fa"ool(un)YES YES

Active-participle-like

fa"eel(un)

NO NOPassive participle

mif"aal(un)

Emphatic

mif"eel(un)

Emphatic

fa"l(un)

Verbal noun

'af"al(u)

fa"laa'(u

) NO YES YES YES

NOActive-participle-like

'af"al(u)

fu"laaYES YES

Masc.

Fem.

Masc.

Fem.

Comparative

Superlative NOYES

NOYES

'af"al(u

n)

'af"ala(t

un) YES YES

YES YES

YES


fa"laan(

u)fa"laa

NO NO NO


fa"laan(un

)

fa"laana(tu

n) YES YES YES


Other Irregular Plural Adjectives Other than the exceptions mentioned above, irregular plural structures were not supposed to be used to form adjectives in proper Classical Arabic. However, this has always been widely ignored, and irregular plural adjectives are used in many other kinds of adjectives.

Anyway, there is one main case, other than the ones mentioned above, in which it is considered O.K. nowadays to use an irregular plural adjective; that case is if the irregular plural adjective were of the following structure:

Plural Singular

mafaa"eel(u)م

�ف �cليع�اmaf"ool(un)

مcلو�ف�ع�

The singular of this structure is a passive participle noun. The plural is forbidden to noonation. When possible, this structure can be used instead of regular plurals, but it is not better than them.

Examples:

Meaning Plural Singular

A famed (famous)�ر�cي�هاشم هcم �ر�وش�

mashaaheer(u) mashhoor(un)

An imprisoned�ج�اسم نcي ن�cو�س�جم

masaajeen(u) masjoon(un)

Adjectives Modifying Irregular Plural NounsWe mentioned before that the gender of an irregular plural noun will not always match the gender of its singular word.

Grammatical Treatment of Irregular Plurals

Reference Gender Number

to personsmatches the gender

of the referentsplural

to persons (classical) feminine singular

to objects or animals feminine singular

We also mentioned that irregular plurals that refer to objects or animals are always treated as if they were singular words.

Knowing these facts, it should be clear how the adjectives were used in the following examples:

Singular

A mountain (masc.) jabal(un) جبل�

A lofty (masc.) shaahiq(un) �ه�ق �شا

A lofty mountainjabal(un)

shaahiq(un)�جبل

�ه�ق� شاPlural

Mountains (plu. fem.) jibaal(un) �ل با �ج�

A lofty (sing. fem.) shaahiqa(tun) �ه�قة �شا

Lofty mountainsjibaal(un)

shaahiqa(tun)

�ل� با ج��ه�قة� شا

More examples; first vocabulary is given and phrases will be constructed below:

Singular Adjectives Singular Nouns

fathth(un)± �فذ

rajul(un)

�رجcل a unique (masc.) a man (masc.)

hakeem(un)

�م� �ي حكmawqif(un) مو�ق�

a wise (masc.) �ف a stance (masc.)

taahin(un)

�ح�ن� طاma"raka(tun) مع�رك

a crushing (masc.) �ة a battle (fem.)

Suitable Adjectives Plural Nouns

'afthaath(un)

�ذ� أف�ذاrijaal(un)

�ل� unique (masc. plu.)ر�جا men (masc.)

hakeema(tun) �م �ي حك ة�

mawaaqif(u) �ق� مواcفwise (fem. sing.) stances (fem.)

taahina(tun) ن �ح� طا ة�

ma"aarik(u) �ر� معاcكcrushing (fem. sing.) battles (fem.)

Meaning Phrase

Unique menrijaal(un)

'afthaath(un) �ذ� أف�ذا �ل� ر�جا

Wise stancesmawaaqif(u) hakema(tun)

cق�ف� موا�مة� �ي حك

Crushing battlesma"aarik(u) taahina(tun)

cر�ك� معانة� �ح� طا

* cق�ف� �ر�كand c موا cو�ع "are both "forbidden to noonation معا م�ن �مم�نف� .structures ال�ص¦ر�

Multiple Adjectives Adjectives that modify a single noun can be multiple.

�ل� ي نح� �ل� طو�ي رجcل�rajul(un) taweel(un) naheel(un)

= a man a tall a thin

Translation: a thin tall man

�ن� ¦تا �ي ذك �ن� �لتا جم�ي �ن� §بتا طي �ن� �تا فتاfataataan(i) tayyibataan(i)

jameelataan(i) thakiyyataan(i)

= two young girls good beautiful smart

Translation: two good, smart, beautiful young girls

It is also possible to use coordinators between the different adjectives, but they must be placed between all the adjectives not only before the last one.

�ن� §بتا طي �ن� �تا �ن� وفتا �لتا �ن�وجم�ي ¦تا �ي ذكfataataan(i) tayyibataan(i) wa-

jameelataan(i) wa-thakiyyataan(i)

= two young girls good and beautiful and smart

Translation: two good, smart, beautiful young girls

Adjectives as NounsAdjectives in Arabic are nouns. This is not only an issue of how we categorize them; adjectives can function as real nouns in Arabic sentences.

Example:

ºي� ذك � هذاhaathaa thakiyy(un)

= this (is) a clever (sing. masc.)

Translation: this is a clever man

This sentence was not complete in English standards because it lacked a noun, but in Arabic it is a full perfect sentence. This is because an adjective in Arabic has a nominal nature in and of itself, and it will not necessarily require another noun to complete its meaning.

¦ة� �ي ذك هذ�ه�haathih(i) thakiyya(tun)

= this (is) a clever (sing. fem.)

Translation: this is a clever woman

�دة� �بل ال �لى� إ قد�مcو�ا �ء� �يا أغ�ن'arniyaa'(un) qadimoo 'ilaa ('a)l-

balda(ti)

= rich (plu. masc.) came to the town

Translation: rich people came to town

Exercise

A great day

The pretty lady

A pregnant lady

The patient lady

The brunet young man

The brunette young woman

The brunet young men

The brunette young women

Prepared men

Thirsty people

Thirsty young women

A big opportunity

Big opportunities

Bigger opportunities

Can you translate those phrases to Arabic by using the following Arabic words?

A great (sing. masc.) �م� �ي عظ

A day (sing. masc.) يو�م�

A nice (sing. masc.) �ل� جم�ي

A nice (sing. fem.) �لة� جم�ي

A lady (sing. fem.) §دة� سي

A pregnant (sing. masc.) �م�ل� حا

A patient (sing. masc./fem. adj.) cو�ر� صب

A patient (sing. fem. adj.) cو�رة� صب

A brunet (sing. masc.) cمر أس�

A brunette (sing. fem.) cء� سم�را

Brunets (plu. masc./fem.) م�ر� cس

Brunettes (plu. fem.) �ت� �وا سم�را

A young man (sing. masc.) ºب� شا

A young woman (sing. fem.) ¦ة� �ب شا

Young men (plu. masc.) �ب� شبا

Young women (plu. fem.) �ت� ¦ا �ب شا

A ready (sing. masc.) ºتع�د مcس�

Ready (plu. masc.) تع�د¶و�ن مcس�

A man (sing. masc.) رج�ل�

Men (plu. masc.) �ل� ر�جا

A thirsty (sing. masc.) cعط�شان

Thirsty (plu. masc./fem.) �ش� ع�طا

People (plu. masc.) �س� cنا أ

A big (sing. fem.) �رة� �ي كب

A bigger (sing./dual/plu. masc./fem.) cبر� أك

An opportunity (sing. fem.) صة� فcر�

Opportunities (plu. fem.) فcرص�

Answers

A great day �م� �ي عظ يو�م�The pretty lady cلة� �جم�ي ال cدة§ ي الس¦A pregnant lady �م�ل� حا §دة� سي

The patient woman (classical) cو�رc الص¦ب cدة§ ي الس¦

The patient woman (modern)cدة§ ي الس¦cو�رةc الص¦ب

The brunet young man cمر األس� �ب¶ ا الش¦

The brunette young womancة¦ �ب ا الش¦

cء� م�را الس¦The brunet young men cم�ر الس¶ cب� با الش¦

The brunette young women cت� ¦ا �ب ا الش¦cم�ر الس¶

The brunette young women (modern)

cت� ¦ا �ب ا الش¦cت� �وا م�را الس¦

Prepared men�ل� ر�جا

تع�د¶و�ن مcس�Thirsty people �ش� ع�طا �س� cنا أ

Thirsty young women �ش� ع�طا �ت� ¦ا �ب شاA big opportunity �رة� �ي كب صة� فcر�Big opportunities �رة� �ي كب فcرص�

Bigger opportunities cبر� أك فcرص�

Genitive Construction

An English sentence is "the door of the house." Another way to say the same thing is "the house's door" or "the house-door."

This is the genitive construction, which expresses a relationship of possession between the two parts of the construction. In formal Arabic, there is not a possessive preposition like "of" or any other possessive particles. The only way to say that sentence will be by virtue of the "construct state" of nouns and the genitive case.

Look at the examples:

Meaning Phrase

The door of a house

baab(u) manzil(in) cب� با�ز�ل² door a houseمن

The door of the house

baab(u) ('a)l-manzil(i) cب� با�ز�ل� �من door the houseال

The window of a house

naafitha(tu) manzil(in) cف�ذة� نا�ز�ل² window a houseمن

The window of the house

naafitha(tu) ('a)l-manzil(i) cف�ذة� نا

�ز�ل� �من window the houseال

Every one of those phrases was a genitive construction. Two things can be noted about those constructions:

The first noun in each construction did not have neither a definite article nor an indefinite declension.

The second nouns were in the genitive case instead of the regular nominative case.

These two notes are the components of any genitive construction in Arabic. The fact that the first noun did not have a definite article attached (i.e. was not in the definite state) nor did it have an indefinite declension attached (i.e. was not in the indefinite state) leaves us in front of a new state for nouns in Arabic. This is what is called the "construct state" of nouns, or the state of "addition"

cفة� �ضا .in Arabic terminology اإل

The construct state exists in many Semitic languages. Whereas this state can mean considerable changes to the noun structure in languages such as Hebrew and Syriac, in Arabic there is not really that much. Just no definite article before, nor noonation at the end of nouns. The noonation must be removed here even from the dual and masculine plural endings if the noun had either of them.

Meaning of the Construct StateWhen a noun is in the construct state, it will not have neither a definite nor an indefinite marker. However, it will be always a definite noun, even if there were no definite article attached. Think of it as if there were a hidden definite article before the noun. The definiteness of the construct state is so strict that

even the final noon ن of the dual and the masculine plural endings will be removed in this state, and this is the only case in Arabic where this happens to those two.

The second point is that changing a noun to the construct state will always implant a hidden possessive "of" after the noun. This is the main point of the construct state anyway.

So a noun in the construct state will be like this:

(THE) NOUN (OF)

States of Nouns in the Nominative Case ('ar-raf")

Status Absolutus

(Indefinite State)

Status Determinatus

(Definite State)

Status Constructus

(Construct State)

SINGULAR

§م� مcعل cم§ �مcعل ال cم§ مcعلmu"allimun 'al-mu"allimu mu"allimu

a male teacher the male teacher (the) male teacher (of)

§مة� مcعل cمة§ �مcعل ال cمة§ مcعلmu"allimatun 'al-mu"allimatu mu"allimatu

a female teacher the female teacher (the) female teacher (of)

DUAL

§م �ن�امcعل §م �مcعل �ن�اال §م �امcعلmu"allimaani 'al-mu"allimaani mu"allimaa

two male teachers the two male teachers(the) two male teachers

(of)

§مت �ن�امcعل §مت �مcعل �ن�اال §مت �امcعلmu"allimataani 'al-

mu"allimataanimu"allimataa

two female teachers the two female teachers(the) two female

teachers (of)

PLURAL

cم§ �نومcعل cم§ �مcعل نو�ال cم§ ا�ومcعلmu"allimoona 'al-mu"allimoona mu"allimoo

2< male teachers the 2< male teachers(the) 2< male teachers

(of)

�ت� §ما مcعل cت� §ما �مcعل ال cت� §ما مcعلmu"allimaatun 'al-mu"allimaatu mu"allimaatu

2< female teachers the 2< female teachers(the) 2< female teachers

(of)

States of Nouns in the Accusative Case ('an-nasb)

Status Absolutus

(Indefinite State)

Status Determinatus

(Definite State)

Status Constructus

(Construct State)

SINGULA

§ما مcعل §م �مcعل ال §م مcعلmu"alliman 'al-mu"allima mu"allima


§مة مcعل §مة �مcعل ال §مة مcعل

R

mu"allimatan 'al-mu"allimata mu"allimata


DUAL

§م �ن�يمcعل §م �مcعل �ن�يال §م ي�مcعلmu"allimayni 'al-mu"allimayni mu"allimay


(of)

§مت �ن�يمcعل §مت �مcعل �ن�يال §مت �يمcعلmu"allimatayni 'al-

mu"allimataynimu"allimatay


teachers (of)

PLURAL

§م� �نيمcعل §م� �مcعل �ال ني §م� �يمcعلmu"allimeena 'al-

mu"allimeenamu"allimee


(of)

�ت² §ما مcعل �ت� §ما �مcعل ال �ت� §ما مcعلmu"allimaatin 'al-mu"allimaati mu"allimaati


(of)

States of Nouns in the Genitive Case ('al-jarr)

Status Absolutus

(Indefinite State)

Status Determinatus

(Definite State)

Status Constructus

(Construct State)

SINGULAR

² §م مcعل � §م �مcعل ال � §م مcعلmu"allimin 'al-mu"allimi mu"allimi


§مة² مcعل §مة� �مcعل ال §مة� مcعلmu"allimatin 'al-mu"allimati mu"allimati


DUAL

§م �ن�يمcعل §م �مcعل �ن�يال §م ي�مcعلmu"allimayni 'al-mu"allimayni mu"allimay


(of)

§مت �ن�يمcعل §مت �مcعل �ن�يال §مت �يمcعلmu"allimatayni 'al-

mu"allimataynimu"allimatay


teachers (of)

PLURAL

§م� �نيمcعل §م� �مcعل �ال ني §م� �يمcعلmu"allimeena 'al-

mu"allimeenamu"allimee


(of)

�ت² §ما مcعل �ت� §ما �مcعل ال �ت� §ما مcعلmu"allimaatin 'al-mu"allimaati mu"allimaati


(of)

*Note: the declension of irregular plurals is identical to singular nouns.

The Second Part of the Genitive ConstructionThe part of the sentence before the hidden "of" is the first part of the genitive construction. It can be a noun in the construct state or it can be a phrase, e.g. "the first two pages of the book." The 1st part of a genitive construction is

called in Arabic "the added" cف� �مcضا .ال

The second part of the genitive construction is the part coming after "of." This

part is called in Arabic "the added to" cف� �مcضا �ه� ال �لي إ .

The second part of the genitive construction must be always in the genitive case, or 'al-jarr case in Arabic. This is why they called it a genitive case anyway. The 2nd part of the construction will not be in the construct state nor it will have anything to do with it. It will be either in the definite or the indefinite state just as usual.

Examples on genitive constructions:

Two male teachers(1st part) mu"allimaan(i) §م �ن�امcعلA class

(2nd part) saff(un) ºصف

The two male teachers of a class

mu"allimaa saff(in)

§م �امcعل Ãصف

The two female teachers(1st part)

'al-mu"allimataan(i)

§م �مcعل ال �ن�ات

A class(2nd part) saff(un) ºصف

The two female teachers of a

class

mu"allimataa saff(in)

§مت �امcعل Ãصف

The teachers(1st part)

'al-mu"allimoon(a)

§ المcعل

cنوم�The class(2nd part) 'as-saff(u) cال�ص¦ف

The teachers of the class

mu"allimoo ('a)s-saff(i)

cم§ ا�ومcعل �صف§ ال

The 'alif after the waaw in و�cم§ امcعل is a silent.

Female teachers(1st part) mu"allimaat(un) �ت� §ما مcعل

The class(2nd part) 'as-saff(u) cال�ص¦ف

The female teachers of the

class

mu"allimaat(u) ('a)s-saff(i)

cت� §ما مcعل�صف§ ال

More examples in which the first part is in other cases ('an-nasb & 'al-jarr):

(I saw) the two male teachers

of the class

mu"allimay ('a)s-saff(i) §م ي�مcعل

�صف§ ال(I saw) the two

female teachers of the class

mu"allimatay ('a)s-saff(i)

§مت ي�مcعل �صف§ ال

(I saw) the (male) teachers

of the class

mu"allimee ('a)s-saff(i)

§م� ي�مcعل �صف§ ال

Examples on proper nouns:

Meaning Literal TranslationGenitive

Construction

Ali's book

kitaab(u) "aliyy(in) cب� �تا كÃي� book (of) Ali (the) عل

Airport of Damascus

mataar(u) dimashq(a) cر� مطا

ق airport (of) Damascus (the)د�مش�

ق ف� "is a "forbidden to noonation د�مش� ال�ص¦ر� م�ن cو�عc �مم�ن word, so it has الan irregular case sign in the genitive case (-a) in addition to never taking noonation.

Proper names are always definite and don't take 'al- before them. However, we mentioned before that first names of people and some other proper nouns take tanween even though they are definite.

Possessive PronounsPossessive pronouns such as "my" and "your" do not exist in Arabic; nor do exist ones such as "mine" and "yours." To say in Arabic that something is yours, you would use the genitive construction described above and say "(the) thing (of) me." To say "your book and his book" you would say "(the) book (of) you and (the) book (of) him."

This will be shown later in the section about object pronouns.

"A" Thing of a ThingA final issue about the genitive construction is how we translate the following sentence to Arabic:

A door of a house

We know that it is impossible in Arabic for the first part of a genitive construction to be indefinite. Thus, this kind of sentences is usually translated in Arabic to:

�ز�ل² من cب� باbaab(u) manzil(in)

(The) door (of) a house

There is not really that much of a difference between the two. However, if you were insisting on having the first part indefinite, there is one trick that could be

used, which is to use a preposition other than the hidden "of" of the genitive

construction. Usually that would be the particle li- ـ� ".for/to" = ل

�ز�ل² �من ل �ب� باbaab(un) li-manzil(in)

A door for a house

This is not a genitive construction. The word after li- is in the ablative case, which is the same in Arabic as the genitive case ('al-jarr).

Exercise

Jamal's friend

The door key

Freedom fighters

Can you translate those phrases to Arabic by using the following Arabic words?

A friend (sing. masc.) �ق� صد�ي

Jamal (male name) �ل� جما

The key (sing. masc.) cح� �م�ف�تا ال

The door (masc.) cب� �با ال

The fighters (plu. masc.)

cو� �ل �ت �مcقا الن

A freedom (sing. fem.) ية� حcر§

Answers

Jamal's friend �ل² جما cق� صد�ي

The door key �ب� �با ال cح� م�ف�تا

Freedom fighterscو�ا �ل �ت مcقاية� �حcر§ ال

Am / Is / Are Sentences

Every sentence in English requires a verb. You have to use at least one verb to make any complete, meaningful, sentence in English. In Arabic and Semitic languages, it is also the same, but there is one exception; If we have an English sentence in the present tense that contains a verb "be," the Arabic equivalent will not contain a verb "be." In fact, it will not contain any verb at all.

Thus, there can be full sentences in Arabic that do not have any verbs. The verb-less sentences will be those like "Tom is here," "they are in the room," and "where am I?" That is, again, sentences containing verbs "to be" in the present tense.

Examples:

�ف�ية� صا cء� ما ال�س¦'as-samaa'(u) saafiya(tun)

= the sky (is) a clear (sky)

Translation: the sky is clear

� هcنا §مcو�ن �مcعل ال'al-mu"allimoon(a) hunaa

= the teachers (are) here

Translation: the teachers are here

ºتع�د مcس� مcحم¦د�muhammad(un) musta"idd(un)

= Muhammad (is) a ready (man)

Translation: Muhammad is ready

�لى� �دة� لي سع�يlaylaa sa"eeda(tun)

= Layla (is) a happy (woman)

Translation: Layla is happy

§ب� طي شخ�ص� �ت أن'ant(a) shakhs(un) tayyib(un)

= you (are) a person a kind

Translation: you are a kind person*Remember that an adjective has to follow its noun in everything, including the state of definiteness.

؟ هcم� �ن أي'ayn(a) hum

= where (are) they

Translation: where are they?

All these sentences belong to the category that is called in Arabic "nominal sentences." Those are the sentences which begin with a noun word. The part of the sentence that is before the hidden (be) (i.e. the subject) is called

mubtada'< c �تدأ �مcب the start. The part after the (be) is the predicate, in ≈ ال

Arabic khabar cخبر� .the predicate = ال

�لم� �عا ال رب§ ¦ه� �ل ل cحم�د� �ال ني'al-hamd(u) li-l-laah(i) rabb(i)

('a)l-"aalameen(a)

= the thanking/praising (is) for the God (the) lord (of) the worlds

Translation: praise God the lord of the worlds

¦ه� is in the ablative case ('al-jarr) because it is preceded by a الل

preposition ( ـ� .(ل ¦ه� is in the ablative case because it is an adjective of رب§ It is also . الل

in the construct state.

�لم� �عا ال �رب§ ني is a genitive construction.

�لم� �عا �ال ني is an annexed masculine plural in the genitive case.

Multiple PredicatesOne mubtada'< (starter=subject) can have multiple predicates.

Example:

� �مc هcوهذا �كر�ي ال cل� �ي ¦ب �ن ال cف� ر�ي ال�ش¦ haathaa huw(a) ('a)sh-shareef(u)

('a)n-nabeel(u) ('a)l-kareem(u)

= this he (is) the honest the noble the generous

Translation: this is a very honest, noble, generous man

Huw(a)= he, is a pleonastic pronoun. Employing subject pronouns before the predicate in this manner will be covered in detail in the pronouns section.

Coordinators may be used between the different predicates:

� �فc هcوهذا ر�ي �لc وال�ش¦ �ي ¦ب �ن �مcوال �كر�ي ال haathaa huw(a) ('a)sh-shareef(u) wa-

('a)n-nabeel(u) wa-('a)l-kareem(u)

= this he (is) the honest and the noble and the generous

Translation: this is a very honest, noble, generous man

The coordinators must be placed between all the predicates, not only before the last one.

An interesting example of multiple predicates is that of "the Finest Names of God" :-)

Note that the verb "to be" will show up in the past and future tenses. It will be just like English for those two tenses.

Thus, we hereby have covered the only case of verb-less sentences in Arabic.

Exercise

I am here

The ink is blue

What is this?

Can you translate those sentences to Arabic by using the following Arabic words?

I� أنا

Here� هcنا

An ink (sing. masc.) �ر� ب ح�

A blue (sing. masc.) cرق أز�

What� ما

This (sing. masc.)� هذا

Answers

I am here � هcنا � أنا

The ink is blue cرق أز� cر� ب �ح� ال

What is this? ؟ � هذا � ما

Verbs

Tense Verb

Simple Past Perfective

Simple Present Imperfective

Simple Future

Just like every other word in Arabic barring the particles, verbs are based on roots. Roots will be plugged into verbal structures to create verbs of different tenses and aspects.

The major two categories of verbal structures in Arabic are the perfective and the imperfective. The imperfective is used for both the simple present and simple future tenses, and the perfective is used for the simple past tense.

Imperfective verbs have different moods. There are five moods, four of which (the indicative, subjunctive, jussive, and energetic) share one structure but with different endings. The fifth mood, the imperative, has its own distinct structure. Perfective verbs have only one mood; but this mood has two different functions. It can be either indicative or subjunctive depending on the sentence. The subjunctive perfective verbs can be used for all tenses not only the past.

Verb Moods

Perfective(Past)

Indicative/subjunctive

Imperfective(Present/Future)

Indicative

Subjunctive

Jussive

Energetic

Imperative

Perfective and imperfective verbs have also active and passive voices. We will cover the passive voice right after we finish with the active voice.

Perfective Structures

Triliteral Roots-Basic Structures It is better in Arabic to begin by describing the past (perfective) verbs, because these are the simplest forms. The majority of Arabic verbs have roots consisting of three letters. Some verbs have four-lettered-roots, but there are no verbs with more than four letters to their roots. We will begin by talking about the structures of triliteral roots. Without adding any additional letters to them, triliteral roots can be structured in 3 different ways to give the three basic structures of perfective verbs in Arabic:

Basic Structures of Perfective Verb

(Active Voice)

(He) did

(He) has done

fa"al(a) فعل

fa"il(a) فع�ل

fa"ul(a) فعcل

The perfective verb alone can mean either the simple past tense "(he) did" or the perfect present "(he) has done." Verb structures in Semitic languages are usually presented in the 3rd person singular masculine conjugation "(he) did" because this is the simplest and most basic form. It should be noted that there is no pronoun "it" in Arabic, so verbs conjugated in the "he" conjugation may also be referring to an "it" (i.e. an object/animal).

The blue letters are the root letters. Most of the roots are plugged into only one of the three structures, but some roots can be plugged into more than one. These three structures are called in western terms the "form I" of Arabic verbs, or the G-stem (G for "ground"). The difference between the three structures lies in the short vowel between the final two letters colored in green.

The three structures all express the same general meaning, which is "(he) did" or "(he) has done." However, there is a difference between the three in regard to "what" he actually did or has done.

1) Fa"al(a)

The first structure, fa"al(a), is generally a "dynamic" or "active" structure. It usually indicates a real action on the part of the subject that occurs over a period of time, like e.g. "(he) wrote," "(he) read," or "(he) ate."

Dynamic Verbs(He) wrote

(He) has written katab(a) كتب

(He) read(He) has read qara'(a) قرأ

(He) ate(He) has eaten 'akal(a) أكل

(He) asked(He) has asked sa'al(a) سأل

(He) made(He) has made sana"(a) صنع

(He) went(He) has gone thahab(a) ذهب

2) Fa"il(a)The second structure, fa"il(a), is generally a "stative" structure. Rather than indicating real actions that occur over time, this structure usually refers to the state of the subject, e.g. "(he) knew," "(he) became tired," or "(he) became happy."

Stative Verbs(He) knew

(He) has known "alim(a) �م عل

(He) understood(He) has understood fahim(a) فه�م

(He) became tired(He) has become tired ta"ib(a) تع�ب

(He) became happy(He) has become

happyfarih(a) فر�ح

(He) became angry(He) has become angry radib(a) غض�ب

(He) was safe(He) has been safe salim(a) �م سل

These verbs do not indicate real actions. You don't actually do something when you "know."

The stative verb "to know" can indicate two things:

It can indicate the simple being in the state of knowing. It can indicate becoming in the state of knowing; or in other words, it can

indicate changing from the state of unknowing into the state of knowing.

Thus, stative verbs can indicate either being something or becoming

something. Most of the stative fa"il(a) verbs will primarily indicate the second meaning, i.e. "(he) became something." A few number of them will indicate "(he) was something" as a primary meaning.

Irregularities

The dynamic vs. stative distinction between fa"al(a) and fa"il(a) is a general rule but is not always true. There are verbs of the first structure that are stative, and vice versa.

Examples:

(He) knew(He) has known "araf(a) عرف

(He) owned(He) has owned malak(a) ملك

(He) worked(He) has worked "amil(a) عم�ل

(He) drank(He) has drunk sharib(a) شر�ب(He) laughed

(He) has laughed dahik(a) ضح�كThe primary reason for these irregularities is probably because the original meanings of the verbs were different. For example, the original meaning of the

root ف ر is related to "succession" or "flowing." Also, the verb عsharib(a), if understood literally, means "(he) became soaked."

3) Fa"ul(a)The third structure, fa"ul(a), is a pure stative structure. It is always stative without irregularities, and unlike the previous one, the primary meaning of this structure in Classical Arabic is always "(he) was something" rather than "(he) became something."

Stative Verbs

(He) was small(He) has been small

(He) became small(er)(He) has become small(er)

sarur(a) صغcر

(He) was big(He) has been big

(He) became big(ger)(He) has become big(ger)

kabur(a) cر كب

(He) was easy(He) has been easy

(He) became easy(er)(He) has become easy(er)

sahul(a) سهcل

(He) was hard(He) has been hard

(He) became hard(er)(He) has become hard(er)

sa"ub(a) صعcب

Remember that "he" can also mean "it" in Arabic. The meaning "(he) has been" colored in purple is the commonly meant one in Classical Arabic.

This structure is less common than the previous one. A main difference between the two is that this structure is usually used for simple attributes like "small," "easy," "tall," "good," "slow," "honorable," etc. Whereas the previous structure is generally used for more real states like "angry," "tired," "safe," "knowing," "forgetting," "saturated," etc.

Unlike the previous two structures, fa"ul(a) verbs are always intransitive verbs.

Notes

Transitive verb: a verb that can take a direct object.

e.g. he bought a book.

Intransitive verb: a verb that cannot take a direct object.

e.g. he slept (he can't "sleep something").

A summary of the structures we have talked about so far:

Form I of Arabic Verbs(Active Voice)

Dynamic(He) did

fa"al(a)Transitive / intransitive

فعلStative

(He) became something

(primary meaning)

(He) was something(secondary meaning)

fa"il(a)Transitive / intransitive

فع�ل

Stative(He) was something(primary meaning in Classical

Arabic)

(He) became something

fa"ul(a)Intransitive

فعcل

Pronominal SuffixesSo far we have been dealing only with the 3rd person singular masculine conjugation of the perfective verb "(he) did." This is the basic conjugation of verbs in Arabic.

In order to get the rest of the conjugations, we will add endings, or suffixes, to this basic form.

Here is the full conjugation scheme:

�ض�ي� �ما ل // Perfective ال ع Root ف(Form I, Active Voice)

SINGULA

(I) did fa"alt(u) � cتفعل(You masc.) did fa"alt(a) � تفعل(You fem.) did fa"alti* � �تفعل

R

(He) did fa"al(a) فعل(She) did fa"alat �تفعل

DUAL

(You) did fa"altumaa � �فعل cما ت(They masc.) did fa"alaa الفع(They fem.) did fa"alataa �تفعل ا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) did fa"alnaa � �فعل نا(You masc.) did fa"altum* � cم�فعل ت *

(You fem.) did fa"altunn(a) � cنفعل ¦ت(They masc.) did fa"aloo c و�افعل *

(They fem.) did fa"aln(a) � نفعل*In perfect classical Arabic this would be fa"alt(i), but this is too perfect for our time.

*Another possibility in classical Arabic is: fa"altum(u) � cمفعل cت .

*Theا in اــو is silent.

The red endings are considered in Arabic grammar subjects of the verbs to which they are attached. A subject of a verb refers to who did (active verb) or who received (passive verb) the action denoted by the verb.

The suffixes are called the "attached subject pronouns." This idea is important in Arabic grammar and has its implications when forming verbal sentences, as will be covered later.

However, the 3rd person singular endings, both the masculine and feminine (he & she), are the only endings that are not considered attached subject pronouns.

Conjugation of 3rd Person Singular Perfective Verbs

Masculine(She) did / has done

Masculine(He) did / has done

fa"alat �تفعل fa"al(a) فعل

fa"ilat �تفع�ل fa"il(a) فع�ل

fa"ulat ت�فعcل fa"ul(a) فعcل

The final -a of the masculine conjugation is not a pronoun. The -t at the end of the feminine conjugation is a feminine marker called "still feminine taa'<

cء� �يث� تا �ن �نةc التأ اك الس¦ ." Unlike the feminine taa'< attached to nouns, this one is always pronounced, hence the different figure in writing.

The fact that these two are not attached pronouns is important when making verbal sentences. Verbal sentences are the principal type of sentences in formal Arabic. In such sentences, the verb comes before the subject:

Nominal Sentence Verbal SentenceThe boys want to play Want the boys to play

The woman was here Was the woman here

An important rule regarding the formation of verbal sentences is the following:

When a perfective verb ending with a 3rd person attached subject pronoun is used in a verbal sentence (i.e. precedes its subject), the attached pronoun

must be removed and replaced with -a for the masculine subject and -at for the feminine subject unless the subject is a separate pronoun.

More details about verbal sentences are available on this page.

The conjugation technique is the same for every perfective verb in Arabic. However, irregular verbs have irregular conjugation rules. Irregular verbs include doubled verbs; the verbs that end with a repeated letter, and weak

verbs; the verbs whose roots include weak letters (w or y). Conjugation of irregular verbs will be explained soon.

The regular verbs are also called sound verbs. Example on the conjugation of a regular verb:

عرف"araf(a)


�ض�ي� �ما ف // Perfective ال ر Root ع

(Form I, Active Voice)

SINGULAR

(I) knew "araft(u) �cتعرف

(You masc.) knew "araft(a) تعرف�

(You fem.) knew "arafti �تعرف�

(He) knew "araf(a) عرف

(She) knew "arafat �تعرف

DUAL

(You) knew"ara

ftumaa �عرف� cما ت

(They masc.) knew "arafaa �اعرف

(They fem.) knew "arafataa �تعرف ا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) knew "arafnaa �عرف� نا

(You masc.) knew "araftum cم�عرف �ت

(You fem.) knew"ara

ftunn(a) cنعرف ¦�ت

(They masc.) knew "arafoo cو�اعرف

(They fem.) knew "arafn(a) �نعرف

*A group of males and females will be referred to as a group of males. An unspecified or unknown gender will be referred to as male.

Exercise

)He (heard سم�ع

)He (was/became bigger cر كب

Based on these two verbs, can you translate the following to Arabic?(you need not to translate the pronouns in parenthesis)

(I) heard

(We) heard

(They dual fem.) heard

(They plu. fem.) heard

(She) became bigger

(You plu. masc.) became bigger

(They plu. masc.) became bigger

(You plu. fem.) became bigger

(You sing. masc.) became bigger

(They dual masc.) became bigger

(You dual) became bigger

(You sing. fem.) became bigger

Answers

(I) heard cسم�ع�ت

(We) heard � سم�ع�نا

(They dual fem.) heard � سم�عتا

(They plu. fem.) heard سم�ع�ن

(She) became bigger cرت� كب

(You plu. masc.) became bigger cم� ت cر� كب

(They plu. masc.) became bigger و�ا cرc كب

(You plu. fem.) became bigger cن¦ ت cر� كب

(You sing. masc.) became bigger ت cر� كب

(They dual masc.) became bigger � cرا كب

(You dual) became bigger � cما ت cر� كب

(You sing. fem.) became bigger ت� cر� كب

VerbsPerfective Structures (continued)

Triliteral Roots with Additional LettersThe three structures we have talked about so far did not have any additional letters. They were composed solely of the root letters plus short vowels, which

do not count as letters. Those are called in Arabic the "bare" structures or

measures cن� دةc األو�زا �مcجر¦ ال .

With the employment of additional letters, there will be as many as 14 other structures of perfective verbs based on triliteral roots, making a total of fifteen forms.

Structures with additional letters are called in Arabic the "added to" or

"augmented" structures cن� �دةc األو�زا �مز�ي ال .

Here is a list of all the triliteral-rooted perfective verb structures:

Structures of Perfective Verbs with Triliteral Roots)Active Voice(

No additional

lettersForm I

fa"al(a) فعل

fa"il(a) فع�ل

fa"ul(a) فعcل

1 additional letter Form II fa""al(a) ¦لعف

Form III faa"al(a) �ف علا

Form IV 'af"al(a) ف�علأ

2 additional letters

Form V tafa''"al(a) ¦لعفت

Form VIt

afaa"al(a) �علافت

Form VII 'infa"al(a) �فعلن�ا

Form VIII 'ifta"al(a) ف��ا علت

Form IX 'if"all(a) ¦ل�ف�عا3 additional

lettersForm X 'istaf"al(a) ا

ت� ف�علس�

Form XI 'if"aall(a) �ل±�ف�عا ا

Form XII'

if"aw"al(a) لع�و�ف�عا

Form XIII'

if"awwal(a)

� لو±ف�عا

Form XIV 'if"anlal(a) � �ف�عا ن لل

Form XV 'if"anlaa � نف�عا �ى�ل

The last five structures (highlighted in red) are rare.

Note that the short vowel between the final two letters (the green short vowel) is fixed as a in all the forms other than form I. The only form that has a

changeable green vowel is form I, as we have already seen. When those perfective verb forms are turned into imperfective, the green vowel will be fixed as i in all forms except forms V & VI which will still have a fixed a. Form

I will still have a changeable green vowel in the imperfective like in the perfective. We are going to cover the imperfective verbs later.

Forms IX and XI are irregular doubled verbs. The green vowel is omitted in the 3rd person masculine singular conjugation of these verbs as well as in some other conjugations.

Form XV is an irregular defective verb. This form ends with a weak 'alif that becomes a letter y in other conjugations.

All the forms conjugate in the regular way mentioned earlier except for the irregular ones (i.e. forms IX and XI, the doubled verbs, and form XV, the defective verb). The conjugation of irregular verbs will be covered later.

Examples on the conjugation of the different forms:

Re-

conjugatedExample

([he] did)Form

(We) sat�جلس� نا جلس

فعلjalasnaa jalas(a)

(I) thought� ب cتحس� ب حس�

فع�لhasibt(u) hasib(a)

(She/it) was/became

small(er)

ت�صغcر صغcرفعcل

sarurat sarur(a)

(You, dual) taught

¦م� �عل cما ت ¦م علفع¦ل

"allamtumaa "allam(a)

(They, masc. dual) fought

�ت القا �تل قا�عل فا

qaatalaa qaatal(a)

(They, masc. plu.) dignified �رم اcو�أك �رم أك

akramoo'أف�عل 'akram(a)

(They, fem. dual) were late

�تأخ¦ر تا ر تأخ¦ta'akhkhaتفع¦ل

rataata'akhkha

r(a)

(You, masc. plu.) wondered

� �تسا cمءل �ت �ءل تسا�عل تفا

tasaa'altum tasaa'al(a)

(She/it) exploded

�فجر�ا �تن �فجر�ا ن �فعل �ن infajarat'ا 'infajar(a)

(They, fem. plu.) became disconcerted

تبك�ا �نر� تبك�ا ر� �ف�تعل irtabakn(a)'ا 'irtabak(a)

(You, masc. sing.) reddened

up

مرر��ا تح� * ح�مر¦�ا �ف�عل¦ ihmarart(a)'ا 'ihmarr(a)

(We) usedتع�مل�ا �س� �نا تع�مل�ا س� تف�ع �س� ا

ista"malnaa'ل 'ista"mal(a)

*A doubled verb.

Just like how the first three structures showed differences in meaning, each one of the other structures also has its distinct meaning, or meanings. However, having deep knowledge of the different meanings of each structure is not that important. The important thing is to know what a verb means and to be able to conjugate it correctly.

A comprehensive review of the meanings of each structure with large numbers of examples are available here.

Here is a simplified list of the meanings of verb structures:

Meanings of Verb Forms

Form I

فعلfa"al(a)

tr./intr.

Basic

(he) did

فع�لfa"il(a)

tr./intr.

Stative

(he) was/became something

فعcلfa"ul(a)

intr.

Stative

(he) was/became something

Form II¦لعف

fa""al(a)

tr./intr.

Causative

(he) made do

Intensive

(he) did much

Form III�ف علا

faa"al(a)

tr./intr.

Conative

(he) sought to do

Mutual

(he) initiated mutual doing with

Intensive

(he) did much

Form IVف�علأ

'af"al(a)

tr./intr.

Causative

(He) made do

Reflexive Causative

(He) made himself do

Form V¦لعفت

tafa''"al(a)

tr./intr.

Reflexive Causative

(He) made himself do

Reflexive Intensive

(he) did himself much

Form VI�علافت

tafaa"al(a)

tr./intr.

Conative

(he) sought to do

Mutual

(he) initiated mutual doing with

Pretension

(he) pretended to do

Reflexive Intensive

(he) did himself much

Form VII�فعلن�ا

'infa"al(a)

intr.

Reflexive

(he) was/became done

Agentless Passive

(he) was/became done

Form VIII ف��ا علتReflexive

(he) did himself

'ifta"al(a)

tr./intr.

Reflexive Causative

(he) made himself do

Form IX¦ل�ف�عا

'if"all(a)

intr.

Stative

(he) was/became color/bodily

characteristic

Form Xت�ا ف�علس�

'istaf"al(a)

tr./intr.

Causative

(He) made do

Reflexive Causative

(he) made himself do

Arrangement/Request(he) had/asked to do

(He) sought to be done by

Details about these meanings are available here. It should be noted that all of these structures are considered active verbs, although the reflexive structures can overlap in meaning with the passive (especially form VII which can be used as a real passive). Each one of these structures has a passive voice version which we will go through later.

It can often be not easy in real life to identify the meaning of a certain verb with the general meaning of its structure.

Exercise 1

Can you fill in the missing English pronouns inside the brackets?

(?) hurried (up) cم� رع�ت أس�

(?) waited و�ا cتظر� �ن ا

(?) came close(er) cن¦ �ت �ق�ترب ا

(?) received � تلم�نا �س� ا

(?) tried �ن ب جر¦

(?) blued (became blue) رق¦ت� �ز� ا

(?) tried �وال حا

(?) became surprised �ت� �جأ تفا

(?) won و�ا cتصر� �ن ا

(?) learned � cما ¦م�ت تعل

(?) roughened �ت �خ�شو�شن ا

Answers

(You plu. masc.) hurried (up) cم� رع�ت أس�

(They plu. masc.) waited و�ا cتظر� �ن ا

(You plu. fem.) came close(er) cن¦ �ت �ق�ترب ا

(We) received � تلم�نا �س� ا

(They plu. fem.) tried �ن ب جر¦

(She) blued (became blue) رق¦ت� �ز� ا

(They dual masc.) tried �وال حا

(You sing. fem.) became surprised �ت� �جأ تفا

(They plu. masc.) won و�ا cتصر� �ن ا

(You dual) learned � cما ¦م�ت تعل

(You sing. masc.) roughened �ت �خ�شو�شن ا

Exercise 2 Can you tell the forms of the verbs in the previous exercise?

Answers

Form IV cم� رع�ت أس�

Form VIII و�ا cتظر� �ن ا

Form VIII cن¦ �ت �ق�ترب ا

Form II �ن ب جر¦

Form IX رق¦ت� �ز� ا

Form III �وال حا

Form VI �ت� �جأ تفا

Form VIII � تلم�نا �س� ا

Form VIII و�ا cتصر� �ن ا

Form V � cما ¦م�ت تعل

Form XII �ت �خ�شو�شن ا


Quadriliteral Roots-Basic StructureVerbs of quadriliteral roots are relatively few. Quadriliteral roots usually denote periodic sounds (e.g. jangle), periodic movements (e.g. quake), are extracted from foreign loanwords, or are altered from previous triliteral roots by adding a letter to them.

There is only one structure for verbs of quadriliteral roots with no additional letters:

Basic Structure of Quadriliteral-Rooted Verbs

(Active Voice)

fa"lal(a)tr./intr.

فع�لل*Note: this structure is written this way in Arabic grammar, but the third and fourth letters of the root do not have to be the same.

Examples:

Quadriliteral-Rooted Verbs

(He) muttered

tamtam(a) تم�تم

hamham(a) هم�هم

waswas(a) وس�وس

(He) stammered

ta'<ta'(a) �تأ تأ

fa'<fa'(a) �فأ فأ

(He) jangled salsal(a) �صل صل

(He) howled walwal(a) �ول ول)He (quaked

)He (thundered jaljal(a) جلجل

(He) made quake zalzal(a) �زل زل(He) dressed (somebody)

from Aramaic etymologysarbal(a) بل سر�

(He) embroideredfrom Persian etymology zakhraf(a) زخ�رف

(He) put a cap on (somebody)

from Latin "calantica"qalnas(a) �نس قل

(He) rolled (something)

original root: ج ر د ? dahraj(a) دح�رج(He) scattered (something)

original root: ر ث ب ?ba"thar(a) بع�ثر

(He) choked

original root: رج ح ? hashraj(a) رج حش�(He) reassured

original root: ن م أ ? tam'an(a) طم�أن

Arabs used, and use, the structure fa"lal(a) to carve verbs from nouns that have more than three consonants in them. We explained in this page, at length, how the verb form II is used to derive verbs from nouns with triliteral roots. There are other verb forms that can also be derived from three-letter-rooted nouns. However, to derive verbs from nouns with more than three

letters to their roots, quadriliteral-rooted structure such as fa"lal(a) are used.

In modern times, fa"lal(a) has been used as well to derive verbs from three-letter-rooted nouns with more than three letters. This is why we said that this structure is used to derive verbs from nouns with more than three consonants, regardless of the root.

Examples:

Form QI Verb

Noun

'amrak(a) أم�رك

'amerikaa� أمير�كا

(he) made American→ Americanized (tr.)

America (fem.)

sa"wad(a)سع�و

د

'as-s

u"oodiyya(tu) عcو� الس¶

cة¦ made Saudi (he)د�ي→ Saudized (tr.)

Saudi Arabia (fem.)

bar"am(a)ع بر�م

bur"um(un)

عcم� cر� ب(he) budded a bud (masc.)

talfan(a)

�فن تلtelifōn(un)

�فون� �ي تل(he) telephoned a telephone (masc.)

There were many quadriliteral roots that Arab grammarians recognized as altered from triliteral roots by the addition of one letter to them. They worked out 8 standard patterns for the addition of the fourth letter and called the patterns or the structures the "annexed" quadriliteral-rooted structures without additional letters.

Here are the 8 structures:

Example Structure

jalbab(a)

�ب بجل fa"lal(a) put a djellaba on (He)لفع�ل(somebody)

hawqal(a)�قلوح faw"al(a) �علوف

(He) became impotent

rahwal(a)لوره� fa"wal(a) لوفع�

(He) hurried up

baytar(a)

�طريب fay"al(a) �عليف(He) treated (an animal)

sharyaf(a)

فيشر� fa"yal(a) ليفع�(He) cut

sanbal(a)�بلنس fan"al(a) �ف علن

(He, a plant) eared

qalnas(a) � سنقل fa"nal(a) put a cap on (He)لنفع�(somebody)

salqaa�ق ى�سل fa"laa �ىفع�ل

(He) laid down

Notes

Those are structures of four-letter-rooted verbs without additional letters.

The purple letters are identified as additional to the roots not to the structures.

In the first structure, the third and fourth letter have to be identical. This is different from the general structure mentioned above, albeit they are written the same way.

I don't think all the examples are correct (the last one isn't), but those are the ones I have.

The verb � سنقل was mentioned because classical Arab grammarians didn't know it was from Latin etymology and thought it was altered from

the root س ل although the truth is the other way around. I had to , قput it here because I don't have other examples.

Those structures are rare and knowing them is of very little importance, if any.

An example on the conjugation of a simple quadriliteral-rooted verb:

طم�أنtam'an(a)

(he) reassured

�ض�ي� �ما ن // Perfective ال أ م Root ط(Form QI, Active Voice)

SING

(I) reassured tam'ant(u) � cتطم�أن(You masc.) reassured tam'ant(a) � تطم�أن

ULAR

(You fem.) reassured tam'anti � �تطم�أن(He) reassured tam'an(a) طم�أن(She) reassured tam'anat تطم�أن

DUAL

(You) reassured tam'antumaa � �طم�أن cما ت(They masc.) reassured tam'anaa �اطم�أن(They fem.) reassured tam'anataa �تاطم�أن

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) reassured tam'annaa �طم�أ ¦ا ن(You masc.) reassured tam'antum � cم�طم�أن ت(You fem.) reassured

tam'antunn(a) � cنطم�أن ¦ت

(They masc.) reassured tam'anoo cو�اطم�أن(They fem.) reassured tam'ann(a) ¦نطم�أ

Quadriliteral Roots with Additional LettersWith the additional letters, three more structures of quadriliteral roots are obtained.

Structures of Perfective Verbs with Quadriliteral Roots

)Active Voice(

No additional

lettersForm QI fa"lal(a) فع�لل

1 additional letter Form QII tafa"lal(a) فع�للت

2 additional letters

Form QIII 'if"anlal(a) �للن�ف�عا

Form QIV 'if"alall(a) � ا ¦لف�عل

Forms QIV is an irregular doubled verb. The green short vowel in certain conjugations of this verbs is displaced backward (original form 'if"allal(a)).

Examples on the conjugation of the quadriliteral-rooted forms:

Re-conjugated Example([he] did)

Form

(You, fem. sing.) scattered

�تبع�ثر� بع�ثرفع�لل

ba"tharti ba"thar(a)

(They, masc. dual) rolled

رج �تدح� ا رج تدح�تفع�لل

tadahrajaa tadahraj(a)

(She, fem. sing.) congregated

used form camels

�جم رن �ح� ت�ا �جم رن �ح� ا �لل �ف�عن ihranjamat'ا 'ihranjam(a)

(I) became reassured� �نن �ط�مأ cتا * ط�مأن¦�ا �ف�علل¦ itma'<nant(u)'ا 'itma'ann(a)

*A doubled verb.

A review of the meanings of these structures with examples is available here.

A simplified list of the meanings:

Meanings of Verb FormsForm QI فع�لل

fa"lal(a)

Basic(he) did

tr./intr.

Form QIIفع�للت

tafa"lal(a)

tr./intr.

Reflexive(He) did himself

Reflexive Causative(He) made himself do

Form QIII�للن�ف�عا

'if"anlal(a)

intr.

Reflexive(He) did himself

Form QIV� ا ¦لف�عل

'if"alall(a)

intr.

Stative(he) was/became

something

Exercise 1 Can you fill in the missing English pronouns inside the brackets?

(?) spoke � ¦م�نا تكل

(?) translated � جم�نا تر�

(?) popped, cracked cن¦ قع�ت فر�

(?) scared cن¦ �ت عب أر�

(?) fidgeted �مال تمل

(?) treated (one another) �مال تعا

(?) had gooseflesh, shuddered ت� �ق�شعر¦ ا

(?) continued (intr.) ت��ا تمر¦ س�

(?) were/became popped, cracked cم� �قع�ت �ف�رن ا

(?) enjoyed (intr.) cم� تم�تع�ت �س� ا

Answers

(We) spoke � ¦م�نا تكل

(We) translated � جم�نا تر�

(You plu. fem.) popped, cracked cن¦ قع�ت فر�

(You plu. fem.) scared cن¦ �ت عب أر�

(They dual masc.) fidgeted �مال تمل

(They dual. masc.) treated (one another) �مال تعا

(She) had gooseflesh, shuddered ت� �ق�شعر¦ ا

(She) continued (intr.) ت��ا تمر¦ س�

(You plu. masc.) were/became popped, cracked cم� �قع�ت �ف�رن ا

(You plu. masc.) enjoyed (intr.) cم� تم�تع�ت �س� ا

Exercise 2 Can you tell the forms of the verbs in the previous exercise?

Answers

Form V � ¦م�نا تكل

Form QI � جم�نا تر�

Form QI cن¦ قع�ت فر�

Form IV cن¦ �ت عب أر�

Form QII �مال تمل

Form VI �مال تعا

Form QIV ت� �ق�شعر¦ ا

Form X ت��ا تمر¦ س�

Form QIII cم� �قع�ت �ف�رن ا

Form X cم� تم�تع�ت �س� ا

Structures of the Perfective Verb

(Active Voice)

Form I

fa"al(a) فعل

fa"il(a) فع�ل

fa"ul(a) فعcل

Form II fa""al(a) ¦لعف




Form VI tafaa"al(a) �علافت



Form IX 'if"all(a) ¦ل�ف�عا

Form X 'istaf"al(a) ت�ا ف�علس�


Form XII 'if"aw"al(a) لع�و�ف�عا

Form XIII 'if"awwal(a) � لو±ف�عا



Form QI fa"lal(a) فع�لل

Form QII tafa"lal(a) فع�للت




Conjugation of Irregular Verbs For description of irregular verb types, you may go here

1) Doubled Verbs

Doubled verbs are triliteral verbs that have identical second and third root-letters; or any verb that ends with a shadda(t) (doubled consonants with no vowel in between). The short vowel that is lacking from between the two final letters is the green short vowel of verbs.

The shadda(t) of the doubled verbs must be "untied" when adding certain pronominal suffixes to them. Untying means inserting a short vowel between the two identical letters under the shadda(t) (-CC → -CvC). For perfective

verbs, the inserted vowel will be always a, regardless of what the original green vowel was.

Example, the verb:

مر¦marr(a)

(He) passed

(He) passed marr(a) مر¦

(I) passed marrt(u) تcمر±�

(I) passed marart(u) تcمرر� The omitted green vowel from this verb is a, but we would have inserted a anyway and without needing to know that.

Untying will happen with all pronominal suffixes that start with a consonant (the 1st & 2nd person conjugations plus the 3rd person feminine plural). The reason behind this change is to prevent the formation of a three-consonant-cluster (CCC). In Arabic terms, to prevent two still letters form directly following each other (the two r's). This is an important law in the Arabic

language ("stills don't meet").

The full conjugation of the verb:

�ض�ي� �ما فـعـل مر¦ : // Perfective ال


SINGULAR

(I) passed marart(u) cتمرر� (You masc.) passed marart(a) تمرر� (You fem.) passed mararti �تمرر�

(He) passed marr(a) مر¦(She) passed marrat �تمر¦

DUAL

(You) passedma

rartumaa �مرر� cما ت (They masc.) passed marraa �مر ¦ا (They fem.) passed marrataa �مر ¦تا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) passed mararnaa �مرر �نا

(You masc.) passed marartum cممرر� �ت (You fem.) passed

marartunn(a) cنمرر ¦�ت

(They masc.) passed marroo و�امر¶ (They fem.) passed mararn(a) نمرر�

The omitted green vowel of most perfective doubled verbs is a; very few

doubled verbs have an omitted i or u vowels. Examples of these are:

Original Form Doubled Verb

�ل ظل zall(a)ظل¦

zalil(a) (he) remained, stayed

�ل مل mall(a)مل¦

malil(a) (he) became bored

�ل كل kall(a) كل¦

kalil(a) (he) became worn out

cب لب labb(a)لب¦

labub(a) (he) was/became sane

However, these verbs will untie just like verbs with omitted a .

Examples:

(I) stayed zalalt(u) � cتظلل(I) became bored malalt(u) � cتملل

(I) became worn out kalalt(u) � cتكلل(I) was/became sane lababt(u) � cتلبب

Conjugation of Doubled Verbs

1st person untie

2nd person untie

3rd personuntie only with the feminine

plural

►Form IV, X & QIVAlthough conjugating most of the verb forms will take only untying the shadda(t), the forms with a displaced-back vowel, namely forms IV, X & QIV, will require another step in addition to that, which is to remove the short A preceding the doubled consonant.

Conjugation of Doubled Verbs (He) did (I) did

Form IV 'afa"l(a) 'af"alt(u)

Form X 'istafa"l(a) 'istaf"alt(u)

Form QIV 'if"alall(a) 'if"allalt(u)

Examples:

Form IV Doubled Verbs

حب¦أ �أ بب cتح�

'ahabb(a) 'ahbabt(u)

(He) loved, liked (I) loved, liked

¦أ عد �أ cتع�دد'a"add(a) 'a"dadt(u)

(He) prepared (tr.) (I) prepared (tr.)

Form X Doubled Verbs

ت �س� مر¦ا ت �س� cتم�رر�ا 'istamarr(a) 'istamrart(u)

(He) continued (intr.) (I) continued (intr.)

ت �س� عد¦ا ت �س� �ا cتع�دد 'ista"add(a) 'ista"dadt(u)

(He) prepared (intr.) (I) prepared (intr.)

Form QIV

�ا ¦نط�مأ � ا �ن cت�نط�مأ'itma'ann(a) 'itma'<nant(u)

(He) became reassured (I) became reassured


Forms I, VII, VIII, IX & XI

just untie(-CvCC → -CvCvC)

Forms IV, X & QIVuntie + remove the short A

preceding the doubled letter(-CvCC → -CCvC)

Note

It is very common for form X and form QIV doubled verbs to be conjugated in the following manner by modern speakers of Arabic:

Erroneous Conjugation of Form X and Form QIV Doubled Verbs

ت �س� مر¦ا ت �س� cت�يمر¦ا

'istamarr(a) 'istamarrayt(u)

(He) continued (intr.) (I) continued (intr.)

�ا ¦نط�مأ � ¦ا �ن cت�يط�مأ'itma'ann(a) 'itma'annayt(u)

(He) became reassured (I) became reassured

This way of conjugation is extremely common among modern speakers of Arabic, thanks to influence from the modern spoken dialects. If you asked 100 native speakers to conjugate these verbs for you, probably more than 95 of them will conjugate in this last way.

2) Mithaal Verbs

Mithaal verbs are verbs whose first original letter is a weak letter. Perfective Mithaal verbs conjugate regularly, except that in form VIII, the first original letter will become a t as explained in this page.

3) Hollow VerbsHollow verbs are verbs whose second original letter is a weak letter.

For transformed hollow verbs whose weak letter is ا (a fake 'alif ), the middle

long vowel aa will be replaced by a short vowel when adding any pronominal

suffix that starts with a consonant, that is, any suffix other than the 3rd person suffixes, not counting the 3rd person feminine plural declension.

►Form IExample:

�لاقqaal(a)

(He) saidThe root is : ل و Q W L ق

(He) said qaal(a) �لاق

(I) said qaalt(u) �اق ت�cل

(I) said qalt(u) � تcقل(I) said qult(u) � cتقcل

The reason behind this change is to prevent the formation of a three-consonant-cluster (alt). In Arabic terms, to prevent two still letters form

directly following each other (the ا and the ل ). This is the important rule of

"stills don't meet."

The middle long A of hollow verbs is composed of a weak 'alif a preceded

by a short vowel a (aa). The weak 'alif here was deleted and the a was

changed to u . A simpler way of saying this is that the middle long A (aa)

was replaced by a short vowel u.

The full conjugation:

�ض�ي� �ما �ل // Perfective ال :قا

فـعـل


SING

(I) said qult(u) � cتقcل (You masc.) said qult(a) � تقcل

ULAR

(You fem.) said qulti � �تقcل (He) said qaal(a) �ق لا (She) said qaalat اق �ت�ل

DUAL

(You) said qultumaa �قcل cما �ت (They masc.) said qaalaa ا�لاق (They fem.) said qaalataa ��لاق تا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) said qulnaa � �قcل نا (You masc.) said qultum � cمقcل �ت (You fem.) said qultunn(a) � cنقcل ¦ت

(They masc.) said qaaloo �ق cو�الا (They fem.) said quln(a) � نقcل

The a was changed to u because the original weak letter of the verb (the

middle root-letter) is w . The short vowel u corresponds to w . Similarly, if

the original weak letter were y, the preceding short vowel a would be

changed to i , the corresponding short vowel.

Example:

�عابbaa"(a)

(He) sold

The root is: B Y " ع ي ب

(He) sold baa"(a) �عاب

(I) sold baa"t(u) ت�cع�اب

(I) sold ba"t(u) تcبع�

(I) sold bi"t(u) �ع� cتب


�ض�ي� �ما �ع // Perfective ال :با

فـعـل


SINGULAR

(I) sold bi"t(u) �ع� cتب (You masc.) sold

(masc.) bi"t(a) �ع� تب (You masc.) sold

(fem.) bi"ti �ع� �تب (He) sold baa"(a) �ب عا (She) sold baa"at �ت�عاب

DUAL

(You) sold bi"tumaa �ع� �ب cما ت (They masc.) sold baa"aa �ع�اب ا (They fem.) sold baa"ataa ��عاب تا

PLUR

(We dual/plu.) sold bi"naa �ع� �ب نا (You masc.) sold bi"tum �ع� cمب �ت

AL

(You fem.) sold bi"tunn(a) �ع� cنب ¦ت (They masc.) sold baa"oo �ب cو�اعا (They fem.) sold bi"n(a) �ع� نب

However, it is quite important to note that there is an exception to what have been mentioned so far. If the hollow verb were stative, that is to say, if the original, unseen, weak letter of the verb were followed by a short vowel i instead of a, the middle long A of the hollow verb will be always replaced by

an i regardless of the original weak letter of the verb.

Example:

�تامmaat(a)

(He) died The original form is:

�تومmawit(a)

(He) died

The root is: M W T ت و م

(He) died maat(a) �تام

(I) died maatt(u) ت¶�ام

(I) died matt(u) ت¶م

(I) died mitt(u) ¶تم� The a was changed to i even though the middle root-letter was w, because

the verb is of the stative structure fa"il(a). Other verbs of this kind include:

Original Form(not used)

Hollow Verb

�مون naam(a) �مان

nawim(a) (he) slept

�فوخ khaaf(a)�فاخ

khawif(a) (he) feared

�دوك kaad(a) �kawid(a)داك (he) almost (did)verb of approach

Here is a general rule for form I hollow verbs:

Hollow Verb Conjugation(Form I)

Original Form Actual Form

3rd person singular(He) did

3rd person singular(He) did

1st person singular(I) did

fawal(a) faal(a) fult(u)

fayal(a) faal(a) filt(u)

fawil(a) faal(a) filt(u)

fayil(a) faal(a) filt(u) Of course, this information will not be much useful in real life. The more practical thing for learning the conjugation of these verbs is to simply familiarize oneself with them. ————————————————————

Extra NoteThe mentioned information regards the standard, formal, Arabic, which was primarily derived from the dialect of ancient western Arabia (Hijaaz). However, the conjugation of fawil(a) verbs appears to be different in other

classical dialects:

fawil(a) → (he) faal(a) → (I) fult(u)For example, the verb mitt(u) = "(I) died" becomes mutt(u) in those

dialects. This way of conjugation appears today in several spoken dialects of Arabic (e.g. spoken Egyptian Arabic). It is possible that they conjugated the verb this way because there were two original versions of the verb:

mawit(a) / mawat(a) These two original versions gave rise to the two later versions mitt(u) & mutt(u). This may also explain why there are two different conjugations in the imperfective as well. However, these varieties occur only in Classical Arabic but not in the Modern Standard Arabic, which follows exactly the above mentioned rules.————————————————————

►Forms IV, X & QIV The verb forms other than form I have a simpler rule; the middle long A will be always replaced by a short vowel a.

Example, a form IV hollow verb:

�دارأ

'araad(a)

(He) wanted

The root is : د و R W DI ر

(He) wanted 'araad(a) �رأ دا(I) wanted

'araadt(u) �رأ تcد�ا

(I) wanted 'aradt(u) تcرد�أ


�ض�ي� �ما �د :أر // Perfective ال ا

عـل أفـ�

)Form IV, Active Voice(

SINGULA

(I) wanted 'aradt(u) تcأرد� (You masc.) wanted 'aradt(a) تأرد� (You fem.) wanted 'aradti �تأرد�

R

(He) wanted 'araad(a) �داأر (She) wanted 'araadat �ت�داأر

DUAL

(You) wanted 'aradtumaa �أرد� cما ت (They masc.) wanted 'araadaa ا�داأر (They fem.) wanted 'araadataa ��داأر تا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) wanted 'aradnaa �أرد �نا (You masc.) wanted 'aradtum cمأرد� �ت (You fem.) wanted 'aradtunn(a) cنأرد ¦�ت

(They masc.) wanted 'araadoo و�ا�دcاأر (They fem.) wanted 'aradn(a) نأرد�

Conjugation of Hollow Verbs

1st person middle long vowel aa → short vowel

2nd person middle long vowel aa → short vowel

3rd person

middle long vowel aa intact

except with the feminine plural :

middle long vowel aa → short vowel


Form I

fawal(a) aa → u

fayal(a)aa → i

fa"il(a)

Other Forms aa → a

aa → u

�خ دا �ن خا �ل جا �ر ثا �ق تا �ب تا�ح را �ق ذا �ب ذا �م دا �س دا �ر دا�ق سا �د سا �ء سا �ل زا �ر زا �م را�ر غا �د عا �ل طا �ف طا �ن صا �م صا�د قا �ق فا �ز فا �ر فا �ت فا �ص غا�ت ما الم الذ الح �م قا �ل قا

�ن ها �ح نا �ب نا

aa → i�ف خا �ر حا �ء جا �ه تا �ت با�ل سا �ر سا �ح سا �ن زا �ع ذا�ح صا �ع شا �خ شا �ب شا �ء شا�ب طا �ق ضا �ع ضا �ر صا �د صا�ر غا �ب غا �ش عا �ب عا �ر طا�ل نا �ل ما �ع ما �د كا �ض فا

�ج ها �ب ها

VerbsPerfective Structures

Conjugation of Irregular Verbs (continued) For description of irregular verb types, you may go here

4) Defective VerbsDefective verbs are verbs whose last original letter is a weak letter.

Defective verbs can end with / ىا (fake weak 'alif) or with apparent و w or

.y ي

All perfective defective verbs end with / ىا except form I verbs that have i or

u vowels before their final weak letters.

I. Triliteral Defective Verbs Ending With -iy(a) / -uw(a)

These verbs can only be form I verbs. They will conjugate regularly except in the 3rd parson masculine plural conjugation, in which the final weak letter will be deleted along with the preceding short vowel when adding the suffix.

Example:

ينس� nasiy(a)

(He) forgot

The root is : ي س N S Y Iن

(he) forgot nasiy(a) ينس�

(I) forgot

nasiyt(u)=

naseet(u)*ت�cينس�

*Remember that a still weak letter preceded by a corresponding short vowel is equal to a long vowel (iy = ee, uw = oo).

In the 3rd parson masculine plural conjugation, the final weak letter will be deleted along with the short vowel preceding it (-vCa) when adding the suffix.

Example:

(He) forgot nasiy(a) ينس� (They masc.)

forgot nasiyoo cو�اينس� (They masc.)

forgot nasoo cو�انس


�ض�ي� �ما ي // Perfective ال : نس�

ل فـعـ�)Form I, Active Voice(

SINGULAR

(I) forgot nasiyt(u) �تcينس� (You masc.) forgot nasiyt(a) �تينس� (You fem.) forgot nasiyti ��ت�ينس

(He) forgot nasiy(a) ينس� (She) forgot nasiyat �تينس�

DUAL

(You) forgot nasiytumaa �نس� �ي cما ت (They masc.) forgot nasiyaa �ينس� ا (They fem.) forgot nasiyataa �ينس� تا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) forgot nasiynaa �نس� �ي نا (You masc.) forgot nasiytum �نس� cم�ي ت (You fem.) forgot

nasiytunn(a) �نس� cني ¦ت

(They masc.) forgot nasoo cو�انس (They fem.) forgot nasiyn(a) �نينس�

*Keep in mind that iy = ee and uw = oo. Arabic does not have real long vowels but only these combinations.

II. Triliteral Defective Verbs Ending With -aa These verbs represent all the defective perfective verbs except form I verbs

that have i or u after their second root-letters.

Form I verbs that have a after their second root-letter can end with ا or ى depending on whether the original final weak letter is w or y, respectively.

Forms other than form I can only end with y, regardless of the origin of the final weak letter. More details are available on this page.

►Form I

The final the / ىا of form I defective verbs will be changed back to the original weak letter it substitutes for in the following conjugations:

The 1st person The 2nd person The 3rd person feminine plural and masculine dual

Example:

�انم

namaa

(He) grew (intr.)

The root is: و م N M W Iن

(he) grew namaa �نم ا (I) grew namaat(u) �تcانم

(I) grewn

amawt(u) ت�cونم The short vowel a preceding the final weak letter will appear in all verbs ending with weak 'alif.

For the rest of the conjugations other than the basic one (namely the 3rd

person feminine singular & dual, and masculine plural), the final / ىا will be always deleted.

For the 3rd feminine singular and feminine dual, the preceding short vowel

(the a) will be deleted along.

Example:

(He) grew namaa �نم ا

(She) grew namaaat ت�انم

(She) grew namat ت�نم

For the 3rd person masculine plural, the short vowel a before the deleted

weak letter will be preserved, and the resultant suffix will be -aw rather than

-uw (=oo).

(He) grew namaa �نم ا

(They masc.) grew namaauw و�اcانم

(They masc.) grew namaw و�انم


�ض�ي� �ما فـعـل : // Perfective ال � نما)Form I, Active Voice(

S (I) grew namawt(u) ت�cونم

INGULAR

(You masc.) grew namawt(a) تو�نم (You fem.) grew namawti �ت�ونم

(He) grew namaa نم� ا (She) grew namat �تنم

DUAL

(You) grewna

mawtumaa ��ونم cما ت (They masc.) grew namawaa �اونم (They fem.) grew namataa �نم تا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) grew namawnaa �ونم �نا (You masc.) grew namawtum cم�ونم �ت (You fem.) grew

namawtunn(a) cنونم ¦�ت

(They masc.) grew namaw و�انم (They fem.) grew namawn(a) ن�ونم

Another example:

�ىبكbakaa

(He) criedThe root is: ي ك ب B K Y I

�ض�ي� �ما فـعـل : بكى� // Perfective ال)Form I, Active Voice(

SINGULAR

(I) cried bakayt(u) ت�cيبك

(You masc.) cried bakayt(a) ت�يبك

(You fem.) cried bakayti �ت�يبك

(He) cried bakaa ى�بك

(She) cried bakat �تبك

DUAL

(You) cried bakaytumaa ��يبك cما ت

(They masc.) cried bakayaa �يبك ا

(They fem.) cried bakataa �بك تا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) cried bakaynaa ��يبك نا

(You masc.) cried bakaytum cم�يبك �ت

(You fem.) criedba

kaytunn(a) cن�يبك ¦ت

(They masc.) cried bakaw و�ابك

(They fem.) cried bakayn(a) ن�يبك

►Forms Other Than Form I

Defective verbs with more than three letters (i.e. forms other than form I, verbs with additional letters or quadriliteral roots) always end with a weak 'alif that looks like this:

ى This weak 'alif will be always changed to y when there is need to change,

regardless of its true origin.

The conjugation of these verbs is not any different from what was mentioned for form I verbs ending with ى .

Example:

�ا �ىهت�ن 'intahaa

(He) ended, finished

The root is: ي هـ N H Y Iن

�ض�ي� �ما �تهى� // Perfectiveال : ان

�ف�تعل ا)Form VIII, Active Voice(

SING

(I) finished 'intahayt(u) �ته �ن ت�cيا (You masc.) finished 'intahayt(a) �ته �ن ت�يا

ULAR

(You fem.) finished 'intahayti �ته �ن �ا �تي (He) finished 'intahaa �ته �ن ى�ا (She) finished 'intahat �ته �ن �تا

DUAL

(You) finished'inta

haytumaa �ت �ن ا

��يه cما ت (They masc.) finished 'intahayaa �ته �ن �يا ا (They fem.) finished 'intahataa �ته �ن �ا تا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) finished 'intahaynaa �ته �ن ��يا نا (You masc.) finished 'intahaytum �ته �ن cم��يا ت(You fem.) finished

'intahaytunn(a) �ته �ن cن±�يا ت

(They masc.) finished 'intahaw �ته �ن و�اا (They fem.) finished 'intahayn(a) �ته �ن ن�يا

Endings of Perfective Defective Verbs(3rd Person Masculine Singular)

Form I

fa"iw(a)-iy(a) ـي

fa"iy(a)

fa"uw(a)-uw(a) ـو

fa"uy(a)

fa"aw(a) -aa � ـا

fa"ay(a) -aa ـى�

Other Forms -aa ـى�

Conjugation of Perfective Defective Verbs

1st person 3rd person Masculine

2nd person3rd person

feminine plural3rd masculine

dual

feminine singular

3rd person feminine dual

plural

Form I

fa"il(a) -iy-suffix-iy-

suffix----uw

fa"ul(a) -uw-suffix

-uw-suffix

----uw

fa"aw(a

)

-aw-suffix

----suffix ----aw

fa"ay(a)

-ay-suffix ----suffix ----aw

Other Forms -ay-suffix ----suffix ----aw

IV. Enfolding VerbsEnfolding verbs are two types:

Verbs that have a middle and final weak original letters C-C-C

Verbs that have a first and final weak original letters C-C-C

The first type enfolds the definitions of both hollow and defective verbs, yet it is always treated as a defective verb only, and the middle weak letter is treated as if it were a sound letter.

Example:

�وىهhawaa

(He) fell

The root is : ي و H W Y Iهـ

�ض�ي� �ما : هوى� // Perfective ال

فـعـل)Form I, Active Voice(

SINGULAR

(I) fell hawayt(u) �ه تcوي

(You masc.) fell hawayt(a) �ه توي

(You fem.) fell hawayti �ه �توي

(He) fell hawaa �وىه

(She) fell hawat �توه

DUAL

(You) fell hawaytumaa �ه �وي cما ت

(They masc.) fell hawayaa ه �وي ا

(They fem.) fell hawataa �وه تا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) fell hawaynaa �ه �وي نا

(You masc.) fell hawaytum �ه cم�وي ت

(You fem.) fellh

awaytunn(a) �ه cنوي ¦ت

(They masc.) fell hawaw و�اوه

(They fem.) fell hawayn(a) �ه نوي

The second type of the enfolding verbs enfolds the definitions of both Mithaal and defective verbs. These verbs get the dealing of both Mithaal and defective verbs together. However, since that Mithaal verbs conjugate regularly in the

perfective, conjugating enfolding verbs will be very much like conjugating defective verbs.

Example:

�ىفو wafaa

(He) fulfilled

The root is : ي ف W F Y Iو

�ض�ي� �ما : وفى� // Perfective ال

فـعـل)Form I, Active Voice(

SINGULAR

(I) fulfilled wafayt(u) ت�cيفو (You masc.) fulfilled wafayt(a) �تيفو (You fem.) fulfilled wafayti ��تيفو

(He) fulfilled wafaa ى�فو(She) fulfilled wafat �توف

D (You) fulfilled wafaytumaa �يفو cما �ت

UAL

(They masc.) fulfilled wafayaa فو �ي ا(They fem.) fulfilled wafataa �وف تا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) fulfilled wafaynaa �فو �ي نا (You masc.) fulfilled wafaytum cم�يفو �ت (You fem.) fulfilled

wafaytunn(a) cنيفو ¦ت

(They masc.) fulfilled wafaw و�افو(They fem.) fulfilled wafayn(a) �فو ني

Enfolding Verbs

Root: C-C-C Treat as defective verbs

Root: C-C-C Treat as Mithaal & defective verbs

Where C is a sound consonant, and C is a weak consonant.

Exercise

(He) escaped (intr.) فر¦(He) admitted أقر¦

(He) stood, stopped وقف(He) won

origin: فوز �ز فا(He) feared

origin: خو�ف �ف خا(He) rested, became

relived �ح تا �ر� ا(He) rose, ascended عال

(He) remained, stayed بق�ي

(He) bought ترى� �ش� ا(He) bent (intr.) �توى� �ل ا(He) protected وقى�

Based on these verbs, can you translate the following to Arabic?(you need not to translate the pronouns in parenthesis)

(You sing. masc.) escaped

(They plu. masc.) escaped

(We) escaped

(We) admitted

(You plu. masc.) admitted

(They dual fem.) admitted

(They plu. fem.) stood

(She) won

(you sing. fem.) won

(I) won

(We) feared

(They dual masc.) feared

(You dual) feared

(I) rested

(They plu. fem.) rested

(They plu. masc.) rested

(We) ascended

(They plu. masc.) ascended

(She) ascended

(They dual) ascended

(You dual) stayed

(I) stayed

(She) stayed

(They plu. masc.) stayed

(You sing. fem.) bought

(She) bought

(We) bent

(She) bent

(They plu. masc.) bent

(You sing. masc.) protected

(She) protected

(They plu. masc.) protected

Answers

(You sing. masc.) escaped ت فرر�

(They plu. masc.) escaped و�ا فر¶

(We) escaped � نا فرر�

(We) admitted � نا أق�رر�

(You plu. masc.) admitted cم� ت أق�رر�

(They dual fem.) admitted � تا أقر¦

(They plu. fem.) stood وقف�ن

(She) won �زت� فا

(You sing. fem.) won ت� فcز�

(I) won cت فcز�

(We) feared � خ�ف�نا

(They dual masc.) feared � �فا خا

(You dual) feared � cما خ�ف�ت

(I) rested cتح�ت �ر� ا

(They plu. fem.) rested تح�ن �ر� ا

(They plu. masc.) rested �حcو�ا تا �ر� ا

(We) ascended � علو�نا

(They plu. masc.) ascended علو�ا

(She) ascended علت�

(They dual) ascended � علوا

(You dual) stayed � cما �ت بق�ي

(I) stayed cت� بق�ي

(She) stayed بق�يت�

(They plu. masc.) stayed بقcو�ا

(You sing. fem.) bought �ت� تري �ش� ا

(She) bought ترت� �ش� ا

(We) bent � �نا �توي �ل ا

(She) bent �توت� �ل ا

(They plu. masc.) bent �توو�ا �ل ا

(You sing. masc.) protected �ت وقي

(She) protected وقت�

(They plu. masc.) protected وقو�ا

Verbs (continued)

Imperfective Structures

Tense Verb

Simple Past Perfective

Simple PresentImperfective

Simple Future

The imperfective verb is used for both the simple present and simple future tenses.

Example, the imperfective verb:

cبcي �ت كyaktub(u)

This verb is derived from the root K T B = "write." It can mean any of the following:

(He) writes (simple present) (He) is writing (progressive present) (He) will write (simple future) (He) will be writing (progressive future)

Unlike the perfective verbs, imperfective verbs are not "built words," which means that they have changeable endings depending on the grammatical mood of the verb. For example, the perfective verb "(you masc. sing.) wrote/has written" has only one possible form:

� تكتبkatabt(a)

(You masc. sing.) wrote/has written

However, the imperfective verb "(you masc. sing.) write/will write" can have multiple different endings depending on the mood of the verb.

Moods of Imperfective Verb(You masc. sing.) write/will write

Indicative taktub(u) cبcت �ت ك

Subjunctive taktub(a) cبت �ت ك

Jussive taktub cب�ت �ت ك

Energetic

Light taktuban ت cب �ت �نك

Heavy

taktubann(a

)ت cب �ت ¦نك

Imperative 'uktub c cب�ا �ت ك

Energetic-Imperative

Light 'uktuban c ا cب �ت �نك

Heavy

'uktubann(a

)c ا cب �ت ¦نك

All these words have the same general meaning, which is "(you masc. sing.) write/will write," but they have different endings that depend on the grammar of the sentence. The imperative mood stands out in that it involves a different prefix not just different endings. This is the "mood inflection," which is the verbal equal of the "case inflection" of nouns; the two are collectively called in Arabic 'i"raab ب�� ع�را ≈ إ

"Arabization." In Arabic grammar, energetic and imperative verbs are not considered mood-inflected forms of the imperfective, rather they are considered "built" verbs that do not undergo mood inflection. The imperative is considered a separate class of verbs that is distinguished from both the perfective ض�ي�� ما �ر�عand the imperfective c ال �مcضا . ال Like the case-inflected parts of nouns, mood-inflected parts of verbs are always colored in pink on this site (except for the imperative prefixes). Moods will be covered in detail later.

Basic Imperfective Structure (Form I)Turning a perfective verb into an imperfective is somewhat complicated, because there are differences between the different verb forms in how they transform. We will begin by describing how regular form I verbs are conjugated in the imperfective.

Transforming a perfective form I verb to the imperfective requires three steps:

1. Removing the perfective pronominal suffix and adding an imperfective pronominal prefix and an imperfective pronominal suffix (if needed) to the stem.

2. Omitting the short A vowel between the first and second root letters of the verb stem (-CaCvC- → -CCvC-).

3. Adding a mood-sign that should follow the pronominal suffix (if the latter existed).

Like with the perfective, the added pronominal prefix and suffix depend on the subject of the verb. We will talk only about the 3rd person masculine singular conjugation for now and leave the rest for later.

We saw when we talked about the perfective that form I had three varieties depending on the short vowel between the second and third root-letters (the green short vowel).

Form I Perfective Structures(Active Voice)

(He) did

(He) has done

fa"al(a) فعل

fa"il(a) فع�ل

fa"ul(a) فعcل To transform these verbs to the imperfective, we will implement the first step and remove the perfective pronominal suffix. For the 3rd person masculine

singular subject, the imperfective prefix will be ya-, and there will be no suffix.

yafa"al فعلي

yafa"il فع�لي

yafa"ul فعcلي The second step is to omit the short A following the first root letter. We will get the following:

yaf"al ف�علي

yaf"il ف�ع�لي

yaf"ul ف�عcلي Finally, we will add the indicative mood sign of the 3rd person masculine

singular: -u .

Form I Imperfective Structures(Active-Indicative)

(He) does

(He) will do

yaf"al(u) ف�علcي

yaf"il(u) ف�ع�لcي

yaf"ul(u) ف�عcلcي So like the perfective form I, the imperfective form I has also three varieties that differ in the short vowel between the second and third root-letters. However, the green vowel in the imperfective will not match the one in the perfective, except by chance.

For example, the perfective verb:

كتبkatab(a)

(He) wrote/has written Becomes in the imperfective:

cبcي �ت كyaktub(u)

(He) writes/will write

The green vowel was a in the perfective and become u in the imperfective. It

can also become i in other verbs, or it can remain a; it is an arbitrary process. General facts:

Fa"al(a) verbs can have a , i , or u in the imperfective

Fa"il(a) verbs can have only a or i in the imperfective

Fa"ul(a) verbs can have only u in the imperfective It is possible to recognize some loose generalities about the green vowel's transformation between the perfective and the imperfective, but they are too loose to depend upon. However, here are some of these:

1) Fa"al(a)

Broadly speaking, dynamic fa"al(a) verbs that carry an essentially

transitive meaning often have u in the imperfective. Examples:

Fa"al(a)→ yaf"ul(u)

yaktub(u) cبcي �ت ك katab(a) كتب(He) writes (He) wrote

ya'<kul(u) cلcي �ك أ 'akal(a) أكل(He) eats (He) ate

yaqtul(u) cلcي ق�ت qatal(a) قتل(He) kills (He) killed

ya'<khuth(

u)�خcذcي أ

'akhath(a

)أخذ

(He) takes (He) took

However, for transitive dynamic fa"al(a) verbs that refer to simple actions, like carried, broke, hit, cut, burned, bent, breached, connected,

tied, opened, closed, sealed, etc., the vowel will often be i. Examples:

Fa"al(a)→ yaf"il(u)

yaksir(u) رcي �س� ك kasar(a) كسر

(He) breaks (He) broke

yahmil(u) ح�م�لcي hamal(a) حمل(He) carries (He) carried

yahriq(u) ح�ر�قcي haraq(a) حرق(He) burns (He) burned

yarbit(u) �طcي ب ر� rabat(a) ربط

(He) ties (He) tied

yadrib(u)ي

cض�ر�بdarab(a) ضرب

(He) hits (He) hit

yamsik(u)ي

cم�س�كm

asak(a) مسك

(He) holds, grasps (He) held, grasped

yarliq(u) غ�ل�قcي ralaq(a) غلق(He) closes (He) closed

Stative and intransitive fa"al(a) verbs, or ones that do not have an

essentially transitive meaning often have i in the imperfective. Examples:

Fa"al(a)→ yaf"il(u)

yajlis(u)ي

cج�ل�سjalas(a)

جلس

(He) sits (He) sat

yarji"(u) ج�عcي ر� raja"(a) رجع(He) returns (He) returned

yanzil(u) �ز�لcي ن nazal(a) نزل(He) goes down (He) went down

ya"rif(u) ع�ر�فcي "araf(a)عرف

(He) knows (He) knew

yamlik(u) م�ل�كcي malak(a) ملك(He) owns (He) owned

yafqid(u) ف�ق�دcي faqad(a) فقد

(He) loses (He) lost

yatimm(u) �مºي *ت tamm(a) *تم¦

(He) becomes completed (He) was/become completed

yahibb(u) *ح�ب¶ي habb(a) *حب¦

(He) loves, likes (He) loved, liked

yaqif(u) *ق�ف�ي waqaf(a) وقف)He (stands up, stops (He) stood up, stopped

yamshiyي

م�ش�ي�*

mashaaمشى�

(He) walks (He) walked

*Irregular doubled verb.

*Irregular Mithaal verb .

*Irregular defective verb.

Regardless of all the facts mentioned so far, fa"al(a) verbs whose roots contain guttural letters in the second or third positions will often

have a in the imperfective. The gutturals, or throat letters, are those

like غ ع خ ح هـ . أ Examples:

Fa"al(a)→ yaf"al(u)

yas'al(u) ألcي س� sa'al(a) سأل(He) asks (He) asked

yaqra'(u) cي ق�رأ qara'(a) قرأ(He) reads (He) read

yasna"(u) ص�نعcي sana"(a) صنع(He) makes (He) made

yajma"(u) ج�معcي jama"(a) جمع(He) gathers (He) gathered

yaftah(u) ف�تحcي fatah(a) فتح

(He) opens (He) opened

yathbah(u) ذ�بحcي thabah(a) ذبح

(He) slaughters (He) slaughtered

yathhab(u) ذ�هبcي thahab(a)ذهب

(He) goes (He) went

yazhar(u) ظ�هرcي zahar(a) ظهر(He) appears (He) appeared

yas"ad(u) ص�عدcي sa"ad(a) صعد(He) goes up (He) went up

2) Fa"il(a)

Fa"il(a) verbs will nearly always have a in the imperfective. Examples:

Fa"il(a)→ yaf"al(u)

ya"lam(u) ع�لمcي "alim(a) �م عل(He) knows (He) knew

yafham(u) ف�همcي fahim(a) فه�م(He) understands (He) understood

yat"ab(u) �عبcي ت ta"ib(a) تع�ب(He) becomes tired (He) become tired

yafrah(u) ف�رحcي farih(a) فر�ح(He) becomes happy (He) become happy

yaslam(u) لم�ي س� salim(a) �م سل(He) becomes safe (He) was safe

ya"mal(u) ع�ملcي "amil(a) عم�ل(He) works (He) worked

yashrab(u)

ير ش�cب

sharib(a)شر�ب

(He) drinks (He) drank

yadhak(u)

يض�حcك

dahik(a) ضح�ك

(He) laughs (He) laughed

There are rare fa"il(a) verbs in Classical Arabic that have i instead

of a in the imperfective. These are no more than 20 verbs or so; most of

them are irregular Mithaal verbs whose first root-letter is w . They include the following:

Fa"il(a)→ yaf"il(u)

�ق وث �ي ول ور�ث ب حس�

ور�ك ور�ي وج�د ور�ع

وع�ق وه�م وف�ق وم�ق

�م وك وق�ه وع�م ور�م

Etymology Note

Many classical dialects conjugated fa"il(a) verbs in the imperfective in the following manner:

Fa"il(a)→ yif"al(u)

Prefixes with a vowel i (e.g. yi-) did not exist in western Arabian dialect and they do not exist in formal Arabic. However, in most of the modern spoken dialects, such prefixes are used for nearly all the imperfective verbs not only

the imperfective of fa"il(a).

3) Fa"ul(a)

As a strict rule, fa"ul(a) verbs will always have u in the imperfective.

Examples:

Fa"ul(a)→ yaf"ul(u)

yakbur(u) cرcي �ب ك kabur(a) cر كب

(He) becomes big(ger) (He) was/become big(ger)

yasrur(u) ص�غcرcي sarur(a) صغcر(He) becomes small(er) (He) was/become small(er)

yakthur(u) cرcي �ث ك kathur(a) cر كث

(He) becomes many/much (He) was/become many/much

Form I of Arabic Verbs(Active Voice)

Indicative Imperfective

Perfective

yaf"al(u) ف�علcيfa"al(a) فعل


yaf"ul(u) ف�عcلcي

yaf"al(u) ف�علcيfa"il(a) فع�ل


yaf"ul(u) ف�عcلcي fa"ul(a) فعcل

Pronominal Prefixes & SuffixesUnlike the perfective verbal structures which have only pronominal suffixes, imperfective verb structures have pronominal prefixes in addition to suffixes. This weird feature is common in the Afro-Asiatic language family of which Arabic is a member. We already know the 3rd person masculine singular conjugation:

yaf"al(u)(He) does/is doing

The three blue letters represent the root letters.

The red letters are the prefix of the 3rd person masculine singular conjugation (the "he" conjugation) of form I.

The green short vowel is the changeable element of the form I structure. The pink letter is the indicative mood sign cالرف�ع�عالمة . Mood signs

change with change in the mood of the verb.

Notice that the 3rd person masculine singular conjugation has only a prefix

ya- attached to the stem -f"al but not a pronominal suffix (the -u is a mood-sign not a pronominal suffix).

Here is the full conjugation:


�ر�ع فcو�عc المcضا �مر� ال c(Form I, Active Voice)

SINGULAR

(I) do 'af"al(u) ف�علcأ(You masc.) do taf"al(u) ف�علcت(You fem.) do

taf"aleen(a) �ت �ف�عل ني

(He) does yaf"al(u) ف�علcي(She) does taf"al(u) ف�علcت

DUAL

(You) do taf"alaan(i) �نالف�عت(They masc.) do yaf"alaan(i) �نالف�عي(They fem.) do taf"alaan(i) �نالف�عت

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) do naf"al(u) ف�علcن(You masc.) do

taf"aloon(a) cت نو�ف�عل

(You fem.) do taf"aln(a) �ت نف�عل(They masc.) do

yaf"aloon(a) cي نو�ف�عل

(They fem.) do yaf"aln(a) �ي نف�عل

Notice that the feminine plural conjugations do not have mood-signs. This means that those conjugations do not undergo mood inflection and they retain the same form at all moods (except the imperative and heavy energetic, which are not considered moods in Arabic grammar). This is expressed in Arabic by saying that these words are "built words."

Apart from the feminine plural conjugations, there are six conjugations that have pronominal suffixes as well as prefixes (the red letters). Two of these six

conjugations are identical in figure, so the six are termed the "five verbs"

cخم�سة� ال cل� . األف�عا

A distinctive feature of the "five verb" conjugations is that their mood signs are not merely vowels but rather contain consonant letters noon ن . The mood

inflection of these conjugation works by either keeping the ن(in the indicative

& energetic moods) or omitting it along with the following short vowel (in the subjunctive, jussive & imperative moods).

Like what we said when we talked about the perfective, the pronominal suffixes are considered in Arabic attached subject pronouns. The conjugations that have attached subject pronouns are the "five verbs" and the feminine plural conjugations.

Imperfective Conjugations With Attached Subject

Pronouns(Form I, Active-Indicative)

2nd person feminine singular

(Thou fem.) doest

taf"aleen(a

) �ت �ف�عل ني

2nd person dual(You dual) do

taf"alaan(i) �نالف�عت

2nd person masculine plural

(You masc.) do

taf"aloon(a) cت نو�ف�عل

2nd person feminine plural(You fem.) do taf"aln(a) �ت نف�عل

3rd person masculine dual(They masc. dual) do

yaf"alaan(i) �نالف�عي

3rd person feminine dual(They fem. dual) do

taf"alaan(i) �نالف�عت

3rd person masculine plural

(They masc.) do

yaf"aloon(a) cي نو�ف�عل

3rd person feminine plural(They fem.) do yaf"aln(a) �ي نف�عل

The presence of an attached subject pronoun (i.e. a pronominal suffix) will matter when forming a verbal sentence. Verbal sentences are the principal type of sentences in formal Arabic in which the verb precedes the subject. When forming such a sentence, it is strictly prohibited that an attached subject pronoun be followed by a noun subject or an adjective subject. This will be covered in the sentence section.

Example on the full conjugation of a regular verb:

رقصraqas(a)

(He) danced

�ر�ع فcو�عc المcضا �مر� ال c Indicative Imperfective

)Active Voice(

فـعـل رقص :

SINGULAR

(I) dance 'arqus(u) قcصcأ ر�(You masc.) dance tarqus(u) قcصcت ر�

(You fem.) dance

tarquseen(a

) قcص�ت �ر� ني

(He) dances yarqus(u) قcصcي ر�(She) dances tarqus(u) قcصcت ر�

DUAL

(You) dancet

arqusaan(i) قcصت ��نار�(They masc.) dance

yarqusaan(i) قcصي �ر� �نا

(They fem.) dancet

arqusaan(i) قcصت �ر� �ناPLURAL

(We dual/plu.) dance narqus(u) قcصcن ر�(You masc.) dance t

arqusoon(a)

تcصcق نو�ر�

(You fem.) dance tarqusn(a) قcص�ت نر�

(They masc.) dance

yarqusoon(a

)

يcصcق نو�ر�

(They fem.) dance yarqusn(a) قcص�ي نر�

Exercise

)He (knew عرف

)He (hear سم�ع

)He (was/become bigger cر كب Based on these verbs, can you translate the following to Arabic?(you need not to translate the pronouns in parenthesis)

(I) know

(We) know

(You sing. masc.) Know

(You plu. masc.) Know

(You sing. fem.) hear

(You plu. fem.) hear

(They dual fem.) hear

(They plu. masc.) hear

(You dual) become bigger

(She) becomes bigger

(They plu. fem.) become bigger

(They dual masc.) become bigger

Answers

(I) know cأع�ر�ف

(We) know cنع�ر�ف

(You sing. masc.) Know cتع�ر�ف

(You plu. masc.) Know تع�ر�فcو�ن

(You sing. fem.) hear �ن مع�ي تس�

(You plu. fem.) hear مع�ن تس�

(They dual fem.) hear �ن� معا تس�

(They plu. masc.) hear معcو�ن يس�

(You dual) become bigger �ن� cرا �ب تك

(She) becomes bigger cرc �ب تك(They plu. fem.) become

bigger ن cر� �ب يك(They dual masc.) become

bigger �ن� cرا �ب يك

Verbs

Imperfective Structures (continued)

Forms II Through QIVNow that we have covered the imperfective of regular form I verbs, we shall continue with the rest of the verb forms.

Conjugating verb forms other than form I will require general modifications (common for all forms) and specific modifications (differ among particular groups of forms).

General Modifications

1. If existed, removal of the 'alif and the short vowel following it from the

beginning of the perfective stem. This includes both the ا &أ types of 'alif.

2. Removal of the perfective pronominal suffix and the addition of an imperfective pronominal prefix and an imperfective pronominal suffix (if needed) to the stem.

3. Addition of a mood-sign following the pronominal suffix (if existed).

prefix-perfective stem(-suffix)-mood-sign

Thus, we do not need here to remove any vowels from within the perfective verb stem like we did with form I.

Let us take the following three verb forms and transform them into the 3rd person masculine singular imperfective:


Form V tafa''"al(a) تفع¦ل

Form VII 'infa"al(a) �فعل�ا ن

The first general step is to remove the initial 'alif and the following vowel if existed:

Form IV f"al(a) ف�عل

Form V tafa''"al(a) تفع¦ل

Form VII nfa"al(a) �فعل ن

Then we will remove the perfective pronominal suffix and add the 3rd person masculine singular prefix (the "he" prefix). As we know, there is no suffix for the "he" conjugation.

Form IV yaf"al ف�علي

Form V yatafa''"al تفع¦لي

Form VII yanfa"al �فعلي ن

The third step is to add a mood-sign. The indicative mood-sign for the "he"

conjugation is a short vowel -u .

Form IV yaf"al(u) ف�علcي

Form Vy

atafa''"al(u)

تفع¦لcي

Form VII yanfa"al(u) �فعلcي ن

By performing these three general modifications, we have done only what is common to all the verb forms, but we are not finished yet.

We will carry on with the specific modifications that differ between particular groups of the verb forms.

The specific modifications affect two elements of the verb structures:

1. The short vowel of the pronominal prefix (i.e. the a in 'a-, ta-, ya-

& na-).2. The short vowel between the final two letters of the verb stem (the

green short vowel).

Based on the specific modifications, the verb forms other than form I can be divided into three groups.

Let's continue with our three verb examples. The first specific modification regards the short vowel in the prefix. The imperfective pronominal prefixes have three varieties in Classical Arabic depending on the short vowel in them.

For example, the "he" prefix:

Prefix of the 3rd Person Masculine Singular

ya- يـ

yi- يـ

yu- يـThe first version, ya-, is the one used for most of the active-voice imperfective verbs, whereas the yu- version is used for all the passive-voice imperfective

verbs. Four verb forms, namely forms II, III, IV, & QI, have the yu- version in both the active and the passive voices. We are going to go through these things in detail soon.

The yi- prefix does not exist in formal Arabic. However, it existed in many of the classical dialects, and was used particularly for the imperfective of fa"il(a) verbs of form I. Today, this prefix is the prevalently used prefix in most of the spoken dialects of Arabic.

As for our three examples, they will become as follows:

Form IV yuf"al(u) c ف�علcي

Form Vy

atafa''"al(u) تفع¦لcي

Form VII yanfa"al(u) �فعلcي نForm IV takes the yu- prefix. This is also the case for forms II, III, IV, & QI (all the forms with four letters). The rest of the forms will all have the ya- prefix in the active voice.

Now to the second and final one of the specific modifications. This regards the short vowel between the final two letters of the verb stem. This is similar to what we talked about for form I; there are three possible varieties for this vowel:

aiu

However, these vowels here will change among different forms but not among verbs of the same form like with form I. Thus, aside from form I, each verb form will have a specific short green vowel that is permanent and unchanging.

The vowel u appears only in the imperfective of form I, so we are not going to

hear about it anymore. The active-voice imperfective verbs can have either a or i. The passive-voice imperfective verbs have only a.

As for our examples, they will become finally:

Form IV yuf"il(u) c ف�ع�لcي

Form V yatafa''"al(u) تفع¦لcي

Form VII yanfa"il(u) �فع�لcي نThis is the final conjugation. Each one of these three verbs represents one of the three groups of the verb forms with regard to the imperfective conjugation.

The three groups are:

Yu-i Verbs (forms II, III, IV, & QI)

Ya-a Verbs (forms V, VI & QII)

Ya-i Verbs (the rest of the forms)

♪Yu-i Verbs

Represented by form IV in the three examples above, these have the prefix

yu- and the green vowel i in the active voice (and the prefix yu- and the

green vowel a in the passive voice, which is like all imperfective verbs).

The Yu-i verbs are easy to identify because they are simply all the forms that are composed of four letters, namely forms II, III, IV, & QI.

Yu-i Verb Forms

Imperfective(Active-Indicative)

Perfective(Active)

Form IIc فع§لcي فع¦ل

yufa''"il(u) fa''"al(a)

Form III�ع�لcي cفا �عل فا

yufaa"il(u) faa"al(a)

Form IVc ف�ع�لcي ف�علأ

yuf"il(u) 'af"al(a)

Form QIc �لcي فع�ل فع�لل

yufa"lil(u) fa"lal(a)

Apart from changing the vowel of the prefix to u, adding pronominal prefixes and suffixes to these verbs happens regularly, just like form I regular verbs previously covered.

Examples:

Form II

¦ملع"allam(a)

(He) taught


)Active Voice(

¦م : ل عل فـعـ¦

SINGULAR

(I) teach 'u"allim(u) c §مأ cعل(You masc.) teach tu"allim(u) c §مت cعل(You fem.) teach tu"allimeen(a) c §م�ت �عل ني

(He) teaches yu"allim(u) §مي ccعل

(She) teaches tu"allim(u) §مت ccعل

DUAL

(You) teach tu"allimaan(i) §مت ��ناcعل(They masc.) teach yu"allimaan(i) §مي ��ناcعل(They fem.) teach tu"allimaan(i) §مت �ن�اcعل

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) teach nu"allim(u) §من ccعل(You masc.) teach tu"allimoon(a) c §مcت نو�عل(You fem.) teach tu"allimn(a) c §م�ت نعل

(They masc.) teach yu"allimoon(a) §مcي نو�cعل(They fem.) teach yu"allimn(a) c §م�ي نعل

Form III

�عداسsaa"ad(a)

(He) helped


)Active Voice(

�عد : �عل سا فا

SINGULAR

(I) help 'usaa"id(u) c �ع�دأ cسا(You masc.) help tusaa"id(u) c �ع�دت cسا(You fem.) help tusaa"ideen(a) c �ع�د�ت �سا ني

(He) helps yusaa"id(u) �ع�دي ccسا(She) helps tusaa"id(u) �ع�دت ccسا

DUAL

(You) help tusaa"idaan(i) �ع�دت �cسا �نا(They masc.) help yusaa"idaan(i) �ع�دي �cسا �نا(They fem.) help tusaa"idaan(i) c �ع�دت �سا �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) help nusaa"id(u) �ع�دن ccسا

(You masc.) help tusaa"idoon(a)ت

cع�د� نcو�سا(You fem.) help tusaa"idn(a) c �ع�د�ت نسا

(They masc.) helpy

usaa"idoon(a)ي

cع�د� نو�cسا(They fem.) help yusaa"idn(a) c �ع�د�ي نسا

Form IV

�رمأ ك'akram(a)

(He) dignified/was generous to


)Active Voice(

�رم : أف�عل أك

SINGULAR

(I) dignify 'ukrim(u) c �ر�مأ cك(You masc.) dignify tukrim(u) c �ر�مت cك(You fem.) dignify tukrimeen(a) c �ر�م�ت �ك ني

(He) dignifies yukrim(u) �ر�مي ccك(She) dignifies tukrim(u) c �ر�مcت ك

DUAL

(You) dignify tukrimaan(i) c �رت ��نا�مك(They masc.)

dignify yukrimaan(i) �ري ��مcك �نا(They fem.) dignify tukrimaan(i) c �رت ��نا�مك

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) dignify nukrim(u) �ر�مcن cك

(You masc.) dignify tukrimoon(a) c �رت �نو�م�cك(You fem.) dignify tukrimn(a) c �رت ن�م�ك

(They masc.) dignify yukrimoon(a) c �ري نو��مcك

(They fem.) dignify yukrimn(a) �ر�م�ي نcك

Form QI

طم�أنtam'an(a)

(He) reassured


)Active Voice(

فع�لل طمأن :

SINGULAR

(I) reassure 'utam'in(u) c �نcأ طم�ئ (You masc.)

reassure tutam'in(u) c �نcت طم�ئ(You fem.) reassure tutam'ineen(a) c �ت �ن ن�يطم�ئ

(He) reassures yutam'in(u) c �ني cطم�ئ

(She) reassures tutam'in(u) c �نcت طم�ئ

DUAL

(You) reassure tutam'inaan(i) �نت �ناcطم�ئ(They masc.)

reassure yutam'inaan(i) c �ني �ناطم�ئ(They fem.)

reassure tutam'inaan(i) �نت �ناcطم�ئ

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) reassure nutam'in(u) c �نcن طم�ئ

(You masc.) reassure tutam'inoon(a) c cت �ن نو�طم�ئ

(You fem.) reassure tutam'inn(a) c �ت ¦نطم�ئ

(They masc.) reassure yutam'inoon(a) cي �ن ن�وcطم�ئ

(They fem.) reassure yutam'inn(a) c �ي ¦نطم�ئ

♪Ya-a Verbs

Represented by form V in the three introductory examples, these verbs have

the prefix ya- and the green vowel a in the active voice, so they really do not need any specific modification more than the three general steps. In the

passive voice, these verbs will have the prefix yu- and the green vowel a, like all imperfective verbs.

Identifying Ya-a verbs is easy; they are simply the forms that begin with a reflexive prefix ta-, namely forms V, VI & QII.

Ya-a Verb Forms


Perfective(Active)

Form Vتفع¦لcي تفع¦ل

yatafa''"al(u) tafa''"al(a)

Form VI�علcي تفا �عل تفا

yatafaa"al(u) tafaa"al(a)

Form QIIتفع�للcي تفع�لل

yatafa"lal(u) tafa"lal(a)

These three verb forms are generally very neat and simple, both in structure and meaning, which is probably because they are more recent and less messed with than other forms like forms VII and VIII.

Examples on conjugation for different subjects:

Form V

¦ملعتta"allam(a)

(He) learned


)Active Voice(

¦م : تفع¦ل تعل

SINGULAR

(I) learn 'ata"allam(u) ¦مcأ تعل (You masc.) learn tata"allam(u) ¦مcت تعل

(You fem.) learn

tata"allameen(a

)

ت¦م� �تعل ني

(He) learns yata"allam(u) ¦مcي تعل

(She) learns tata"allam(u) ¦مcت تعل

DUAL

(You) learnt

ata"allamaan(i)ت

¦م �تعل �نا

(They masc.) learny

ata"allamaan(i)ي¦م �تعل �نا

(They fem.) learnt

ata"allamaan(i)ت

¦م �تعل �ناPLURAL

(We dual/plu.) learn nata"allam(u) ¦مcن تعل

(You masc.) learn

tata"allamoon(a

)

تcم¦ و�تعلن

(You fem.) learn tata"allamn(a) ¦م�ت نتعل(They masc.) learn y

ata"allamoon(a)

يcم¦ و�تعل

ن(They fem.) learn yata"allamn(a) ¦م�ي نتعل

Form VI

�ست ءلاtasaa'al(a)

(He) wondered


)Active Voice(

عل�تفا تساءل :SINGULAR

(I) wonder 'atasaa'al(u) �ءلcأ تسا (You masc.) wonder tatasaa'al(u) تساء�لcت(You fem.) wonder t

atasaa'aleen(a) ت� �ءل �تسا ي

ن(He) wonders yatasaa'al(u) �ءلي cتسا(She) wonders tatasaa'al(u) �ءلcت تسا

DUAL

(You) wonder tatasaa'alaan(i)

ت��ء التسا

�ن

(They masc.) wondery

atasaa'alaan(i)

ي�ء التسا

�ن

(They fem.) wonder tatasaa'alaan(i)

ت��ء التسا

�نPLUR

(We dual/plu.) wonder natasaa'al(u) تساءلcن

(You masc.) wondert

atasaa'aloon(a) ت

AL

c �وتساءلن

(You fem.) wonder tatasaa'aln(a)ت

� نتساءل

(They masc.) wondery

atasaa'aloon(a)

يc �وتساءل

ن

(They fem.) wonder yatasaa'aln(a)ي

� نتساءل

Form QII

دح�رجتtadahraj(a)

(He) rolled (intr.)


)Active Voice(

تفع�لل تدح�رج :

SINGULAR

(I) roll 'atadahraj(u) تدح�رجcأ(You masc.)

roll tatadahraj(u) تدح�رجcت (You fem.) roll

tatadahrajeen(a) �نيتدح�رج�ت

(He) rolls yatadahraj(u) تدح�رجcي(She) rolls tatadahraj(u) تدح�رجcت

DUAL

(You) roll tatadahrajaan(i) �تدح�رجت �نا(They masc.)

rolly

atadahrajaan(i) رجي �تدح� �نا(They fem.)

roll tatadahrajaan(i) ��ناتدح�رجتPLUR

(We dual/plu.) roll natadahraj(u) تدح�رجcن

(You masc.) roll

tatadahrajoon(a) نو�تدح�رجcت

AL

(You fem.) roll tatadahrajn(a) رت نج�تدح�(They masc.)

rolly

atadahrajoon(a) ن�وتدح�رجcي(They fem.)

roll yatadahrajn(a) نتدح�رج�ي

Verbs

Imperfective StructuresForms II Through QIV (continued)

♪Ya-i VerbsRepresented by form VII in the three introductory examples, these verbs have

the prefix ya- and the green vowel i in the active voice (and like all

imperfective verbs, the prefix yu- and the green vowel a in the passive voice).

Ya-i verbs are the majority of the verb forms. They can be identified by elimination: any verb form that is neither quadriliteral (composed of four letters) nor begins with a reflexive prefix ta- will be a Ya-i verb. The Ya-i verbs are namely the forms VII through XV and forms QIII & QIV .

Ya-i Verb Forms


Perfective(Active)

Form VII�فع�لcي ن �فعلا �ن

yanfa"il(u) 'infa"al(a)

Form VIIIف�تع�لcي �ف�تعلا

yafta"il(u) 'ifta"al(a)

Form IXف�عل¶ي * �ف�عل¦ا

yaf"all(u) 'if"all(a)

Form Xتف�ع�لcي س� تف�علا �س�

yastaf"il(u) 'istaf"al(a)

Form XI�ل¶ي ف�عا * �ل¦ا �ف�عا

yaf"aall(u) 'if"aall(a)

Form XIIف�عو�ع�لcي �ف�عو�علا

yaf"aw"il(u) 'if"aw"al(a)

Form XIIIف�عو§لcي �ف�عو¦لا

yaf"awwil(u) 'if"awwal(a)

Form XIV�لcي �ل ف�عن �للا �ف�عن

yaf"anlil(u) 'if"anlal(a)

Form XV�ل�ي�ي ف�عن * �لى�ا �ف�عن

yaf"anliy 'if"anlaa

Form QIII�لcي �ل ف�عن �للا �ف�عن


Form QIV�ل¶ي ف�عل * �ف�علل¦ا

yaf"alill(u) 'if"alall(a)*These are irregular doubled verb. The green vowel is hidden in forms IX & XI and displaced backward in form QIV. The original structures of these forms will be restored only in the feminine plural conjugations.

*This verb always conjugates as a defective verb. The final weak A will be

transformed to y in the imperfective.

Examples on conjugation:

Form VIII

� �ن زعجا'inza"aj(a)

(He) was/became annoyed


)Active Voice(

�زعج : �ن �فعل ا �ن ا

SINGULAR

(I) become annoyed 'anza"ij(u) �زع�جcأ ن

(You masc.) become annoyed

tanza"ij(u) �زع�جcت ن(You fem.) become annoyed

tanza"ijeen(a) �زع�ج�ت �ن ني

(He) becomes annoyed yanza"ij(u) �زع�جcي ن

(She) becomes annoyed tanza"ij(u) �زع�جcت ن

DUAL

(You) become annoyed

tanza"ijaan(i) جت �زع� �ن �نا

(They masc.) become annoyed

yanza"ijaan(i) �زع�جي �ن �نا

(They fem.) become annoyed

tanza"ijaan(i) جت �زع� �ن �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) become annoyed

nanza"ij(u) �زع�جcن ن(You masc.)

become annoyed

tanza"ijoon(a) �زع�جcت ن�ون

(You fem.) become annoyed

tanza"ijn(a) �زع�ج�ت نن(They masc.)

become annoyed

yanza"ijoon(a) �زع�جcي ن�ون

(They fem.) become annoyed

yanza"ijn(a) �زع�ج�ي نن

Form VIII

��ا ظرتن

'intzar(a)

(He) waited (tr.)

�ر�ع فcو�عc المcضا �مر� ال c Indicative Imperfective)Active Voice(

�تظر �ا �ف�تعل : ن ا

SINGULAR

(I) wait 'antazir(u) �تظ�رcأ ن(You masc.) wait tantazir(u) �تظ�رcت ن(You fem.) wait tantazireen(a) �تظ�ر�ت ن�ين

(He) waits yantazir(u) �تظ�رcي ن(She) waits tantazir(u) �تظ�رcت ن

DUAL

(You) wait tantaziraan(i) �تظ�رت �ن�ان(They masc.) wait yantaziraan(i) �ري �تظ �ن�ان

(They fem.) wait tantaziraan(i) �رت �تظ �ن�ان

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) wait nantazir(u) �تظ�رcن ن(You masc.) wait tantaziroon(a) �تظ�رcت ن�ون(You fem.) wait tantazirn(a) �تظ�رت ن�ن

(They masc.) wait yantaziroon(a) �تظ�رcي ن�ون(They fem.) wait yantazirn(a) �تظ�ري ن�ن

Try conjugating the following verb:

� �ا ن صرت'intasar(a)

(He) won


)Active Voice(

�تصر �ن �ف�تعل : ا ا

SINGULAR

(I) win 'antasir(u) �تص�رcأ ن(You masc.) win tantasir(u) �تص�رت cن(You fem.) win

tantasireen(a) �تص�رت �ن ن�ي

(He) wins yantasir(u) �تص�ري cن(She) wins tantasir(u) �تص�رت cن

DUAL

(You) wint

antasiraan(i) �تص�رت �ن�ان(They masc.)

win y

antasiraan(i) �تص�ري �ن�ان(They fem.) win

tantasiraan(i) �تص�رت �ن�ان

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) win nantasir(u) �تص�رcن ن

(You masc.) wint

antasiroon(a) �تص�رت ن�وcن(You fem.) win tantasirn(a) �تص�رت ن�ن

(They masc.) win

yantasiroon(a) �تص�ري ن�وcن

(They fem.) win yantasirn(a) �تص�ري ن�ن

The forms that denote color or bodily defect state of the subject (IX & XI) are doubled verbs. They will conjugate regularly except in the feminine plural

conjugations where they will need the insertion of an i (the hidden green vowel) between the two doubled letters of the stem.

Form IX

¦ر�خ�ضا'ikhdarr(a)

(He) greened (up)


)Active Voice(

�خ�ضر¦ : �ف�عل¦ ا ا

SING

(I) green 'akhdarr(u) خ�ضر¶أ(You masc.)

green takhdarr(u) خ�ضر¶ت

ULAR

(You fem.) green

takhdarreen(a

) �خ�ضر±ت ن�ي

(He) greens yakhdarr(u) خ�ضر¶ي(She) greens takhdarr(u) خ�ضر¶ت

DUAL

(You) greent

akhdarraan(i) �خ�ضر¦ت �نا(They masc.)

greeny

akhdarraan(i) �خ�ضر¦ي �نا(They fem.)

greent

akhdarraan(i) �خ�ضر¦ت �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) green nakhdarr(u) خ�ضر¶ن

(You masc.) green

takhdarroon(a

) نcو�خ�ضر±ت

(You fem.) green takhdarirn(a) نخ�ضر�ر�ت

(They masc.) green

yakhdarroon(a

) �نcوخ�ضر±ي

(They fem.) green yakhdarirn(a) نخ�ضر�ر�ي

Form XI

� ما �رح� ¦ا'ihmaarr(a)

(He) reddened (up) (much)


)Active Voice(

�ر¦ : ما �ح� �ل¦ ا �ف�عا ا

SINGULAR

(I) green 'ahmaarr(u) �ر¶أ ما ح�(You masc.)

green tahmaarr(u) �ر¶ت ما ح�(You fem.)

green

tahmaarreen(a

) �ر§ت ما �ح� ني

(He) greens yahmaarr(u) �ر¶ي ما ح�(She) greens tahmaarr(u) �ر¶ت ما ح�

DU

(You) greent

ahmaarraan(i) �ر¦ت ما �ح� �نا

AL

(They masc.) green

yahmaarraan(i) �ر¦ي ما �ح� �نا

(They fem.) green

tahmaarraan(i) �ر¦ت ما �ح� �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) green nahmaarr(u) �ر¶ن ما ح�

(You masc.) green

tahmaarroon(a

) �ر¶ت ما نو�ح�

(You fem.) green tahmaarirn(a) �ر�ر�ت ما نح�

(They masc.) green

yahmaarroon(a

) �ر¶ي ما �نوح�

(They fem.) green yahmaarirn(a) �ر�ر�ي ما نح�

Form X

ت �س� ع�ملا'ista"mal(a)

(He) used

�ر�ع فcو�عc المcضا �مر� ال c Indicative

Imperfective)Active Voice(

تع�مل : �س� تف�عل ا �س� ا

SINGULAR

(I) use 'asta"mil(u) تع�م�لcأ س� (You masc.) use tasta"mil(u) تع�م�لcت س�

(You fem.) use tasta"mileen(a)

تتع�م�ل �س� ي

ن(He) uses yasta"mil(u) تع�م�لcي س�(She) uses tasta"mil(u) تع�م�لcت س�

DUAL

(You) use tasta"milaan(i)

تتع�م� الس�

�ن(They masc.) use yasta"milaan(i) ي

تع�م� الس�

�ن

(They fem.) use tasta"milaan(i)

تتع�م� الس�

�ن

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) use nasta"mil(u) تع�م�لcن س�

(You masc.) use tasta"miloon(a)

تتع�م�ل و�س�

ن

(You fem.) use tasta"miln(a)ت

تع�م�ل �نس�

(They masc.) use yasta"miloon(a)

يتع�م�ل cو�س�

ن(They fem.) use yasta"miln(a) ي

تع�م�ل �نس�

Form QIV is also a doubled verbs like forms IX & XI; however, the green short vowel here is not hidden but is rather displaced backward. In the feminine

plural conjugations, the original form of QIV verbs ('if"allal(a)) must be restored before conjugation; or, in another way of saying it, the green short vowel must be restored to its original place in the feminine plural conjugations.

Form QIV

ا ¦ن�ط�مأ'itma'ann(a)

(He) was/became reassured


)Active Voice(

�ط�مأن¦ : �ف�علل¦ ا اSINGULAR

(I) become reassured 'atma'inn(u) �ن¶أ ط�مئ

(You masc.) become reassured tatma'inn(u) �ن¶ت ط�مئ(You fem.) become

reassuredt

atma'inneen(a)

§ت �ن �ط�مئ ني

(He) becomes reassured yatma'inn(u) �ن¶ي ط�مئ

(She) becomes reassured tatma'inn(u) �ن¶ت ط�مئ

DUAL

(You) become reassured

tatma'innaan(i) ±ت �ن �ناط�مئ

(They masc.) become reassured

yatma'innaan(i) ±ي �ن �ناط�مئ

(They fem.) become reassured

tatma'innaan(i) ±ت �ن �ناط�مئ

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) become reassured natma'inn(u) �ن±ن �مئ ط

(You masc.) become reassured

tatma'innoon(a

) ±ت �ن نو�ط�مئ

(You fem.) become reassured

tatma'<ninn(a) �ت �ن ¦نط�مئ

(They masc.) become reassured

yatma'innoon(a

) ¶ي �ن نوط�مئ

(They fem.) become reassured

yatma'<ninn(a) �ي �ن ¦نط�مئ

Imperfective Conjugation

Yu-i Verbs Forms II, III, IV, & QIfour forms with four

letters

Ya-a Verbs Forms V, VI & QII prefix ta-

Ya-i VerbsForms VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII, XIII, XIV, XV,

QIII & QIVEverything else

Imperfective Conjugation

Ya-a Active voice of forms I, V, VI & QII

Ya-i Active voice of forms I, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII, XIII, XIV, XV, QIII & QIV

Ya-u Active voice of form I

Yu-i Active voice of forms II, III, IV, & QI

Yu-a Passive voice of all forms

Arabic Verbs Imperfective

(Active-Indicative)Perfective

(Active)

Form Iف�علcي فعل

yaf"?l(u) fa"?l(a)

Form IIc فع§لcي فع¦ل

yufa''"il(u) fa''"al(a)

Form III�ع�لcي cفا �عل فا

yufaa"il(u) faa"al(a)

Form IVc ف�ع�لcي ف�علأ

yuf"il(u) 'af"al(a)

Form Vتفع¦لcي تفع¦ل

yatafa''"al(u) tafa''"al(a)

Form VI�علcي تفا �عل تفا

yatafaa"al(u) tafaa"al(a)

Form VII�فع�لcي ن �فعلا �ن

yanfa"il(u) 'infa"al(a)

Form VIIIف�تع�لcي �ف�تعلا

yafta"il(u) 'ifta"al(a)

Form IXف�عل¶ي �ف�عل¦ا

yaf"all(u) 'if"all(a)

Form X تف�ع�لcي س� تف�علا �س�

yastaf"il(u) 'istaf"al(a)

Form XI�ل¶ي ف�عا �ل¦ا �ف�عا

yaf"aall(u) 'if"aall(a)

Form XIIف�عو�ع�لcي �ف�عو�علا

yaf"aw"il(u) 'if"aw"al(a)

Form XIIIف�عو§لcي �ف�عو¦لا

yaf"awwil(u) 'if"awwal(a)

Form XIV�لcي �ل ف�عن �للا �ف�عن


Form XV�ل�ي�ي ف�عن �لى�ا �ف�عن

yaf"anliy 'if"anlaa

Form QIIتفع�للcي تفع�لل

yatafa"lal(u) tafa"lal(a)

Form QIc �لcي فع�ل فع�لل

yufa"lil(u) fa"lal(a)

Form QIII �لcي �ل ف�عن �للا �ف�عنyaf"anlil(u) 'if"anlal(a)

Form QIV�ل¶ي ف�عل �ف�علل¦ا

yaf"alill(u) 'if"alall(a)

Present vs. Future TenseThe imperfective verb on its own can express both the present and future tenses. However, in order to disambiguate between the two tenses, especially in sentences not containing time expressions such as tomorrow, later, etc.,

Arabic uses the following word before the imperfective when it is meant as a future tense verb:

sawf(a) سو�ف

Future Tense Present/Future Tense

يف�علc سو�ف cيف�عل

sawf(a) yaf"al(u) yaf"al(u)

(He) will do(He) will be doing

(He) does(He) is doing(He) will do

(He) will be doing

This word is similar to the English "will," although it will not necessarily always carry the connotation of prediction or spontaneity as in English.

Sawf(a) can often be reduced to sa- ; this happens most of the time in modern standard Arabic.

sa- سـ

Future Tense Present/Future Tense

يف�علcس cيف�عل

sa-yaf"al(u) yaf"al(u)

(He) will do(He) will be doing

(He) does(He) is doing(He) will do

(He) will be doing

More details will be available in the tense section.

Examples:

Future Present/Future Past

سو�فcيذ�هب

sawfa yathhab(u)

(he) will go

cيذ�هبyathhab(u)

(he) goes

ذهبthahab(a)

(he) went

(he) will go

يذ�هبcسsa-yathhab(u)

(he) will go

�ي� سو�ف �ت تأsawfa ta'<tee

(you 1/m) will come

�ي� �ت تأta'<tee

(you 1/m) come

(you 1/m) will come

�ت أتي'atayt(a)

(you 1/m) came

�ي�س �ت تأsa-ta'<tee

(you 1/m) will come

سو�فcو�لcأق

sawfa 'aqool(u)

(I) will say

cو�لcأق'aqool(u)

(I) say

(I) will say

cل�تcقqult(u)

(I) saidسcو�لcأقsa-'aqool(u)

(I) will say

سو�ف� مع�ي نتس�sawfa

tasma"een(a)

(you 1/f) will hear

� مع�ي نتس�tasma"een(a)

(you 1/f) hear

(you 1/f) will hear

سم�ع�ت�

sami"ti

(you 1/f) heard

مع�ي�س نتس�sa-tasma"een(a)

(you 1/f) will hear

سو�فcنع�ر�ف

sawfa na"rif(u)

(we) will know

cنع�ر�فna"rif(u)

(we) know

(we) will know

� عرف�نا"arafnaa

(we) knewسcنع�ر�فsa-na"rif(u)

(we) will know

سو�فنتق�رؤcو�

نتق�رؤcو�taqra'oon(a)

cم� �ت قرأqara'<tum

sawfa taqra'oon(a)

(you >2/m) will read(you >2/m) read

(you >2/m) will read

(you >2/m) read

�نتق�رؤcوسsa-taqra'oon(a)

(you >2/m) will read

سو�ف�ن cب �ت يك

sawfa yaktubn(a)

(they >2/m) will write

�ن cب �ت يكyaktubn(a)

(they >2/m) write


�ن كتبkatabn(a)

(they >2/m) wroteنس� cب �ت يك

sa-yaktubn(a)


سو�ف� ¦ما �نيتكل

� ¦ما �نيتكلyatakallama

an(i)

� ¦ما تكلtakallama

a

sawfa yatakallamaan(i)

(they 2/m) will speak

(they 2/m) speak


(they 2/m) spoke

�س ¦ما �نيتكلsa-

yatakallamaan(i)


سو�ف�ن تري

sawfa tarayn(a)

(you >2/f) will see

�ن تريtarayn(a)

(you >2/f) see

(you >2/f) will see

cن¦ �ت رأيra'aytunn(

a)

(you >2/f) saw

�نس تريsa-tarayn(a)

(you >2/f) will see

سو�ف�و�ال cحا �نت

�و�ال cحا �نتtuhaawilaan(i)

� حاولتاh

sawfa tuhaawilaan(i)

(they 2/f) will try(they 2/f) try

(they 2/f) will try

aawalataa

(they 2/f) tried

�و�الس cحا �نتsa-tuhaawilaan(i)

(they 2/f) will try

سو�فcف�ر� cسا ن

sawfa nusaafir(u)

(we) will travel

cف�ر� cسا نnusaafir(u)

(we) travel

(we) will travel

ن سافر�� ا

saafarnaa

(we) traveled

cساف��رcس نsa-nusaafir(u)

(we) will travel

سو�فcيص�ل

sawfa yasil(u)

cيص�لyasil(u)

(he) arrives

وصلwasal(a)

(he) arrived

(he) will arrive

(he) will arriveيص�لcس

sa-yasil(u)

(he) will arrive

سو�فcد�ر� cغا ت

sawfa turaadir(u)

(she) will leave

cد�ر� cغا تturaadir

(she) leaves

(she) will leave

غادرت�raadarat

(she) left (intr.)سcد�ر� cغا ت

sa-turaadir(u)

(she) will leave

سو�ف� كبا �نتر�sawfa

tarkabaan(i)

(you 2/m) will ride

� كبا �نتر�tarkabaan(i)

(you 2/m) ride

(you 2/m) will ride

� cما �ت �ب ركrakibtuma

a

(you 2/m) rode

�س كبا �نتر�sa-tarkabaan(i)

(you 2/m) will ride

Exercise 1Can you fill in the missing English pronouns inside the brackets?

(?) hurry (up) تس�رعcو�ن

(?) win ن �تصر� ين

(?) cooperate cون� تتعا

(?) try cب نجر±

(?) try, attempt �والن� يحا

(?) blue (become blue) رقق�ن تز�

(?) fidget cو�ن �مل تتمل

(?) blow up �ن� را تفج±

(?) make, force (to do) cأج�بر

(?) speak �ن تتكلم�ي

(?) use cتخ�دم أس�

(?) become lame �جج�ن يع�را

(?) commit (do wrong) cتكب نر�

(?) reiterate �ن ر�ي تكر±

(?) mutter �ن� يتم�تما

(?) send cو�ن سل ير�

(?) roughen cتخ�شو�شن

Answers

(You masc. plu.) hurry (up) تس�رعcو�ن

(They fem. plu.) win ن �تصر� ين

(You masc. sing.) cooperate(She) cooperates cون� تتعا

(We) try cب نجر±

(They masc. dual) try, attempt �والن� يحا

(You fem. plu.) blue (become blue) رقق�ن تز�

(You masc. plu.) fidget cو�ن �مل تتمل

(You dual) blow up (They fem. dual) blow up �ن� را تفج±

(I) make, force (to do) cأج�بر

(You fem. sing.) speak �ن تتكلم�ي

(I) use cتخ�دم أس�

(They fem. plu.) become lame �جج�ن يع�را

(We) commit (do wrong) cتكب نر�

(You fem. sing.) reiterate �ن ر�ي تكر±

(They masc. dual) mutter �ن� يتم�تما

(They masc. plu.) send cو�ن سل ير�

(You masc. sing.) roughen(She) roughens cتخ�شو�شن

Exercise 2Can you tell the missing vowel-marks in the Arabic words of the previous example?

Answers

Form IV ر�عcو�ن cس� ت

Form VIII ن �تص�ر� ين

Form VI cون� تتعا

Form II cب cجر§ ن

Form III �و�الن� cحا ي

Form IX رق�ق�ن تز�

Form QII cو�ن �مل تتمل

Form II �ن� را cفج§ ت

Form VI cر� ب ج�c أ

Form V �ن ¦م�ي تتكل

Form X cتخ�د�م أس�

Form XI �ج�ج�ن يع�را

Form VIII cب� تك نر�

Form II �ن ر�ي cكر§ ت

Form QI �ن� �ما cتم�ت ي

Form IV cو�ن ل س� cر� ي

Form XII cن تخ�شو�ش�

VerbsImperfective Structures (continued)

Conjugation of Irregular Verbs For description of irregular verb types, you may go here

1) Doubled Verbs

Doubled verbs are verbs that end with a shadda(t), which indicates doubled consonants without a vowel in between.

The imperfective doubled verbs will need to be restored to their original forms in the feminine plural conjugations.

A point we made when we defined the doubled verbs is that there are two types of them; ones that have an omitted short vowel from between the doubled letters (-CvCvC → -CvCC, most of the verb forms) and ones that have a displaced-back short vowel (-CCvC → -CvCC, only forms I, IV, X & QIV in the imperfective).

This distinction is important in the imperfective because this vowel we are talking about is the changeable green short vowel of the imperfective structure.

For the doubled verbs with an omitted short vowel, there will not be a green short vowel in the imperfective because it is omitted. It will appear only when we restore the verbs to their original forms in the feminine plural conjugations.

For the doubled verbs with a displaced-back short vowel, there will be a green short vowel but it will be displaced back in the structure. It will move back to its original position only when we restore the verb to its original form in the feminine plural conjugations.

Example, the form VIII verb:


ت�ش�ا دد �ش� د¦تا'ishtadad(a) 'ishtadd(a)

(He) intensified (intr.)

A form VIII verb is a Ya-i verb. However, when this verb is turned into an imperfective, there will be no chance for the green short vowel to show itself because it is deleted:


د�دcتش�ي د¶تش�يyashtadid(u) yashtadd(u)

(He) intensifies (intr.)



)Active Voice(

: ¦ تد �ش� �ف�تعل ا اSINGULAR

(I) intensify 'ashtadd(u) ¶أ تد ش� (You masc.) intensify tashtadd(u) ¶ت تد ش�(You fem.) intensify t

ashtaddeen(a)

ت§ تد �ش� ني

(He) intensifies yashtadd(u) تد¶ي ش�(She) intensifies tashtadd(u) ¶ت تد ش�

DUAL

(You masc.) intensifyt

ashtaddaan(i)ت

¦ تد �ش� �نا

(They masc.) intensifyy

ashtaddaan(i)يتد¦ �ش� �نا

(They fem.) intensifyt

ashtaddaan(i)ت

¦ تد �ش� �ناPLURAL

(We dual/plu.) intensify nashtadd(u) تد¶ن ش�

(You masc.) intensify

tashtaddoon(a

)

تتد¶ و�ش�ن

(You fem.) intensify tashtadidn(a) تتد�د� ش�

ن

(They masc.) intensify

yashtaddoon(a

)

يتد¶ و�ش�ن

(They fem.) intensify yashtadidn(a)

يتد�د� ش�

نThe verb stem is restored to its original form in the feminine plural

conjugations to prevent the formation of three-consonant clusters (ddn).

This will be the conjugation for all the forms that can be doubled verbs except forms I, IV, X & QIV. For these, the green vowel is displaced not deleted, so it will show up.

Example, a form IV verb:


ببأ ح� حب¦أ'ahbab(a) 'ahabb(a)

(He) loved/liked

A form IV verb is a Yu-i verb.


c �بcي ب ح� c ح�ب¶يyuhbib(u) yuhibb(u)

(He) loves/likes


)Active Voice(

أف�عل أحب¦ :SINGULA

(I) love 'uhibb(u) c ح�ب¶أ(You masc.) love tuhibb(u) c ح�ب¶ت(You fem.) love tuhibbeen(a) c §ت ب �ح� ني

R

(He) loves yuhibb(u) cح�ب¶ي(She) loves tuhibb(u) cح�ب¶ت

DUAL

(You masc.) love tuhibbaan(i) ¦ت ب ��ناcح�(They masc.)

love yuhibbaan(i) ¦ي ب ��ناcح�(They fem.) love tuhibbaan(i) ¦ت ب ��ناcح�

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) love nuhibb(u) cح�ب¶ن

(You masc.) love tuhibboon(a) c ¶ت ب نو�ح�(You fem.) love tuhbibn(a) c �ت �ب ب نح�(They masc.)

love yuhibboon(a) ¶ي ب نو�cح�(They fem.) love yuhbibn(a) c �ي �ب ب نح�

The verb stem is restored to its original form in the feminine plural conjugations.

►Form I Doubled VerbsPerfective form I doubled verbs have an omitted short vowel.

fa"al(a)

fa"il(a) → fa"l(a)

fa"ul(a)

However, if we were to omit the vowel in the imperfective, we would get the following:

yaf"al(u)

yaf"il(u) → yaf"l(u)

yaf"ul(u)

Because the a between the first two root-letters is deleted in the imperfective,

we would get yaf"l(u) which contains a three-consonant cluster that is unpronounceable.

Therefore, they had to keep the green short vowel in these verbs, but since the resultant structure contained -CCvC, like forms IV, X & QIV, they treated it in a similar manner and displaced the green vowel back -CCvC → -CvCC.

yaf"al(u) y

afa"l(u)

yaf"il(u) → yafi"l(u)

yaf"ul(u) y

afu"l(u)

Example, the verb:


عدد عد¦"adad(a) "add(a)

(He) counted

This is an u verb, it will become:


ع�دcدcي عcد¶يya"dud(u) ya"udd(u)

(He) counts


)Active Voice(

: ¦ فعل عد

SINGULAR

(I) count 'a"udd(u) عcد¶أ(You masc.) count ta"udd(u) عcد¶ت(You fem.) count ta"uddeen(a) �نيعcد§ت

(He) counts ya"udd(u) عcد¶ي(She) counts ta"udd(u) عcد¶ت

DUAL

(You masc.) count ta"uddaan(i) �عcد±ت �نا(They masc.) count ya"uddaan(i) ��ناعcد¦ي

(They fem.) count ta"uddaan(i) �عcد±ت �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) count na"udd(u) عcد¶ن(You masc.) count ta"uddoon(a) نcو�عcد±ت(You fem.) count ta"dudn(a) نع�دcد�ت

(They masc.) count ya"uddoon(a) نcو�عcد±ي(They fem.) count ya"dudn(a) نع�دcد�ي

The verb stem is restored to its original form in the feminine plural conjugations.

Thus, form I doubled verbs change from verbs with an omitted vowel in the perfective to verbs with a displaced-back vowel in the imperfective.

Note that imperfective form I doubled verbs are mostly u verb. There are few

that are i or a verbs and most of these are classical verbs.

Some a and i verbs:

Imperfective Perfective yazall(u) zall(a)

¶ظلي remains/stays (he)ظل¦(he)

remained/stayed

yamall(u)

¸cمليmall(a) مل¦

(he) becomes bored (he) became bored

yakall(u)

كل¦ي kall(a)

becomes worn (he) كل¦out

(he) became worn out

yafirr(u) ف�ر¦ي

farr(a)

فر¦ (he) escapes (he) escaped

yakhiff(u)

خ�ف¶يkhaff(a)

خف¦(he) becomes light

(he) was/became light

yaqill(u)

ق�ل¶يqall(a)

becomes (he/it) قل¦few/little

(he/it) was/became few/little

yahinn(u)

ح�ن¦يhann(a)

حن¦ (he) yearns (he) yearned

yarinn(u)

ر�ن¦يrann(a)

رن¦(he) rings (he) rang

ya'inn(u)

�ن¦ي ئ'ann(a)

أن¦(he) moans (he) moaned

More examples of i verbs:

Yaf"il(u)→ yafi"l(u)

شب¦ حر¦ جل¦ شذ¦ خر¦

شط¦ شح¦ فح¦ حب¦ جد¦ نس¦ دم¦ در¦


Perfective Imperfective

1st person untie 1st person don't untie

2nd person untie 2nd person

untie only with the feminine

plural

3rd person


plural

3rd person


plural



Forms I, VII, VIII, IX & XI

omitted short vowel

Forms VII, VIII, IX & XI

omitted short vowel

Forms IV, X & QIV

displaced-back short

vowel

Forms I, IV, X & QIV


vowel

2) Mithaal VerbsMithaal verbs are verbs whose first original letter is a weak letter.

These verbs conjugate regularly in the perfective. In the imperfective, they conjugate regularly in all the forms but forms I & IV. In these two forms, the conjugation can be regular or irregular depending on whether the first original

letter is y or w.

►Form I Mithaal Verbs

Y Mithaal Verbs

Form I Mithaal verbs whose first original is y conjugate regularly. These verbs are rare.

Example:

�سي بyabis(a)

(he) dried up, hardened (intr.)

(He) hardened yabis(a) �سي ب

(He) hardensy

aybas(u) �cبسيي


)Active Voice(

�س : فع�ل يب

SINGUL

(I) harden 'aybas(u) �بسcيأ(You masc.)

harden taybas(u) �بسcيت(You fem.)

harden taybaseen(a) �ن�ي�بسيت

AR

(He) hardens yaybas(u) �بسcيي(She) hardens taybas(u) �بسcيت

DUAL

(You masc.) harden taybasaan(i) ��بسيت �نا

(They masc.) harden yaybasaan(i) ��نا�بسيي

(They fem.) harden taybasaan(i) �ت �بسي �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) harden naybas(u) �بسcين

(You masc.) harden taybasoon(a) نو��بسcيت

(You fem.) harden taybasn(a) �ن�بسيت

(They masc.) harden

yaybasoon(a) نو��بسcيي

(They fem.) harden yaybasn(a) ن�بس�يي

W Mithaal Verbs

Form I Mithaal verbs whose first original is w will lose the w in the

imperfective if the green vowel of the imperfective is i . If the vowel is a , it will

mostly be kept except in some verbs whose second or third root-letters are

guttural or throat letters. If the green vowel is u, the w will not be lost.

I. i VerbsThese are the most common of Mithaal verbs. The w of these verbs will be always lost.

Example:

جدوwajad(a)(he) found

(He) found wajad(a) جدو

(He) finds yawjid(u) �ج�دcوي

(He) finds yajid(u) ج�دcي


)Active Voice(

فعل وجد :

SINGULAR

(I) find 'ajid(u) ج�دcأ(You masc.) find tajid(u) ج�دcت(You fem.) find tajideen(a) �نيج�د�ت

(He) finds yajid(u) ج�دcي(She) finds tajid(u) ج�دcت

DUAL

(You masc.) find tajidaan(i) �ج�دت �نا(They masc.) find yajidaan(i) ��ناج�دي(They fem.) find tajidaan(i) �ج�دت �نا

PLUR

(We dual/plu.) find najid(u) ج�دcن(You masc.) find tajidoon(a) نو�ج�دcت

AL

(You fem.) find tajidn(a) �نج�دت(They masc.) find yajidoon(a) نو�ج�دcي(They fem.) find yajidn(a) �نج�دي

Try conjugating the following i verb:

عدوwa"ad(a)

(He) promised


)Active Voice(

فعل وعد :SINGUL

(I) promise 'a"id(u) ع�دcأ(You masc.) promise ta"id(u) ع�دcت(You fem.) promise ta"ideen(a) �ع�دت ن�ي

AR

(He) promises ya"id(u) ع�دcي(She) promises ta"id(u) ع�دcت

DUAL

(You) promise ta"idaan(i) �ع�دت �نا(They masc.) promise ya"idaan(i) ��ناع�دي(They fem.) promise ta"idaan(i) ��ناع�دت

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) promise na"id(u) ع�دcن(You masc.) promise ta"idoon(a) �نوع�دcت(You fem.) promise ta"idn(a) �نع�دت

(They masc.) promise ya"idoon(a) نو�ع�دcي(They fem.) promise ya"idn(a) نع�د�ي

Imperfective Perfective

ya"id(u) wa"ad(a)

ع�دcي promises (he)عدو (he) promised

yasif(u)ص�فcي

wasaf(a)صفو

(he) describes (he) described

yasil(u)ص�لcي

wasal(a)arrives (he)صلو

(he) connects(he) arrived

(he) connected

yaqif(u)ق�فcي

waqaf(a)stands up (he)قفو

(he) stops(he) stood up(he) stopped

yathiq(u)�قcي ث

wathiq(a)�قو ث

(he) trusts (intr.) (he) trusted (intr.)

yajib(u)cج�بي

wajab(a) becomes (he)جبو

necessaryFr. il faut

(he) was/became necessaryFr. il fallait

II. a VerbsThe w will be kept in the majority of these verbs. However, the verbs that are

commonly used in modern Arabic are usually ones in which the w will be lost (verbs like put, fall, tread, and bestow).

Example, a classical verb:

ج�لوwajil(a)

(he) was/became afraid

(He) became afraid wajil(a) ج�لو

(He) becomes afraid yawjal(u) �جلcوي


)Active Voice(

فع�ل وج�ل :

SINGULA

(I) become afraid 'awjal(u) �جلcوأ(You masc.)

become afraid tawjal(u) �جلcوت(You fem.)

become afraid tawjaleen(a) �وت �ني�جل

R

(He) becomes afraid yawjal(u) �جلcوي

(She) becomes afraid tawjal(u) �جلcوت

DUAL

(You masc.) become afraid tawjalaan(i) �نال�جوت(They masc.) become afraid yawjalaan(i) �نال�جوي

(They fem.) become afraid tawjalaan(i) �نال�جوت

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) become afraid nawjal(u) �جلcون(You masc.)

become afraid tawjaloon(a) cوت نو��جل(You fem.)

become afraid tawjaln(a) �ن�جلوت(They masc.) become afraid

yawjaloon(a) cوي نو��جل

(They fem.) become afraid yawjaln(a) �ن�جلوي

A basic verb of formal Arabic is the verb "to put:"

ضعوwada"(a)

(he) put

(He) put wada"(a) ضعو

(He) putsy

awda"(u) �cضعوي

(He) puts yada"(u) cضعي


)Active Voice(

فعل وضع :

SING

(I) put 'ada"(u) ضعcأ(You masc.) put tada"(u) ضعcت

ULAR

(You fem.) put tada"een(a) �نيضع�ت(He) puts yada"(u) ضعcي(She) puts tada"(u) ضعcت

DUAL

(You masc.) put tada"aan(i) �ضعت �نا(They masc.) put yada"aan(i) ��ناضعي(They fem.) put tada"aan(i) �ضعت �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) put nada"(u) ضعcن(You masc.) put tada"oon(a) نو�ضعcت(You fem.) put tada"n(a) �نضعت

(They masc.) put yada"oon(a) نو�ضعcي

(They fem.) put yada"n(a) �نضعي

Imperfective Perfectiveyaqa"(u)

قعيwaqa"(a)

قعو(he) falls (he) fell

yata'(u)cي طأ

wati'(a)ط�ئو

(he) treads (he) treaded

yahab(u)هبي

wahab(a)هبو

(he) bestows (he) bestowed

yawja"(u)�جعcوي

waji"(a)ج�عو

(he) hurts (he) hurt, caused pain

yawhal(u)�حلcوي

wahil(a) becomes (he)ح�لو

muddy(he) became muddy

The a verbs that will lose the w are the following:

Yaw"al(u)→ ya"al(u)

وط�ئ وضع ع وس� وذر ودع

ولغ وزع ولع وهب وقع

III. u VerbsThese are rare verbs.

كو cشwashuk(a)

(he) was/became about to

(He) was about to

washuk(a) كو cش

(He) is about to

yawshuk(u

) كcوي cش�


)Active Voice(

ك : cل وشcفع

SINGULAR

(I) am about to 'awshuk(u) كcوأ cش�(You masc.) are

about to tawshuk(u) كcت cو�ش(You fem.) are about

tot

awshukeen(a) ك�وت c�ني�ش(He) is about to yawshuk(u) كcي cو�ش(She) is about to tawshuk(u) كcت cو�ش

DUAL

(You masc.) are about to tawshukaan(i) كوت cش�� نا

(They masc.) are about to yawshukaan(i) كوي cنا�ش��

(They fem.) are about to tawshukaan(i) كوت cش�� نا

PLURA

(We dual/plu.) are about to nawshuk(u) كcن cو�ش

(You masc.) are about to

tawshukoon(a) cت ك cنو�و�ش

L

(You fem.) are about to tawshukn(a) كوت c�ن�ش

(They masc.) are about to

yawshukoon(a) cي ك cنو�و�ش

(They fem.) are about to yawshukn(a) كوي c�ن�ش

►Form IV Mithaal Verbs

W Mithaal Verbs

Form IV Mithaal verbs whose first original is w conjugate regularly.

Example:

شكوأ'awshak(a)

(he) was/became about to

(He) was about to 'awshak(a) �شكوأ

(He) is about to

yuwshik(u)=

yooshik(u)c �ش�كcوي


)Active Voice(

أف�عل أو�شك :

SINGULAR

(I) am about to 'uwshik(u) c �ش�كcوأ(You masc.) are about

to tuwshik(u) c و�ش�كcت(You fem.) are about

to tuwshikeen(a) c ك�وت �ني�ش�(He) is about to yuwshik(u) cو�ش�كcي(She) is about to tuwshik(u) cو�ش�كcت

DUAL

(You masc.) are about to tuwshikaan(i) كوcت ��ش� �نا

(They masc.) are about to yuwshikaan(i) c كوي ��نا�ش�

(They fem.) are about to tuwshikaan(i) كوcت ��ش� �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) are about to nuwshik(u) cو�ش�كcن

(You masc.) are about to tuwshikoon(a)

تcc ك نو�و�ش�

(You fem.) are about to tuwshikn(a) كوcت �ن�ش�

(They masc.) are about to yuwshikoon(a)

يc ك نو�cو�ش�

(They fem.) are about to yuwshikn(a) كوcي �ن�ش�

Y Mithaal Verbs

The y of form IV Mithaal verbs will become w in the imperfective due to a phonological reason.

Example:

�قنيأ'ayqan(a)

(he) was/became certain

(He) became certain 'ayqan(a) �قنيأ

(He) becomes certain yuyqin(u) c �ق�نcيي

(He) becomes certain

yuwqin(u)=

yooqin(u)c �ق�نcوي


)Active Voice(

�قن عـل : أي أفـ�

SINGULAR

(I) become certain 'uwqin(u) c cو�ق�نأ(You masc.)

become certain tuwqin(u) �cق�نcوت(You fem.)

become certaint

uwqineen(a) ن��يق�ن�cوت(He) becomes

certain yuwqin(u) c �cق�نوي

(She) becomes certain tuwqin(u) �cق�نcوت

DUAL

(You masc.) become certain

tuwqinaan(i) c�وت �ق�ن �نا

(They masc.) become certain

yuwqinaan(i) c �وي �ق�ن �نا

(They fem.) become certain

tuwqinaan(i) c�وت �ق�ن �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) become certain nuwqin(u) �cق�نcون

(You masc.) become certain

tuwqinoon(a) c�cوت ن�وق�ن

(You fem.) become certain tuwqinn(a) ¦�نق�cوت(They masc.)

become certainy

uwqinoon(a) c �cوي ن�وق�ن(They fem.)

become certain yuwqinn(a) ±�نقcو�ي

Imperfective Perfective

yuwqiz(u)�ق�ظcوcي

'ayqaz(a) �قظيأ(he) wakes up (tr.) (he) woke up (tr.)

yuwni"(u)�عcوcي �ن

'ayna"(a) �نعيأ(he) ripens (intr.) (he) ripened (intr.)

yuw'is(u)�سcوcي �ئ

'ay'as(a) �أسيأ(he) makes desperate

(he) made desperate

►Form VIII Mithaal Verbs

Whether w or y, the first original letter of a form VIII Mithaal verb will

become a t in all the verbs and verbids derived from the root, including perfective and imperfective verbs, participles, verbal nouns, etc. This transition was explained in this page.

Example:

� سع¦تا'ittasa"(a)

(He) had room(He) became roomy(er)

The root is : ع س " W S وo

(He) had room 'ittasa"(a) � ±ا سعت

(He) has room yattasi"(u) عcتي ¦س�


¦سع : �ت �ف�تعل ا ا

SINGULAR

(I) have room 'attasi"(u) عأ ¦س� cت(You masc.) have room tattasi"(u) عت ¦س� cت(You fem.) have room tattasi"een(a) عت ¦س� �ت ن�ي

(He) has rooms yattasi"(u) عcي ¦س� ت(She) has rooms tattasi"(u) عت ¦س� cت

D (You) have room tattasi"aan(i) عت ¦س� �ت �نا

UAL

(They masc.) have room yattasi"aan(i) عي ¦س� �ت �نا(They fem.) have room tattasi"aan(i) عت ¦س� �ت �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) have room nattasi"(u) عن ¦س� cت(You masc.) have room tattasi"oon(a) عت ¦س� نcو�ت(You fem.) have room tattasi"n(a) عت ¦س� �نت

(They masc.) have room yattasi"oon(a) عcي ¦س� نو�ت(They fem.) have room yattasi"n(a) عي ¦س� �نت

Mithaal Verb Conjugation

Form Perfective Imperfective

I waf?l(a) yafil(u)

yafal(u)rare

yawfal(u)rarer in modern standard

Arabic

yawful(u)rarest

yaf?l(a) yayf?l(u)

IV'awfal(a)

yuwfil(u)'ayfal(a)

VIII

'iwta"al(a)→ 'itta"al(a)

yatta"ill(u)'iyta"al(a)

→ 'itta"al(a)

VerbsImperfective Structures

Conjugation of Irregular Verbs

(continued)

For description of irregular verb types, you may go here


Unlike the perfective hollow verbs, imperfective hollow verbs will not always

transform the middle weak letter (the w or y) into a weak 'alif. As was explained before, this transformation happens only when the short vowel preceding the weak letter is a short A. Whereas this is always the case in the perfective, in the imperfective this vowel is changeable and thus the weak letter will not be always transformed into a weak A.

►Form IForm I hollow verbs have a displaced-back short vowel in the imperfective. This vowel is the changeable green short of the imperfective verbs. Thus, these verbs will have a changeable middle long vowel depending on the green vowel of the verb.

Example:

�لاقqaal(a)

(He) saidThe root is : ل و Q W L ق

By applying the root to the imperfective formula of form I, we get:

(He) saysy

aqwul(u) cلcوق�ي As we said when we defined the hollow verbs in this page, the combination -CCvC becomes -CvCC in the hollow and doubled verbs. So form I imperfective verbs belong to the second type of those verbs, in which the short vowel following the weak letter will be displaced back rather than omitted. This is different from the perfective form I hollow and doubled verbs which are ones with an omitted short vowel. So the verb will become:

(He) says

yaquwl(u)=

yaqool(u) لcو�قcي

The verb has a long U vowel in the middle, corresponding to the green vowel

u.



)Active Voice(

�ل : فـعـل قاSING

(I) say 'aquwl(u) �لcوقcأ(You masc.) say taquwl(u) �لcوقcت

ULAR

(You fem.) say taquwleen(a) ��لوقcت ن�ي(He) says yaquwl(u) �لcوقcي(She) says taquwl(u) �لcوقcت

DUAL

(You) say taquwlaan(i) �نا�لوقcت(They masc.) say yaquwlaan(i) �نا�لوقcي(They fem.) say taquwlaan(i) �انقcو�لت

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) say naquwl(u) �لcوقcن

(You masc.) say taquwloon(a) نcو��لوقcت(You fem.) say taquln(a) �ت نقcل

(They masc.) say yaquwloon(a) نcو��لوقcي(They fem.) say yaquln(a) �ي نقcل

Notice that the middle long vowel (uw = oo) becomes the corresponding

short vowel (u) in the feminine plural conjugations. This will happen with all the imperfective hollow verbs when are in these conjugations. Another example:

�عاب

baa"(a)

(He) soldThe root is: B Y " ع ي ب


(He) sells yabyi"(u) �ي �عcيب

By displacing the i backward, we get:

(He) sells

yabiy"(u)= y

abee"(u)

�ي �ب عcي

The verb has a long I vowel in the middle, corresponding to the green vowel i.

Full conjugation:


�ع : فـعـل با

S (I) sell 'abiy"(u) �أ �عcيب

INGULAR

(You masc.) sell tabiy"(u) �ت �عcيب(You fem.) sell tabiy"een(a) �ت ��ع�يب ني

(He) sells yabiy"(u) �ي �عcيب(She) sells tabiy"(u) �ت �عcيب

DUAL

(You) sell tabiy"aan(i) �ت ��نا�عيب(They masc.) sell yabiy"aan(i) �ي ��نا�عيب(They fem.) sell tabiy"aan(i) �ت ��عيب �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) sell nabiy"(u) �ن �عcيب(You masc.) sell tabiy"oon(a) �ت نو��عcيب(You fem.) sell tabi"n(a) �ع�ت نب

(They masc.) sell yabiy"oon(a) �ي نcو��عيب(They fem.) sell yabi"n(a) �ع�ي نب

The middle long vowel (iy = ee) becomes the corresponding short vowel (i) in the feminine plural conjugations.

Now we will take an a verb:

�خ فاkhaaf(a)

(He) fearedThe root is: KH W F ف و خ


(He) fearsy

akhwaf(u) فcوخ�ي

By displacing the a backward, we get:

(He) fearsy

akhawf(u) فcو�خي

We mentioned before the rule of aw → aa , ay → aa. By applying this rule here, we get:

(He) fearsy

akhaaf(u) �خي فcا

So whether the original weak letter is w or y, we will always get a long A

(aa) in the middle of an a imperfective hollow verb.



)Active Voice(

�ف : فـعـل خا

SINGULAR

(I) fear 'akhaaf(u) �فcاخأ(You masc.) fear takhaaf(u) �خت فcا(You fem.) fear takhaafeen(a) �ن�ي�فاخت

(He) fears yakhaaf(u) �فcاخي(She) fears takhaaf(u) �فcاخت

DUAL

(You) fear takhaafaan(i) ��نا�فاخت(They masc.) fear yakhaafaan(i) �خي �فا �نا(They fem.) fear takhaafaan(i) ��فاخت �نا

P (We dual/plu.) fear

nakhaaf(u) �فcاخن

LURAL

(You masc.) fear takhaafoon(a) نو��فcاخت(You fem.) fear takhafn(a) نخف�ت

(They masc.) feary

akhaafoon(a) نو��فcاخي(They fem.) fear yakhafn(a) نخف�ي

The middle long vowel (aa) becomes the corresponding short vowel (a) in the feminine plural conjugations.

Imperfective hollow verbs whose middle weak letter is w are always verbs u or a verbs, but not i verbs. Imperfective hollow verbs whose middle weak

letter is y are always verbs i or a verbs, but not u verbs.

Hollow Verb Conjugation(Form I)

Original Form Actual Form

yafwul(u)yafuwl(u)

yafyul(u)does not exist

yafyil(u)yafiyl(u)

yafwil(u)does not exist

yafwal(u)yafaal(u)

yafyal(u)

Fawal(a)→ yafuwl(u)�خ دا �ن خا �ل جا �ر ثا �ق تا �ب تا�ح را �ق ذا �ب ذا �م دا �س دا �ر دا�ق سا �د سا �ء سا �ل زا �ر زا �م را�ر غا �د عا �ل طا �ف طا �ن صا �م صا�د قا �ق فا �ز فا �ر فا �ت فا �ص غا�ت ما الم الذ الح �م قا �ل قا

�ن ها �ح نا �ب نا

Fayal(a)→ yafiyl(u)�ن زا �ع ذا �ء جا �ه تا �ت با�خ شا �ب شا �ل سا �ر سا �ح سا

�ع ضا �ر صا �د صا �ح صا �ع شا�ش عا �ب عا �ر طا �ب طا �ق ضا

�ج ها �ل ما �ع ما �ب غا

Fa"il(a)→ yafaal(u)y

anaam(u) �مcانيnaam(a)

�مان(he) sleeps (he) slept

yakhaaf(u) ي�اخcف

khaaf(a)خ

fears (he)�فا (he) feared

yashaa'(u)�ءcاشي

naal(a)�ءاش

(he) wants (he) wanted

yanaal(u) �ي لcان

naal(a) �لان

(he) gets (he) got

yahaab(u) ي�ه بcا

haab(a)�باه

(he) becomes awed(he) was/became

awed

yaraar(u) �رcاغي

raar(a)�راغ

(he) becomes jealous(he) was/became

jealous

yakhaal(u) يل�cاخ

khaal(a)

thinks (object) to (he)�لاخbe

takes two object

(he) thought (object) to be

takes two object

yakaad(u) ي �دcاك

kaad(a) is about to (do) (he)�داكverb of approach

(he) almost (did)verb of approach

Now let us conjugate the rest of the verb forms. The verb forms other than form I that can be hollow verbs are forms IV, VII, VIII & X. To conjugate those, one will need to keep in mind the differentiation between the forms with an omitted short vowel (-CvCvC → -CvCC) and the forms with a displaced-back short vowel (-CCvC → -CvCC).



Forms I, VII, VIII

omitted short vowel

Forms VII, VIII

omitted short vowel

Forms IV, Xdisplaced-back short

vowelForms I, IV, X


vowel

►Forms VII & VIIIExample,

�ن �دا�قا'inqaad(a)

(he) was/became ledThe root is: Q W D د و ق

By applying the root to the imperfective formula of form VII, we get:

(He) becomes led

yanqawid(u

)�قي �دcون

By omitting the i, we get:

(He) becomes led

yanqawd(u

) �قي �دcون

By applying the rule of aw → aa, we get the final form:

(He) becomes led

yanqaad(u) �قي �ن دcا

The same would be true for ay → aa. Thus, these verbs will always have a middle long A instead of the weak letter and the green vowel following it. The same process will be applied to form VIII hollow verbs.



)Active Voice(

�د : �قا �ن �فعل ا �ن اSINGULAR

(I) become led 'anqaad(u) �قأ �دcان(You masc.) become

led tanqaad(u) �قت �دcان(You fem.) become

led tanqaadeen(a) �قت �ني�د�ان(He) becomes led yanqaad(u) �قي �دcان

(She) becomes led tanqaad(u) �قت �دcانDUAL

(You masc.) become led tanqaadaan(i) �قت ��نا�دان

(They masc.) become led yanqaadaan(i) �قي ��دان �نا

(They fem.) become led tanqaadaan(i) �قت ��دان �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) become led nanqaad(u) �قن �دcان

(You masc.) become led tanqaadoon(a) �قت نcو��دان

(You fem.) become led tanqadn(a) �قد�ت نن

(They masc.) become led yanqaadoon(a) �قي نو��دcان

(They fem.) become led yanqadn(a) �قدي �نن

As it is always, the middle long vowel (aa) becomes the corresponding short

vowel (a) in the feminine plural conjugations.

►Forms IV & XExample,

�دأ را

'araad(a)

(he) wantedThe root is : د و R W DI ر

By applying the root to the imperfective formula of form IV, we get:

(He) wants yurwid(u) �دcوcر�ي

By displacing the a backward, we get:

(He) wants yuriwd(u) دcو�cر�ي

Knowing that iw becomes iy in hollow verbs, we get the final from:

(He) wants yuriyd(u) �cر�ي دcي

Thus, these verbs will always have a middle long I in their middles. The same is true for form X hollow verbs.



)Active Voice(

�د : أف�عل أرا

SINGULAR

(I) want 'uriyd(u) c �ر�أ دcي(You masc.) want turiyd(u) c �ر�ت دcي(You fem.) want turiydeen(a) �cر�ت �نيد�ي

(He) wants yuriyd(u) �cر�ي دcي(She) wants turiyd(u) �cر�ت دcي

DUAL

(You) want turiydaan(i) �cر�ت ��نادي(They masc.) want yariydaan(i) c �ر�ي �دي �نا(They fem.) want turiydaan(i) �cر�ت �دي �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) want nuriyd(u) �cر�ن دcي

(You masc.) want turiydoon(a) c �ر�ت نو�دcي(You fem.) want turidn(a) c نر�د�ت

(They masc.) want yuriydoon(a) �cر�ي نو�دcي(They fem.) want yuridn(a) c نر�د�ي

Conjugation of Hollow VerbsAll conjugations except

the plural femininePlural feminine conjugations

Middle long vowel Middle short vowel

-fool- -ful--feel- -fil--faal- -fal-


Form I

-f"ul- -fool-

-f"il- -feel-

-f"al- -faal-

Form VII-faal-

Form VIII

Form IV-feel-

Form X

Extra Note: Modern vs. Classical Arabic

"Classical Arabic" refers to the dialects of Arabic that were spoken from about the 6th to the 9th century. Modern formal or standard Arabic is a modernized form of Arabic that is primarily derived from classical western Arabian Arabic; it began during the Arab renaissance era in the 19th century and was called

then ص�حى�cف� ال cة¦ �ي �عرب ال cغة¶ ".the most eloquent Arabic language" = الل

Classical Arabic is much more diverse and rich in vocabulary than modern Arabic. One example of this appears in verb conjugation.

For the example, the verb:

�تامmaat(a)

(He) died

Root: M W T ت و م

This is an u verb in Modern Arabic. The imperfective is:

�تcومcيyamuwt(u)

(He) dies

However, in Classical Arabic, this same verb could also be an i or a verb, so it had three variant forms:

"(He) dies"

Classical ArabicModern Standard

Arabic

yamuwt(u)

yamuwt(u)yamiyt(u)

yamaat(u)


Defective imperfective verbs can end with ى or with apparent ي y or و w.

They cannot end with ا as there is no imperfective verb with less than four letters.

Imperfective defective verbs are similar to the perfective ones in that the vowel preceding the final weak letter will determine its form. The general rule is similar to that of the imperfective hollow verbs:

If the final original weak letter (the w or y) is preceded by an u , the

ending of the verb will be -uw (the corresponding long vowel).

If the final original weak letter is preceded by an i , the ending of the

verb will be -iy.

If the final original weak letter is preceded by an a, it will be changed to

a weak A, and the ending of the verb will be -aa.

Because form I defective verbs can have u, i or a before the final weak

letter, they can end with -uw, -iy or -aa, respectively. The rest of the forms can be classified as follows:

Yu-i Verbs (forms II, III, IV, & QI): always have i, so always end

with -iy.

Ya-a Verbs (forms V, VI & QII): always have a, so always end

with -aa.

Ya-i Verbs (the rest of the forms): always have i, so always

end with -iy.

I. Verbs Ending With -iy / -uw

►Form IExample, perfective:

�انمnamaa

(He) grew (intr.)

The root is: و م N M W Iن


(He) grows yanmuw(u) �مcي cون

Since the green vowel is u, the ending of the verb will be -uw .

The final -u (the mood-sign) will be deleted because a long vowel cannot be followed by any vowel:

(He) grows yanmuw �مcي �ون

The mood-sign is said to be "estimated" قد¦رة�cم in this case, which means it is "imagined" to be there but it is not apparent.

For the rest of the conjugations, the only irregularity is that the final long vowel will be deleted in the 2nd person feminine singular and the masculine plural conjugations.


: � فـعـل نماSING

(I) grow 'anmuw �مcأ �ون(You masc.) grow tanmuw �مcت �ون

ULAR

(You fem.) grow tanmeen(a) �م�ت �ن ني(He) grows yanmuw �مcي �ون(She) grows tanmuw �مcت �ون

DUAL

(You) grow tanmuwaan(i) �مcت �ون �نا(They masc.) grow yanmuwaan(i) �مcي �ون �نا(They fem.) grow tanmuwaan(i) �مcت �ون �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) grow nanmuw �مcن �ون(You masc.) grow tanmoon(a) �مcت نو�ن(You fem.) grow tanmuwn(a) �مcت ن�ون

(They masc.) grow yanmoon(a) �مcي نو�ن(They fem.) grow yanmuwn(a) �مcي ن�ون

Another example:

�ىبكbakaa

(He) criedThe root is: ي ك ب B K Y I


(He) cries yabkiy(u) �ك�ي cيب

Since the green vowel is i, the ending of the verb will be -iy.

The final -u will be deleted because a long vowel cannot be followed by any vowel:

(He) cries yabkiy �ك�ي �يب

The case-sign is said to be "estimated" قد¦رة�cم in this case, which means it is imagined to be there but not apparent.



فـعـل بكى� :S (I) cry 'abkiy �أ �ك �يب

INGULAR

(You masc.) cry tabkiy �ت �ك �يب(You fem.) cry tabkeen(a) �ت �ك �ب ني

(He) cries yabkiy �ك�ي �يب(She) cries tabkiy �مcت �ون

DUAL

(You) cry tabkiyaan(i) �ك�ت �يب �نا(They masc.) cry yabkiyaan(i) �ي �ك �يب �نا(They fem.) cry tabkiyaan(i) �ك�ت �يب �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) cry nabkiy �ك�ن �يب(You masc.) cry tabkoon(a) cت �ك نو�ب(You fem.) cry tabkiyn(a) �ت �ك ن�يب

(They masc.) cry yabkoon(a) cي �ك نو�ب(They fem.) cry yabkiyn(a) �ي �ك ن�يب

Try conjugating the following u verb:

�اسم

samaa(He) rose solemnly


: � فعل سما

SINGULAR

(I) rise 'asmuw مcأ و�س�(You masc.) rise tasmuw مcت �وس�(You fem.) rise tasmeen(a) م�ت �نيس�

(He) rises yasmuw مcي �وس�(She) rises tasmuw مcت �وس�

DUAL

(You) rise tasmuwaan(i) مcت �وس� �نا(They masc.) rise yasmuwaan(i) مcي �وس� �نا(They fem.) rise tasmuwaan(i) مcت ��ناوس�

PLUR

(We dual/plu.) rise nasmuw مcن �وس�(You masc.) rise tasmoon(a) مcت نو�س�

AL

(You fem.) rise tasmuwn(a) مcت ن�وس�(They masc.) rise yasmoon(a) مcي نو�س�(They fem.) rise yasmuwn(a) مcي ن�وس�

Form I perfective verbs ending with -aa that is transformed from -aw (� ( ـاoften end with -uw in the imperfective, and sometimes -aa ( Verbs .( ـى�

whose endings in the perfective are -aa that are transformed from -ay ( ( ـى�often end with -iy in the imperfective, and sometimes -aa ( Note that in .( ـى�words with more than three letters, a final weak A will be always transcribed

as ( .( ـى�

►Forms Other Than Form I

Imperfective defective verbs of forms other than form I will all end with -iy

except forms V, VI & QII which will end with -aa. There are no forms that can

end with -uw other than form I. Example, form VIII perfective:

�ا �ىهت�ن

'intahaa

(He) ended, finished

The root is: ي هـ N H Y Iن

By applying the root to the imperfective formula of form VIII, we get:

(He) finishes yantahiy(u) �ته�ي cين

The final -u is deleted because a long vowel cannot be followed by any vowel:

(He) finishes yantahiy �ته�ي �ين



)Active Voice(

�تهى� : �ن �ف�تعل ا اSINGULAR

(I) finish 'antahiy �ته�أ �ين(You masc.)

finish tantahiy �ته�ت �ين(You fem.) finish tantaheen(a) �ته��ت �ن ني

(He) finishes yantahiy �ته�ي �ين

(She) finishes tantahiy �ته�ت �ينDUAL

(You) finish tantahiyaan(i) �ته�ت �ين �نا(They masc.)

finishy

antahiyaan(i) �ته�ي �ين �نا(They fem.) finish tantahiyaan(i) �ته�ت �ين �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) finish nantahiy �ته�ن �ين

(You masc.) finish tantahoon(a) �تهcت نو�ن

(You fem.) finish tantahiyn(a) �ته�ت ن�ين(They masc.)

finish yantahoon(a) �تهي نو�cن(They fem.) finish yantahiyn(a) �ته�ي ن�ين

The conjugation process of form VIII defective verbs is the same for all the

verb forms except forms V, VI & QII which end with -aa.

II. Verbs Ending With -aa

Those can only be forms V, VI or QII, in addition to form I verbs that have a

after the second root-letter. They end only with ى but not ا as there is no imperfective verb with less than four letters. In the dual and feminine plural

conjugations, the ى will be always transformed to y regardless of its true origin.

►Form I Example:

ينس� nasiy(a)

(He) forgot

The root is : ي س N S Y Iن


(He) forgets yansay(u) �سي cين

Since the green vowel is a, the weak letter y will become a weak A, and the

final -u will be deleted because a long vowel cannot be followed by any vowel:

(He) forgets yansaa �سي ى�ن

For the 2nd person feminine singular conjugation, the final weak A will be

deleted, but the short a before the deleted weak A will be preserved, thus

making the resultant suffix -ayn(a) rather than -iyn(a).


(Thou fem.) forgets

tansaaiyn(a

)

ت�س �ن �ى ني

(Thou fem.) forgets tansayn(a) �ست �ن ني

For the masculine plural conjugations, the final weak A will be deleted, but the

short a before it will not, thus making the resultant suffix -awn(a) rather

than -uwn(a).


(They masc.) forget

yansaauwn(a

)

ي�س cن و�ان

(They masc.) forget yansawn(a)

ي�س نو�ن

For the dual and feminine plural conjugations, the final weak A will be

transformed to y when adding the suffixes.


(They two) forget

yansaaaan(i

)

ي�س ن �ا �نا

(They two) forget

yansayaan(i

)

ي�س ن �ي �نا

(He) forgets yansaa �سي ى�ن(They fem.)

forgety

ansaan(a) �سي �ن نا

(They fem.) forget

yansayn(a) �سي �ن ني


�ر�ع فcو�عc المcضا �مر� ال c Indicative

Imperfective)Active Voice(

ي : فع�ل نس�

SINGULAR

(I) forget 'ansaa �سأ �ىن(You masc.) forget tansaa �ست �ىن(You fem.) forget tansayn(a) �ست �ن ني

(He) forgets yansaa �سي �ىن(She) forgets tansaa �ست �ىن

DUAL

(You) forget tansayaan(i) �ست �ين �نا(They masc.) forget yansayaan(i) �سي �ين �نا(They fem.) forget tansayaan(i) �ست �ين �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) forget nansaa �سن �ىن

(You masc.) forget tansawn(a) �ست نو�ن(You fem.) forget tansayn(a) �ست ن�ين

(They masc.) forget yansawn(a) �سي نو�ن

(They fem.) forget yansayn(a) �سي ن�ين

Form I perfective verbs ending with -iy(a) often end with -aa ( in the ( ـى�

imperfective. Verbs whose endings are -uw(a) in the perfective are very

rare and end with -uw in the imperfective.

►Forms Other Than Form I Example, form V perfective:

�ى¦نمت tamannaa

(He) wished

The root is : ي ن م M N Y I

By applying the root to the imperfective formula of form V, we get:

(He) wishes

yatamannay(u

)¦ي cيتمن

Since the green vowel is a, the weak letter y will become a weak A, and the

final -u will be deleted because a long vowel cannot be followed by any vowel:

(He) wishes yatamannaa ¦ي ى�تمن

The rest of conjugations are like those explained above for form I ending with

-aa.


)Active Voice(

¦ى� : تفع¦ل تمن

SINGULAR

(I) wish 'atamannaa ¦أ �ىتمن(You masc.)

wish tatamannaa ¦ت �ىتمن(You fem.) wish

tatamannayn(a) ¦ت �تمن ني

(He) wishes yatamannaa ¦ي �ىتمن(She) wishes tatamannaa ¦ت �ىتمن

DUAL

(You) wish

tatamannayaan(

i)¦ت �يتمن �نا

(They masc.) wish

yatamannayaan(

i) ¦ي �يتمن �نا

(They fem.) wish

tatamannayaan(

i)¦ت �يتمن �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) wish natamannaa ¦ن �ىتمن

(You masc.) wish

tatamannawn(a) ¦ت نو�تمن

(You fem.) wisht

atamannayn(a) ¦ت ن�يتمن(They masc.)

wishy

atamannawn(a) ¦ي نو�تمن(They fem.)

wishy

atamannayn(a) ¦ي ن�يتمن

Endings of Imperfective Defective Verbs(3rd Person Masculine Singular)

Form I

-iw(u)-iy ـي�

-iy(u)

-uw(u)-uw ـو�

-uy(u)

-aw(u)-aa ـى�

-ay(u)

Forms V, VI & QII -aa ـى�

Remaining Forms -iy ـي�

Conjugation of Imperfective Defective Verbs

3rd person masculine singular

Dual and feminine

plural

2nd person feminine singular

Masculine plural

-iy(u) -iy-suffix ----iyn(a)----

uwn(a)

-uw(u) -uw-suffix ----iyn(a)----

uwn(a)

-aa -ay-suffix----

ayn(a)----

awn(a)

Fa"aa→ yaf"uw� شكا � بدا � دنا تال � نما� عدا � رجا � صفا عال � رنا

غال � طفا سال

Fa"aa→ yaf"iyبكى� سقى� مضى� رمى� مشى�

عنى� مرى� فلى� حمى� غلى�

هوى� لوى� كوى� عوى� روى�

Fa"aa→ yaf"aa� نحا رأى� طغى� رعى� سعى�





Example:

�وىأ'awaa

(He) took refuge (in), stayed (at)

The root is : ' W Y I ي و أ

This is an i verb.


)Active Voice(

فعل أوى� :SI

(I) take refuge 'a'<wiy →

'aawiy �ي�وآ *

NGULAR

(You masc.) take refuge ta'<wiy �ت �و�يأ

(You fem.) take refuge ta'<wiyn(a) �ت �و�أ ني(He) takes refugees ya'<wiy �ي �و�يأ(She) takes refugees ta'<wiy �ت �و�يأ

DUAL

(You) take refuge ta'<wiyaan(i) �ت �و�يأ �نا(They masc.) take

refuge ya'<wiyaan(i) ي� �و�يأ �نا

(They fem.) take refuge ta'<wiyaan(i) �ت �و�يأ �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) take refuge na'<wiy �ن �و�يأ

(You masc.) take refuge ta'<wuwn(a) �ت نو�وcأ

(You fem.) take refuge ta'<wiyn(a) �ت ن�و�يأ(They masc.) take

refuge ya'<wuwn(a) �ي نو�وcأ(They fem.) take refuge ya'<wiyn(a) ي

� ن�و�يأ

*The transition 'a'< → 'aa is a general rule of Arabic and not related to the verb being an irregular verb. This transition was mentioned on this page.

Enfolding verbs of the first type that end with -aa in the perfective will end

with -iy in the imperfective; the ones that end with -iy(a) in the perfective

will end with -aa in the imperfective.

The second type of the enfolding verbs enfolds the definitions of both Mithaal and defective verbs. These verbs get the dealing of both Mithaal and defective verbs together.

Example:

�ىعوwa"aa

(He) understood, comprehended

The root is : ي عو W " Y I

This is an i verb.


)Active Voice(

فعل أوى� :SINGUL

(I) understand 'a"iy ي�عأ(You masc.) understand ta"iy �يع�ت(You fem.) understand ta"iyn(a) ��عت ني

AR

(He) understands ya"iy �يع�ي(She) understands ta"iy �يع�ت

DUAL

(You) understand ta"iyaan(i) ��يعت �نا(They masc.) understand ya"iyaan(i) ��يعي �نا

(They fem.) understand ta"iyaan(i) ��يعت �نا

PLURAL

(We dual/plu.) understand na"iy ��يعن

(You masc.) understand ta"uwn(a) نو�cعت(You fem.) understand ta"iyn(a) ن��يعت

(They masc.) understand ya"uwn(a) نو�cعي

(They fem.) understand ya"iyn(a) ن��يعي

Enfolding Verbs




Exercise

(He) extended (tr.) مد¦

(He) extended (intr.) ¦ �م�تد ا

(He) continued تمر¦ �س� ا(He) despaired

(a verb) �س يئ(He) stood, stopped

(i verb) وقف(He) fell (a verb) وقع

(He) woke up (tr.) �قظ أي(He) won (u verb) �ز فا

(He) walked, strolled (i verb) �ر سا

(He) slept (a verb) �م نا

(He) chose �ر تا �خ� ا

(He) resigned, left a job/duty �ل تقا �س� ا(He) remained, stayed

(a verb) بق�ي(He) ascended

(u verb) عال

(He) bought ترى� �ش� ا

(He) transgressed تعد¦ى�

(He) fell(i verb) هوى�

(He) protected (i verb) وقى�

Based on these verbs, can you translate the following to Arabic?(you need not to translate the pronouns in parenthesis)

(You masc. sing.) extend (tr.)

(They fem. plu.) extend (tr.)

(You fem. sing.) extend (intr.)

(You fem. plu.) extend (intr.)

(We) continue

(They fem. plu.) continue

(I) despair

(I) stand

(she) falls

(You dual) wake up (tr.)

(She) wins

(You fem. sing.) walk

(You masc. sing.) sleep

(They masc. plu.) choose

(They fem. plu.) choose

(They fem. plu.) resign

(They masc. plu.) resign

(I) remain

(You fem. sing) remain

(You fem. plu) remain

(We) ascend

(You fem. sing.) ascend

(They fem. dual) ascend

(You masc. sing.) buy

(They masc. plu.) buy

(You dual) buy

(She) transgresses

(They fem. plu) transgress

(They masc. plu.) transgress

(You fem. sing.) fall

(They fem. plu.) fall

(I) protect

(They masc. dual) protect

(They masc. plu.) protect

(They fem. plu.) protect

Answers

(You masc. sing.) extend (tr.) تمcد¶

(They fem. plu.) extend (tr.) يم�دcد�ن

(You fem. sing.) extend (intr.) �ن تم�تد§ي

(You fem. plu.) extend (intr.) تم�تد�د�ن

(We) continue تم�ر¶ نس�

(They fem. plu.) continue ن تم�ر�ر� يس�

(I) despair cأس� أي

(I) stand cأق�ف

(she) falls cتقع

(You dual) wake up (tr.) �ن� cو�ق�ظا ت

(She) wins cو�زcتف

(You fem. sing.) walk �ن �ر�ي ي تس�

(You masc. sing.) sleep cم� تنا

(They masc. plu.) choose و�ن cر� تا يخ�

(They fem. plu.) choose ن تر� يخ�

(They fem. plu.) resign �ن تق�ل يس�

(They masc. plu.) resign cو�ن �ل تق�ي يس�

(I) remain �قى� أب

(You fem. sing) remain �ن �قي تب

(You fem. plu) remain �ن �قي تب

(We) ascend cو� نع�ل

(You fem. sing.) ascend �ن �ي تع�ل

(They fem. dual) ascend �ن� cوا تع�ل

(You masc. sing.) buy تر�ي� تش�

(They masc. plu.) buy و�ن cتر يش�

(You dual) buy �ن� تر�يا تش�

(She) transgresses تتعد¦ى�

(They fem. plu) transgress �ن يتعد¦ي

(They masc. plu.) transgress يتعد¦و�ن

(You fem. sing.) fall �ن ته�و�ي

(They fem. plu.) fall �ن يه�و�ي

(I) protect أق�ي�

(They masc. dual) protect �ن� يق�يا

(They masc. plu.) protect يقcو�ن

(They fem. plu.) protect �ن يق�ي

Verbs (continued)

Passive Voice

We have covered in detail how to form all the kinds of active-voice verbs. Now, we shall continue by describing how to turn the verbal structures we talked about into their passive-voice versions.

►Active vs. Passive The difference between an active verb and a passive verb regards the direction of the action indicated by the verb with regard to the subject. That is, whether the subject of the verb receives the action or not. In an active verb, the action is directed outward from the subject, which means that the subject performs the action but does not receive it. In a passive verb, the action is directed toward the subject, which means that the subject receives the action.

Statement SubjectRecipient of

Action

Active The man gave a book the man somebody

Passive The man was given a book

the man the man

►Three Types of Passive Arabic has three different types of passive verbs. They are:

The Passive of the Unknown

The Passive Without Agent

The Reflexive

♫ Passive of the Unknown The first type is the type usually designated "passive."

This type is called in Arabic و�ل�cه �مج� �ل ل �ي¶ �ن �مب "the built for the unknown" = ال(this is where I derived my designation from). Some westerners refer to it as the "internal passive," because it is formed by changing vowels within the verbal structure. For example,

Form I Form II Form III Form VII

Active fa"?l(a) fa""al(a) faa"al(a) 'infa"al(a)

Internal Passive

fu"il(a) fu""il(a) foo"il(a) 'infu"il(a)

This is the type of the passive which we are going to talk about in detail in this section. The passive of the unknown does not have an exact equivalent in English. Its literal meaning is the following:

fa"?l(a) (he) did

fu"il(a) ≡ (he/it) was/became done by somebody

The passive of the unknown, or simply "the passive" as it is usually called, indicates a passive action plus an unspecified agent.

♫ Passive Without Agent

The passive without agent is called in Arabic cو�ع� �مcطا ".the amenable" = ال

Verbs carrying this meaning are ones with an -n- affix, like form VII.

The passive without agent denotes a passive action (i.e. directed toward the subject) without saying anything about the fact that someone did it. In other words, it ignores the performer of the action, thus indicating less meaning than the passive of the unknown.

fa"?l(a) (he) did

fu"il(a) ≡ (he/it) was/became done by somebody

'infa"al(a)

≡ (he) was/became done

Form VII (the agentless passive) is the principally used form of the passive voice in most of the modern spoken dialects of Arabic, but not in formal Arabic. When forming an internal passive from form VII, the meaning will change to the passive of the unknown:

'infa"al(a)

≡ (he) was/became done

'infu"il(a) ≡ (it) was/became done by somebody

There is, of course, no verb without an agent, but I am using the "agentless passive" designation instead of simply saying "passive" because "passive" alone means the internal passive.

♫ Reflexive

The reflexive encompasses the definitions of both the active and passive voices, as it indicates an action carried out by the subject and directed toward the subject in the same time. Thus, the subject of a reflexive verb is both a performer and a recipient of the action. Reflexive verbs exist in English; consider the following example:

The glass broke

Subject: the glassAction: breaking

Agent (performer): the glassRecipient: the glass

The reflexive indicates a passive action plus the self as an agent. Verbs that

carry this meaning in Arabic are verbs carrying the -n- affix (for simple, basic

actions) and verbs carrying the -t- affix (for all kinds of actions). The -t- affix appears in forms V, VI, VIII & QII.

The -t- affix could also impart an agentless passive meaning in some

classical dialects. -t- affixed verbs are the principally used form of the passive voice in some modern dialects of Arabic that show strong relations with classical south Arabian dialects (i.e. Egyptian Arabic).

When forming an internal passive from a reflexive verb, the meaning will change to the passive of the unknown.

Unknown, Agentless, & Reflexive The best way to differentiate between the three types of the passive is by considering the following question:

Who did the action? Or "who is the agent of the verb?"

In the passive of the unknown, there is an unspecified agent indicated. In the passive without agent, there is no agent indicated. In the reflexive, the subject is the agent of the action. And all the three actions are directed toward the same target, which is the subject of the verb (hence they are all passive verbs).

Statement Action Agent

Passive of the Unknown

The glass was broken by somebody

breaking of glass somebody

Passive Without Agent

The glass was broken breaking of glass ---

Reflexive The glass broke breaking of glass the glass

The internal passive indicates an

action+ an unspecified agent

The agentless passive

indicates an

action

The reflexive indicates an

action+ the self as agent

And all the three actions are directed toward the the subject of the verb (passive).

►Arabic Terms Active voice ≡ the built for the known �ي¶ �ن �مب cو�م ال �مع�ل �ل �ل Passive of the Unknown ≡ the built for the unknown ¶ي� �ن �مب �مج�هcو�ل� ال �ل ل Agentless passive ≡ the amenable cو�ع� �مcطا ال

Perfective StructuresBasic Structure (Form I) To turn an active verb to a passive of the unknown, we are going to manipulate only vowels within the active structure but we will not touch any of the letters. Sometimes though, we are going to need to change weak letters within the structures to ones that suit the new short vowels. To turn an active form I verb into passive, we will change the short vowel

following the first letter from a to u, and the short vowel between the second

and third letters (the green short vowel) to i .

Form I of Arabic Verbs(Perfective)

Passive Voice≡ (He/it) was done by somebody

Active Voice(He) did

فcع�لfu"il(a)

fa"al(a) فعل

fa"il(a) فع�ل

fa"ul(a) فعcل

Examples:

Passive Active

kutib(a)�ب cت ك

katab(a)كتب

≡ (he/it) was written by somebody

(he) wrote

quri'(a) قcر�أqara'(a) قرأ

) ≡he/it (was read by somebody

(he) read

'ukil(a)�ل cك أ

'akal(a)أكل

) ≡he/it (was eaten by somebody

(he) late

"ulim(a)�م عcل

"alim(a)�م عل

) ≡he/it (was known by somebody

(he) knew

fuhim(a)فcه�م

fahim(a) he/it (was understood≡ (فه�م

by somebody(he) understood

Pronominal SuffixesAdding pronominal suffixes to passive perfective verbs is not any different from adding them to the active verbs.

�ض�ي� �ما ل // Perfective ال ع Root ف

(Form I, Passive Voice)

S

I

N

G

U

L

A

R

(I) was/became done by somebody fu"ilt(u) � cتفcع�ل

(You masc.) were/became done

by somebodyfu"ilt(a) � تفcع�ل

(You fem.) were/became done

by somebodyfu"ilti � �تفcع�ل

(He/it) was/became done by somebody fu"il(a) فcع�ل

(She) was/became done by somebody fu"ilat �تفcع�ل

D

U

A

L

(You) were/became done by somebody fu"iltumaa � �فcع�ل cما ت

(They masc.) were/became done

by somebodyfu"ilaa الفcع�

(They fem.) were/became done

by somebodyfu"ilataa �تفcع�ل ا

P

L

U

R

A

L

(We dual/plu.) were/became done

by somebodyfu"ilnaa � �فcع�ل نا

(You masc.) were/became done

by somebodyfu"iltum � cم�فcع�ل ت

(You fem.) were/became done

by somebody

fu"iltunn(a)

� cنفcع�ل ¦ت

(They masc.) were/became done

by somebodyfu"iloo c و�افcع�ل

(They fem.) were/became done

by somebodyfu"iln(a) � نفcع�ل

The subject of an active verb is called in Arabic the "doer" cع�ل� �فا .ال The subject of a passive verb is called in Arabic the "deputy of the doer"

�ع�ل� �فا ال cب� �ئ .نا Naturally, all subjects must be in the nominative case ('ar-raf").

VerbsPassive VoicePerfective Structures (continued)

Forms II Through QIV


(Active Voice)

Form I

fa"al(a) فعل

fa"il(a) فع�ل

fa"ul(a) فعcل

Form II fa""al(a) ¦لعف




Form VI tafaa"al(a) �علافت



Form IX 'if"all(a) ¦ل�ف�عا

Form X 'istaf"al(a) ت�ا ف�علس�


Form XII 'if"aw"al(a) لع�و�ف�عا

Form XIII 'if"awwal(a) � لو±ف�عا



Form QI fa"lal(a) فع�لل

Form QII tafa"lal(a) فع�للت



Turning these structures into the passive voice is not complicated; to turn any structure, there are two modifications required:

Turning the short vowel between the final two letters (the green short

vowel) to i. Turning all the remaining short vowels of the structure to u.

Let us apply these modifications to the structures. We will do form I again although we already did it in the previous page.

First, we will change the green vowel of all structures to i.

Passive Active

Form I fa"il(a) فع�ل

fa"al(a) فعل

fa"il(a) فع�ل

fa"ul(a) فعcل

Form II fa""il(a) §لعف fa""al(a) ¦لعف

Form III faa"il(a) �ف ع�لا faa"al(a) �ف علا

Form IV 'af"il(a) ف�ع�لأ 'af"al(a) ف�علأ

Form V tafa''"il(a) §لعفت t

afa''"al(a) ¦لعفت

Form VI

tafaa"il(a) ت t

afaa"al(a) ت

�ع�لاف �علافForm VII

'infa"il(a)ا

�فع�لن�'infa"al(a)

ا�فعلن�

Form

VIII'ifta"il(a)

اف�� ع�لت'ifta"al(a)

اف�� علت

Form IX 'if"all(a) ¦ل�ف�عا 'if"all(a) ¦ل�ف�عا

Form X 'istaf"il(a)

ات� ف�ع�س�

ل

'istaf"al(a)

ات� ف�عس�

لFor

m XI 'if"aall(a) �ل±�ف�عا ا 'if"aall(a) �ل±�ف�عا ا

Form XII

'if"aw"il(a)

او�ع�ف�ع�

ل

'if"aw"al(a

)

اع�و�ف�ع

ل

Form

XIII

'if"awwil(a

)

ال�و±ف�ع�

'if"awwal(

a)

الو±ف�ع�

Form

XIV'if"anlil(a)

ا�نف�ع� �ل

ل

'if"anlal(a)

ا�ف�ع� ن ل

ل

Form XV

'if"anliy(a)

ا�ن�ف�ع �ل

ي *

'if"anlaa

انف�ع� �ل

�ىFor

m QI fa"lil(a) �ل فع�ل fa"lal(a) فع�للForm QII

tafa"lil(a)ت

�ل فع�لtafa"lal(a)

تفع�لل

Form

QIII'if"anlil(a)

ا�ن�ف�ع �لل

'if"anlal(a)

ان�ف�ع �لل

Form

QIV'if"alill(a)

ا� ±ل�ف�عل

'if"alall(a)ا

� ±لف�عل*Note that form XV is a defective-verb-like. The final weak A of this form will

be turned to y if preceded by an i, and the "he" pronominal suffix (-a) will show up again because there is no reason for it hiding anymore. The passive conjugation of defective verbs will be covered soon.

Now we will apply the second step, which is to turn all the remaining

short vowels of the structure to u. This includes vowels following the

first root letter (the f) and vowels preceding it. The vowels preceding

such letter are found either in ta- prefixes or following an initial 'alif.


Passive Voice Active Voice

Form I fu"il(a) فcع�ل

fa"al(a) فعل

fa"il(a) فع�ل

fa"ul(a) فعcل

Form II fu""il(a) cلع§ف fa""al(a) ¦لعف

Form III fuw"il(a) cع�لوف� * faa"al(a) عل�اف

Form IV 'uf"il(a) c ف�ع�لأ 'af"al(a) ف�علأ

Form V tufu''"il(a) §لعcفcت tafa''"al(a) ¦لعفت

Form VI tufuw"il(a)ت

cفcل�و ع� *

tafaa"al(a) �علافت

Form VII 'unfu"il(a) �فcع�لنcا 'infa"al(a) �فعلن�ا

Form VIII 'uftu"il(a) ccف�ا ع�لت 'ifta"al(a) ف��ا علت

Form IX 'uf"ull(a) c ¦لف�عcا 'if"all(a) ¦ل�ف�عا

Form X 'ustuf"il(a) cس� ا 'istaf"al(a) ا

cف�ع�لت ت� ف�عس�ل

Form XI 'uf"uwll(a)ا

ccل�وف�ع¦ *'if"aall(a) �ل±ا�ف�عا

Form XII'

uf"uw"il(a)

اcو�ع�cف�ع

ل

'if"aw"al(a)

اع�و�ف�ع

ل

Form XIII'

if"uwwil(a) §لوcف�عcا'

if"awwal(a)

� لو±ف�عا

Form XIV 'uf"unlil(a) �نcف�عcا ل�ل 'if"anlal(a) � �ف�عا ن لل

Form XV 'if"unliy(a)اcف�عcن� ي�ل

'if"anlaaا

نف�ع� �ى�لForm QI fu"lil(a) �ل فcع�ل fa"lal(a) فع�لل

Form QII tufu"lil(a) �لت cفcع�ل tafa"lal(a) فع�للت

Form QIII 'uf"unlil(a) �cف�عcا �لن ل 'if"anlal(a) �للن�ف�عا

Form QIV 'uf"ulill(a) �ا ¦لcف�عcل 'if"alall(a) � ا ¦لف�عل

*Forms III, VI & XI are hollow-verb-like. They contain middle weak A's, and as we already shown on this site, such weak A's are always transformed from

something else (w or y). Inasmuch as a weak A cannot remain if preceded

by anything other than a, the weak A's of these forms will be transformed into

w's in the passive voice, the suitable weak letter for a preceding u.

►Perfective Passive Voice Formation

Turn the short vowel between the final two letters (the green short

vowel) to i. Turn all the remaining short vowels of the structure to u.

If existed, turn middle long A's (aa) to long U's (oo).

Examples:

Passive Active

jurrib(a) جcبر§

jarrab(a) ج was tried by (he/it) ≡¦بر

somebody(he) tried

shuwhid(a) شcه�دو�

shaahad(a) ش

was watched (he/it) ≡�هداby somebody

(he) watched

'u"lim(a) c �مأ ع�ل'a"lam(a) ع�لمأ

≡ (he/it) was informed by somebody

(he) informed

'uktushif(a)

ا� ccك ش�ت

ف

'iktashaf(a)

ا� شت�ك

ف≡ (he/it) was

discovered by somebody

(he) discovered

'ustukhdim(a) cس� ا

c خ�د�تم

'istakhdam(a) �س� ا

خ�دتم

≡ (he/it) was used by somebody

(he) used

zulzil(a)�ز� ل cزل

zalzal(a) �ز زل was shaken (he/it) ≡ل

violently by somebody(he) shook violently

All passive verbs take pronominal suffixes regularly just like their active counterparts.

VerbsPassive Voice (continued)

Imperfective Structures

Structures of the Imperfective Verb

(Active-Indicative)

Form I



yaf"ul(u) ف�عcلcي

Form II yufa''"il(u) c فع§لcي

Form III yufaa"il(u) �ع�لcي cفا

Form IV yuf"il(u) c ف�ع�لcي

Form Vy

atafa''"al(u)

تفع¦لcي

Form VIy

atafaa"al(u)

�علcي تفا

Form VII yanfa"il(u) �فع�لcي ن

Form VIII yafta"il(u) ف�تع�لcي

Form IX yaf"all(u) ف�عل¶ي

Form X yastaf"il(u)ي

cتف�ع�ل س�

Form XI yaf"aall(u) �ل¶ي ف�عا

Form XII yaf"aw"il(u)ي

cف�عو�ع�لForm XIII

yaf"awwil(u) ف�عو§لcي

Form XIV yaf"anlil(u) �لcي �ل ف�عن

Form XV yaf"anliy �ل�ي�ي ف�عن

Form QIIy

atafa"lal(u) تفع�للcي

Form QI yufa"lil(u) c �لcي فع�ل

Form QIII yaf"anlil(u) �لcي �ل ف�عن

Form QIV yaf"alill(u) �ل¶ي ف�عل

In fact, we already mentioned how to turn the active imperfective verbs to passive while we were talking about the imperfective structures.

This is done by modifying two elements in the structures:

1. The short vowel of the pronominal prefix (i.e. the a in 'a-, ta-, ya-

& na-) will be changed to u (if is not already).2. The short vowel between the final two letters of the verb stem (the

green short vowel) will be changed to a.

Or, in the terminology of this site, the imperfective passive verbs are all Yu-a verbs.

Structures of the Imperfective Verb

(Indicative Mood)

Passive Voice Active Voice

Form I

yuf"al(u) cف�علcي


yaf"il(u) ف�ع�لcيyaf"ul(u) ف�عcلcي

Form II

yufa''"al(u) c فع¦لcي yufa''"il(u) c فع§لcي

Form III

yufaa"al(u)ي

cعل� cفاyufaa"il(u)

يcع�ل� cفا

Form IV

yuf"al(u) c ف�علcي yuf"il(u) c ف�ع�لcيForm

Vy

utafa''"al(u) cتفع¦لcيy

atafa''"al(u)

تفع¦لcي

Form VI

yutafaa"al(u

)

ي�ع cتفاcل

yatafaa"al(u

)

ي�ع تفاcل

Form VII

yunfa"al(u) �فعلcي cن yanfa"il(u) �فع�لcي نForm VIII

yufta"al(u) cف�تعلcي yafta"il(u) ف�تع�لcيForm

IXyuf"all(u) cف�عل¶ي yaf"all(u) ف�عل¶ي

Form X

yustaf"al(u)

يتف�ع cس�

cلyastaf"il(u)

يتف�ع� س�

cلForm

XIyuf"aall(u) �ل¶ي cف�عا yaf"aall(u) �ل¶ي ف�عا

Form XII

yuf"aw"al(u)

يcف�عو�ع

cلyaf"aw"il(u)

يف�عو�ع�

cلForm XIII

yuf"awwal(u

)

يcف�عو§لc

yaf"awwil(u)

يcف�عو§ل

Form XIV

yuf"anlal(u)

ي �ل cف�عنcل

yaf"anlil(u)

ي� �ل ف�عنcل

Form XV

yuf"anlaa

ي �ل cف�عن�ى *

yaf"anliy

ي� �ل ف�عن�ي

Form QI

yutafa"lal(u)

ي cتفع�لcل

yatafa"lal(u)

ي تفع�لcل

Form QII

yufa"lal(u) cفع�للcي yufa"lil(u) c �لcي فع�ل

Form QIII

yuf"anlal(u)

ي �ل cف�عنcل

yaf"anlil(u)

ي� �ل ف�عنcل

Form QIV

yuf"alall(u) cف�علل¶ي yaf"alill(u) �ل¶ي ف�عل*Form XV is a defective-verb-like. The final weak A of this form will be turned

to a when preceded by an a, and the "he" pronominal suffix. The passive conjugation of defective verbs will be covered soon.

Examples:

Passive Active

yuktab(u)

c �تبcي ك

yaktub(u)

cبcي �ت is/becomes (he/it) ≡كwritten by somebody

≡ (he/it) is being/becoming

written by somebody≡ (he/it) will

(he) writes(he) is writing(he) will write

be/become written by somebody

yu"raf(u)ي

cع�رفc

ya"rif(u)ي

cع�ر�ف≡ (he/it) is/becomes known by somebody

≡ (he/it) will be/become known by

somebody

(he) knows(he) will know

yusaa"ad(u

) يcع� سا

cد

yusaa"id(u) ي

cع�� ساcد

≡ (he/it) is/becomes helped by somebody


helped by somebody≡ (he/it) will

be/become helped by somebody

(he) helps(he) is helping(he) will help

yuhdar(u)

يccح�ضر

yuhdir(u)

يccح�ض�ر

≡ (he/it) is/becomes brought by somebody


brought by somebody≡ (he/it) will

be/become brought by somebody

(he) brings(he) is bringing(he) will bring

yuta"allam(

u)

c ¦مcي تعل

yata"allam(

u)

¦مcي is/becomes (he/it) ≡تعلlearnt by somebody


learnt by somebody≡ (he/it) will

be/become learnt by somebody

(he) learns(he) is learning(he) will learn

yuktashaf(u

)ي

cتش� كcف

yaktashif(u)

ي�تش� ك

cف

≡ (he/it) is/becomes discovered by

somebody≡ (he/it) is

being/becoming discovered by

somebody≡ (he/it) will be/become

discovered by somebody

(he) discovers(he) is discovering(he) will discover

yusta"mal(

u)ي

cتع�م س�cل

yasta"mil(u

)ي

تع�م� س�cل

≡ (he/it) is/becomes used by somebody

≡ (he/it) is being/becoming used

by somebody≡ (he/it) will

(he) uses(he) is using(he) will use

be/become used by somebody

yuzakhraf(u

)ي

cر زخ�cف

yuzakhrif(u

)ي

cزخ�ر�cف

≡ (he/it) is/becomes embroidered by

somebody≡ (he/it) is

being/becoming embroidered by

somebody≡ (he/it) will be/become

embroidered by somebody

(he) embroiders(he) is embroidering(he) will embroider

Passive imperfective verbs take pronominal prefixes and suffixes and mood-signs regularly and just like their active counterparts.

VerbsPassive Voice (continued)

Irregular verbsFor description of irregular verb types, you may go here

1) Doubled VerbsDoubled verbs are verbs that end with a shadda(t), which indicates doubled consonants without a vowel in between.

Passive doubled verbs conjugate just like the active ones. Only vowels will be different, including the omitted or displaced-back green vowel. When untying

in the perfective, the inserted green vowel will always be i, and in the

imperfective it will always be a.

2) Mithaal VerbsMithaal verbs are verbs whose first original letter is a weak letter.

Passive Mithaal verbs take pronominal prefixes and suffixes like the active ones; however, in the imperfective, they do not lose their weak letter in any situation.

Examples:

Passive Active

wujid(a)

cج�دوwajad(a)

was/became (he/it) ≡جدوfound by somebody

≡ (he/it) has been/become found by

somebody

(he) found(he) has found

wudi"(a)

cض�عو

wada"(a)

was/became (he/it) ≡ضعوput by somebody

≡ (he/it) has been/become put by

somebody

(he) put(he) has put

yuwjad(u)

c جدcو�ي

yajid(u)

ج�دcي≡ (he/it) is/becomes found by somebody

≡ (he/it) is being/becoming found

by somebody≡ (he/it) will be/become

found by somebody

(he) finds(he) is finding(he) will find

yuwda"(u)

يcو�cضع

yada"(u)

cضعي≡ (he/it) is/becomes

put by somebody≡ (he/it) is

being/becoming put by somebody

≡ (he/it) will be/become put by somebody

(he) puts(he) is putting(he) will put


Since the internal passive is about changing vowels, the middle weak letter of hollow verbs will be affected, because it changes with changes in vowels.

However, the rule here is easy and I am not going to complicate it by going through the details and differences between classical dialects etc.

For the perfective hollow verbs, the internal long A will be always transformed to a long I in the passive voice (corresponds to the green vowel

i ) regardless of anything and in all the verb forms.

-CaaC- → -CeeC-Examples:

Passive Active

qeel(a)

�ليق�qaal(a)

was/became (he/it) ≡�لاقsaid by somebody

≡ (he/it) has been/become said by

somebody

(he) said(he) has said

bee"(a)

� �ب عيbaa"(a)

�ب was/became (he/it) ≡عاsold by somebody

≡ (he/it) has been/become sold by

somebody

(he) sold(he) has sold

kheef(a)

�خ� فيkhaaf(a)

�خ was/became (he/it) ≡فاfeared by somebody

≡ (he/it) has been/become feared by

somebody

(he) feared(he) has feared

'ureed(a) ر�c �أ دي 'araad(a) �أر دا

≡ (he/it) was/became (he) wanted

wanted by somebody≡ (he/it) has

been/become wanted by somebody

(he) has wanted

'ukhteer(a)

� ت cخ� �ريا

'ikhtaar(a)

ت �خ� was/became (he/it) ≡�رااchosen by somebody

≡ (he/it) has been/become chosen

by somebody

(he) chose(he) has chosen

'ustu"eed(a) c ت cس� ا

�ديع�

'ista"aad(

a) ت �س� ا�داع

≡ (he/it) was/became taken back by

somebody≡ (he/it) has

been/become taken back by somebody

(he) took back(he) has taken back

The internal long vowel of the imperfective hollow verbs will always

become a long A in the passive voice (corresponds to the green vowel a ) regardless of anything and in all the verb forms.

-CooC-

-CeeC- →-

CaaC-

-CaaC-

Examples:

Passive Active

yuqaal(u)

c �لcاقي

yaqool(u)

�لcوقcي≡ (he/it) is/becomes said by somebody

≡ (he/it) is being/becoming said


be/become said by somebody

(he) says(he) is saying(he) will say

yubaa"(u)

ي �cب عcا

yabee"(u)

�ي �ب عcي≡ (he/it) is/becomes sold by somebody

≡ (he/it) is being/becoming sold


be/become sold by somebody

(he) sells(he) is selling(he) will sell

yukhaaf(u) ي yakhaaf(u) ي

cاخcف� �خ فcا

≡ (he/it) is/becomes feared by somebody

≡ (he/it) will be/become feared by

somebody

(he) fears(he) will fear

yuraad(u)

�دcاcريyureed(u)

is/becomes (he/it) ≡�دcيcر�يwanted by somebody

≡ (he/it) will be/become wanted by

somebody

(he) wants(he) will want

yukhtaar(u)

يc ت �رcاخ�

yakhtaar(u)

ي ت �رcاخ�≡ (he/it) is/becomes

chosen by somebody≡ (he/it) is

being/becoming chosen by somebody

≡ (he/it) will be/become chosen by

somebody

(he) chooses(he) is choosing(he) will choose

yusta"aad(u

)

يتع �cس� اcد

yasta"eed(u

)

يتع� �س� ي

cد≡ (it) is/becomes

responded by somebody

≡ (it) is being/becoming responded by

somebody≡ (it) will be/become

(he) responds(he) is responding(he) will respond

responded by somebody

Adding pronominal prefixes and suffixes to passive hollow verbs works just like for the active hollow verbs; however, there is a little difference that regards perfective hollow verbs.

For the active perfective hollow verbs, we explained that the middle long A will be replaced in most conjugations with a specific short vowel.

Conjugation of Perfective Hollow Verbs(Active Voice)

Form I

fawal(a) aa → u

fayal(a)aa → i

fa"il(a)

Other Forms aa → a

In the passive voice of from I, the resultant middle short vowel will be the opposite of that of the active verbs.

Conjugation of Perfective Hollow Verbs(Passive Voice)

Form I fawal(a) ee → i

fayal(a)ee → u

fa"il(a)

Other Forms ee → i

Examples:

Passive Active

qilt(u)� cتق�ل

qult(u)� cتقcل

≡ (I) was/became said by somebody

(I) said

bu"t(u)

cع� cتبbi"t(u)

�ع� cتب≡ (I) was/became sold

by somebody(I) sold

khuft(u) ف� cتخc khift(u) ف� cتخ�

≡ (I) was/became feared by somebody

(I) feared

'uridt(u)

ر�د�c cتأ

'aradt(u)

cتأرد�≡ (I) was/became

wanted by somebody(I) wanted

It is important to note that passive perfective hollow form I verbs are virtually never used in Modern Standard Arabic in conjugations that require replacing

their middle ee's with a short vowel, that is, the above mentioned rule of

changing u to i and i to u in these verbs is only of theoretical and historical notability but not of practical one.


Since the green short vowel in the passive perfective verbs is always i, these

verbs will always end with -iy(a). Examples:

Passive Active

du"iy(a) يدcع� da"aa �ادع≡ (he/it) was/became (he) called

called by somebody≡ (he/it) has

been/became called by somebody

(he) has called

'utiy(a)

� cت يأ'ataa

was/became (he/it) ≡�ىأتcame (to) by somebody

≡ (he/it) has been/became came (to)

by somebody

(he) came (to)(he) has came

(to)

nusiy(a)

cس� ينnasiy(a)

was/became (he/it) ≡ينس�forgotten by somebody

≡ (he/it) has been/became forgotten

by somebody

(he) forgot(he) has forgotten

'untuhiy(a)c �ت cن ا

يه�

'intahaa

�ته �ن was/became (it) ≡�ىاfinished by somebody

≡ (he/it) has been/became finished

by somebody

(he) finished(he) has finished

Since the green short vowel in the passive imperfective verbs is always a,

these verbs will always end with -aa. Examples:

Passive Active

yud"aaي

cد�ع�ى

yad"uw

�ود�عcي≡ (he/it) is/becomes called by somebody


called by somebody≡ (he/it) will

be/become called by somebody

(he) calls(he) is calling(he) will call

yu'<taa

ي �ىcؤ�ت

ya'<tiy

�ي �ت ي�أ≡ (he/it) is/becomes

came (to) by somebody≡ (he/it) is

being/becoming came (to) by somebody≡ (he/it) will

be/become came (to) by somebody

(he) comes(he) is coming(he) will come

yunsaa يcس� ن

ى�

yansaa

�سي ى�ن≡ (he/it) is/becomes

forgotten by somebody≡ (he/it) will

be/become forgotten by somebody

(he) forgets(he) will forget

yuntahaa

يcته� ى�ن

yantahiy

�ته�ي ي�ن≡ (he/it) is/becomes

finished by somebody≡ (he/it) is

being/becoming finished by somebody

≡ (he/it) will be/become finished

by somebody

(he) finishes(he) is finishing(he) will finish

Passive defective verbs take pronominal prefixes and suffixes just like the active verbs.





Examples:

Passive Active

luwiy(a) c ي�ول lawaa ى�ول≡ (he/it) was/became

bent by somebody(he) bent (tr.)

(he) has bent (tr.)

≡ (he/it) has been/become bent

by somebody

yulwaa

c �ي �ىول

yalwiy

�ي �ي�ول≡ (he/it) is/becomes bent by somebody

≡ (he/it) is being/becoming bent


be/become bent by somebody

(he) bends (tr.)(he) is bending (tr.)(he) will bend (tr.)

The second type of the enfolding verbs enfolds the definitions of both Mithaal and defective verbs. These verbs get the dealing of both Mithaal and defective verbs together.

Examples:

Passive Active

wu"iy(a)

يcع�وwa"aa

was/became (he/it) ≡�ىعوunderstood by somebody

≡ (he/it) has been/become understood

by somebody

(he) understood(he) has

understood

yuw"aa ya"iy

يcىع�و� �يع�ي

≡ (he/it) is/becomes understood by somebody


understood by somebody≡ (he/it) will be/become

understood by somebody

(he) understands(he) is

understanding(he) will

understand

Enfolding Verbs




Transitive and Intransitive Passive VerbsThe passive voice is two types, personal passive and impersonal passive.

Personal Passive He was known as a smart guy

Impersonal Passive It is now known that this was not true

The personal passive can only be made out of transitive verbs (verbs that can have objects).

For example:

Active Passive

He saw something He was seen

He ate something He was eaten

He smelled something He was smelt

He slept ... ...

He died ... ...

He got sick ... ... Notice that verbs that cannot have objects (intransitive verbs) like "sleep" and "die" cannot be made into personal passive; it is not possible to "sleep something" or "die something," so there is no such thing as for someone "to be slept" or "to be died." However, for the impersonal passive, there is indeed such thing as "to be slept" or "to be died;" the impersonal passive can be made out of intransitive as well as transitive verbs. Examples:

Active Passive

Somebody saw It was seen (by somebody)

Somebody ate It was eaten (by somebody)

Somebody smelled It was smelt (by somebody)

Somebody slept It was slept (by somebody)

Somebody died It was died (by somebody)

Somebody got sick It was gotten sick (by somebody)

In Arabic, any verb can be made passive.

When transitive verbs are made into the passive of the unknown, they will have either one of two meanings:

Personal Passive ≡ (He) was/became done by somebody

Impersonal Passive ≡ (It) was/became done by somebody

When intransitive verbs are made into the passive of the unknown, they will have only one meaning:

Personal Passive ---

Impersonal Passive ≡ (It) was/became done by somebody

Examples on passive intransitive verbs:

Passive Active

thuhib(a)ذcه�ب

thahab(a) was gone by (it) ≡ذهب

somebody) →somebody) went

(he) went

tu"ib(a) cع�ب ت ta"ib(a) تع�ب≡ (it) was become tired by somebody

(he) became tired

) →somebody) became tired

furih(a)

فcر�حfarih(a)

was become (it) ≡فر�حhappy by somebody

) →somebody) became happy

(he) became happy

suhil(a)

ه�ل cس

sahul(a)

سهcل≡ (it) was

"been"/become easy(er) by somebody

) →somebody) was/became

easy(er)

(he) was/became easy(er)

surir(a)

صcغ�ر

sarur(a)

صغcر) ≡it (was

"been"/become small(er) by somebody

) →somebody( was/became

small(er)

(he) was/became small(er)

'untuliq(a)

� �طcل cن اق

'intalaq(a)

�طل �ن ا it (was≡ (ق

"been"/become launched by somebody


(he) was/became launched

launched

'ujtuhid(a)

cه�د ت cج� ا

'ijtahad(a)

تهد �ج� ا) ≡it (was

"been"/become diligent by somebody


diligent

(he) was/became diligent

'ukhdurr(a

) cخ�ضcر¦ ا'

ikhdarr(a)�خ�ضر¦ ا

) ≡it (was greened (up) by somebody

) →somebody( greened (up)

(he) greened (up)

'ustujiyb(a

) c ت cس� ا�بيج�

'istajaab(a

) ت �س� ا it (was answered≡ (�باج

by somebody) →somebody(

answered

(he) answered (plea), responded

Such passive intransitive verbs are not uncommon in Arabic. Verb forms that are always or frequently intransitive include forms VI, VII, IX, X, XI, fa"ul(a) verbs of form I, and others. A simplified formula for the meaning of passive intransitive verbs would be:

(Somebody) did

This is particularly useful for stative verbs which do not have direct English equivalents such as ta"ib(a), farih(a), sahul(a), etc. For example, the verb:

�م سلsalim(a)

(He) was/became safe The passive is:

�م ل cسsulim(a)

(Somebody) was/became safeWe just changed "he" to "somebody;" this is simpler than going through the full formula "it was "been"/become safe by somebody."

Active Voice Passive Voice

Transitive Verb (He) did

≡ (He) was/became done by somebody

≡ (Somebody) did

Intransitive Verb (He) did ≡ (Somebody) did

Pronouns

Pronouns in Arabic cر� �ئ �ض¦ما ,belong to the category of "nouns." Therefore الeverything that applies to nouns will apply to them. Pronouns have genders, numbers, and grammatical case. Pronouns are always definite nouns.

Pronouns in Arabic are four categories:

Subject Pronouns:o Separate Subject Pronouns o Attached Subject Pronouns

Object Pronouns:

o Separate Object Pronouns o Attached Object Pronouns

Separate Subject Pronouns

Separate Subject Pronouns �فص�لة� المcن ف�ع� الر¦ cر� ضمائ

SING

I 'anaa � أنا

You (masc.) 'ant(a) �ت أن

ULAR

You (fem.) 'anti �ت� أن

He huw(a) هcو

She hiy(a) ه�ي

DUAL

You 'antumaa � cما �ت أن

They humaa � هcما

PLURAL

We (dual / plu.) nahn(u) cنح�ن

You (masc.) 'antum cم� �ت أن

You (fem.)'

antunn(a) cن¦ �ت أن

They (masc.) hum هcم�

They (fem.) hunn(a) هcن¦

In Arabic, a mixed group of males and females will be always referred to by plural masculine pronouns or conjugations.

Separate subject pronouns work similarly to the English ones.

Examples:

� أح�مدc أنا'anaa 'ahmad(u)

= I (am) Ahmad

Translation: I am Ahmad*Proper names must have noonation, but 'ahmad cannot be noonated

because it belongs to the "forbidden to noonation" ف� ال�ص¦ر� م�ن cو�عc �مم�ن الwords, which cannot be noonated.

�ت تع�ر�فc أن'ant(a) ta"rif(u)

= You know

Translation: you know

cنح�ن � هcناnahn(u) hunaa

= We (are) here

Translation: we are here

؟ هcم�من� man hum

= who (are) they

Translation: who are they?

One important difference from English is that separate subject pronouns can be omitted from sentences in Arabic in many situations. This is because nominal declensions of the verbs make it clear who the subject is (or as in Arabic grammar, those declensions are themselves subject pronouns as we will see shortly).

Examples:

�قة �حق�ي ال cد� ر�يc أ

'aureed(u) ('a)l-haqeeqa(ta)

= (I) want the truth

Translation: I want the truth

؟ cسنف�عل � �ذا ماmaathaa sa-naf"al(u)

= what will (we) do

Translation: what will we do?

Pronouns of Separation

Thanks to the many word declensions in Arabic, which often indicate the gender and the number of the subject, separate subject pronouns have really little significance in regard to the syntax of Arabic sentences. This is actually the case for all old-fashioned languages as well, such as Latin for instance.

However, separate subject pronouns are still used a lot in Arabic. They are most often used pleonastically for emphasizing either the subject or the object of a sentence. Sometimes, however, they can be important to clarify the meaning of a sentence, this will be usually when they are used in present tense "be"-sentences.

Separate subject pronouns are called "pronouns of separation" cر� �ئ ضما

�فص�ل� when they are used without grammatical necessity. This will be theالcase for separate subject pronouns in most of the time.

Pronouns of separation will be used in the following situations:

1. In present tense "be" sentences

This is a vital usage. If the subject and the predicate of a present tense "be" sentence were both definite words, the meaning of the phrase could be ambiguous.

Example:

�ر �ب هcنا إ cر� �مcد�ي ال cم� �ه�ي �ا'ibraaheem(u) ('a)l-mudeer(u) hunaa

This sentence can mean either one of the following:

(1) Ibrahim, the manager, (is) here

(2) Ibrahim (is) the manager here

This is because the word cر� �مcد�ي .can be either an adjective or a predicate ال

So to make a distinction (a separation) between the two, it is usual to add a separate subject pronoun in place of the non-existing "be" in present tense "be"-sentences. That is, between the subject and the predicate.

cم� �ه�ي �را �ب �رc هcوإ �مcد�ي �هcنا ال'ibraaheem(u) huw(a) ('a)l-mudeer(u)

hunaa

= Ibrahim he (is) the manager here

Translation: Ibrahim is the manager here

A similar ambiguity can also occur when the subject and the predicate are both indefinite words, but it is very uncommon in Arabic for the subject of a "be"-sentence to be an indefinite word. That is, a sentence of the type "a man is here," for example, will not be virtually used in Arabic. Instead, such sentences will be often expressed via demonstratives, e.g. "there is a man here."

Additional examples:

cد� عا cن ه�يس� �سم�ي يا cخ�تc أsu"aad(u) hiy(a) 'ukht(u)

yaasameen(a)

= Su'ad she (is) (the) sister (of) Jasmine

Translation: Su'ad is Jasmine's sister

Both cد� عا cس andن� �سم�ي are "forbidden to Noonation," hence the irregular يا

case-signs. hiy(a) was used to disambiguate from "Su'ad, Jasmine's sister, ..." but clearly it was not a must here because there was nothing after the

clause ن� �سم�ي يا cخ�تc So one can say that the employment of the . أseparation pronoun was optional in this case.

cط� با �مغ�ر�ب� ه�ي الر¦ ال cص�مة� عا

'ar-rabaat(u) hiy(a) "aasima(tu) ('a)l-marrib(i)

= Rabat she (is) (the) capital (of) Morocco

Translation: Rabat is the capital of Morocco

hiy(a) was used to disambiguate from "Rabat, the capital of Morocco, ..."

Again, the use of the separation pronoun was optional here.

2. Between verbs and coordinators

The pronouns of separation are often used between verbs and coordinator conjunctions.

Example:

مcحم¦داوذهب thahab(a) wa-muhammada(n)

= (he) went with Muhammad

Translation: he went with MuhammadIn this sentence, the verb was not followed by a subject pronoun; so the

coordinator wa- = "and" would not have made any sense here. This is why the noun after the coordinator was put in the accusative (nasb) case to

indicate that the wa- = "and" in this sentence means "with." This is a general rule.

مcحم¦د�و هcوذهب thahab(a) huw(a) wa-muhammad(un)

= went he and Muhammad

Translation: he and Muhammad wentHere, the separate subject pronoun allowed the coordinator wa- to have the meaning of "and," and the noun after the coordinator was in the nominative case again.

However, it is still possible for wa- to mean "with" in this sentence, we have just to change the case, as in the following sentence:

مcحم¦داو هcوذهب thahab(a) huw(a) wa-muhammada(n)

= went he with Muhammad

Translation: he went with MuhammadSo it all depends on the case-sign.

cو�ا �ذ�هب �أخوا cم�ا ك

'ithhaboo wa-'akhaa-kum

= (you) go with (the) brother (of) you

Translation: go with your brother

�أخ ا is one of the "Six Nouns," so it takes irregular case-signs.

cو�ا �ذ�هب cم�ا �ت cم�و�أخcو أن ك'ithhaboo 'antum wa-'akhoo-kum

= go you and (the) brother (of) you

Translation: go you and your brother

cو�ا �ذ�هب cم�ا �ت �أخو أن cم�ا ك'ithhaboo 'antum wa-'akhaa-kum

= go you with (the) brother (of) you

Translation: go with your brother

3. For emphasis

Anywhere other than in the two situations mentioned above, the pronouns of separation can be used; but there they will not be used for disambiguation but rather for emphasizing the subject, or the object.

Examples:

�ن � كا هcنا kaan(a) hunaa

= (he) was here

Translation: he was here

�ن هcو � كا هcنا huw(a) kaan(a) hunaa

= he was here

Translation: HE was here

�ب �جوا ال يع�ر�فcو�نya"rifoon(a) ('a)l-jawaab(a)

= (they) know the answer

Translation: they know the answer

�ب هcم� �جوا ال يع�ر�فcو�نhum ya"rifoon(a) ('a)l-jawaab(a)

= they know the answer

Translation: THEY know the answer

قcم�qum

= (you) get up

Translation: get up

�ت قcم� أنqum 'ant(a)

= get up you

Translation: YOU get up!

Pronouns (continued)

2. Attached Subject PronounsThese are contained within the declensions that appear at the end of verbs, both perfective and imperfective.

1. Perfective VerbsThe declensions of perfective verbs are composed of attached subject pronouns and of marker letters. There are no mood signs for the perfective verbs because these are "built" words that have only one, unchangeable, mood.

Attached Subject Pronouns ¦ص�لة� المcت ف�ع� الر¦ cر� ضمائ

Marker Pronoun Declension

1st

Person

1st person marker

الفاع�ل تاء-t(u) cـت

taa'< of the actor

الفاع�لين نا

-naa � ـناnaa of the actors

2nd

Person

Masculine marker

الفاع�ل تاء-t(a) ـت

taa'< of the actor

Feminine marker

الفاع�ل تاء-ti ـت�

taa'< of the actor

Dual marker

الفاع�ل تاء-tumaa c �ماـت

taa'< of the actor

Masculine plural marker

الفاع�ل تاء-tum c �مـت

taa'< of the actor

Feminine plural

marker

الفاع�ل تاء -tunn(a) c ¦نـت

taa'< of the actor

3rd

Person

�ن� �ني االث �ف أل

-aa � ـا'alif of the two

Feminine taa'<

�ن� �ني االث �ف أل-ataa �ـت ا

'alif of the two

الجماعة واو

-oo ـو�اwaaw of the group

وة �س� الن cو�ن ن

-n(a) ـنnoon of the women

2. Imperfective VerbsImperfective verb conjugations are two types, the "five verbs," which have suffixes attached to the stem verb, and the rest of the conjugations which have only prefixes but suffixes.

The suffixes of the "five verbs" are composed of attached subject pronouns

followed by a letter noon ن which is the indicative mood sign. This noon is a sign only of the indicative mood and it will not appear in the other moods.

There is one exception to what has been mentioned, that is the feminine plural conjugations. These are "built" words that have unchangeable suffix that is composed of a single pronoun-letter.

The attached subject pronouns of the imperfective verbs are:

Attached Subject Pronouns ¦ص�لة� المcت ف�ع� الر¦ cر� ضمائ

Mood Sign Pronoun Declension

Sign of the indicative mood

المcخاطبة ياء-een(a) � yaa'< of the femaleنـي

vocative

Sign of the indicative mood

�ن� �ني االث �ف أل-aan(i) � �نـا

'alif of the two

Sign of the الجماعة واو

indicative mood -oon(a) waaw of the groupنـو�

وة �س� الن cو�ن ن -n(a) ـن

noon of the women

Hiding Pronouns

Since that not all verbs have declensions that can be deemed subject pronouns, Arab grammarians postulated that there should be an invisible

"hiding pronoun" ر�� تت مcس� �ر� .after each verb that is without a declension ضم�ي

Hiding Pronoun Verb Without Attached Pronoun

(He) ( هcو ) Past: 3rd person sing. masc. فعل

(She) ( ه�ي ) Past: 3rd person sing. fem.فع

�تل(I) ( أنا ) Present: 1st person sing. cأف�عل

(You) �ت ) ( أن Present: 2nd person sing. masc. cتف�عل(He) ( هcو ) Present: 3rd person sing. masc. cيف�عل(She) ( ه�ي ) Present: 3rd person sing. fem. cتف�عل(We)

( cنح�ن )

Present: 1st person plu./dual cنف�عل

The تـ� at the end of the 3rd person singular feminine past verb is NOT an attached subject pronoun but rather is a feminine marker (still feminine taa'<

cنة� اك الس¦ �يث� �ن التأ cء� .( تا

If a separate subject pronoun appears after a verb that has an attached subject pronoun, it will be an emphatic pronoun but not a subject.

In Arabic grammar, the 1st and 2nd person hiding pronouns are said to be

"obligatory hiding pronouns" و�باcجcو �رة� تت there will be always a hiding , مcس�pronoun after 1st and 2nd person conjugations of verbs without attached subject pronouns, and if a separate subject pronoun appears after them it will be an emphatic pronoun but not a subject.

On the other hand, the 3rd person hiding pronouns are "optionally hiding

pronouns" زا� جوا �رة� تت There will be no hiding pronoun if a separate . مcس�pronoun appears after 3rd person conjugations of verbs without attached subject pronouns.


3. Separate Object Pronouns

These can be used both as direct and indirect object pronouns. The former use is rare in the modern language, whereas the latter is very common even in the colloquial spoken dialects.

Separate object pronouns �فص�لة� المcن ¦ص�ب� الن cر� �ئ ضما

SINGULAR

Me 'iyyaay(a) � ¦ا �ي يإYou (masc.) 'iyyaak(a) ¦ا �ي �كإYou (fem.) 'iyyaaki � ¦ا �ي �كإ

Him 'iyyaah(u) � ¦ا �ي cهإHer 'iyyaahaa � ¦ا �ي �إ ها

DUAL

You'iyya

akumaa ¦ا �ي �إ cما �كThem

'iyyaahumaa

� ¦ا �ي �إ هcماPLUR

Us (dual / plu.) 'iyyaanaa ¦ا �ي �إ �ناYou (masc.) 'iyyaakum � ¦ا �ي cمإ �ك

AL

You (fem.)'iyya

akunn(a)� ¦ا �ي cنإ ¦ك

Them (masc.) 'iyyaahum ¦ا �ي ��هcمإThem (fem.)

'iyyaahunn(a)

� ¦ا �ي هcن¦إ

I. Direct ObjectWhen separate object pronouns serve as direct object pronouns they must come before the verb. This usage is mostly found in classical writings.

Examples:

¦اك �ي cدc إ نع�ب'iyyaak(a) na"bud(u)

= thee (we) worship

Translation: we worship thee

Separate object pronouns can come after the verb if they were preceded by a conjunction word.

cهc ت �هcموشكر� ¦ا �ي �إ

shakartu-h(u) wa-'iyyaahum

= (I) thanked him and them

Translation: I thanked him and them

Separate object pronouns come also after the verb if they were preceded by

the word 'illaa إ�± ال = "except."

cدc نع�ب ±ال �ال �هc إ ¦ا �ي إlaa na"bud(u) 'illaa 'iyyaah(u)

= not (we) worship (anybody) except him

Translation: we worship him solely*Note: this sentence uses the negation + exclusion style explained in this page.

Finally, separate object pronouns can be used in a warning style.

�ك ¦ا �ي هالذ¦هاب !و إ

'iyyaak(a) wa-th-thahaab(a)

= (I warn) you of the going

Translation: I warn you not to go!

Warning Style

(I warn) you of ...

sing. masc. �ك ¦ا �ي هو.... إ

sing. fem. �ك� ¦ا �ي هو.... إ

dual � cما �ك ¦ا �ي هو.... إ

plu. masc. cم� �ك ¦ا �ي هو.... إ

plu. fem. cن¦ �ك ¦ا �ي هو.... إ

II. Indirect ObjectSeparate object pronouns serve as indirect object pronouns only when the direct object is an attached object pronoun.

�ي�أع�ط� � ن �ها ¦ا �ي إ'a"ti-nee 'iyyaahaa

= give me her

Translation: give it to me

The attached object pronoun -nee = me served as the direct object here, while the separate object pronoun served as the indirect object.

cه� ¦ا �ي � إ cه�د�ي كأ'iyyaah(u) 'uhdee-k(a)

= him (I) present you

Translation: I give it to you as a presentHere, the separate object pronoun served again as an indirect object, but it

came before the verb. The direct object was the attached object pronoun -k(a) = you.


4. Attached Object PronounsThese are the object pronouns that are used most often. They can serve both as direct and indirect object pronouns.

Attached Object Pronouns ¦ص�لة� المcت والجر§ النص�ب� cر� ضمائ

SINGULA

Me -ee ـي�You (masc.) -k(a) ـكYou (fem.) -k(i) ـك�

Him -h(u) cـهHer -haa �اـه

DUAL

You -kumaa c �ماـكThem

-humaa cماـه�

PLUR

Us (dual / plu.) -naa � ـنا

You (masc.) -kum c �مـك

AL

You (plu. fem.)

-k

unn(a)c ¦نـك

Them (masc.) -hum cمـه�

Them (fem.)

-h

unn(a)cنـه¦

Although it does not really have any practical implication, it should be said (for the sake of perfection) that the attached object pronouns are only the letters colored in blue, whereas the rest are just markers. Here are the names of the pronouns:

Attached Object Pronouns ¦ص�لة� المcت والجر§ النص�ب� cر� ضمائ

Marker Pronoun Declension

1st

Person

cء� يا� §م �مcتكل ال -ee ـي�yaa'< of the

speaker � نا

�ن §م�ي �مcتكل ال-naa � ـنا

naa of speakers

2nd

Person

Masculine marker

cف� كا�ب� �خ�طا ال -k(a) ـكkaaf of the

vocative

Feminine marker

cف� كا�ب� �خ�طا ال -k(i) ـك�kaaf of the

vocative

Dual marker

cف� كا�ب� �خ�طا ال -

kumaac �ماـك

kaaf of the vocative

Masculine plural

marker

cف� كا�ب� �خ�طا ال -kum c �مـكkaaf of the

vocative

Feminine plural

marker

cف� كا�ب� �خ�طا ال

-k

unn(a)c ¦نـك

kaaf of the vocative

3rd

Person

Masculine marker

�بة� �غ�ي ال cء� ها-h(u) cـهhaa'< of

absence

Feminine marker

�بة� �غ�ي ال cء� ها-haa �haa'< ofاـه

absence

Dual marker

�بة� �غ�ي ال cء� ها -humaa cماـه�haa'< of

absence

Masculine plural

marker

�بة� �غ�ي ال cء� ها-hum cمـه�haa'< of

absence

Feminine plural

marker

�بة� �غ�ي ال cء� ها -h

unn(a)cنـه¦haa'< of

absence

I. Direct Object

This is often when the attached object pronoun is attached to verbs.

Examples:

¶ ب cح� �كأ'auhibbu-k(i)

= (I) love you (sing. fem.)

Translation: I love you

¶ ب cح� كأ'auhibbu-k(a)

= (I) love you (sing. masc.)

Translation: I love you

�فعل هاfa"ala-haa

= (He) did her

Translation: he did it

cم§ cعل cهسأsa-'u"allimu-h(u)

= (I) will teach him

Translation: I will teach him

cمنع�ر�فcه�na"rifu-hum

= (we) know them (plu. masc.)

Translation: we know them

� �لتا �قا هاqaalataa-haa

= (they dual fem.) said her

Translation: they said it

A noon ن will be prefixed to the attached first person singular object

pronoun -ee �ي�ـن to become -nee �ـي� in the following situations:

When it is attached to verbs.

When it is attached to either one of the two particles ( عن� & م�ن� ).

This noon ن is called the "noon of protection" ية�� و�قا ال cو�نc . ن

Examples:

�ع�دcو !�ي��نسا

saa"idoo-nee

= (you plu. masc.) help me

Translation: help me!

�ي�نسيع�ر�ف�نsa-ya"rifna-nee

= (they plu. fem.) will know me

Translation: they will know me

An additional waaw و will also be prefixed to the same pronoun when it is attached to a 2nd person masculine plural perfective verb.

So the -ee pronoun will become here -oonee.

cمc �ت �ي�و�نرأيra'aytum-oonee

= (you plu. masc.) saw me

Translation: you saw me

Attachment Form of Pronoun "me"

To nouns and most particles -ee ـي� To verbs and to the particles

( عن� & م�ن� ) -nee � ي�ـنTo 2nd person masculine

plural perfective verbs -oonee � ي�ـو�ن

Another changeable pronouns are the 3rd person pronouns. Most Arabs of ancient times didn't like the following combinations of sounds:

i-hu

ee-hu

ay-hu

When these combinations occur, the hu of the attached pronoun will be

changed to hi.

Another way to say this is that the hu will become hi if the pronoun was

precede by a short vowel i or a consonant letter yaa'< y.

Examples:

�هأع�ط�'a"ti-h(i)

= (you sing. masc.) give him

Translation: give him

� �ه�مأع�ط�ي'a"tee-him

= (you sing. fem.) give them (plu. masc.)

Translation: give them

� cر�ي ¦ه�نيyuree-hinn(a)

= (he) shows them (plu. fem.)

Translation: he shows them

Forms of 3rd Person Attached Object Pronouns

Preceded by i, ee, or ay Regular

-h(i) ـه� -h(u) cـه-haa � ـها -haa � ـها

-himaa � ـه�ما -humaa � ـهcما-him ـه�م� -hum ـهcم�

-hinn(a) ـه�ن¦ -hunn(a) ـهcن¦

The attached object pronouns will also be in the direct object ('an-nasb) case

when they are attached to the verb-like particles ف�ع�ل�� ال ب cهة¦ �مcشب ال cف cاألح�ر. One of the reasons that these particles were designated like that is because they can be attached to object pronouns.

Examples:

�ت �ك ي��نلي هcنا cت� cن كlayta-nee kunt(u) hunaak(a)

= it is wished if me was there

Translation: I wish if I were there

layt(a)ت� -is a verb-like particle that is used for whishing. Being verb لي

like, it takes the form -nee of the1st person singular attached object

pronoun (me). The perfective verb kunt(u) cت� cن was used because كperfective verbs in Arabic can be used as subjunctive verbs. This is similar to English where the past form is also the subjunctive.

¦ �ن �خ�ل� هcإ �د¦ا ال ف�ي�'inna-h(u) fee ('a)d-daakhil(i)

= it is true that him in the inside

Translation: he's inside

¦ �ن cن¦لك cن ك �ت ذهب ¦قد� laakinna-kunn(a) qad thahabtunn(a)

= but you (plu. fem.) have gone

Translation: but you've gone

¦ �لعل �يو�م ها ال cم�ط�رc ت la"alla-haa tumter(u) ('a)l-yawm(a)

= it is hoped that her will rain today

Translation: I hope it will rain today

As for the1st person singular attached object pronoun (me) and the verb-like particles, these particles can all take the two forms interchangeably, except for

layt(a)ت� to which it is very recommended that it take the form -nee ليonly.

Forms of Verb-like Particles with the 1st Person Singular Attached Object Pronoun

'inn-ee § �ن �يإ 'inna-nee ¦ �ن �إ �ين

'ann-ee § �يأن 'anna-nee ¦ �أن �ين

ka'ann-ee § �يكأن ka'anna-nee

كأ¦ �ن �ين

laakinn-ee § �ن �يلك laakinna-nee

� لك¦ �ي�نن

la"all-ee § �يلعل la"alla-nee لع�ل �ي¦ن

--- --- layta-nee �ت �ي�نلي


II. Indirect Object

Attached object pronouns serve as indirect objects by attachment to nouns (to form genitive constructions), to prepositions, or to verbs along with other pronouns.

۞ Indirect Objects of Verbs

This is an archaic usage. In the modern language, the indirect, or second, object of a verb would usually be referred to by a separate object pronoun as we showed earlier.

Examples:

c �ت أع�طي cهك'a"taytu-ka-h(u)

= (I) gave you him

Translation: I gave it to you

cمc �ت �سأل �ي �هاو�نsa'altum-oonee-haa

= (you plu. masc.) asked me her

Translation: you asked me for it

Or: you asked me about itAn important note here is that the order of pronouns attached to verb does not depend on which one is direct object and which one is indirect. Rather, the 1st person pronouns will always come before the 2nd person pronouns in order, and these will always come before the 3rd person pronouns.

۞ Object Pronouns Attached to Nouns

Object pronouns will be attached to nouns to form genitive constructions.

1. Object Pronouns Attached to Singular Nouns

1) 'ar-raf" Case

'ar-raf" case cف�ع .is the nominative or the subject case الر¦

Example:

Stem noun: kitaab(un) = a book ب�� تا -ar') كraf" Case)

Meaning literal translation Example

My book kitaab-ee = (the) book (of) me ب� �تا �ي�كYour book (sing.

masc.) kitaabu-k(a) = (the) book (of)

you c �ب �تا ككYour book (sing. fem.) kitaabu-k(i) = (the) book (of)

you c �ب �تا �ككHis book kitaabu-h(u) = (the) book (of)

him c �ب �تا cهكHer book kitaabu-haa = (the) book (of)

her c �ب �تا �ك ها

Your book (dual) kitaabu-kumaa = (the) book (of) them

� �تا كc �ب cما ك

Their book (dual) kitaabu-humaa = (the) book (of) them

� �تا كc �ب هcما

Our book kitaabu-naa = (the) book (of) us c �ب �تا �ك نا

Your book (plu. masc.)

kitaabu-kum = (the) book (of) you c �ب �تا cمك �ك

Your book (plu. fem.) kitaabu-kunn(a) = (the) book (of) you

� �تا كc cنب ¦ك

Their book (plu. masc.)

kitaabu-hum = (the) book (of) them c �ب �تا �هcمك

Their book (plu. fem.) kitaabu-hunn(a) = (the) book (of) them c �ب �تا ¦هcنك

Remember that the word forming the first part of a genitive construction is always a definite word.

Also note that attaching the pronoun -ee ـي = "me," to a noun will not allow

the case-sign to appear, it will be called "estimated" قد¦رةcم between the noun and the pronoun.

Attachment of 1st Person Singular Object Pronoun to Nouns Ending With a Long Vowel

Long vowels at the end of nouns will turn the -ee = -iy into a -y(a). The

same transformation will also occur when adding the -ee to dual and masculine plural nouns, as we shall see in the next page. Examples:

� يعصا"asaa-y(a)

= (the) stick (of) me

Translation: my stick/cane

�م� ¦يمcحا

muhaamee-y(a) = muhaamiy-y(a)

= (the) attorney (of) me

Translation: my attorney

The consonant -y was followed by a short vowel -a in this case in order to prevent two still letters from directly following each other, which is a bad thing in Arabic.

2) 'an-nasb Case

'an-nasb case cص�ب¦ .is the accusative, dative or vocative cases الن

Things here are like what they were for the previous case.

Stem noun: kitaaba(n) = a book با� �تا -an') كnasb Case)


My book kitaab-ee = (the) book (of) me

� �تا ك�ي�ب

Your book (sing. masc.) kitaaba-k(a) = (the) book (of) you

� �تا ك كب

Your book (sing. fem.) kitaaba-k(i) = (the) book (of) you

� �تا ك �كب

His book kitaaba-h(u) = (the) book (of) him �ب �تا cهكHer book kitaaba-haa = (the) book (of) her �ب �تا �ك ها

Your book (dual) kitaaba-kumaa = (the) book (of) them

� �تا ك �ب cما ك

Their book (dual) kitaaba-humaa = (the) book (of) them

� �تا ك �ب هcما

Our book kitaaba-naa = (the) book (of) us �ب �تا �ك نا

Your book (plu. masc.) kitaaba-kum = (the) book (of) you

� �تا ك cمب �ك

Your book (plu. fem.) kitaaba-kunn(a) = (the) book (of) you

� �تا ك cنب ¦ك

Their book (plu. masc.)

kitaaba-hum = (the) book (of) them

� �تا ك

�هcمب

Their book (plu. fem.) kitaaba-hunn(a) = (the) book (of) them

� �تا ك ¦هcنب

3) 'al-jarr Case

'al-jarr case is the ablative or the genitive cases. The regular case-sign for

this case is a short vowel -i, which is one of the three sounds ( -i, -ee, and -ay ) that lead to bad combinations with 3rd person pronouns. Therefore, we will see here changes in the third person pronouns.

Stem noun: kitaab(in) = a book ²ب� �تا al-jarr') كCase)


My book kitaab-ee = (the) book (of) me ب� �تا �ي�كYour book (sing.

masc.) kitaabi-k(a) = (the) book (of) you � �ب �تا ككYour book (sing.

fem.) kitaabi-k(i) = (the) book (of) you � �ب �تا �ككHis book kitaabi-h(i) = (the) book (of) him � �ب �تا �هكHer book kitaabi-haa = (the) book (of) her � �ب �تا �ك ها

Your book (dual) kitaabi-kumaa = (the) book (of) them

� �تا ك� �ب cما ك

Their book (dual) kitaabi-himaa = (the) book (of) them

� �تا ك� �ب ه�ما

Our book kitaabi-naa = (the) book (of) us � �ب �تا �ك ناYour book (plu.

masc.) kitaabi-kum = (the) book (of) you

� �تا ك� cمب �ك

Your book (plu. fem.) kitaabi-kunn(a) = (the) book (of) you

� �تا ك� cنب ¦ك

Their book (plu. masc.) kitaabi-him = (the) book (of) them

� �تا ك� �ه�مب

Their book (plu. fem.) kitaabi-hinn(a) = (the) book (of) them

� �تا ك� ¦ه�نب


2. Object Pronouns Attached to Dual Nouns

In the genitive construction section, we saw that the noun declensions which

have noon ن at their ends (dual and masculine plural) must lose the noon when they are the first part of a genitive construction. This is still true here.

As we mentioned in the previous page, the form -y(a) of the 1st person

singular pronoun must be used instead of the standard -ee when adding the pronoun to dual or masculine plural nouns.

1) 'ar-raf" Case

Noun: kitaabaan(i) = two books �ب �تا ن��اك ('ar-raf" Case)


My two books kitaabaa-y(a) = (the) two books (of) me

�ت ك�ا ي�اب

Your two books (sing. masc.)

kitaabaa-k(a) = (the) two books (of) you

�ت ك�ب�ا كا

Your two books (sing. fem.)

kitaabaa-k(i) = (the) two books (of) you �ت ك

�ك�اب�اHis two books kitaabaa-h(u) = (the) two books (of)

him �تا �ب�ك cها

Her two books kitaabaa-haa = (the) two books (of) her

�ت ك�ا �ب �ا ها

Your two books (dual)

kitaabaa-kumaa = (the) two books (of) them

�ت ك�ا ��اب cما ك

Their two books(dual)

kitaabaa-humaa = (the) two books (of) them

�ت ك�ب�ا �ا هcما

Our two books kitaabaa-naa = (the) two books (of) us �تا ��اب�ك ناYour two books

(plu. masc.)kitaabaa-kum = (the) two books (of)

you

�ت ك�ا cم��اب ك

Your two books (plu. fem.)

kitaabaa-kunn(a) = (the) two books (of) you

�ت ك�ا �ب cن¦ا ك

Their two books (plu. masc.)

kitaabaa-hum = (the) two books (of) them �ت ك

�ا �ب هcم�اTheir two books

(plu. fem.)kitaabaa-hunn(a) = (the) two books

(of) them

� �تا ك هcن¦�اب

2) 'an-nasb & 'al-jarr Cases

In these cases the case-sign will be -ay, which will lead to bad combinations with the third person pronouns and thus changes will be made.

Noun: kitaabayn(i) = two books �ب �تا ن��يك (Object Case)


My two books kitaabay-y(a) = (the) two books (of) me تا� �ك ي¦ب

Your two books (sing. masc.)

kitaabay-k(a) = (the) two books (of) you تا� �ب�ك كي

Your two books (sing. fem.)

kitaabay-k(i) = (the) two books (of) you �تا �ك�يب�ك

His two books kitaabay-h(i) = (the) two books (of) him �تا �ب�ك �هي

Her two books kitaabay-haa = (the) two books (of) her �تا �ك �ب �ي ها

Your two books (dual)

kitaabay-kumaa = (the) two books (of) them

�ت ك�ا ��يب cما ك

Their two books(dual)

kitaabay-himaa = (the) two books (of) them

�ت ك�ب�ا �ي ه�ما

Our two books kitaabay-naa = (the) two books (of) us �تا ��يب�ك نا

Your two books (plu. masc.)

kitaabay-kum = (the) two books (of) you

�ت ك�ا cم��يب ك

Your two books (plu. fem.)

kitaabay-kunn(a) = (the) two books (of) you

�ت ك�ا �ب cن¦ي ك

Their two books (plu. masc.)

kitaabya-him = (the) two books (of) them

�ت ك�ا �ب ه�م�ي

Their two books (plu. fem.)

kitaabay-hinn(a) = (the) two books (of) them

� �تا ك ه�ن¦�يب

3. Object Pronouns Attached to Masculine Plural Nouns

The noon ن at the end of masculine plural nouns must go away when they form the first part of a genitive construction.

The form -y(a) of the 1st person singular pronoun must be used instead of -ee .

1) 'ar-raf" Case

The -oo sign of this case will be turned to -ee when attaching the 1st

person singular pronoun -ee to the noun. Euphony is the only reason behind this transformation and it does not mean that the case-sign has changed, nor has the case of the noun which is still the subject case.

mu"allimoon(a) §م ن�وcمcعل

mu"allimoo-y(a) §م ي�وcمcعل

mu"allimee-y(a) §م ¦ي�مcعل

Noun: mu"allimoon(a) = teachers cم§ �نومcعل

('ar-raf" Case)


My teachers mu"allimee-y(a) = (the) teachers (of) me م§ ¦ي�مcعل

Your teachers(sing. masc.)

mu"allimoo-k(a) = (the) teachers (of) you

§ مcعلcك�وم

Your teachers(sing. fem.)

mu"allimoo-k(i) = (the) teachers (of) you

§ مcعلcك�وم�

His teachers mu"allimoo-h(u) = (the) teachers (of) him

§ مcعلcه�ومc

Her teachers mu"allimoo-haa = (the) teachers (of) her

§ مcعلcها�وم�

Your teachers(dual)

mu"allimoo-kumaa = (the) teachers (of) them

§ مcعلcوم�� cما ك

Their teachers (dual)

mu"allimoo-humaa = (the) teachers (of) them

§ مcعلcوم�� هcما

Our teachers mu"allimoo-naa = (the) teachers (of) us

§ مcعل

cوم� �ناYour teachers (plu. masc.)

mu"allimoo-kum = (the) teachers (of) you

§ مcعلcم��ومc ك

Your teachers (plu. fem.)

mu"allimoo-kunn(a) = (the) teachers (of) you

§ مcعلcن¦�ومc ك

Their teachers (plu. masc.)

mu"allimoo-hum= (the) teachers (of) them

§ مcعلcم��ومcه

Their teachers(plu. fem.)

mu"allimoo-hunn(a) = (the) teachers (of) them

§ مcعلcن¦�ومcه

2) 'an-nasb & 'al-jarr Cases

In these cases the sign will be -ee, which will lead to bad combinations with the the third person pronouns and thus there will be changes.

Noun: mu"allimeen(a) = teachers §م� �نيمcعل

(Object Case)


My teachers mu"allimee-y(a) = (the) teachers (of) me

§ مcعل¦ي�م

Your teachers(sing. masc.)

mu"allimee-k(a) = (the) teachers (of) you

�§± مcعلك�يم�

Your teachers(sing. fem.)

mu"allimee-k(i) = (the) teachers (of) you

�§± مcعل�ك�يم�

His teachers mu"allimee-h(i) = (the) teachers (of) him

§± مcعل�ه�يم�

Her teachers mu"allimee-haa = (the) teachers (of) her

§± مcعل�ها�يم�

Your teachers(dual)

mu"allimee-kumaa = (the) teachers (of) them

�§± مcعل��يم� cما ك

Their teachers (dual)

mu"allimee-himaa = (the) teachers (of) them

§± مcعل

��يم� ه�ما

Our teachers mu"allimee-naa = (the) teachers (of) us

�§± مcعل��يم� نا

Your teachers (plu. masc.)

mu"allimee-kum = (the) teachers (of) you

�§± مcعلcم��يم� ك

Your teachers (plu. fem.)

mu"allimee-kunn(a) = (the) teachers (of) you

�§± مcعلcن¦�يم� ك

Their teachers (plu. masc.)

mu"allimee-him= (the) teachers (of) them

§± مcعله�م��يم�

Their teachers(plu. fem.)

mu"allimee-hinn(a) = (the) teachers (of) them

�§± مcعله�ن¦�يم�

Feminine plural and irregular plural nouns will behave just like regular nouns when attached to object pronouns.

Forms of the 1st Person Singular Object Pronoun With Attachment to Nouns

Singular Nouns

Not Ending With Long Vowel

-ee

-y(a)in Classical Arabic (Koran)

Ending With Long Vowel -y(a)

Dual Nouns -y(a)

Plural Nouns -y(a)

4. Object Pronouns Attached to Noun Prepositions

Many prepositions in Arabic are nouns, and they can be attached to pronouns to form genitive constructions just like any other nouns.

Examples:

In front of him'amaama-h(u)

(in) (the) front (of) him�م cهأما

Behind herkhalfa-haa

(in) (the) back (of) her�ف �هاخل

Underneath us

tahta-naa

(in) (the) underneath (of) us

ت �ناتح�

After you (plu. masc.)ba"da-kum

(in) (the) "after" (of) you cمبع�د �ك

Before them (plu. fem.)qabla-hunn(a)

(in) (the) "before" (of) them �ل ¦هcنقب


۞ Object Pronouns Attached to Particles

Particles to which object pronouns can be attached are two types, the verb-like particles, which we already talked about, and the ablative particles.

The ablative particles §الجر cو�ف cرcح are prepositions. Pronouns attached to them will be, just like any other noun after an ablative particle, in the ablative case or 'aj-jarr.

Examples:

Particle: bi- ـ� in / by / with = ب

Meaning Example

in / by / with me b-ee � �يبin / by / with you

(sing. masc.) bi-k(a) � كبin / by / with you

(sing. fem.) bi-k(i) � �كبin / by / with him bi-h(i) � ه�بin / by / with her bi-haa � �ب ها

in / by / with them (dual) bi-kumaa � �ب cما ك

in / by / with them (dual) bi-himaa � �ب ه�ما

in / by / with us bi-naa � �ب ناin / by / with you

(plu. masc.) bi-kum � cمب �كin / by / with you

(plu. fem.) bi-kunn(a) � cنب ¦كin / by / with them

(plu. masc.) bi-him � �ه�مبin / by / with them

(plu. fem.) bi-hinn(a) � ¦ه�نب

Remember that the hu of 3rd person pronouns must be turned to hi when

the pronoun is preceded by one of the sounds: -i , -ee , or -ay .

Another example:

Particle: fee in = ف�ي�

Meaning Example

in me fee-y(a) يف�¦in you (sing. masc.) fee-k(a) � كف�يin you (sing. fem.) fee-k(i) � �كف�ي

in him fee-h(i) � ه�ف�يin her fee-haa � �ف�ي ها

in them (dual) fee-kumaa � �ف�ي cما كin them (dual) fee-himaa � �ف�ي ه�ما

in us fee-naa � �ف�ي ناin you (plu. masc.) fee-kum � cمف�ي �ك

in you (plu. fem.) fee-kunn(a) � cنف�ي ¦كin them (plu. masc.) fee-him � �ه�مف�يin them (plu. fem.) fee-hinn(a) � ¦ه�نف�ي

We mentioned before that the two particles ( عن� & م�ن� ) will be attached to

the -nee form of the first person singular object pronoun.

From me min-nee § �يم�نAbout me "an-nee § �يعن

Particle: min from = م�ن�

Meaning Example

From me min-nee م�§ ي�نFrom you (sing.

masc.) min-k(a) � كم�ن

From you (sing. fem.) min-k(i) � �كم�ن

From him min-h(u) � هcم�ن

From her min-haa � �م�ن ها

From them (dual) min-kumaa � �م�ن cما ك

From them (dual) min-humaa � �م�ن هcما

From us min-naa �م� ¦ا نFrom you (plu.

masc.) min-kum � cمم�ن �ك

From you (plu. fem.) min-kunn(a) � cنم�ن ¦كFrom them (plu.

masc.) min-hum � �هcمم�نFrom them (plu.

fem.) min-hunn(a) � ¦هcنم�ن

Particle: "an about = عن�

Meaning Example

About me "an-nee ع§ ي�نAbout you (sing.

masc.) "an-k(a) � كعنAbout you (sing.

fem.) "an-k(i) � �كعن

About him "an-h(u) � هcعن

About her "an-haa � �عن ها

About them (dual) "an-kumaa � �عن cما ك

About them (dual) "an-humaa � �عن هcما

About us "an-naa �ع ¦ا ن

About you (plu. masc.) "an-kum � cمعن �ك

About you (plu. fem.) "an-kunn(a) � cنعن ¦كAbout them (plu.

masc.) "an-hum � �هcمعنAbout them (plu.

fem.) "an-hunn(a) � ¦هcنعن

The two particles لى�� على� & إ will require modification when attached to

object pronouns. The last long vowel 'alif -aa (a.k.a shortened 'alif ) will be

changed to -ay when attaching the pronoun. That is, the 'alif will be changed to yaa'<.

Particle: 'ilaa �لى� to = إ

Meaning Example

To me 'ilay-y(a) �ل ¦يإ

To you (sing. masc.) 'ilay-k(a) �ل ك�يإ

To you (sing. fem.) 'ilay-k(i) �ل �ك�يإ

To him 'ilay-h(i) �ل ه��يإ

To her 'ilay-haa �ل �إ �ي ها

To them (dual) 'ilay-kumaa �ل ��يإ cما ك

To them (dual) 'ilay-himaa �ل ��يإ ه�ما

To us 'ilay-naa �ل ��يإ نا

To you (plu. masc.) 'ilay-kum �ل �إ cمي �ك

To you (plu. fem.) 'ilay-kunn(a) �ل cن�يإ ¦ك

To them (plu. masc.) 'ilay-him �ل �ه�م�يإ

To them (plu. fem.) 'ilay-hinn(a) �ل ¦ه�ن�يإ

Particle: "alaa on = على�

Meaning Example

On me "alay-y(a) ¦يعل

On you (sing. masc.) "alay-k(a) ك�يعل

On you (sing. fem.) "alay-k(i) �ك�يعل

On him "alay-h(i) ه��يعل

On her "alay-haa �عل �ي ها

On them (dual) "alay-kumaa ��يعل cما ك

On them (dual) "alay-himaa ��يعل ه�ما

On us "alay-naa ��يعل نا

On you (plu. masc.) "alay-kum �عل cمي �ك

On you (plu. fem.)"alay-

kunn(a) cن�يعل ¦ك

On them (plu. masc.) "alay-him �ه�م�يعل

On them (plu. fem.) "alay-hinn(a) ¦ه�ن�يعل

The last Arabic particle that can be attached to pronouns is li- ـ� . ل

This particle will be changed to la- لـ when attached to object pronouns.

Particle: li- ـ� for / to = ل

Meaning Example

for / to me l-ee � �يل

for / to you (sing. masc.) la-k(a) كل

for / to you (sing. fem.) la-k(i) �كل

for / to him la-h(u) هcل

for / to her la-haa �ل ها

for / to them (dual) la-kumaa �ل cما ك

for / to them (dual) la-humaa �ل هcما

for / to us la-naa �ل ناfor / to you (plu.

masc.) la-kum cمل �ك

for / to you (plu. fem.) la-kunn(a) cنل ¦كfor / to them (plu.

masc.) la-hum �هcمل

for / to them (plu. fem.) la-hunn(a) ¦هcنل

Why so many variations in pronouns?

This is because Classical Arabic was made out of many different dialects of Arabic which were all spoken in pre-Islamic Arabia. The irregularities seen with pronouns reflect the differences that existed between those dialects.

The differences can still be seen today in the spoken dialects of Arabic, whose diversity was primarily determined by the diversity of the dialects of old Arab tribes.

Demonstratives

Demonstratives in English are "this," "that," "these," and "those."

In Arabic, demonstratives are nouns, thus they have the characteristics of gender, number, and case. There are so many demonstratives in classical Arabic; I am going to try to put them all, but I will indicate which ones are the ones used usually in modern life.

Demonstratives are called in Arabic the "nouns of pointing" شارة�� اإل cأس�ماء.

1. Near DemonstrativesThe basic forms of demonstratives are the near demonstratives. All demonstratives are "built" words (do not change form with changing in grammatical case) except for the dual demonstratives, which are case inflected.

Demonstratives (Basic Forms)( دة´ ( مcجر¦ �رة� �شا اإل cء� ما أس�

This (masc. sing.) thaa � ذا

This (fem. sing.) thee ذ�ي�

These (masc. dual)

thaan(i)

(subject)�ن �ذا

thayn(i)

(object) �ن� ذي

These (fem. dual)

taan(i)

(subject) �ن� تا

tayn(i)

(object) �ن� تي

These (plu.) 'ulaa'(i) *�والءcأ

'ulaa *ولى�cأ

*The و is silent.

The feminine singular demonstrative had so many variants in the classical language of which none is used in the modern language. However, some of them may be heard in some spoken dialects today.

Demonstratives for the Feminine Singular (Basic Forms)

This (fem. sing.)

thee ذ�ي�

thih ذ�ه�

thih(i) ذ�ه�

thihee ذ�ه�ي�

thaat(u) cت� ذا

taa � تا

tee �ي� ت

tih �ه� ت

tih(i) �ه� ت

tihee �ه�ي� ت

All of those feminine singular demonstratives are also "built" words; except for

cت� .which is a really obsolete demonstrative anyway ذ�ا

It is common to add a haa- هـ prefix to demonstratives. This prefix will

change nothing in the meaning. Note that the haa- lacks an extended 'alif

in writing هـ when attached to most demonstratives.

This haa'< is called the " haa'< of attention " �ه� �ي �ب ¦ن الت cء� .ها

Demonstratives Attached to Attention haa<'

�ء� �ها ب ¦ص�لة مcت �رة� �شا اإل cء� ما �ه� أس� �ي �ب ¦ن الت

This (masc. sing.) haathaa �ه ذا

This (fem. sing.) haathee ذ�ي�ه

These (masc. dual)haathaan(i)

(subject)�نه �ذا

haathayn(i)

(object)�ن�ه ذي

These (fem. dual)

haataan(i)

(subject)� �ن�ها تا

haatayn(i)

(object)�ن�ها �تي

These (plu.) haa'ulaa'(i) �ؤcالءه

ولى�cأ cannot take haa- prefix, and this prefix takes a different figure اه when attached to the feminine dual demonstratives.

Four of the feminine singular demonstratives can be prefixed with attention haa'< :

haathee ذ�ي�ه

haathih ذ�ه�ه

haathih(i) ذ�ه�ه

haathihee ذ�ه�ي�ه

Now to the bottom line, the near demonstratives that are really used in modern standard Arabic are the following:

Commonly Used Near Demonstratives

This (masc. sing.) haathaa � هذا

This (fem. sing.) haathih(i) هذ�ه�

These (masc. dual)

haathaan(i)

(subject)�ن �هذا

haathayn(i)

(object) �ن� هذي

These (fem. dual)

haataan(i)

(subject) �ن� �تا ها

haatayn(i)

(object) �ن� �تي ها

These (plu.) haa'ulaa'(i) �هؤcالء

Examples:

�ل� هذا جم�ي يو�م� �haathaa yawm(un) jameel(un)

= this (is) a day a beautiful

Translation: this is a nice day

§دة� هذ�ه� جي �حة� نص�يhaathih(i) naseeha(tun) jayyida(tun)

= this (is) an advice a good

Translation: this is a good advice

صاد�قc هؤcالء� �نوقو�م�haa'ullaa'(i) qawm(un) saadiqoon(a)

= these (are) people honest

Translation: these are honest people

Since that demonstratives are definite nouns, when the predicate is also definite there can be a problem of ambiguity. This problem is similar to what has been described already in the section on separation pronouns.

� §مc هذا �مcعل الhaathaa ('a)l-mu"allim(u)

This phrase can mean either one of two things:

this teacherthis (is) the teacher

So to make a distinction, a separation pronoun is used:

� §مc هcو هذا �مcعل الhaathaa huw(a) ('a)l-mu"allim(u)

= this he (is) the teacher

Translation: this is the teacher

So, basically, according to the noun after the demonstrative we have the following three situations:

This is a teacher

� §م� هذا مcعل

haathaa mu"allim(un)

This teacher

� §مc هذا �مcعل ال

haathaa ('a)l-mu"allim(u)

This is the teacher

� §مc هcو هذا �مcعل الhaathaa huw(a) ('a)l-

mu"allim(u)

�ن� �تا � ها �ن� هcما �ذتا �م�ي §ل التhaataan(i) humaa ('a)t-

tilmeethataan(i)

= these they (are) the two students (fem.)

Translation: these are the two students

humaa was necessary here to distinguish the sentence "these are the two students" from "these two students."

� �ق�ي� هcو هذا صد�يhaathaa huw(a) sadeeq-ee

= this he (is) (the) friend (of) me

Translation: this is my friend

huw(a) here was not necessary like in the previous examples. The phrase without the pronoun could not mean anything other than "this is my friend."

� �ق�ي� هذا صد�يhaathaa sadeeq-ee

= this (is) (the) friend (of) me

Translation: this is my friendSo because there was no ambiguity here, the usage of a separation pronoun was optional.

¦ةcهذ�ه� مكhaathih(i) makka(tu)

= this (is) Mecca

Translation: this is Mecca

¦ةc ه�يهذ�ه� مكhaathih(i) hiy(a) makka(tu)

= this she (is) Mecca

Translation: this is Mecca

hiy(a) here was optional (emphatic).

ه�يهذ�ه� haathih(i) hiy(a)

= this (is) she

Translation: this is her / here she is

hiy(a) here was a predicate but not a separation pronoun.

Thus, a rule can be stated:

A separation pronoun must be used after demonstratives only if the predicate

is a noun attached to the definite article 'al- ال . Otherwise it is optional (emphatic).

Demonstratives (continued)

2. Middle DemonstrativesMiddle demonstratives are used to refer to things that are neither near nor far

but in between. They are obtained by adding a -k(a) ك suffix to the basic forms of demonstratives.

This letter kaaf is called the "vocative kaaf" ب�� خ�طا ال cف� . كا

Demonstratives Attached to Vocative kaaf

)Masc. Sing(.�ب� �خ�طا ال �ف� �كا ب ¦ص�لة مcت �رة� �شا اإل cء� ما �مcف�رد�( أس� �ل ل

¦ر�) �مcذك ال

That (masc. sing.) thaak(a) � كذا

That (fem. sing.) theek(a) � كذ�ي

Those (masc. dual)

thaanik(a)

(subject)� �ن كذا

thaynik(a)

(object)� �ن كذي

Those (fem. dual)

taanik(a)

(subject)� �ن كتا

taynik(a)

(object)� �ن كتي

Those (plu.)

'ulaa'ik(a) �cأ كوالئ

'ulaak(a) كوالcأ

Only two of all the feminine singular demonstratives can take vocative kaaf.

theek(a) � كذ�يteek(a) � �ي كت

Now here is the ugliest part, since this suffix is a "vocative kaaf," it will change in form according to which person is being addressed with the sentence. These changes are very much a classical aspect of Arabic rather than a modern one.


)Addressing Fem. Sing(.�مcف�ردة� ( �ل ل �ب� �خ�طا ال �ف� �كا ب ¦ص�لة مcت �رة� �شا اإل cء� ما أس�

¦ثة�) �مcؤن ال

That (masc. sing.) thaak(i) � �كذا

That (fem. sing.) theek(i) � ك�ذ�ي

Those (masc. dual)thaanik(i)

(subject)� �ن ك�ذا

thaynik(i)

(object)� �ن ك�ذي

Those (fem. dual)

taanik(i)

(subject)� �ن ك�تا

taynik(i)

(object)� �ن ك�تي

Those (plu.)

'ulaa'ik(i) �cأ ك�والئ

'ulaak(i) ك�والcأ


)Addressing Dual(( ¦ى� ( �مcثن �ل ل �ب� �خ�طا ال �ف� �كا ب ¦ص�لة مcت �رة� �شا اإل cء� ما أس�

That (masc. sing.) thaakumaa � �ذا cما ك

That (fem. sing.) theekumaa � �ذ�ي cما ك

Those (masc. dual)

thaanikumaa

(subject)� �ن �ذا cما ك

thaynikumaa

(object)� �ن �ذي cما ك

Those (fem. dual)

taanikumaa

(subject)� �ن �تا cما ك

taynikumaa

(object)� �ن �تي cما ك

Those (plu.)

'ulaa'ikumaa �cأ �والئ cما ك

'ulaakumaa �والcأ cما ك


)Addressing Masc. Plu(.�جم�ع� ( ل �ب� �خ�طا ال �ف� �كا ب ¦ص�لة مcت �رة� �شا اإل cء� ما أس�

¦ر�) �مcذك ال

That (masc. sing.) thaakum � cم�ذا ك

That (fem. sing.) theekum � cم�ذ�ي ك

Those (masc. dual)

thaanikum

(subject)� �ن cم�ذا ك

thaynikum

(object)� �ن cم�ذي ك

Those (fem. dual)

taanikum

(subject)� �ن cم�تا ك

taynikum

(object)� �ن cم�تي ك

Those (plu.)

'ulaa'ikum �cأ cم�والئ ك

'ulaakum cم�والcأ ك


)Addressing Fem. Plu(.�جم�ع� ( ل �ب� �خ�طا ال �ف� �كا ب ¦ص�لة مcت �رة� �شا اإل cء� ما أس�

( ¦ث� �مcؤن ال

That (masc. sing.) thaakunn(a) � cن¦ذا ك

That (fem. sing.) theekunn(a) � cن¦ذ�ي ك

Those (masc. dual)thaanikunn(a)

(subject)� �ن cن¦ذا ك

thaynikunn(a)

(object)� �ن cن¦ذي ك

Those (fem. dual)

taanikunn(a)

(subject)� �ن cن¦تا ك

taynikunn(a)

(object)� �ن cن¦تي ك

Those (plu.)

'ulaa'ikunn(a) �cأ cن¦والئ ك

'ulaakunn(a) cن¦والcأ ك

It is possible to add the attention haa'< ( haa- هـ ) to middle demonstratives, so that the basic demonstratives will have two letters attached in the following manner:

That (masc. sing.) haathaak(a) �ه كذا

That (fem. sing.) haateek(a) � �تها ك�ي

Those (masc. dual)

haathaanik(a)

(subject)�ه �ذا كن

haathayn(i)

(object)�ه �ن كذي

Those (fem. dual)

haataanik(a)

(subject)� �ها �ن كتا

haataynik(a)

(object)�ها �ن ك�تي

Those (plu.) haa'ulaa'ik(a) �ه كؤcالئ

The "vocative kaaf" in those demonstratives will also be changeable according to which person is being addressed. The changing of the kaaf will be identical to that which was shown above.


3. Far Demonstratives

Far demonstratives contain a letter laam ل that is called "laam of distance"

cع�د� �ب ال cالم.

For demonstratives to contain this laam, they must also contain the

previously described "vocative kaaf" �ب� �خ�طا ال cف� of middle كاdemonstratives.

The laam of distance can be attached only to three of the basic demonstratives, thus there are only three far demonstratives in Arabic.

Far Demonstratives

cع�د� �ب ال � والم �ب� �خ�طا ال �ف� كا مع �رة� �شا اإل cء� ما أس�

That (masc. sing.) thaalik(a) ك�لذ

That (fem. sing.) tilk(a) � ك�لت

Those (plu.) 'ulaalik(a) cوال �أ كل

The "vocative kaaf" in these demonstratives will be changeable according to which person is being addressed, like we explained before.

Masc. Sing. Far Demonstrative

"That"

Addressing masc. sing. thaalik(a) � كذل

Addressing fem. sing. thaalik(i) � �كذل

Addressing dual thaalikumaa � �ذل cما ك

Addressing masc. plu. thaalikum � cم�ذل ك

Addressing fem. plu. thaalikunn(a) cن¦ذل �ك

Fem. Sing. Far Demonstrative

"That"

Addressing masc. sing. tilk(a) � �ل كت

Addressing fem. sing. tilk(i) � �ل �كت

Addressing dual tilkumaa � �ل �ت cما ك

Addressing masc. plu. tilkum � �ل cم�ت ك

Addressing fem. plu. tilkunn(a) � �ل cن¦ت ك

Plu. Far Demonstrative

"Those"

Addressing masc. sing. 'ulaalik(a) � cوالل كأ

Addressing fem. sing. 'ulaalik(i) � cوالل �كأ

Addressing dual 'ulaalikumaa � cوالل �أ cما ك

Addressing masc. plu. 'ulaalikum � cوالل cم�أ ك

Addressing fem. plu. 'ulaalikunn(a) � cوالل cن¦أ ك

The far demonstrative ك� cوالل .is not usually used in Modern Standard Arabic أWhen translating the English plural far demonstrative "those" to Arabic, it is

usual to use the middle demonstrative أcك� والئ . This is, of course, only when the plural demonstrative (whether near or far) refers to persons but not to objects. Objects will be referred to by feminine singular demonstratives. This was mentioned in the section on plural types.

So the final forms for far demonstratives will be:

That (masc. sing.) thaalik(a) �ك ذل

That (fem. sing.) tilk(a) �ك �ل ت

Those 'ulaa'ik(a) �ك cولئ أ

Example:

�ك مcحم¦د� ذلthaalik(a) muhammad(un)

= That (is) Muhammad

Translation: that is Muhammad

�ك �ل �قةc ه�ي ت �حق�ي الtilk(a) hiy(a) ('a)l-haqeeqa(tu)

= that she (is) the truth (fem.)

Translation: that is the truth

hiy(a) was necessary here to distinguish the phrase from "that truth."

�ك cولئ �ي� هcم� أ �ئ أص�د�قا'ulaa'ik(a) hum 'asdiqaa'-ee

= these/those they (are) (the) friends (of) me

Translation: these/those are my friends

hum was not necessary here.

�ك cولئ �ي� أ �ئ أص�د�قا'ulaa'ik(a) 'asdiqaa'-ee

= these/those (are) (the) friends (of) me

Translation: these/those are my friends

�ك �ل �لة� ت جم�ي �قى� ي �مcو�س� الtilk(a) ('a)l-mooseeqaa jameela(tun)

= that the music (is) nice

Translation: that music is nice

�ك �ل �لةc ه�ي ت �جم�ي ال �قى� ي �مcو�س� الtilk(a) hiy(a) ('a)l-mooseeqaa ('a)l-

jameela(tu)

= that she (is) the music the nice

Translation: that is the nice music

Some combinations involving demonstratives:

Therefore

This is why

li-haathaa

= for this� �ل هذا

li-thaalik(a)

= for that�كل �ذل

Nevertheless

Even with that

ma"(a) haathaa

= with this � مع هذاma"(a)

thaalik(a)

= with that�ك مع ذل

و �درس �هذا نجح لdaras(a) wa-li-haathaa najah(a)

= (he) studied and for this (he) succeeded

Translation: he studied, therefore he passed

و درس � نجح معما �ك ذل !maa daras(a) wa-ma"(a) thaalik(a)

najah(a)

= not (he) studied and with that (he) succeeded

Translation: he didn't study but still he passed!

Other combinations:

ka-haathaa

= like this �ك هذا

ka-thaalik(a)

= like that �كك ذل

bi-haathaa

= by this � �ب هذاbi-thaalik(a)

= by that � �كب ذل


Place Demonstratives

Place demonstratives also belong to the "nouns of pointing" شارة�� اإل cأس�ماء. Therefore, they are also three types (near, middle, and far).

1. Near Place DemonstrativesThe near place demonstrative that is used in Modern Standard Arabic is:

Here

� هcنا

hunaa

Other classical, near demonstratives are the following:

Here

hannaa � ¦ا هنhinnaa � ¦ا ه�نhannat ¦ت� هنhanee �ي� هن

With the addition of haa'< of attention �ه� �ي �ب ¦ن الت cء� :ها

Here

haahunaa �ه هcناhaahannaa �ه ¦ا هنhaahinnaa �ه ¦ا ه�نhaahanee �ي�ه هن

2. Middle Place Demonstratives

Those are obtained by adding the "vocative kaaf" �ب� �خ�طا ال cف� They . كاrefer to things that are neither near nor far but in between.

There�كهcنا

hunaak(a)

Classical ones:

Therehannaak(a) � ¦ا كهن

With haa'< of attention �ه� �ي �ب ¦ن الت cء� :ها

There

Haahunaak(a) �ه كهcناhaahinnaak(a) �ه ¦ا كهنhaahannaak(a) �ه ¦ا كه�ن

3. Far Place DemonstrativesThose are all used in modern Arabic.

There

thamm(a) ثم¦thammat(a) ثم¦ةhunaalik(a) � ك�لهcنا

The last one contains the laam of distance cع�د� �ب ال cالم.

Examples:

cنح�ن � هcناnahn(u) hunaa

= we (are) here

Translation: we are here

�ك آخرc هcنا أم�ر�hunaak(a) 'amr(un) 'aakhar(u)

= there (is) a thing other

Translation: there is another thing

�صة� ثم¦ة عو�ي ك�لة� مcش�thammat(a) mushkila(tun)

"aweesa(tun)

= there (is) a problem a difficult

Translation: there is a difficult problem

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns in English include who, whom, whose, which, what and that. A relative pronoun links two clauses into a single complex clause. To this extent, it is similar in function to a subordinating conjunction, but unlike a conjunction, however, a relative pronoun stands in place of a noun.

Example:

This is the book which he bought.

A relative pronoun is called in Arabic a "noun of the connected" cم �س� ا�مو�صcو�ل� Being nouns, relative pronouns have the characteristics of . الnouns, namely gender, number, and grammatical case. Relative pronouns are always definite words. Relative pronouns in English have some characteristics that are not present in Arabic as we are about to see. In English, "that" is used for both humans and nonhumans. There is a similar word in Arabic, but it will have to change to modify different numbers and genders as follows:

General Relative Pronouns

Who / Who / Which / ThatSINGULAR

Masculine 'al-lathee ¦ذ�ي� ال

Feminine 'al-latee �ي� ¦ت ال

DUAL

Masculine(subject) 'al-lathaan(i) ¦ذ �ن�االل

Masculine(object) 'al-lathayn(i) ¦ذ �ن�يالل

Feminine(subject) 'al-lataan(i) ¦ت �ن�االل

Feminine(object) 'al-latayn(i) ¦ت �ن�يالل

PLURAL

Masculine

'al-latheen(a) �ن ¦ذ�ي ال

'al-'ulaa

(Archaic word) cلى� األ

Feminine

'al-laatee �ي� ¦ت الال

'al-laa'ee �ي� ¦ئ الال

'al-lawaatee �ي� �ت ¦وا الل These are the major relative pronouns in Arabic. The only case-inflected ones are the dual relative pronouns, the rest are "built words." Each one of those words can be translated as that, who, whom, or which. Apart from "that," English uses specific relative pronouns for humans and for nonhumans. "who" is used for humans.

I know who did that. The Arabic equivalent would be:

Who / Whom man من� This word is specific for humans, and it has only this single form for all cases, numbers, and genders. The relative pronoun "which" is specifically used for nonhumans in English. In Arabic, there is no such word and this word will be translated to the general relative pronouns mentioned first. The relative pronoun "what" has also an equivalent in Arabic:

Example:

I know what you did.

What maa � ما

Relative Pronouns (continued)

Usage Of Relative Pronouns

1. General Relative Pronouns Those are the relative pronouns most commonly used. They can be translated as who, whom, which, or that. They are used somewhat similarly to English but the point here is that they change in form to suit the antecedent.

cب� �تا �ك ال � ¦ذ�ي�هذا �تc ال تري �ش� اhaathaa ('a)l-kitaab(u) ('a)l-lathee

'ishtarayt(u)

= this (is) the book which/that (I) bought

Translation: this is the book which I bought It is very common to add an attached object pronoun after the verb in such sentences:

cب� �تا �ك ال � ¦ذ�ي�هذا c ال �ت تري �ش� cهاhaathaa ('a)l-kitaab(u) ('a)l-lathee

'ishtaraytu-h(u)

= this (is) the book that/which (I) bought him

Translation: this is the book which I bought It is also common to add a pleonastic separation subject pronoun in such sentences:

� �بc هcوهذا �تا �ك ¦ذ�ي�ال cهc ال �ت تري �ش� اhaathaa huw(a) ('a)l-kitaab(u) ('a)l-

lathee 'ishtaraytu-h(u)

= this he (is) the book that/which (I) bought him

Translation: this is the book which I bought Other examples:

اهذ �ب �تا �ك ال � هcما �ن��ن� ا�ن� ¦ذا �ل ال � cهcما �ت تري �ش� ا

haathaan(i) humaa ('a)l-kitaabaan(i) ('a)l-lathaan(i) 'ishtaraytu-humaa

= those they (are) the two books that/which (I) bought them

Translation: those are the two books which I bought

�ر �نا �د§ي ال �خcذ� �ن�ن� ي ¦ذ�ي �ل ج� ال �د¶ر� ال ف�ي�khuth(i) ('a)d-deenaarayn(i) ('a)l-

lathayn(i) fee ('a)d-durj(i)

= (you) take the two dinars that/which (are) in the drawer

Translation: take the two dinars (currency unit) that are in the drawer

cس� ¦ا الن cمcه �نهؤcالء� ¦ذ�ي �ي� ال �عدcو�ن ساhaa'ulaa'(i) hum(u) ('a)n-naas(u) ('a)l-

latheen(a) saa"adoo-nee

= those they (are) the people that/who helped me

Translation: those are the people who helped me

Note that when using the general relative pronouns it is often possible to omit the word to which the relative pronoun refers (the antecedent). Examples:

هcو � ¦ذ�ي�هذا cهc ال �ت تري �ش� اhaathaa huw(a) ('a)l-lathee

'ishtaraytu-h(u)

= this he (is) that/which (I) bought him

Translation: this is what I bought

cمcه �نهؤcالء� ¦ذ�ي �ي� ال �عدcو�ن ساhaa'ulaa'(i) hum(u) ('a)l-latheen(a)

saa"adoo-nee

= those they (are) that/who helped me

Translation: those are (the people) who helped me

2. The Relative Pronoun "Who" "Who" in English changes in form as the following:

Subject Tom is the one who can do it

Object Dan is the man whom I saw

Adpositional Complement

Jenny is the woman with whom he is happy

Possessive Jack is the boy whose book is this

Surprisingly, the Arabic equivalent does not change at all. It is a "built" word and it assumes a sole form for all cases, numbers, and genders.

Who / Whom man من� However, the usage of this word differs from English. Example in English:

Tom is the one who can do it In Arabic, this sentence will become:

Tom is who can do it

This is the major point here, in Arabic the antecedent must go away when using the relative pronoun "who." Usually, a separation subject pronoun will be added so the final structure will be:

Tom he is who can do it Examples:

►Subject Case

� من� هcوتوم� يف�علها أن� cع� �ي تط يس� tōm(un) huw(a) man yastatee"(u) 'an

yaf"ala-haa

= Tom he (is) who (he) can that (he) do her

Translation: Tom is the one who can do it

�ي¶ �غن �كc من�ال يم�ل � �ما ب cيق�نع 'al-raniyy(u) man yaqna"(u) bi-maa

yamlik(u)

= the rich (is) who is sufficed with what (he) has

Translation: he who is sufficed with what he has is a rich person

�ي¶ �غن �كc من� هcوال يم�ل � �ما ب cيق�نع 'al-raniyy(u) huw(a) man yaqna"(u) bi-

maa yamlik(u)

= the rich he (is) who is sufficed with what (he) has

Translation: he who is sufficed with what he has is a rich person

►Object Case

�ن� �تc من� هcودا رأي daan(un) huw(a) man ra'ayt(u)

= Dan he (is) whom (I) saw

Translation: Dan is the man whom I saw

And more commonly:

�ن� cهc من� هcودا �ت رأي daan(un) huw(a) man ra'aytu-h(u)

= Dan he (is) whom (I) saw him

Translation: Dan is the man whom I saw

► With PrepositionsThe usage of relative pronouns as adpositional complements is NOT present in Arabic. Example, the English sentence:

Jenny is the woman with whom he is happyIn order to translate this sentence to Arabic, it must be rephrased first. Either one of the two types of relative pronouns can be used:

1. The General Relative Pronoun (≡That) The structure in Arabic will be:

"Jenny is the woman that he is happy with her"

2. The Specific Relative Pronoun (Whom) The structure in Arabic will be:

"Jenny she is whom he is happy with her"

It is NOT possible to delete the object pronoun after the preposition.

Examples:

�ي� أةc ه�يجين �مر� �ي�ال ¦ت c ال عد يس� � معها

jenee hiy(a) ('a)l-mar'a(tu) ('a)l-latee yas"ad(u) ma"a-haa

= Jenny she (is) the woman that (he) is happy with her

Translation: Jenny is the woman that he's happy with

�ي� � من� ه�يجين معها cعد يس� jenee hiy(a) man yas"ad(u) ma"a-haa

= Jenny she (is) whom (he) is happy with her

Translation: Jenny is the woman whom he's happy with

Again, it was NOT possible to delete the final object pronoun in those two sentences.

► The Possessive Another usage of relative pronouns in English is in the possessive form "whose." This type of relative pronouns is NOT present at all in Arabic. An English example:

Jack is the boy whose book is thisIn order to translate this sentence to Arabic it must be rephrased in either way of the following two:

1. With The General Relative Pronoun (≡That) The structure in Arabic will be:

"Jack is the boy that his book is this"

OR

"Jack is the boy that this is his book"

2. With The Specific Relative Pronoun (Whom) The structure in Arabic will be:

"Jack is who his book is this"

OR

"Jack is who this is his book"

3. Without Any Relative Pronoun (the best way)

"Jack is the owner of this book"

Examples:

�ك� �ي¶ هcوجا �ص¦ب ¦ذ�ي�ال � ال cهc هذا �ب �تا ك jaak(un) huw(a) 'as-sabiyy(u) 'al-

lathee haathaa kitaabu-h(u)

= Jack he (is) the boy that this (is) (the) book (of) him

Translation: Jack is the boy whose book is this

�ك� cهc من� هcوجا �ب �تا � ك هذا

jaak(un) huw(a) man kitaabu-h(u) haathaa

= Jack he (is) who (the) book (of) him (is) this

Translation: Jack is the boy whose book is this

�ك� � هcوجا هذا cح�ب� �ب� صا �تا �ك الjaak(un) huw(a) saahib(u) haathaa

('a)l-kitaab(i)

= Jack he (is) (the) (of) this book

Translation: Jack is the owner of this book

Relative Pronouns (continued)

3. The Relative Pronoun "What"

What maa � ما

Unlike "who," the relative pronoun "what" in English is similar to the Arabic one in that the antecedent is omitted in English too. Therefore, it should be easy here.

Example:

cأع�ر�ف� �ت ما فعل'a"rif(u) maa fa"alt(a)

= (I) know what (you) did

Translation: I know what you did

N.B. the word maathaa � �ذا is related to maa and it works exactly ماlike it, including as a relative pronoun. More information is here. A final point about relative pronouns is the idea of restrictiveness. An English non-restrictive relative clause is preceded by a pause in speech or a comma in writing, whereas a restrictive clause normally is not. Compare the following sentences, which have two quite different meanings in English:

(1) The builder, who erects very fine houses, will make a large profit.

(2) The builder who erects very fine houses will make a large profit.

In Arabic, there are NO restrictive relative clauses. The only possible form of relative clauses is the second one. A summary of relative pronouns in Arabic:

English R.P UsageArabic

Equivalent

That Humans & Nonhumans

¦ذ�ي� ال

(Changeable Form / Antecedent May be Omitted)

Which Nonhumans Not Present

WhoHumans من�

(No Antecedent)Whom

To Whom Humans Not Present

Whose Humans & Nonhumans

Not Present

What(No Antecedent)

Nonhumans� ما

(No Antecedent)

Arabic Sentences

Every complete sentence in English must have at least a subject and a verb. This is also generally true in Arabic. However, the organization of these elements in a sentence can be a bit different in Arabic.

In English sentences, the subject usually precedes the verb. In Arabic, there are two types of sentences in regard to subject and verb ordering:

Nominal Sentences: sentences in which the subject precedes the verb.

Verbal Sentences: sentences in which the verb precedes the subject.

Usage of Each Type of SentencesUnlike in English, where the change in the intonation of the speaker is probably the only way to emphasize or stress different elements of the sentence, emphasis of different elements can be achieved in Arabic by alternating between the two types of sentences.

Nominal sentences are used when the SUBJECT is the most important element in the sentence and which the speaker seeks to emphasize.

Verbal sentences are in fact the normal tone, they are used when the speaker is not stressing anything in particular, or also when the speaker seeks to stress the verb or the ACTION.

Nominal Sentences

A nominal sentence in Arabic cة¦ م�ي �س� اال cم�لةcج� is a sentence that starts withالthe subject (a noun) and the verb follows. The subject can be a noun, a pronoun, a demonstrative, or a relative clause.

The defining property of a nominal sentence is that the subject precedes the verb. Thus there are more than one possibility for nominal sentences in the presence of an object, an adverb, a prepositional phrase, etc. The first one is the standard usual one:

Standard Structure of Nominal Sentences

Subject Verb Others

THE BOY reads his book Object

THE BOY reads fast Adverb

THE BOY reads in the libraryPrepositional Phrase

THE BOY is smart Adjective

The capitalization is a reference to the fact that the subject is the stressed element in nominal sentences.

The other possible structures for nominal sentences are more rare:

Alternative Structure For Nominal Sentences

Others Subject Verb

in the library THE BOY reads


Others Subject Verb Others

in the library THE BOY reads his book


Subject Other Verb

THE BOY in the library reads

So the important point is that the subject always precedes the verb in nominal sentences.

Examples on nominal sentences:

Subject - Verb - Object

c �ولد cال �بهc يق�رأ �تا ك'al-walad(u) yaqra'(u) kitaaba-h(u)

= the boy reads (the) book (of) him

Translation: THE BOY reads his book

Subject - Verb - Prepositional Phrase

cت� �بنا �نال �عب �قة يل �حد�ي ال �ف�ي�'al-banaat(u) yal"abn(a) fee ('a)l-

hadeeqa(ti)

= the girls play in the yard/park

Translation: THE GIRLS are playing in the yard/park

Be-Sentences

We talked in a separate section about the fact that nominal, present tense, "be" sentences do not have verbs in Arabic (the verb "be" is omitted in the present tense). This is the only case in Arabic in which there is no verb in the sentence. In these verb-less sentences, the stress usually falls on the predicate not the subject (the part after the "be"); unless the intonation says otherwise.

Subject - Predicate

� حسن� هcناhasan(un) hunaa

= Hassan (is) here

Translation: Hassan is here

Subject - Predicate

� عص�ي�ب هذا �يو�م�haathaa yawm(un) "aseeb(un)

= this (is) a day a hard

Translation: this is a hard day

Subject - Predicate

ه�ي �لى� مح�مcو�د لي c²زو�جةlaylaa hiy(a) zawja(tu) mahmood(in)

= Layla she (is) (the) wife (of) Mahmud

Translation: Layla is Mahmud's wife

Subject - Predicate

هcو �ق�ي� �جر صد�ي �مت ال cك� �ل �ماsadeeq-ee huw(a) maalik(u) ('a)l-

matjar(i)

= (the) friend (of) me he (is) (the) owner (of) the shop

Translation: my friend owns the shop

Subject - Predicate

ه�ي cه�رة� �قا م�ص�ر ال cص�مة� عا'al-qaahira(tu) hiy(a) "aasima(tu)

misr(a)

= Cairo she (is) (the) capital (of) Egypt

Translation: Cairo is the capital of Egypt

*Note: م�ص�ر is a "forbidden to Noonation" word and it takes an irregular sign for the genitive case.

Sentences that begin with an indefinite word, such as "a man is here" are NOT usually used in Arabic. The demonstrative "there" will be usually used for such sentences.

�ب� �با �ال ب رجcل� �ك هcناhunaak(a) rajul(un) bi-l-baab(i)

= there (is) a man by the door

Translation: there is a man at the door

� ما أحد� ثم¦ةthammat(a) 'ahad(un) maa

= there (is) one-some

Translation: someone is there

Note that such sentences that begin with "there is" will NOT become "there was" when rendered in the past tense; nor will they become "there will be" when in the future tense. To change the tense of these sentences from the present to the past of the future, a verbal sentence is usually used (i.e. "was there a man at the door" or "will be there a man at the door," we will cover this when we talk about verbal sentences soon).

Be-sentences in the past tense will have the perfective verb kaan(a) كان = was or one of its conjugations.

Subject - Verb - Adverb

cء� ما �نت�ال�س¦ �ف�ية كا صا'as-samaa'(u) kaanat saafiya(tan)

= the sky was/existed clearly

Translation: the sky was clear*The verb "be" in Arabic requires an adverb after it rather than an adjective as in English. This is only true when the verb appears but not when it is not apparent (i.e. in the present tense). Such verbs are called in Arabic the

incomplete verbs cق�صة� ¦ا الن cاألف�عال .


�ن� �ن حcسي �ك كا هcناhusayn(un) kaan(a) hunaak(a)

= Hussein was there

Translation: Hussein was there


� �ن هذا �با يو�ما كا عص�يhaathaa kaan(a) yawma(n) "aseeba(n)

= this was a day a hard

Translation: this was a hard day

*The literal sense: "this existed as a hard day."

In the future tense, "be" verbs will be sa-yakoon(u) cو�نc ,will be = سيك

or sawf(a) yakoon(u) cو�نc يك .will be = سو�ف


cء� ما cو�نcال�س¦ �ف�ية ستك صا'as-samaa'(u) sa-takoon(u)

saafiya(tan)

= the sky will be/exist clearly

Translation: the sky will be clear

Arabic Sentences (continued)

Nominal Sentences

Pronoun Subjects

Sentences which start with subject pronouns are nominal sentences. When there is a verb after the subject pronoun, the pronoun can be kept or omitted. Third person subject pronouns will always have an emphatic function if they were kept before the verb, the other pronouns (1st & 2nd person) can and cannot have an emphatic function depending on the intonation.

Subject - Verb

� أع�ر�فcأنا'anaa 'a"rif(u)

= I know

Translation: I knowIn this sentence, the pronoun (a 1st person pronoun) is not emphatic unless the intonation stressed it.

Verb - Hiding Subject

cأع�ر�ف'a"rif(u)

= know (I)

Translation: I know

The second sentence is a verbal sentence because the subject (a hiding pronoun after the verb) does not precede the verb.

Subject - Predicate

� �ه�ز� أنا جا'anaa jaahiz(un)

= I (am) ready

Translation: I am ready


� �تcأنا cن �ه�زا ك جا'anaa kunt(u) jaahiza(n)

= I was ready

Translation: I was ready

Verb - Attached Subject - Adverb

cن �ه�زا �تcك جاkunt(u) jaahiza(n)

= was (I) ready



� cو�نc أنا �ه�زا سأك جا 'anaa sa-'akoon(u) jaahiza(n)

= I will be ready

Translation: I will be ready

Verb - Hiding Pronoun - Adverb

cو�نc �ه�زا سأك جا

sa-'akoon(u) jaahiza(n)

= will be (I) ready



�ت ¦ة تتحد¦ثcأن �ي �عرب 0! ال'ant(a) tatahaddath(u)

('a)l-"arabiyya(ta)

= you speak the Arabic

Translation: you speak Arabic!


cم� �ت cصد§قcو� أن ت �ينال �ن'antum laa tusaddiqoona-nee

= you not believe me

Translation: you don't believe me


� فعلهcو هذاhuwa fa"al(a) haathaa

= he did this

Translation: HE did this*Third person pronoun: always emphatic.


� �هcما �لتا � قا هذاhumaa qaalataa haathaa

= they (dual fem.) said this

Translation: THEY said this

Subject - Predicate

�كهcم� هcناhum hunaak(a)

= they (plu. masc.) (are) there

Translation: they are THEREHere, even though the pronoun is a 3rd person pronoun the stress came on the predicate because this is a be-sentence without a verb, so the stress falls on the predicate. We mentioned this earlier.

Nominal sentences can begin with other types of nouns.

Example, a demonstrative:

�ل� جم�ي يو�م� � هذاhaathaa yawm(un) jameel(un)

= this (is) a day a beautiful

Translation: this is a nice day

A relative pronoun:

حصد من� زرعman zara"(a) hasad(a)

= who planted harvested

Translation: he who plants harvests

or: he who planted harvested*Note that perfective verbs in Arabic can be used as subjunctive verbs, which is somewhat similar to English.

Others:

�ي� تج�دcن �ت أتي � ما متى�mataa-maa 'atayt(a) tajidu-nee

= whenever (you) came (you) will find me

Translation: whenever you come you will find me

A summary for nominal sentences:

The Subject The Verb The Stress

A noun

Any verb except "be" in present

tense

On the subject

A demonstrative

A pronoun

1st & 2nd person: changeable

3rd person: on the subject

A noun"Be" in present

tense

(not apparent)

On the predicateA demonstrative

A pronoun


Verbal Sentences A verbal sentence cة¦ �ي �ف�ع�ل ال cم�لةcج� is a sentence that starts with the verbالand the subject follows. The subject can be a noun, a pronoun, a demonstrative, or a relative clause.

The defining property of a verbal sentence is that the verb precedes the subject. There are more than one possibility for verbal sentences in the presence of an object, an adverb, a prepositional phrase, etc.

The standard usual structure is:

Standard Structure of Verbal Sentences

Verb Subject Others

Read the boy his book Object

Read the boy fast Adverb

Read the boy in the libraryPrepositional Phrase

The other possible structures for verbal sentences are more rare:


Others Verb Subject

in the library read the boy

Alternative Structure For Nominal

Sentences

Others Verb Subject Others

in the library read the boy his book


Verb Others Subject

Read in the library the boy

The main point is that the verb always precedes the subject in verbal sentences.

Subjects of Verbal SentencesSubjects in verbal sentences may not be always showing up. There can be apparent, attached, and hiding subjects in verbal sentences.

I. Apparent Singular Subjects

Verb - Subject - Object

c c يق�رأ �ولد �بهcال �تا كyaqra'(u) ('a)l-walad(u) kitaaba-h(u)

= read the boy (the) book (of) him

Translation: the boy reads his book

Compare this sentence with its nominal alternative, in which the subject is the stressed element:


c �ولد cال �بهc يق�رأ �تا ك'al-walad(u) yaqra'(u) kitaaba-h(u)



More examples on verbal sentences:

Verb - Subject - Adverb

�نت� �ءc كا ما �ف�يةال�س¦ صاkaanat(i) ('a)s-samaa'(u) saafiya(tan)

= was/existed the sky clearly

Translation: the sky was clear*The verb be in Arabic requires an adverb after it rather than an adjective like in English. This is only true when the verb appears but not when it is not apparent (i.e. in the present tense). Such verbs are called in Arabic the

incomplete verbs cق�صة� ¦ا الن cاألف�عال .


�ن � كا �با يو�ما هذا عص�يkaan(a) haathaa yawma(n) "aseeba(n)

= was this a day a hard

Translation: this was a hard day


cو�نc � مcحم¦د� سيك غداهcناsa-yakoon(u) muhammad(un) hunaa

rada(n)

= will be Muhammad here tomorrow

Translation: Muhammad will be here tomorrow

Verb - Attached Object - Subject

�ي�¶يسcر � ن هcنا ¦ك أنyasurru-nee 'anna-k(a) hunaa

= please me that you (are) here

Translation: I am glad that you are here

We mentioned that sentences which begin with an indefinite word, such as "a man is here" are not usually used in Arabic and that the demonstrative "there" would be usually used for such sentences.

Example, a nominal sentence:

�ب� �با �ال ب رجcل� �ك هcناhunaak(a) rajul(un) bi-l-baab(i)

= there (is) a man by the door

Translation: there is a man at the door

If we wanted to change this sentence to the past tense, we can NOT say "there was a man at the door." To change the tense of sentences which begin in demonstratives in this manner from the present to the past, a verbal sentence is usually used.

Example:

�ب� �با �ال ب رجcل� �ك هcنا �ن كاkaan(a) hunaak(a) rajul(un) bi-l-

baab(i)

= was there a man by the door

Translation: there was a man at the door

� ما أحد� ثم¦ة �ن كاkaan(a) thammat(a) 'ahad(un) maa

= was there one-some

Translation: someone was there

The same thing about these sentences is true for the future tense. To change the tense of these sentences to the future, a verbal sentence is usually used. Sentences of the type "there will be" are NOT the usual way of doing it.

Example:

م�ن cر� �ي �كث ال �ك هcنا cو�نc سيك�نيالمد�عcو§

sa-yakoon(u) hunaak(a) ('a)l-katheer(u) min(a) ('a)l-

mad"uwween(a)

= will be there many of the invited

Translation: there will be many guests

�ر�ثة� كا ثم¦ة cو�نc سيكsa-yakoon(u) thammat(a)

kaarithat(un)

= will be there a disaster

Translation: there will be a disaster


Verbal Sentences

II. Apparent Dual & Plural SubjectsNow we get to the tricky point about verbal sentences. We know that verbs in Arabic are conjugated in different forms to suit different numbers and genders of the subjects. However, in verbal sentences, if we had a verb followed by an apparent noun subject, the verb will be ALWAYS conjugated in the singular form. This will happen only with 3rd person conjugations of verbs because those are the only ones that can be followed by apparent noun subjects.

Example:

Verb - Subject - Prepositional Phrase

cيذ�هب cلcج �ر¦ عمل�ه ال �لى� �إyathhab(u) ('a)r-rajul(u) 'ilaa "amali-

h(i)

= go the man to (the) work (of) him

Translation: the man goes to his work

In this sentence, the subject (the man) is singular and the verb was conjugated in the singular form; so nothing unusual.


cيذ�هب cل� جا �ر§ �ه�م ال �ل أع�ما �لى� �إyathhab(u) ('a)r-rijaal(u) 'ilaa 'a"maali-

him

= go the men to (the) works (of) them

Translation: the men go to their worksIn this sentence, the subject (the men) is plural, but it is an apparent noun so the verb ought to be conjugated in the singular from.

Note that in the nominal counterpart the verb must be conjugated in the plural:


cل� جا �ر§ cوال �ه�م ن�يذ�هب �ل أع�ما �لى� �إ('a)r-rijaal(u) yathhaboon(a) 'ilaa

'a"maali-him

= the men go to (the) works (of) them

Translation: THE MEN go to their works


دخلت� §دت �سي المحل ن� ا �لى� §إdakhalat sayyidataan(i) 'ilaa ('a)l-

mahall(i)

= entered two ladies to the shop

Translation: two ladies entered the shopThe subject (two ladies) is dual, but since it is an apparent noun, the verb was conjugated in the singular form.

The nominal version for comparison:


§دت �سي �ن� ا المحل دخلتا �لى� §إsayyidataan(i) dakhalataa 'ilaa ('a)l-

mahall(i)

= two ladies entered to the shop

Translation: TWO LADIES entered the shop

Verb - Subject

cه�زمc �ءc سي األع�داsa-yuhzam(u) ('a)l-'a"daa'(u)

= will be defeated the enemies

Translation: the enemies will be defeatedThe verb here is in the passive voice. It is in the singular conjugation even though the subject is plural because the subject is an apparent noun. If we turn it into a nominal sentence, the conjugation will have to be changed to the plural:

Subject - Verb

cء� cه�زمcو األع�دا ن�سي 'al-'a"daa'(u) sa-yuhzamoon(a)

= the enemies will be defeated

Translation: THE ENEMIES will be defeated


cو�نc �تc ستك §ما �مcعل �ت²ال �ض�را حاsa-takoon(u) ('a)l-mu"allimaat(u)

haadiraat(in)

= will be the teachers (fem.) present

Translation: the teachers will be present


cت� §ما �مcعل cن¦ال �ت² سيك �ض�را حا('a)l-mu"allimaat(u) sa-yakunn(a)

haadiraat(in)

= the teachers will be present

Translation: THE TEACHERS will be present

Apparent noun subjects include other things than simple nouns in Arabic.

Example, demonstratives:

Verb - Subject

cهc ك cم�س� هؤcالء� سيsa-yumsiku-h(u) haa'ulaa'(i)

= will catch him these

Translation: those will catch him

Example, relative pronouns:

Verb - Subject

�ء �ع�دcو� جا cسا سي �ن ¦ذ�ي �نال ناjaa'(a) 'al-latheen(a) sa-yusaa"idoon-

naa

= came who will help us

Translation: the people who will help us came

Gender of VerbsWe now know that verbs are always singular in a verbal sentence when the subject is an apparent 3rd person noun. The gender of these singular verbs would normally be masculine if the subject was masculine and feminine if the subject was feminine.

However, feminine subjects can in fact equally take masculine or feminine verbs in many situations.

Example:

Verb - Subject

cس� �كأ ال وقع

waqa"(a) ('a)l-ka's(u)

= fell the cup (fem.)

Translation: the cup fell down

OR

cس� �كأ ال وقعت�

waqa"at(i) ('a)l-ka's(u)

= fell the cup (fem.)

Translation: the cup fell down

The subject (the cup) is a feminine word. In the first sentence the verb was masculine and in the second one the verb was feminine. Both are correct; this is possible only in verbal sentences (if the verb precedes the subject).

Another example:

Verb - Subject

cت� �بنا ال �ء�ت� جاjaa'at(i) ('a)l-banaat(u)

= came the girls

Translation: the girls came

OR

cت� �بنا ال �ء جاjaa'a ('a)l-banaat(u)

= came the girls

Translation: the girls cameAgain, both are correct.

There are two situations in which the verb must be feminine and only feminine:

1. If the subject is an apparent true feminine noun (female person) that is directly following the verb (without separating words). Broken or irregular plurals are excluded from this rule (the last example).

Example:

Verb - Subject

cد� عا cس رجعت�raja"at su"aad(u)

= returned Su'ad

Translation: Su'ad returnedIn this sentence the verb must be feminine because the subject is a true female person.

2. If the subject is pronoun referring to a feminine noun, whether it was true or figurative feminine.

Example:

Verb - Hiding Subject - Prepositional Phrase

فة� �غcر� ال م�ن خرجت�kharajat min(a) ('a)l-rurfa(ti)

= went out (she) from the room

Translation: she went out of the room

We have mentioned that any irregular plural can take a masculine verbs. The other way around is also true, irregular plurals can always take feminine verbs even if the subject was true masculine. Thus, irregular plural subjects can take masculine and feminine verbs interchangeably in verbal sentences.

Example:

Verb - Subject

cل� جا الر§ �ءت� جا قد�qad jaa'at(i) ('a)r-rijaal(u)

= have came the men

Translation: the men have cameIn this sentence, the subject was true masculine yet the verb was feminine. This is because the subject is an irregular plural word.

It is always preferred (at least in my view) that the gender of the verb matches the gender of the subject. A one good reason for that is simply to avoid any confusion or mistakes.


Verbal Sentences

III. Attached & Hiding SubjectsWe have talked so far about verbal sentences in which the subjects are apparent. However, subjects of verbs can be omitted in Arabic sentences. Since that every complete sentence must have a subject, Arabic grammar deals with this issue in the following manner:

►If the verb has a declension, then this is the subject and it is called an "attached subject pronoun."

Examples:

Attached Subject Pronouns

Did (I) fa"alt(u) � cتفعلDid (you sing. fem.) fa"alt(i) � �تفعلDid (they plu. masc.) fa"aloo c و�افعلDo (they dual masc.) yaf"alaan(i) �ناليف�عDo (they plu. masc.) yaf"aloon(a) c نو�يف�عل

Do (they plu. fem.) yaf"aln(a) ل�نيف�ع

The only exception to that idea is the 3rd person sing. fem. perfective verb which does have a declension but it is not an attached subject pronoun but rather a feminine marker.

Did .... (NO SUBJECT) fa"alat �تفعل

If a separate subject pronoun appears after a verb that has an attached subject pronoun, it will be an emphatic pronoun but not the subject, as far as Arabic grammar is concerned.

►If the verb does not have an attached pronoun, the subject will be an unseen pronoun that follows the verb and that is called a "hiding pronoun"

�ر� تت مcس� �ر� . ضم�ي

Hiding Pronoun Verb Without Attached Pronoun

(He) ( هcو ) Past: 3rd person sing. masc. فعل(She) ( ه�ي ) Past: 3rd person sing. fem. �تفعل

(I) ( أنا ) Present: 1st person sing. cأف�عل(You) �ت ) ( أن Present: 2nd person sing. masc. cتف�عل(He) ( هcو ) Present: 3rd person sing. masc. cيف�عل

(She) ( ه�ي ) Present: 3rd person sing. fem. cتف�عل(We) ( cنح�ن ) Present: 1st person plu./dual cنف�عل

Examples:

Verb - Attached Subject - Object

� أكل cم� لقد� شي�ء ت cل¦ ²كlaqad 'akaltum kull(a) shay'(in)

= have eaten you every thing

Translation: you have eaten everything

Verb - Attached Subject - Prepositional Phrase

�تبة نcو�يق�رؤ �مك ال �ف�ي�

yaqra'oon(a) fee ('a)l-maktaba(ti)

= read (they) in the library

Translation: they read in the library*Note that it is unusual for sentences with only an attached or a hiding 3rd person subject, but not an apparent noun subject, to be used if they were not preceded by other words or related sentences. e.g. the last example is not a good sentence in Arabic. Verb-like particles may be used in such sentences.

Verb - Attached Subject - Adverb

cن �ه�زا �تcك جاkunt(u) jaahiza(n)

= was I ready


Verb - Attached Subject - Object

� عرف� �بنا �جوا ال"arafnaa ('a)l-jawaab(a)

= knew we the answer

Translation: we have found out the answer

Verb - Attached Subject - Verb

�cك ¦ا �ب نع�ر�فc ن �جوا الkunnaa na"rif(u) ('a)l-jawaab(a)

= were we know the answer

Translation: we knew the answer

Examples on hiding subjects:

Verb - Hiding Subject - Object

cد� cر�ي �عب ن نل أن�nureed(u) 'an nal"ab(a)

= want (we) that play (we)

Translation: we want to play


أكل شي�ء لقد� cل¦ ²كlaqad 'akal(a) kull(a) shay'(in)

= has eaten (he) every thing

Translation: he has eaten everything

Object - Verb - Hiding Subject

�حق¦ cم� أقcو�لc ال لك'al-haqq(a) 'aqool(u) la-kum

= the truth say (I) to you (plu. masc.)

Translation: I tell you the truth

Verb - Hiding Subject - Adverb

�ن �با كا عص�ي يو�ماkaan(a) yawma(n) "aseeba(n)

= was (he) a day a hard

Translation: it was a hard day

Verb - Hiding Subject - Adverb

cو�نc أك �ه�زا سو�ف جاsawf(a) 'akoon(u) jaahiza(n)

= will be (I) ready


IV. Separate Subject Pronouns in Verbal Sentences

Although separate subject pronouns are apparent words, an important idea in Arabic grammar is that separate subject pronouns are NOT the subjects in verbal sentences that contain them (i.e. if they came after the verb). The subjects will still be either the attached subject pronouns or the hiding pronouns; the separate subject pronouns are only emphatic words. Thus, adding a separate subject pronoun to a verbal sentence will confer a marked emphatic effect on the subject.

Examples:

Verb - Hiding Subject - S.S.P - Object

cت تع�ر�ف� �ب أن �جوا الta"rif(u) 'ant(a) ('a)l-jawaab(a)

= know you the answer

Translation: YOU know the answer

Compare with:


cب تع�ر�ف� �جوا الta"rif(u) ('a)l-jawaab(a)

= know (you) the answer

Translation: you know the answer

More examples:

Verb - Attached Subject - S.S.P - Adverb

� cن � cتك �ه�زا أنا جاkunt(u) 'anaa jaahiza(n)

= was I ready

Translation: I was ready*The I here is stressed as well.

Verb - Attached Subject - S.S.P - Adverb

c cو�ن cم� ن�وستك �ت �ه�ز� أن �جا نيsa-takoonoon(a) 'antum jaahizeen(a)

= will be you (plu. masc.) ready

Translation: YOU will be ready

Since that separate subject pronouns are not subjects in verbal sentences, we will see that verbs will be conjugated in the dual and plural (will have attached pronouns) even if they were followed by dual or plural apparent subject pronouns. This is contrary to the regular rules of verbal sentences with apparent plural or dual noun subjects.

Examples:

Verb - Attached Subject - S.S.P - Prepositional Phrase

cن�التد�خ � المحل هcما �لى� §إtadkhulaan(i) humaa 'ilaa ('a)l-

mahall(i)

= enter (dual fem.) they to the shop

Translation: THEY enter the shop

Verb - Attached Subject - S.S.P - Prepositional Phrase

�ه�م هcم� نcو�يذ�هب �ل أع�ما �لى� �إyathhaboon(a) hum 'ilaa 'a"maali-him

= go (plu. masc.) they to (the) works (of) them

Translation: THEY go to their works

A final grammatical note is that 3rd person singular separate subject pronouns are regarded differently here, those will be considered subjects if they appeared after verbs.

This has to do with the concept of "optionally hiding pronouns" and "obligatory hiding pronouns" (see here for more details).

Examples:


�مهcهcو أكل طعا'akal(a) huw(a) ta"aama-h(u)

= ate he (the) food (of) him

Translation: HE ate his food


�ه�ي شر�بت� �بها شرا

sharibat hiy(a) sharaaba-haa

= drank she (the) drink(s) (of) her

Translation: SHE drank her drinks

Additional: a case in which the verbs of verbal sentences will be conjugated regularly (in the singular) if they were followed by dual or plural separate subject pronouns is if there was an exclusive particle before the pronoun.

Example:

Negative Verb - Exclusion - Subject

�ء جا � ± ما �ال هcم� إmaa jaa'(a) 'illaa hum

= not came (3rd p. sing. masc.) except/but them

Translation: nobody came except them

Negative Verb - Object - Exclusion - Subject

فعل � �ما ± ها �ال �ت إ أنmaa fa"ala-haa 'illaa 'ant(a)

= not did her/it except/but you

Translation: nobody did it but you

= it is certainly you who did it

In these sentences, the separate subject pronouns are actual subjects not emphatic words. This includes all of them not only the 3rd person singulars.

Verb-Like Particles

Verb-like particles ف�ع�ل�� ال ب cهة¦ �مcشب ال cف cاألح�ر are a very important group of particles that is commonly used in both classical Arabic and modern standard Arabic.

Verb-Like Particles�ف�ع�ل� �ال ب cهة¦ �مcشب ال cف cاألح�ر

It is true that 'inna �ن¦ إ

That 'anna أن¦

But laakinna �ن¦ لك

It is like that ka'anna كأن¦It is hoped thatIt may be that la"all(a) لعل¦

It is wished that layt(a) �ت لي The first four of those particles are in fact all based on the same particle

'inna ¦ن� This word comes from an unclear origin. However, Arabs. إregularly used this word as an "opening word" to start a nominal sentence. We mentioned in the section about sentences that the "normal" sentence in Arabic is a sentence in which the verb precedes the subject (e.g. "reads the boy a book"). This kind of sentences is called "verbal sentences" in opposition to the "nominal sentences." A nominal sentence is a sentence in which the subject precedes the verb (e.g. "THE BOY reads a book"). Nominal sentences are usually used in Arabic when we wish to emphasize the subject, and this is why the subject was capitalized in the sentence. In order to "neutralize" the emphatic effect of bringing the subject in front of the verb in nominal sentences, Arabs use the verb-like particles (especially 'inna) at the beginning of nominal sentences to confer a "normal tone" on the sentence (counting on their "verb-like" nature, which in a sense turns the sentence back into a verbal sentence). Although the literal meaning of 'inna is "it is verified or true that" which is an emphatic meaning, the actual purpose of using 'inna is to de-emphasize the subject of a nominal sentence.

This is important because most of the speakers of other languages are not familiar with the usage of verbal sentences, and when they speak Arabic they usually use nominal sentences without employing the essential 'inna which can make them sound "not very native-like."

Using'inna

1. A verbal sentence (normal tone)


c c يق�رأ �ولد �بهc ال �تا كyaqra'(u) ('a)l-walad(u) kitaaba-h(u)



2. A nominal sentence (emphatic tone)


c �ولد cال �بهc يق�رأ �تا ك

'al-walad(u) yaqra'(u) kitaaba-h(u)



3. A nominal sentence with'inna (normal tone)

V.L.P - Subject - Verb - Object

�ن¦ إ �ولد cال �بهc يق�رأ �تا ك'inna ('a)l-walad(a) yaqra'(u) kitaaba-

h(u)

= it is true that the boy reads (the) book (of) him


Using 'inna requires simple things:

That it be used in front of a nominal sentence (and only a nominal sentence).

That the grammatical case of the subject of the nominal sentence be changed from the nominative ('ar-raf") to the accusative ('an-nasb).

The changing of the subject's case to the accusative is another reason for why 'inna is called a "verb-like" particle, because this seems as if the subject has become an object of 'inna.

In Arabic, the subject of a sentence that contains a verb-like particle is called

"the noun of the verb-like particle" ف�ع�ل�� ال ب ¦ه� �مcشب ال ف� �حر� ال cم �س� The .ا

predicate of the sentence is called "the predicate of the verb-like particle" cخبر �ف�ع�ل� �ال ب ¦ه� �مcشب ال ف� �حر� . ال

More examples on 'inna in different situations:

V.L.P - Subject - Predicate

�ن¦ �ء إ ما �ف�ية�ال�س¦ صا'inna ('a)s-samaa'(a) saafiya(tun)

= it is true that the sky (is) clear



�ن¦ �يا إ �عل هcنا'inna "aliyya(n) hunaa

= truthfully Ali (is) here

Translation: Ali is here


�ن¦ � إ عص�ي�ب هذا �يو�م� 'inna haathaa yawm(un) "aseeb(un)

= truthfully this (is) a day a hard

Translation: this is a hard day

Not all nominal sentences can have a verb-like particle. For example, conditional sentences, or sentences that begin with a locational demonstrative can't.

If the subject was a separate subject pronoun, it must be changed to an attached object pronoun when adding 'inna. (See Attached Object Pronouns for information on how to attach object pronouns to verb-like particles).

Subject - Predicate

� �ه�ز� أنا جا

'anaa jaahiz(un)

= I (am) a ready



§ �ن �ه�ز� ي�إ جا'inn-ee jaahiz(un)

= truthfully me (is) a ready


A must case for using 'inna is when the sentence begins with a 3rd person subject pronoun. Otherwise it will be very emphatic.

Subject - Predicate

¦ة ه�ي �ي ذك �ة� �فتاhiy(a) fataa(tun) thakiyya(tun)

= she (is) a girl a smart

Translation: SHE is a smart girl


¦ �ن � إ ¦ة� ها �ي ذك �ة� فتا'inna-haa fataa(tun) thakiyya(tun)

= truthfully her (is) a girl a smart

Translation: she is a smart girl

Subject - Predicate

�ق�يهcو �صد�ي huw(a) sadeeq-ee

= he (is) (the) friend (of) me

Translation: HE is my friend


¦ �ن �ق�ي هcإ �صد�ي 'inna-hu sadeeq-ee

= truthfully him (is) (the) friend (of) me

Translation: he is my friend

V.L.P - Subject - Predicate (Prepositional Phrase)

¦ �ن �خ�ل cهإ �د¦ا ال �ف�ي�'inna-h(u) fee ('a)d-daakhil(i)

= it is true that him (is) in the inside

Translation: he's inside

Subject - Predicate

c هcم� §ب طي �س� cنا �نوأ

hum 'unaas(un) tayyiboon(a)

= they (are) people kind

Translation: THEY are kind people


¦ �ن c هcم� إ §ب طي �س� cنا �0نوأ'inna-hum 'unaas(un) tayyiboon(a)

= truthfully them (are) people kind

Translation: they are kind people

'inna with Emphatic la-

A commonly used particle, especially in classical Arabic, is emphatic la- لـ . This la- precedes many words for the purpose of emphases. It also precedes nominal sentences.

Example:

�د�ق� ل صا �د� زي

la-zayd(un) saadiq(un)

= certainly Zayd (is) an honest

Translation: certainly Zayd is telling the truth

�ق�ي� ل صد�ي هcو la-huw(a) sadeeq-ee

= certainly he (is) (the) friend (of) me

Translation: certainly he is my friend

When using 'inna with such sentences, the emphatic la- will have to be moved from before the subject to before the predicate.

�ن¦ �دا إ زي �د�ق�ل صا 'inna zayda(n) la-saadiq(un)

= truthfully Zayd (is) certainly an honest

Translation: certainly Zayd is telling the truth

¦ �ن هcإ �ق�ي�ل صد�ي 'inna-hu la-sadeeq-ee

= truthfully him (is) certainly (the) friend (of) me

Translation: certainly he is my friend

This moved emphatic la- is called in Arabic the "slipped laam" cم¦ الالcلقة �مcزح� .because it slips from before the subject to after it , ال

Why Verb-Like?

►They look like verbs, and end with the perfective verb declension -a .

►They all carry meanings of verbs.

►They affect the subject of the nominal sentence by changing its case to the accusative, which is what verbs do with their objects.

►They can be attached to object pronouns like verbs. See Attached Object Pronouns.

Literal Senses of Verb-Like Particles

It is verified that 'inna �ن¦ إ

That it is verified that 'anna أن¦

But it is verified that laakinna �ن¦ لك

As/like it is verified that ka'anna كأن¦It is hoped thatIt may be that la"all(a) لعل¦

It is wished that layt(a) �ت لي

Verb-Like Particles (continued)

Understanding Verb-Like Particles

In essence, verb-like particles are three:

Basic Verb-Like Particles

It is true that 'inna �ن¦ إIt is hoped thatIt may be that la"all(a) لعل¦


The other three particles are based on 'inna as follows:

1. 'anna ¦أن

�ن¦ أن� أن¦ ≡إ'an 'inna ≡ 'anna

that it is true that ≡ that

Examples:

�ن¦ اليو�م إ المو�ع�د'inna ('a)l-maw"id(a) ('a)l-yawm(a)

= truthfully the appointment/date (is) today

Translation: the appointment/date is today

cت� اليو�م أن¦ظنن المو�ع�دzanant(u) 'anna ('a)l-maw"id(a) ('a)l-

yawm(a)

= (I) thought that truthfully the appointment/date (is) today

Translation: I thought that the appointment/date was today

The meaning of 'anna is a complex meaning which is "'an 'inna" = "that it is true that". The non-reduced form "'an 'inna" cannot be used and it has to be 'anna.

Another example:

cد�تcع لقد�la-qad "udt(u)

= (I) have returned

Translation: I have returned / I am back

§ �ن عcد�تc إ قد� ي'inn-ee qad "udt(u)

= truthfully me have returned

Translation: I have returned / I am back

تع�لمcو�ا §ألم� ؟ أن cد�تcع قد� ي'a-lam ta"lamoo 'ann-ee qad "udt(u)

= is it that did not (you) know that truthfully me have returned

Translation: didn't you know that I am back?

Note: 'an أن� is a particle which means "that." However, it is used almost only before verbs (i.e. before verbal sentences) and not before nouns. Therefore, it can't usually be used before a nominal sentence unless combined with 'inna to produce 'anna, like in the already mentioned examples.

Two Words for "That"

That Usage

'an Verbal Sentences (Verbs) أن�

'anna أن¦ Nominal Sentences (Nouns, Pronouns, etc.)

'an أن� is used in Arabic to produce infinitival phrases just like how "to" is used in English. If the verb after 'an was an imperfective verb, it must be in the subjunctive mood.

cد� ر�يc ¦م أن�أ أتعل

'ureed(u) 'an 'ata"allam(a)

= (I) want that (I) learn

Translation: I want to learn

'an أن� is used in front of nominal sentences in only one classical case, which is when 'an precedes an "explanatory phrase."

�ه� �لي إ سل �كة� أن�فأر� ي وش� cب �حر� ال

fa-'arsal(a) 'ilay-hi 'an(i) ('a)l-harb(u) washeeka(tun)

= then (he) sent to him that the war (is) imminent

Translation: so he sent to him a message telling him that war is imminent

2. laakinna ¦ن� لك

�ن� �ن¦ لك �ن¦ ≡إ لكlaakin 'inna ≡ laakinna

but it is true that ≡ but

Examples:

سه�ل� cكالم� �ن¦ال صع�ب� لك �ف�ع�ل ال'al-kalaam(u) sahl(un) laakinna ('a)l-

fi"l(a) sa"b(un)

= the talking (is) easy but truthfully the doing (is) hard

Translation: talking is easy but doing is hard

The non-reduced form "laakin 'inna" cannot be used and it has to be laakinna.

It is very habitual for Arabs to add an unnecessary wa و = "and" before both laakin (but) and laakinna (emphasized but) . This "and" means nothing and does nothing.

�ب �تا �ك ال cت� تري �ش� §ا �ن هc �يولك� أق�رأ لم�

cبع�د'ishtarayt(u) ('a)l-kitaab(a) wa-laakinn-

ee lam 'aqra'<-h(u) ba"d(u)

= (I) bought the book but truthfully me did not read him yet

Translation: I bought the book but I haven't read it yet

¦ �ن cن لك �ت ذهب قد� cن¦ ¦ك

laakinna-kunn(a) qad thahabtunn(a)

= but truthfully you (plu. fem.) have gone

Translation: but you've gone

3. ka'anna ¦كأن

�ن¦ كأن� كأن¦ ≡إka-'an 'inna ≡ ka'anna

like that it is true that ≡ it is like that

Some old Arabian dialects used ka'inna instead of ka'anna. The etymology of ka'inna may be easier to track (ka-'inna). ka'inna is still used in several Arabic spoken dialects today, e.g. in Egyptian Arabic.

Example:

أسد� كأن¦ �دا زيka'anna zayda(n) 'asad(un)

= it is like that Zayd (is) a lion

Translation: Zayd is like a lion

The sentence "Zayd is like a lion" cannot be translated literally to Arabic.

FALSE - NONSENSE

�د� أسد²كزيZayd (is) like a lion

FALSE - NONSENSE

�دا زي �ن¦ إأسد²ك

Truthfully Zayd (is) like a lion

To make such a sentence, we have to use the verb-like particle ka'anna like in the aforementioned example (i.e. ka'anna Zayd is a lion = it is like that Zayd is a lion).

However, if the second word were a definite word, we could go without using ka'anna (actually it is better not to use ka'anna in this case, especially in modern Arabic).

�د� األسد�كزيzayd(un) ka-l-'asad(i)

= Zayd (is) like the lion

Translation: Zayd is like the lion

(Zayd is like a lion)

If we use ka'anna in this case, it will sound like a poetry line.

األسدc كأن¦ �دا زيka'anna zayda(n) ('a)l-'asad(u)

= it is like that Zayd (is) the lion

Translation: Zayd is like the lion (Zayd is like a lion)

Having the second word definite is more commonly used in Arabic to express ideas of the type "something is like a something" or "someone is like a something." Of course, using ka'anna in such sentences is somewhat less affirmative, as the second word will be indefinite (cf. Zayd is a man / Zayd is the man).

SentenceJudgment

1st Word 2nd Word 3rd word

Definite WordLike

كـIndefinite Not Good

Definite Good

ka'anna

كأن¦ Definite WordIndefinite Good

Definite Poetry

Another example, how do we translate to Arabic "life is like a dream" ?

There are two possible ways, the first one is:

cة� �ا الحي �ك cم ل cح� ال'al-hayaa(tu) ka-l-hulum(i)

= the life (is) like the dream

Translation: life is like a dream

This translation gives the exact sense of the original sentence.

The other way to translate it is:

cم� كأن¦ ل cح �ة �ا الحيka'anna ('a)l-hayaa(ta) hulum(un)

= it is like that the life (is) a dream

Translation: life is like a dreamThis translation confers a tinge of incertitude on the original sentence.

Verb-Like Particles (continued)

Hoping & Whishing

The remaining two verb-like particles are:

It is hoped thatIt may be that la"all(a) لعل¦


la"all(a) ¦لعل or "all(a) ¦علA commonly used verb-like particle, la"all(a) indicates the hope as well as the expectation of the speaker about something. Sometimes it indicates the mere expectation (including bad expectations).

la"all(a) is used only with nominal sentences, and the subject of the sentence will be in the accusative case just like for the rest of verb-like particles.

Examples:

غدا لعل¦ �ي� �ت تأ � �ما ر�ي la"all(a) reemaa ta'<tee rada(n)

= it is hoped that Rima come tomorrow

Translation: I hope Rima will come tomorrow

�ت لعل¦ ما قد� �ض �مر�ي ال la"all(a) ('a)l-mareed(a) qad maat(a)

= maybe the patient has died

Translation: maybe the patient has died

�ت عل¦ ما قد� �ض �مر�ي ال"all(a) ('a)l-mareed(a) qad maat(a)

= maybe the patient has died

Translation: maybe the patient has died

¦ �يو�م لعل ال cم�ط�رc ت � ها la"alla-haa tumter(u) ('a)l-yawm(a)

= it is hoped that her will rain today

Translation: I hope it will rain today

layt(a) ت� ليlayt(a) is also a commonly used word. It indicates that the speaker is whishing that what he says happen or be true. layt(a) works just like the other verb-like particles as far as grammar is concerned.

Examples:

�ت يو�ما لي cو�دcيع �ب با الش¦layta ('a)sh-shabaab(a) ya"ood(u)

yawma(n)

= it is wished that the youth returns a day

Translation: I wish if I be young again one day

�ت �ك لي هcنا cت� cن ك �ي� نlayta-nee kunt(u) hunaak(a)

= it is wished that me was there

Translation: I wish I was there

Verb-Like Particles + maaVerb-like particles can be used regularly with nominal sentences that begin with relative pronouns such as that, who, what, etc.

Example from classical poetry, the poet is showing pride of his people:

�ن¦ ¦ذ�ي� إ � ال لنا بنى� �ء ما ال�س¦ سمك

cوأط�ول أعز¶ cهcم� �ئ دعا � �تا بي'inna ('a)l-lathee samak(a) ('a)s-samaa'(a) banaa la-na bayta(n)

da"aa'imu-h(u) 'a"azz(u) wa-'atwal(u)

= it is true that who raised the heaven built for us a house (the) foundations (of) him

(are) more excellent and taller

Translation: he who raised the heaven has built for us a house, the foundations of which are higher and more excellent

'al-lathee is a general relative pronoun that can mean who, whom, or which.

Example on other relative pronouns:

�ن¦ �ب من� إ أصا قد� � هذا فعل'inna man fa"al(a) haathaa qad

'asaab(a)

= truthfully who did this has done right

Translation: he who did this has done right

�ن¦ � إ �بc ما الص¦وا هcو cهc تف�عل'inna maa taf"alu-h(u) huw(a) ('a)s-

sawaab(u)

= truthfully what (you) are doing he (is) the right (thing)

Translation: what you're doing is the right thing

Now to the main point, verb-like particles can be combined with the relative pronoun maa = "what" to give a single word with a reduced meaning.

Verb-Like Particles With

maa�ف¦ة� �كا ال � �ما ب �ف�ع�ل� �ال ب cهة¦ �مcشب ال cف cاألح�ر cل� §صا �ت ا

�ن¦ � + إ ¦ = ما �ن �ماإ'inna + maa = 'inna-maa

It is true that what ... → it is true that ...

� + أن¦ ¦ = ما �ماأن'anna + maa = 'anna-maa

That it is true that what ... → that it is true that ...

�ن¦ � + لك ¦ = ما �ن �مالكlaakinna + maa = laakinna-maa

But it is true that what ... → but ...

� + كأن¦ ¦ = ما �ماكأنka'anna + maa = ka'anna-maa

Like that it is true that what ... → it is like that ...

� + لعل¦ ¦ = ما �مالعلla"all(a) + maa = la"alla-maa

It is hoped that what ... → it is hoped that ...

It is may be that what ... → it is may be that ...

�ت � + لي = ما �ت �ماليlayt(a) + maa = layta-maa

It is wished that what ... → it is wished that ...

Verb-like particles plus maa were so commonly used in classical Arabic that they lost their primary meanings and became just emphatic versions of the bare verb-like particles. Verb-like particles plus maa will have no effect what so ever on the case-declensions in the following sentence, regardless of the syntax. Moreover, VLP plus maa will be used with verbal sentences just like with nominal sentences.

maa is this case is called in Arabic "inactivating maa" cف¦ة� �كا ال � . ما

Examples:

¦ �ن د� �ماإ �ح� وا �له� إ هcو'inna-maa huw(a) 'ilaah(un)

waahid(un)

= truthfully what he (is) (is) a god a one

→ truthfully he (is) a god a one

Translation: he is only one God

¦ �ن �حق¦ �ماإ ال cو�لcتق'inna-maa taqool(u) ('a)l-haqq(a)

= truthfully what (you) say (is) the truth

→ truthfully (you) say the truth

Translation: what you say is nothing but the truth

¦ �بد�رc �ماكأن ال � وج�هcهاka'anna-maa wajhu-haa ('a)l-badr(u)

= it is like that what (the) face (of) her (is) (is) the full moon

→ it is like that (the) face (of) her (is) the full moon

Translation: her face is like the full moon (beautiful)

¦ �ضc مالعل �مر�ي ال فى� cش� ي �la"alla-maa yushfaa ('a)l-mareed(u)

= it is hoped that what (he) be healed (is) the patient

= it is hoped that (he) be healed the patient

Translation: I hope the patient will get well

Negation

Negation in English is achieved by using the word "not" (be not, do not). In Arabic, there are many words that are used to form negative statements, each one having its specific uses and conditions. However, there are four principle negative words that are commonly used in modern standard Arabic. As I try to do always, I am going to discuss here all the negative words known in Classical Arabic.

Negative Words¦ف�ي� الن cأدوات

TenseUsage

WordVerbal Sentences

Nominal Sentences

Present

Before verbs only

(imperfective verb only)

Before nouns or verbs

(imperfective verb only)

lays(a)�س is notلي

Present & Future

Before verbs only

(perfective & imperfective verb)



laanotال

All tenses

Before verbs only




maa � notما

All tenses

Before verbs only




'in�ن� notإ

Past Before verbs only(imperfective verb only)

lam

did not ≡لم�

Past Before verbs only(imperfective verb only)

lammaa � did not yet ≡لم¦ا

Future Before verbs only(imperfective verb only)

lan

will not ≡لن�

Present Not Used Before nouns only(time words only)

laat(a)is not ≡الت

Negative Words Commonly Used in Modern Formal Arabic

Usage WordBefore the predicate in

present tense be-sentences

(sentences without verbs)

lays(a)�س is notلي

Before verbs(past tense)

lam

لم�≡ did not

Before verbs(future tense)

lan

لن�≡ will not

Before verbs(present tense &

imperative)

laaال

not

Present Tense Negative Sentences

TenseUsage

WordVerbal Sentences Nominal Sentences

Present Tense Only

Before verbs only(imperfective verb only)


(imperfective verb only)lays(a) � لي

سNot Used Before nouns only

(time words only) laat(a) التPresent or

Future

Before verbs only(perfective &

imperfective verb)



laa ال

All Tenses


imperfective verb)



maa � ماBefore verbs only




'in �ن� إIn order to turn a present tense positive sentence into a present tense negative sentence, those are the words that can be used. All those words are particles (rootless) except for the first one, which is a perfective frozen verb in Arabic grammar.

Barring laat(a), those words can be used both in front of nouns and in front of verbs if the sentence were a nominal sentence (the subject is before the verb). If the sentence were a verbal sentence (the verb is before the subject), negative words can only be used before the verb but not the subject.

Clarification:

-The boy reads his book (positive nominal) →

The boy not reads his book (negative nominal)

OR

Not the boy reads his book (negative nominal)

-Read the boy his book (positive verbal) →

Not read the boy his book (negative verbal)

Possible Structures for Negative Nominal Sentences in Present Tense

SubjectNegative

Word VerbOthers(e.g.

object)

The boy not reads his book

Negative Word Subject Verb

Others(e.g.

object)

Not the boy reads his book

The first structure (before verb) is the better one and the one usually used.

Possible Structure for Negative Verbal Sentences in Present Tense

Negative Word

Verb Subject Others(e.g. object)

Not read the boy his book

A final note, negative words in nominal sentences with verb-like particles come after both the particle and the subject.

Negative Nominal Sentences in Present Tense With Verb-Like Particles

VLP Subject Negative Word

VerbOthers

(e.g. object)

Truthfully the boy not reads his book

Now we will go through the negative words used in present tense sentences successively.

lays(a) س� ليThe first word lays(a) is the word commonly used for verb-less sentences. It is a negative perfective frozen verb. This means that there is only a perfective (past) form of this verb but not the other forms (imperfective & imperative).

Footnote: there are two theories for the etymology of lays(a), one theory says that it originally comes from a negated demonstrative. The other theory, which is in accord with Arabic grammar and which appears to be the truthful one, is that it comes from an

obsolete verb (either س� � or أي .(يسا

According to traditional Arabic sources:

�سال + �س ← أي ليlaa + 'ays(a) = lays(a)

not + existed = not existed

'ays(a) س� �س .existed" is an archaic word (e.g" = أي أي cث� حي م�ن� �ه� ب �ي� �ن �ت �ئ ا�س "However, lays(a) is always an incomplete verb meaning, literally, "was not .(وليand it is never used in its complete sense "existed not" in the Arabic that we know of today.

Although lays(a) is a perfective verb, it can be used only for present tense sentences (imperfective verbs) and it cannot be used for past or future tense sentences. Also, this word can never coexist with the verb "be/is" = yakoon(u) in one sentence.

Examples on lays(a):

Positive Nominal

c �ولد c ال �بهc يق�رأ �تا ك'al-walad(u) yaqra'(u) kitaaba-h(u)



OR: the boy is reading his book

Negative

�س c لي �ولد c ال �به يق�رأ �تا cكlays(a) 'al-walad(u) yaqra'(u)

kitaaba-h(u)

= is/exists not the boy reading (the) book (of) him

Translations: the boy does not read his book

it is not the boy who reads his book

the boy is not reading his book

it is not the boy who is reading his book

Negative (best choice)

c �ولد �س ال c لي �بهc يق�رأ �تا ك'al-walad(u) lays(a) 'yaqra'(u)

kitaaba-h(u)

= the boy is/exists not reading (the)

book (of) him

Translation: the boy does not read his book

OR: the boy is not reading his book

Positive Verbal

cبه� �تا ك cولد� ال c يق�رأyaqra'(u) ('a)l-walad(u) kitaaba-h(u)



Negative

�س �بهc لي �تا ك cولد� ال c يق�رأlays(a) yaqra'(u) ('a)l-walad(u)

kitaaba-h(u)

= is/exists not reading the boy (the)

book (of) him

Translation: the boy does not read his book

OR: the boy is not reading his book

To use the negative word directly before the verb in nominal sentences is the best choice, because in this case there would not be two possibilities for the meaning of the sentence. When the negative word precedes the subject, it may be negating only the subject but not the verb, and it may be also negating both.

Positive Nominal

cأح�مد � هcنا'ahmad(u) hunaa

= Ahmad (is) here

Translation: Ahmad is here

Negative

�س � أح�مدc لي هcناlays(a) 'ahmad(u) hunaa

= is not Ahmad here

Translation: Ahmad is not here

OR: it is not Ahmad who is here


cس أح�مد� � لي هcنا'ahmad(u) lays(a) hunaa

= Ahmad is not here

Translation: Ahmad is not here

Since that lays(a) is a verb, it must be conjugated to suite different subjects. The middle letter of the root is Y so it is a hollow weak verb (see here for conjugation of perfective hollow verbs).

�م�د� جا �س // Frozen verbف�ع�ل� =لي

فع�ل

SINGULAR

(I) am not last(u) cتلس�(You) are not

(masc.) last(a) تلس�(You) are not (fem.) lasti �تلس�

(He) is not lays(a) �س لي(She) is not laysat �س �تلي

DUAL

(You) are not lastumaa �لس� cما ت(They) are not

(masc.) laysaa �س �لي ا(They) are not

(fem.) laysataa �س �لي تاPLURAL

(We) are not (dual / plu.) lasnaa �لس� نا

(You) are not (masc.) lastum cملس� �ت

(You) are not (fem.)la

stunn(a) cنلس� ¦ت

(They) are not (masc.) laysoo �س cو�الي

(They) are not (fem.) lasn(a) نلس�

More examples:

Positive Nominal

�ف�ية� صا cء� ما الس¦'as-samaa'(u) saafiya(tun)

= the sky (is) a clear


Negative

�ست� �ءc لي �سما �ف�ية ال صاlaysat(i) ('a)s-samaa'(u)

saafiya(tan)

= is not the sky a clear

Translation: the sky is not clear

OR: it is not the sky that is clear


cء� �سما �ست� ال �ف�ية لي صا ('a)s-samaa'(u) laysat

saafiya(tan)

= the sky is not a clear


Remember that lays(a) is always an incomplete verb and it will always need an adverb to complete its meaning (i.e. the predicate of the positive sentence). Adverbs in Arabic are always in the accusative case ('an-nasb).

Separate Subject PronounsThe rules for separate subject pronouns with the presence of lays(a) are the same of those without lays(a). These were mentioned in detail in the sentences section.

In short, separate subject pronouns can be emphatic in nominal sentences (before lays(a)) and they are always emphatic in verbal sentences (after lays(a)) .

Positive Nominal

� �د� أنا سع�ي'anaa sa"eed(un)

= I (am) a happy

Translation: I am happy

Negative (emphatic)

cلس�ت � �دا أنا سع�يlast(u) 'anaa sa"eeda(n)

= am not I a happy

Translation: it is not me who is happy


� �دا لس�تc أنا سع�ي'anaa last(u) sa"eeda(n)

= I am not a happy

Translation: I am not happy


cدا لس�ت� سع�يlast(u) sa"eeda(n)

= (I) am not a happy


lays(a) With Verb-Like ParticlesAs we mentioned earlier, negative words in nominal sentences with verb-like particles come after the particle and the subject.

Positive

�ب� عcجا لقو�ل� � هذا �ن¦ إ'inna haathaa la-qawl(un)

"ujaab(un)

= truthfully this (is) certainly a saying an astonishing

Translation: this is astonishing talk

Negative

� هذا �ن¦ �سإ �با لي عcجا ´ قو�ال'inna haathaa lays(a) qawla(n)

"ujaaba(n)

= truthfully this is not a saying an astonishing

Translation: this is not astonishing talk

*From this example we should conclude that emphatic la- doesn't stay in negative sentences.

lays(a) With Transitive bi-Just as it is intransitive verb, lays(a) can be followed by the preposition bi- = "in/by/with" to relate it to an indirect object.

Example: the verb "die" is intransitive verb (can't have a direct object).

He died bed Meaningless sentence, because an intransitive verb can't have a direct object

He died in bed Meaningful sentence, because the preposition related the verb to the indirect object

So lays(a) can have an indirect object instead of an adverb if it was followed by the preposition bi-.

Examples with literal translations:

Subject - Incomplete Verb - Adverb

cء� �سما �ست� ال �ف�ية لي صا ('a)s-samaa'(u) laysat saafiya(tan)

= the sky is/exists not clearly


Subject - Incomplete Verb - Preposition - Indirect Object

cء� �سما �ست� ال �ف�ية²ب لي �صا ('a)s-samaa'(u) laysat bi-saafiya(tin)

= the sky is/exists not in a clear (state)



cء� �سما �ست� ال �ف�ية�ب لي �الص¦ا ('a)s-samaa'(u) laysat bi-s-saafiya(ti)

= the sky is/exists not in the clear (state)



� � لس�تc أنا �د²ب سع�ي

'anaa last(u) bi-sa"eed(in)

= I am/exist not in a happy (state)



� �د�ب لس�تc أنا ع�ي �الس¦'anaa last(u) bi-s-sa"eed(i)

= I am/exist not in the happy (state)



� هذا �ن¦ �سإ عcجا�ب �ب لي ²قو�ل²'inna haathaa lays(a) bi-qawl(in)

"ujaab(in)

= truthfully this is/exists not in (the state of) a saying an astonishing



� هذا �ن¦ �سإ �عcجا�ب �ب لي ال �قو�ل� �ال'inna haathaa lays(a) bi-l-qawl(i)

('a)l-"ujaab(i)

= truthfully this is/exists not in (the state of) the saying the astonishing


The summery is: a noun after lays(a) will be an adverb (in accusative case) unless preceded by the preposition bi- where it will be an indirect object (in ablative case).

Subject Prep. Noun

�س ليlays(a)

Is/exists not

the boy

happilyAdverb

Accusative Case

('an-nasb)

bi-

inhappy

Indirect Object

Ablative Case

('al-jarr)

lays(a) in Modern Formal ArabicThe good use of lays(a) in modern formal Arabic is in sentences without verbs, that is in present tense be-sentences. lays(a) will usually come after the subject and before the predicate in such sentences.

Several examples on this have already been mentioned on this page.

Negation (continued)


laat(a) التlaat(a) is a classical, unimportant, negative particle that has very limited uses. Although it is a particle and not an incomplete verb, it works like

lays(a) (requires an adverb in the accusative case following it); but there are limitations to how it is used:

It must be followed exclusively by a noun.

This noun must be a time word (like "day," "time," "hour," etc.). The subject of the sentence must be omitted and only the adverb

appears.

Examples:

�عة الت ² سا �دم منlaat(a) saa"a(ta) mandam(in)

= is/exists not (the hour) (as) (the) hour (of) a regret

Translation: this is not a time to regret

The original complete form of this sentence would be the following (not used):

" �عة الت سا cعة� ا ² الس¦ �دم من "laat(a) ('a)s-saa"a(tu) saa"a(ta)

mandam(in)

= is/exists not the hour (as) (the) hour (of) a regret

Translation: this is not a time to regret

Another example from the Koran:

مناص² التو �ن ي ح�wa-laat(a) heen(a) manaas(in)

= and is/exists not (the time) (as) (the) time (of) an escape

Translation: this is not a time to escape

Explanation: this is not the right time to avoid punishment, you should have thought about it before

laa الThe word for "no" in Arabic, laa is the official word used for negation of imperfective verbs in the present tense. In standard usage, it comes before the verb and not the subject of the sentence.

�ئا ال هcو شي cيع�ر�فhuw(a) laa ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)

= he not knows a thing

Translation: HE doesn't know anything

�ئا ال شي cيع�ر�فlaa ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)

= not (he) knows a thing

Translation: he doesn't know anything

cه¦ �ن �ئا ال إ شي cيع�ر�ف'inna-h(u) laa ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)

= it is true that him not knows a thing


cه¦ أن cك ت بر� أخ� �ئا ال لقد� شي cيع�ر�فla-qad 'akhbartu-k(a) 'anna-h(u) laa

ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)

= (I) have told you that truthfully him not knows a thing

Translation: I told you he doesn't know anything

ذهب �ن� �ك الإ هcنا �ئا شي cيج�د'in thahab(a) laa yajid(u) shay'a(n)

hunaak(a)

= if (he) went not (he) finds a thing there

Translation: if he went, he wouldn't find anything there

The imperfective in the last example served as a subjunctive verb. We mentioned in the verb section that this is common in Arabic.

Do Not!

When laa comes before second person conjugations of imperfective verbs, it will mean a negative command.

أل� ال تس�laa tas'al

= not (you) ask

Translation: don't ask!

تض�حك�ي� الlaa tadhakee

= not (you) laugh (sing. fem.)

Translation: don't laugh!

When laa is used in this way (to give a negative command), it becomes a jussive particle and the imperfective verb after it must be in the jussive mood.

Before Subjects

When laa precedes the subject instead of the verb, it will work either like

lays(a) (i.e. it will require an adverb in the accusative case following it), or

like 'inna (i.e the subject will be in the accusative case). However, the

subject and the predicate must be indefinite when we use laa before the subject.

The first usage (like lays(a)) is a rather unusual way to use this particle in Arabic.

Example:

´ ال �ط�ال ها مطر�

laa matar(un) haatila(n)

= is/exists not a rain falling

Translation: no rain is falling

= it is not raining

OR: it is not rain which is falling

�ت� ال �بي ال ف�ي� رجcل�laa rajul(un) fee ('a)l-bayt(i)

= is/exists not a man in the house

Translation: there is no man in the house

OR: the man in the house is not a man

The second way of using laa before nouns (like 'inna) is much more

common. laa is usually used in this way to make a general statement.

Whereas the previous way of using laa (like lays(a)) should be used when making a more specific statement.

�ت� ال �بي ال ف�ي� أحد

laa 'ahad(a) fee ('a)l-bayt(i)

= not a one (is) in the house

Translation: no one/nobody is in the house

�ب� ال الذ¦ها على� cؤ cيج�ر رجcل laa rajul(a) yajru'(u) "alaa ('a)th-

thahaab(i)

= not a man dares on the going

Translation: no man dares to go

As a norm in the second case, the subject after laa will usually not be Noonated, although it will still be indefinite. As we have mentioned already,

the subject and the predicate must be indefinite when using negative laa before the subject of a sentence.

In Arabic grammar, when laa works like 'inna it is called:

"negating of genus laa" س�� ج�ن �ل ل cف�ية� ¦ا الن .ال

Neither ... nor ...

Laa is used in Arabic to say "neither...nor..."

...ال وال ... laa ... wa-laa ...

Neither ... nor ...

� ال �ك والهذا ذاlaa haathaa wa-laa thaak(a)

= not this and not that

Translation: neither this nor that

�تc ال سم�ع�تc والرأيlaa ra'ayt(u) wa-laa sami"t(u)

= not (I) saw and not (I) heard

Translation: neither did I see nor did I hear

Prefixed laa-

In modern Arabic, laa can often be prefixed to create new words much as non-, un-, in-, dis-, im-. il-, and ir- are used in English words.

Examples:

Inorganic laa-"udwiyy(un) لºض�و�يcاع

Irresponsible laa-mas'ool(un) امس�ؤcو�ل�ل

Infinitelaa-

mutanaah(in) �ه²ل امcتنا

*The word rayru cر� ,other than" is often used in a similar way; however" = غيthat word forms a genitive construction with the noun following it and will not be prefixed to it.

Examples:

Not organic rayru "udwiyy(in) cر� غيÃض�و�يcع

Not responsible rayru mas'ool(in) cر� غي

مس�ؤcو�ل²

Not finiterayru

mutanaah(in) cر� �ه²غي مcتنا



Maa � ماAlthough it is seldom used in formal Arabic, negative maa is the most commonly used negative particle in the modern spoken dialects of Arabic.

The usual usage of this particle in classical Arabic is before perfective verbs, but it can also be used before imperfective verbs, even though this is a rather awkward usage in the formal language.

� هcو �ئا ما شي cيع�ر�فhuw(a) maa ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)



� �ئا ما شي cيع�ر�فmaa ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)



cه¦ �ن � إ �ئا ما شي cيع�ر�ف'inna-h(u) maa ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)



cه¦ أن cك ت بر� أخ� � لقد� �ئا ما شي cيع�ر�فla-qad 'akhbartu-k(a) 'anna-h(u) maa

ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)



Before Subjects

� � ما هcنا أحد�maa 'ahad(un) hunaa

= not a one (is) here

Translation: no one/nobody is here

� �ئا هcو ما شي cيع�ر�فmaa huw(a) ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)

= not he knows a thing


� �ئا أحد� ما شي cيع�ر�فmaa 'ahad(un) ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)

= not a one knows a thing

Translation: no one/nobody knows anything

Maa can also work like lays(a), that is, it will require an adverb in the accusative case to follow it.

� بشرا ما � هذاmaa haathaa bashara(n)

= is/exists not this (as) a human

Translation: this is not a human being

With transitive bi-:

� � ما �هذا بشر²بmaa haathaa bi-bashar(in)

= is/exists not this in (state of) a human


� � ما �هذا �بشر�ب الmaa haathaa bi-l-bashar(i)

= is/exists not this in (state of) the human


'in ن�� إThe last one of the negative particles in the present tense, 'in (Hebrew אין) was an important negative word in classical Arabic, but not as much in modern Arabic.

Before Verbs

�ن� هcو �ئا إ شي cيع�ر�فhuw(a) 'in ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)



�ن� �ئا إ شي cيع�ر�ف'in ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)



cه¦ �ن �ن� إ �ئا إ شي cيع�ر�ف'inna-h(u) 'in ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)



cه¦ أن cك ت بر� أخ� �ن� لقد� �ئا إ شي cيع�ر�فla-qad 'akhbartu-k(a) 'anna-h(u) 'in

ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)



Before Subjects

�ن� � إ هcنا أحد�'in 'ahad(un) hunaa

= not a one (is) here

Translation: no one/nobody is here

�ن� �ئا هcو إ شي cيع�ر�ف'in huw(a) ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)

= not he knows a thing


�ن� �ئا أحد� إ شي cيع�ر�ف'in 'ahad(un) ya"rif(u) shay'a(n)

= not a one knows a thing

Translation: no one/nobody knows anything

Like laa and maa, Arabs also used 'in in the same way as lays(a) (with an adverb in the accusative case following the subject).

�ن� بشرا إ � هذا'in haathaa bashara(n)

= is/exists not this (as) a human



Past Tense Negative Sentences

TenseUsage

WordVerbal Sentences Nominal Sentences

Past

Before verbs only(imperfective verb only) lam لم�

Before verbs only(imperfective verb only) lammaa � لم¦ا

All TensesBefore verbs only








'in �ن� إThose are the negative words that can be seen in negative sentences in the past tense. They are all particles. The first two are different from the other two in that they require the verb after them to be an imperfective verb in the jussive mood, even though the sentence will be in the past tense.

lam لم�This the major negative particle for the past tense in formal Arabic. Although it is used for the past tense, it can never be used with the perfective verb itself, rather it is only used before imperfective verbs.

Positive Nominal

c �ولد أكل ال

'al-walad(u) 'akal(a)

= the boy ate

Translation: the boy ate/has eaten

Negative

c �ولد �كcل لم� ال �يأ 'al-walad(u) lam ya'<kul

= the boy did not eat

Translation: the boy didn't eat/hasn't eaten

Positive Verbal

c أكل �ولد ال'akal(a) ('a)l-walad(u)

= ate the boy


Negative

cل� لم� �ك c يأ �ولد الlam ya'<kul(i) 'al-walad(u)

= did not eat the boy


Positive Nominal

�ن كا �د� � ز�يا هcناziyaad(un) kaan(a) hunaa

= Ziyad was here

Translation: Ziyad was here

Negative

�د� لم�ز�يا cن� ي �ك هcناziyaad(un) lam yakun hunaa

= Ziyad did not be here

Translation: Ziyad was not here

Positive Verbal

�ن � كا هcنا �د� ز�يا kaan(a) ziyaad(un) hunaa

= was Ziyad here

Translation: Ziyad was here

Negative

لم� cن� ي � ك هcنا �د� ز�ياlam yakun ziyaad(un) hunaa

= did not be Ziyad here

Translation: Ziyad was not here

Lam is a jussive particle and the imperfective verb after it must be in the

jussive mood. Conjugation of the verb yakoon(u) in the jussive mood is available here.

lammaa � لم¦اLammaa is a classical negative particle for the past tense that works just

like lam; it comes before imperfective verbs and it is also a jussive particle.

However, lammaa means "did not yet" rather than "did not" only. When

lammaa is used, the speaker means that the action is not realized yet but it is expected to be so at any time.

Positive Nominal

أكل cولد� ال'al-walad(u) 'akal(a)

= the boy ate


Negative

c �ولد �ال �كcل لم¦ا �يأ 'al-walad(u) lammaa ya'<kul

= the boy did not yet eat

Translation: the boy hasn't eaten yet

Positive Verbal


= ate the boy


Negative

� cل� لم¦ا �ك c يأ �ولد الlammaa ya'<kul(i) 'al-walad(u)

= did not yet eat the boy

Translation: the boy hasn't eaten yet

Note that when lammaa comes before a perfective verb it will have a totally different meaning. In that case, it would mean something like "since that."

� نجح درس لم¦اlammaa daras(a) najah(a)

= since that (he) studied (he) succeed

Translation: since that he studied, he passed

Finally, we should mention here that the word lammaa is used in almost all of the modern dialects of Arabic as a conjunction word meaning "when."

e.g. "lammaa 'akalt ..." = "when I ate ..."

Maa � �ن� in' & ما إ

Maa and 'in are used for all tenses. Maa is frequently used in classical Arabic to negate past tense sentences (but not as frequently in modern formal

Arabic). Maa is also the exclusive past tense negator used in the modern dialects of Arabic.

Positive Nominal

أكل cولد� ال'al-walad(u) 'akal(a)

= the boy ate


Negative

c �ولد �ال أكل ما 'al-walad(u) maa 'akal(a)

= the boy not ate


Negative

c �ولد �ن�ال أكل إ 'al-walad(u) 'in 'akal(a)

= the boy not ate


Positive Verbal


= ate the boy


Negative

� c ما �ولد ال أكلmaa 'akal(a) ('a)l-walad(u)

= not ate the boy


Negative

�ن� c أكل إ �ولد ال'in 'akal(a) ('a)l-walad(u)

= not ate the boy


When we use maa or 'in, there is no need to change anything about the verb of the sentence.


Future Tense Negative Sentences

Tense Usage Word

Verbal Sentences Nominal Sentences

Future Before verbs only(imperfective verb only) lan لن�

Present & Future


imperfective verb)



laa ال

All Tenses


imperfective verb)







'in �ن� إThose are the negative words that can be seen in negative sentences in the future tense. They are all particles. The first one of them is a subjunctive particle and it requires the imperfective verb after it to be in the subjunctive mood.

Lan لن�Lan is the principle negative particle for future tense in formal Arabic. It comes before imperfective verbs, and if there is a future tense particle before the verb (like sa-or sawfa), it must be removed.

Positive Nominal

�مى� �ف�رc سل cسا غدا ست

salmaa sa-tusaafir(u) rada(n)

=Salma will travel tomorrow

Translation: Salma is leaving town/country tomorrow

Negative

�مى� �ف�ر لن� سل cسا غدا تsalmaa lan tusaafir(a)

rada(n)

=Salma will not travel tomorrow

Translation: Salma is not leaving town/country tomorrow

Positive Verbal

cف�ر� cسا �مى� ست غدا سلsa-tusaafir(u) salmaa rada(n)

=will travel Salma tomorrow


Negative

�ف�ر لن� cسا �مى� ت غدا سلlan tusaafir(a) salmaa

rada(n)

=will not travel Salma tomorrow


Positive Nominal

cو�نc يك cيو�م الطق�س صح�وا

�ن� �ني �ث اال

'at-taqs(u) yakoon(u) sahwa(n) yawm(a) ('a)l-'ithnayn(i)

=the weather will be clear Monday

Translation: the weather will be clear on Monday

Negative

cو�ن لن�الطق�سc يو�م يك صح�وا

�ن� �ني �ث اال'at-taqs(u) lan yakoon(a) sahwa(n)

yawm(a) ('a)l-'ithnayn(i)

=the weather will not be clear Monday

Translation: the weather will not be clear on Monday

Positive Verbal

cو�نc يو�م يك صح�وا cالطق�س

�ن� �ني �ث اال

yakoon(u) ('a)t-taqs(u) sahwa(n) yawm(a) ('a)l-'ithnayn(i)

=will be the weather clear Monday

Translation: the weather will be clear on Monday

Negative

cو�ن لن� يو�م يك صح�وا cالطق�س

�ن� �ني �ث االlan yakoon(a) ('a)t-taqs(u)

sahwa(n) yawm(a) ('a)l-'ithnayn(i)

=will not be the weather clear Monday


Lan is a subjunctive particle and the imperfective verb after it must always be in the subjunctive mood.

The future particle sawfa can sometimes be used in negative future tense sentences, but it must come before the negative word.

Examples:

�ف�ر لن� سو�ف cسا �مى� ت غدا سلsawfa lan tusaafir(a) salmaa

rada(n)saw



سو�ف cو�ن لن� الطق�سc صح�وا يك�ن� �ني �ث اال يو�م

'at-taqs(u) sawfa lan yakoon(a) sahwa(n) yawm(a) ('a)l-'ithnayn(i)

=the weather will not be clear Monday


laa الLaa works with imperfective verbs, and as those can mean both the present

and the future, laa is used for negative sentences in both the present and the future.

Positive Nominal

�مى� �ف�رc سل cسا غدا ستsalmaa sa-tusaafir(u) rada(n)



Negative

�مى� �ف�رc ال سل cسا غدا تsalmaa laa tusaafir(u)

rada(n)

=Salma not will travel tomorrow


Positive Verbal




Negative

�ف�رc ال cسا �مى� ت غدا سلlaa tusaafir(u) salmaa

rada(n)

=not will travel Salmaa tomorrow


cو�نc ال يو�م يك صح�وا cالطق�س

�ن� �ني �ث االlaa yakoon(u) ('a)t-taqs(u) sahwa(n)

yawm(a) ('a)l-'ithnayn(i)

=not will be the weather clear Monday


cالالطق�س cو�نc ف�ي� يك صح�وا�ء� تا �ش§ ال

'at-taqs(u) laa yakoon(u) sahwa(n) fee ('a)sh-shitaa'(i)

=the weather not will be clear in the winter

Translation: ≈ the weather is not usually clear in winter

See here for explanation about the last sentence.

The future particle sawfa can sometimes be used in negative future tense sentences, but it must come before the negative word.

Examples:

�ف�ر ال سو�ف cسا �مى� cت غدا سلsawfa laa tusaafir(u) salmaa

rada(n)saw



Laa + Perfective

Laa can often precede the perfective (past) verb in classical Arabic. However, this does not mean that the sentence will be in the past tense,

because laa can NOT negate past tense events (except in "neither...nor..." construction, where it can).

If laa came followed by a perfective verb, that verb would be a subjunctive verb not an actual past verb; because in Arabic, like in English, the perfective verbs are used as subjunctive verbs.

So laa plus a perfective verb is used for negative wishing; laa will mean in this construction something like "I wish not that."

Examples:

¦هc ال �ل ال سمحlaa samah(a) ('a)l-laah(u)

= I wish not that allow God

Translation: may God not allow (that)

= God forbid

¦هc ال �ل ال قد¦رlaa qaddar(a) ('a)l-laah(u)

= I wish not that predestine God

Translation: may God not predestine (that)

= God forbid

¦هc ال �ل ال �محك ساlaa saamaha-k(a) ('a)l-laah(u)

= I wish not that forgive you God

Translation: may God not forgive you

Maa � �ن� in' & ما إ

Maa and 'in are used for all tenses. They can be used to form negative sentences in the future tense after removing the future particles (sa-or sawfa).

Positive Nominal

�مى� �ف�رc سل cسا غدا ستsalmaa sa-tusaafir(u) rada(n)



Negative

�مى� � سل �ف�رc ما cسا غدا تsalmaa maa tusaafir(u)

rada(n)



Negative

�مى� �ن� سل �ف�رc إ cسا غدا تsalmaa 'in tusaafir(u) rada(n)


Translation: Salma is not leaving

town/country tomorrow

Positive Verbal




Negative

� �ف�رc ما cسا �مى� ت غدا سلmaa tusaafir(u) salmaa

rada(n)



Negative

�ن� �ف�رc إ cسا �مى� ت غدا سل'in tusaafir(u) salmaa rada(n)



A summary for the common negative words and their usage in modern standard Arabic: (note that the negative words are always placed before the verbs in this scheme)

Tense Positive Sentence Negative Sentence

Present NO VERB

lays(a) Before Predicate

�س ليlays(a)


cيف�علyaf"al(u)

Laa + Indicative Imperfective

cيف�عل الlaa yaf"al(u)

Past

Perfective

فعلfa"al(a)

Lam + Jussive Imperfective

يف�عل� لم�lam yaf"al

Future


cيف�علyaf"al(u)

Lan + Subjunctive Imperfective

يف�عل لن�lan yaf"al(a)

Imperative(present / future)

Imperative

�ف�عل� ا'if"al

laa + 2nd Person Jussive Imperfective

تف�عل� الlaa taf"al


Negation + Exclusion Style

Arabs did not like talking much, and this is why they had the saying:

ودل¦ قل¦ � ما � �كالم ال cر� خيwhich means "the best of talking is what would be little and significant."

This is why they liked very much omitting parts of their speech, even if they were important for the structure of sentences. This was common in Arabic, and Arab grammarians called such omitted parts "estimated" parts of speech.

Now here we are going to see an example of this that is very common in Arabic, which is the negation + exclusion emphatic style.

Example:

ملك� �ت أن'ant(a) malak(un)

= you (are) an angel

Translation: you are an angel

This is a normal nominal sentence. To make an emphatic version of this sentence using the negation + exclusion style, we will need to negate the first part (the subject) and exclude the second part (the predicate).

�ن� �ت إ ¦أن �ال ملك� إ'in 'ant(a) 'illaa malak(un)

= not you (are) (anything) except an angel

Translation: you are nothing but an angel

= definitely, you are an angelThe omitted word here was "anything" or "anyone." It was colored in purple.

Another example:

�حق¦ ال cو�لcتقtaqool(u) ('a)l-haqq(a)

= (you) say the truth

Translation: you are telling the truth

¦تقcو�لc ال �ال �حق¦ إ الlaa taqool(u) 'illaa ('a)l-haqq(a)

= not (you) say (anything) except the truth

Translation: you are telling nothing but the truth

= definitely, you are telling the truth

Another way of understanding this sentence would be:

¦تقcو�لc ال �ال �حق¦ إ الlaa taqool(u) 'illaa ('a)l-haqq(a)

= not (you) will say (anything) except the truth

Translation: you don't say anything but the truth

= you always tell the truth

A more complicated sentence:

¦ أبى�لقد� �ال يذ�هب إ أن�laqad 'abaa 'illaa 'an yathhab(a)

= (he) has refused (everything) except that (he) go

Translation: he insisted on going

This is a common formula in formal Arabic. It is similar to what we have been talking about; there is an omitted part, a negation, and a following exception.

Note that infinitival 'an is a subjunctive particle, and the imperfective verb following it must be in the subjunctive mood.

The usual formula is:

¦ أبى� �ال )إ همص�درا(

'abaa 'illaa (infinitive)

Verb signifying rejection + exclusive word + an infinitive

Infinitives in Arabic can be either infinitival phrases like the one in the

aforementioned example (with infinitival 'an), or verbal nouns, like:

¦ أبى�لقد� �ال �ب إ الذ¦هاlaqad 'abaa 'illaa ('a)th-thahaab(a)

= (he) has refused (everything) except the going

Translation: he insisted on going

Another common formula:

cه¦ �ن �سإ ¦ لي �ال � إ مقا أح�'inna-h(u) lays(a) 'illaa 'ahmaqa(n)

= truthfully him is/exists not (as anything) except (as) a fool

Translation: he is nothing but a fool

Lays(a) is an incomplete verb. It requires an adverb (accusative case) to complete its meaning instead of a nominative noun predicate.

The usual formula is:

�س ¦ لي �ال ه...إ

lays(a) 'illaa (adverb)

An emphatic phrase has evolved from this formula:

أح�مق� cه¦ �ن �سإ ¦ لي �ال إ'inna-h(u) 'ahmaqu(n) lays(a) 'illaa

= truthfully him (is) fool ..(emphatic phrase)..

Translation: he is nothing but a fool

This two-word-phrase comes at the end of the sentence, but it means nothing and it is just a meaningless alteration of the previous formula.

Original Form Altered Form

cه¦ �ن �سإ ¦ لي �ال إ � مقا أح�

أح�مق� cه¦ �ن �سإ لي ¦ �ال إ

Finally on this subject, the following famous Islamic phrase is also a negation + exclusion styled phrase:

�له ال ¦إ �ال ¦هc إ �ل ال laa 'ilaah(a) 'illaa ('a)l-laah(u)

= not a god (exists) except God

Translation: there is no god but God

Interrogation

Interrogative sentences, or questions, are two types: yes/no questions (verification questions), and questions requesting additional information about the sentence by using words such as what, who, when, etc. Yes/no questions can become multiple choice questions when the word "or" is used.

Yes/No QuestionsYes/no questions are formed in Germanic languages, of which English is one, by inverting the subject and the verb of the sentence; e.g. "you are" becomes "are you?" and "you can" becomes "can you?" etc. Of course modern English has its own way with the verb "do," which is used before the subject in place of most of the verbs.

Turning a sentence into a yes/no question is easier in Arabic than in English. Here we will not need to invert the subject and the verb or anything like that. We will just put a particle in front of the sentence and that will turn it into a yes/no question. No changes in cases or moods are required.

There are two particles that we can use to create yes/no questions, or multiple choice questions with the addition of "or."

Here are those two particles:

Particles of Interrogation� فا � حر� �م �ف�ها ت �س� اال

Is it that ?

'a- أ

hal هل�

Those particles resemble in meaning the French est-ce que = "is it that?"

Lets have some examples.

1) Positive Questions

Positive Sentence

�ل� �ي � خل هcناkhaleel(un) hunaa

= Khalil (is) here

Translation: Khalil is here

Positive Question

�ل�أ �ي ؟ خل � هcنا'a-khaleel(un) hunaa

= is it that Khalil (is) here

Translation: is Khalil here?

Positive Question

�ل� هل� �ي ؟ خل � هcناhal khaleel(un) hunaa

= is it that Khalil (is) here

Translation: is Khalil here?

Positive Answer

�ل� نعم� �ي � خل هcناna"am khaleel(un) hunaa

= yes Khalil (is) here

Translation: yes Khalil is here

Negative Answer

�ل� ال �ي �س خل � لي هcناlaa khaleel(un) lays(a) hunaa

= no Khalil is/exists not here

Translation: no Khalil is not here

Negative Answer

�س ال �ل� لي �ي � خل هcناlaa lays(a) khaleel(un) hunaa

= no is/exists not Khalil here

Translation: no Khalil is not here

Note that there are many alternatives for forming a negative answer. I used here ones commonly used in modern standard Arabic. (See negation for more information)

More examples:

Positive Sentence

م�س� مcش� cال�ط¦ق�س'at-taqs(u) mushmis(un)

= the weather (is) sunny

Translation: it is sunny

Positive Question

؟ آ م�س� مcش� cط¦ق�س� ل'aa-t-taqs(u) mushmis(un)

= is it that the weather (is) sunny

Translation: is it sunny?

Positive Question

م�س� هل� مcش� cط¦ق�س� ؟ الhal(i) ('a)t-taqs(u) mushmis(un)

= is it that the weather (is) sunny

Translation: is it sunny?

Positive Answer

� م�س� نعم مcش� cال�ط¦ق�س na"am(i) ('a)t-taqs(u)

mushmis(un)

= yes the weather (is) sunny

Translation: yes it is sunny

Negative Answer

�سال�ط¦ق�سc ال م�سا لي مcش� laa ('a)t-taqs(u) lays(a)

mushmis(an)

= no the weather is/exists not (as) sunny

Translation: no it is not sunny

Negative Answer

�س ال م�سا لي مcش� cال�ط¦ق�س

laa lays(a) ('a)t-taqs(u) mushmis(an)

= no is/exists not the weather (as) sunny

Translation: no it is not sunny

The purple vowels, barring the first one, were added for phonological reasons, namely to prevent still letters from directly following each other.

However, the first purple vowel was added for a different reason which is to clarify that the statement was a question. This vowel will always be added when attaching interrogative 'a- to the definite article ('a)l-, and the combination will become 'aa-l-.

Attachment of Interrogative 'a- to 'al-

�قمرcآ ل cقمر� ال'aa-l-qamar(u) ('a)l-qamar(u)

is it that the moon? the moon

م�سcآ لش¦ cم�س الش¦'aa-sh-shams(u) ('a)sh-shams(u)

is it that the sun? the sun

More examples:

Positive Sentence

¦ة �ي �عرب ال cم¦ تتكلtatakallam(u) ('a)l-"arabiyya(ta)

= (you sing. masc.) speak the Arabic

Translation: you speak Arabic

you are speaking Arabic

Positive Question

؟ أ ¦ة �ي �عرب ال cم¦ تتكل

'a-tatakallam(u) ('a)l-"arabiyya(ta)

= is it that (you sing. masc.) speak the Arabic

Translation: do you speak Arabic?

are you speaking Arabic?

Positive Question

¦ة هل� �ي �عرب ال cم¦ ؟ تتكلhal tatakallam(u) ('a)l-"arabiyya(ta)

= is it that (you sing. masc.) speak the Arabic

Translation: do you speak Arabic?

are you speaking Arabic?

Positive Answer

¦ة نعم� �ي �عرب ال cم¦ أتكلna"am 'atakallam(u)

('a)l-"arabiyya(ta)

= yes (I) speak the Arabic

Translation: yes I speak Arabic

yes I'm speaking Arabic

Negative Answer

¦ة ال ال �ي �عرب ال cم¦ أتكلlaa laa 'atakallam(u)

('a)l-"arabiyya(ta)

= no not (I) speak the Arabic

Translation: no, I don't speak Arabic

no, I'm not speaking Arabic

Multiple-Choice-QuestionsMultiple choice questions have the conjunction "or" in them; e.g. "do you like apples more or bananas?"

The particle hal is not used in questions containing the word "or." Only 'a- will be used here.

In Arabic, there are two versions of the conjunction "or," one for regular sentences and another one for questions or sentences preceded by 'a-. If the

sentence containing "or" were not preceded by 'a-, the version 'aw

would be used for "or." If the sentence were preceded by 'a-, the versionأو�

'am أم� would be used.

Positive Sentence

cم� ت ر� cز� �م¦ا � إ يا و�ر� cق أو� س� �ع�را الzurtum 'immaa sooryaa 'aw(i)

('a)l-"iraaq(a)

= (you plu. masc.) visited either Syria or Iraq

Translation: you (have) visited either Syria or Iraq

Positive Question

� أ يا و�ر� cس cم� ت ر� cز� ؟ أم �ق �ع�را ال'a-zurtum sooryaa 'am(i)

('a)l-"iraaq(a)

= is it that (you plu. masc.) visited Syria or Iraq

Translation: did/have you visit(ed) Syria or Iraq?

Positive Answer

� نا ر� cق ز� �ع�را وال � يا و�ر� cسzurnaa sooryaa wa-l-"iraaq(a)

= (we) visited Syria and Iraq

Translation: we (have) visited Syria and Iraq

Positive Answer

� نا ر� cلز� �ك �ي ه�ماzurnaa kilay-himaa

= (we) visited (the) both (of) them

Translation: we (have) visited both of them

Positive Answer

ر� لم� cأيانز � �هcما م�نlam nazur 'ayy(an) min-huma

= did not (we) visit any from/of them

Translation: we did/have not visit(ed) any of them

we (have) visited neither of them

Note: Syria can be also written sooriyya(t) cة¦ و�ر�ي cس . This is the only form that was used before the 20th century, and the form used by the people of the country itself until now. It is more correct from an Arabic point of view, but I used up there the form that is common in the Arab world in general.

Positive Sentence

� �م¦ا �ي� إ �ع�دcن cسا ال أو� ست'immaa sa-tusaa"idu-nee 'aw laa

=either (you sing. masc.) will help me or not

Translation: you are going to either help me or not

Positive Question

�ي�أ �ع�دcن cسا ؟ ال أم� ست'a-sa-tusaa"idu-nee 'am laa

=is it that (you sing. masc.) will help me or not

Translation: are you going to help me or not?

Positive Answer

�ع�دcك نعم� cسا سأna"am sa-'usaa"idu-k(a)

= yes (I) will help you

Translation: yes, I am going to help you

Negative Answer

�ع�دك لن� ال cسا أlaa lan 'usaa"ida-k(a)

= no will not (I) help you

Translation: no, I am not going to help you

'a- Meaning If/WhetherThe particle 'a- becomes in certain sentences a conjunction word that introduces alternatives like "if" or "whether."

Example:

�ء� سوا c �دأ و�ا أسنب cلم� أم�حضر و�ا cرcيح�ض

sa-nabda'(u) sawaa'(un) 'a-hadaroo 'am lam yahduroo

= (we) will begin, a same (it is) if/whether (they plu. masc.) came or did not came

Translation: we will begin whether they came/showed up or not

The word sawaa'(un) = "a same" is often employed in such sentences, but it can be done without:

c �دأ و�ا أسنب cو�ا أم�حضر cرcيح�ض لم�sa-nabda'(u) 'a-hadaroo 'am lam

yahduroo

= (we) will begin if/whether (they plu. masc.) came or did not came


The 'a- itself can also be omitted in such sentences:

و�ا cحضر �ء� سوا c �دأ لم� أم�سنب و�ا cرcيح�ض

sa-nabda'(u) sawaa'(un) hadaroo 'am lam yahduroo

= (we) will begin, a same (it is) (if/whether) (they plu. masc.) came or did not came


A mostly reduced version:

و�ا cحضر c �دأ و�ا أم�سنب cرcيح�ض لم�sa-nabda'(u) hadaroo 'am lam

yahduroo

= (we) will begin (if/whether) (they plu. masc.) came or did not came


2) Negative QuestionsNegative sentences (e.g. you don't) are turned into yes/no negative questions (e.g. don't you?) by the same mechanism mentioned for positive sentences. However, the particle 'a- is the one used in negative questions. An important difference here from English lies in the answer to the question. If a question is a negative question then the answer must be with the word

na"am نعم� for agreement with the negative sentence of the question, or

for saying "no" (e.g. no, I don't), and the word balaa بلى� for disagreement with the negative sentence of the question, or for saying "yes" (e.g. yes, I do). Examples:

Negative Sentence

�ل� �ي �س خل � لي هcناkhaleel(un) lays(a) hunaa

= Khalil is/exists not here

Translation: Khalil is not here

Negative Sentence

�س �ل� لي �ي � خل هcناlays(a) khaleel(un) hunaa

= is/exists not Khalil here

Translation: Khalil is not here

Negative Question

�ل�أ �ي �س خل ؟ لي � هcنا'a-khaleel(un) lays(a) hunaa

= is it that Khalil is/exists not here

Translation: is Khalil not here?

Negative Question

�سأ �ل� لي �ي ؟ خل � هcنا'a-lays(a) khaleel(un) hunaa

= is it that is/exists not Khalil here

Translation: is not Khalil here?

Positive Answer

�ل� نعم� �ي �س خل � لي هcناna"am khaleel(un) lays(a)

hunaa

= yes Khalil is/exists not here

Translation: no, Khalil is not here

Positive Answer

�س نعم� �ل� لي �ي � خل هcناna"am lays(a) khaleel(un)

hunaa

= yes is/exists not Khalil here

Translation: no, Khalil is not here

Negative Answer

�ل� بلى� �ي � خل هcناbalaa khaleel(un) hunaa

= no Khalil (is) here

Translation: yes, Khalil is here

Answering Negative Questions (don't you?)

Agreement with the negative sentence

(no, I don't)

na"am نعم�

Disagreement with the negative sentence

(yes, I do)balaa بلى�

When the 'a- in the negative question is separated from negative word (e.g. lays(a)) by the subject, the emphasis of the question will be on the subject, making the question primarily about the subject rather than the verb or the action. When the 'a- in the negative question is followed directly by the negative word, the emphasis of the question will be on the verb or action, making the question primarily about it rather than about the subject.

Negative Sentence

cس ال�ط¦ق�س� � لي م�سا مcش�'at-taqs(u) lays(a) mushmis(an)

= the weather is/exists not sunny

Translation: it is not sunny

Negative Sentence

�س � ال�ط¦ق�سc لي م�سا مcش�lays(a) ('a)t-taqs(u)

mushmis(an)

= is/exists not the weather sunny

Translation: it is not sunny

Negative Question

�ط¦ق�سcآ �س ل ؟ لي � م�سا مcش�'aa-t-taqs(u) lays(a)

mushmis(an)

= is it that the weather is/exists not sunny

Translation: is it not sunny?

Negative Question

�سأ � ال�ط¦ق�سc لي م�سا ؟مcش�'a-lays(a) ('a)t-taqs(u)

mushmis(an)

= is it that is/exists not the weather sunny

Translation: is not it sunny?

Positive Answer

�س ال�ط¦ق�سc نعم� � لي م�سا مcش�na"am ('a)t-taqs(u) lays(a)

mushmis(an)

= yes the weather is/exists not

sunny

Translation: no, it is not sunny

Positive Answer

�س نعم� � ال�ط¦ق�سc لي م�سا مcش�na"am lays(a) ('a)t-taqs(u)

mushmis(an)

= yes is/exists not the weather sunny

Translation: no, it is not sunny

Negative Answer

م�س� ال�ط¦ق�سc بلى� مcش�balaa ('a)t-taqs(u) mushmis(un)

= no the weather (is) sunny

Translation: yes, it is sunny

Negative Sentence

¦مc ال ¦ة تتكل �ي �عرب الlaa tatakallam(u) ('a)l-"arabiyya(ta)

= not (you sing. masc.) speak the Arabic

Translation: you don't speak Arabic

you are not speaking Arabic

Negative Question

¦مc الأ ¦ة تتكل �ي �عرب ؟ ال'a-laa tatakallam(u) ('a)l-"arabiyya(ta)

= is it that not (you sing. masc.) speak the Arabic

Translation: don't you speak Arabic?

Aren't you speaking Arabic?

Positive Answer

¦مc ال نعم� ¦ة أتكل �ي �عرب الna"am laa 'atakallam(u)

('a)l-"arabiyya(ta)

= yes not (I) speak the Arabic

Translation: no, I don't speak Arabic

no, I'm not speaking Arabic

Negative Answer

¦مc بلى� ¦ة أتكل �ي �عرب الbalaa 'atakallam(u) ('a)l-"arabiyya(ta)

= no (I) speak the Arabic

Translation: yes, I do speak Arabic

yes, I'm speaking Arabic

Negative Sentence

� تقcل� لم� �ئا شيlam taqul shay'a(n)

= did not (you sing. masc.) say a thing

Translation: you didn't say anything

you haven't said anything

Negative Question

؟ تقcل� لم�أ � �ئا شي'a-lam taqul shay'a(n)

= is it that did not (you sing. masc.) say a thing

Translation: didn't you say anything?

haven't you said anything?

Positive Answer

� أقcل� لم� نعم� �ئا شيna"am lam 'aqul shay'a(n)

= yes did not (I) say a thing

Translation: no, I didn't say anything

no, I haven't said anything

Negative Answer

� قcل�تc بلى� �ئا شيbalaa qult(u) shay'a(n)

= no (I) said a thing

Translation: yes, I did say something

yes, I have said something

Negative Sentence

�ك لن� هcنا cو�ن تكlan takoon(a) hunaak(a)

= will not (you sing. masc.) be there

Translation: you won't be there

Negative Question

؟ لن�أ �ك هcنا cو�ن تك'a-lan takoon(a) hunaak(a)

= is it that will not (you sing. masc.) be there

Translation: won't you be there?

Positive Answer

�ك أ لن� نعم� هcنا cو�ن كna"am lan 'akoon(a) hunaak(a)

= yes will not (I) be there

Translation: no, I won't be there

Negative Answer

�ك سأ بلى� هcنا cو�نc كbalaa sa-'akoon(u) hunaak(a)

= no (I) will be there

Translation: yes, I will be there

'a-conjunction-As we have mentioned before on this site, Arabs tended to use a lot of unnecessary "and's" in their talk. Here we are going to see another manifestation of this fact.

However, the wa- = "and" will not come here before the interrogative particle 'a- , but it will rather come between it and the word following it.

Examples:

؟ وأ �ب �جوا ال cتع�ر�ف

'a-wa-ta"rif(u) ('a)l-jawaab(a)

= is it that and (you sing. masc.) know the answer?

= and is it that (you sing. masc.) know the answer?

Translation: do you know the answer?

؟ وأ cو�لcأق � ما تع�ي� ال'a-wa-laa ta"ee maa 'aqool(u)

= is it that and (you sing. masc.) not comprehend what (I) say?

= and is it that (you sing. masc.) not comprehend what (I) say?

Translation: don't/won't you understand what I'm saying?

don't/won't you understand what I say?

؟ وأ cبع�د cؤ�م�ن� ت لم�'a-wa-lam tu'<min ba"d(u)

= is it that and (you sing. masc.) did not believe yet?

= and is it that (you sing. masc.) did not believe yet?

Translation: haven't you believed yet?

However, wa- was not the only particle that could be inserted between 'a- and the word following it. Other conjunctions could be inserted as well, like fa- = "then/so," and thumm(a) = "after that/afterwards"

؟ فأ cو�لcأق � ما تع�ي� ال'a-fa-laa ta"ee maa 'aqool(u)

= is it that then/so (you sing. masc.) not comprehend what (I) say?

= then/so is it that (you sing. masc.) not comprehend what (I) say?

Translation: so don't/won't you understand what I'm saying?

so don't/won't you understand what I say?

cم¦أ ؟ ث �ه� ب cم� �ت آمن وقع � ما � �ذا إ'a-thumm(a) 'ithaa maa waqa"(a)

'aamantum bi-h(i)

= is it that after that if that (he/it) fell (you plu.

masc.) believed in him/it?

= after that is it that if that (he/it) fell (you plu.

masc.) believed in him/it?

Translation: after that, if it happened, will you believe in it (the punishment)?

This was a difficult sentence from the Koran (the Muslim holy book).

The verb وقع = "fell" means "happened" in classical Arabic. The verbs were in the perfective because it was a hypothetical situation,

and perfective verbs in Arabic are used for hypothetical situations (the subjunctive mood).

The word maa � here was an infinitival maa , which means "that" (like ما

'an أن� ). This will be covered later on this site.

The insertion of conjunction words after 'a- is common in the Koran.

Etymology noteThe etymology of the interrogative particle 'a- أ is ha- هـ (cf. Hebrew - dה).

The transition of litter هـ into أ was common in classical Arabic. Ha- as interrogative particle was attested in some classical dialects.

e.g. : ن� فقcل � cها ب �ح� صوا ¦ذ�ي� هوأتى� ال � � ذا �رنا غي �مود¦ة ال منح؟ � �نا وجفا

Interrogation (continued)

Yes/No Questions

Yes/No WordsThere are many words for answering questions other than na"am, laa, and balaa.

Here is a listing of the main words:

Yes/No Words

Agreement(true)

Disagreement(false)

Positive Statement

na"am نعم� laa ال

'ajal أجل�kallaa ¦ كال

'ee �ي� إ

Negative Statement

na"am نعم�balaa بلى�'ajal أجل�

'ee �ي� إNotes:

The word kallaa is stronger than laa, and its usage in the classical language imparted a jussive or a warning tone.

The word 'ee would typically be followed by a swearing style in the

classical language (e.g. ي�� ¦ه� إ والل = yes, I swear by God). There are several other obsolete synonyms of na"am.

Classical Synonyms for na"am

jayr(i) �ر� جيbajal بجل�

jalal جلل�

'innah ¦ه� �ن إ*The literal sense of jayr(i) is "I swear."

Tag QuestionsTag questions in the English way are not employed in Arabic. However, there is one formula of a tag question:

Tag Question in Arabic

؟ �ك كذل �س ألي'a-lays(a) ka-thaalik(a)?

= is it that (he/it) is/exists not like that?

Translation: isn't it so?

Examples:

، cيع�لم cه¦ �ن ؟ إ �ك كذل �س ألي

'inna-h(u) ya"lam(u) 'a-lays(a) ka-thaalik(a)?

= it is true that him knows, isn't it so?

Translation: he knows, doesn't he?

بلى�balaa

Translation: yes (he does)

نعم�na"am

Translation: no (he doesn't)

� �ي ب cح� ت ال �ت� أن ، ن c؟ ه �ك كذل �س ألي'ant(i) laa tuhibbeena-h(u) 'a-lays(a)

ka-thaalik(a)?

= you (sing. fem.) not love him, isn't it so?

Translation: you don't love him, do you?

بلى�balaa

Translation: no (I don't)

نعم�na"am

Translation: yes (I do)

Note that laa can often be used in place of na"am in answering tag questions. This happens especially when someone wishes to make his answer very clear.

Example:

� �ي ب cح� ت ¦ك� �ن إ ، ن c؟ ه �ك كذل �س ألي'inna-k(i) tuhibbeena-h(u) 'a-lays(a)

ka-thaalik(a)?

= it is true that you (sing. fem.) love him, isn't it so?

Translation: you love him, don't you?

you are in love with him, aren't you?

هال !

laa

Translation: no (I don't/am not)!

؟... �ك كذل �س ألي ،... , isn't it so ?

Yes is it so balaa بلى�

No it is not so

na"am نعم�

laa ال

Introductory ParticlesAlso called "attention particles," these are the Arabic equivalents of the Latin ecce ="behold." They are used at the beginning of speech in classical Arabic, especially in literary talk, but they do not mean anything specific.

Two of these particles, literally speaking, are based on the interrogative particle 'a-.

Particles of Introduction/Attention

Literal Sense Particle

Is it that not ? 'a-laa أال

Is it that not ? 'a-maa � أماBehold / here haa � ها

Vocative Particle (≈ o/oh) yaa � ياNo kallaa ¦ كال

Examples:

¦غ�تc أال بل قد� §ي� �ن إ'a-laa 'inn-ee qad ballart(u)

= behold truthfully me have informed

Translation: I have informed (you ... so I'm no longer responsible)

Information about 'inna is here.

� �د�ق� أما لصا ¦ك �ن إ

'a-maa 'inna-k(a) la-saadiq(un)

= behold truthfully you (sing. masc.) (are) certainly honest

Translation: you are indeed telling the truth

you are honest indeed

The particle haa- = "behold/here" has many uses in Arabic. One of the most notable uses is its prefixation to demonstratives (see here). It is also often used to mean "ecce" or "behold."

Examples:

� � ها أناhaa 'anaa

= behold/here I (am)

Translation: here I am

� هcم� هاhaa hum

= behold/here they (plu. masc.) (are)

Translation: here they are

� � ها هcنا � أناhaa 'anaa hunaa

= behold/here I (am) here

Translation: here I am

� �ك ها هcنا هcم�haa hum hunaak(a)

= behold/here they (plu. masc.) (are) there

Translation: there they are

� �ن ها ئ ج� قد�haa qad ji'<n(a)

= behold/here they (plu. fem.) have come

Translation: here they come

Yaa is the main vocative particle in Arabic. There is nothing like it in English, although it is often translated to O as in "O God." This particle is commonly used with the meaning of "ecce."

� هذا يا �ل قب م�ت¶ �ي� �تن �ليyaa layta-nee mitt(u) qabl(a) haathaa

= behold it is wished if me died before this

Translation: I whish I have died before this

I wish I am dead nowInformation about layt(a) is here.

Kalla means "no," but it is sometimes used like the rest of the particles here.

¦ ليط�غى كال �ن �سا �ن اإل �ن¦ �إkalla 'inn(a) ('a)l-'insaan(a) la-yatraa

= behold truthfully the human certainly transgresses

Translation: definitely, humans do transgression


Interrogative Pronouns

We have covered yes/no questions, and seen that they were formed by means of interrogative particles. The rest of the words used in interrogation are all pronouns (nouns in Arabic grammar). They are used to form questions about such details as what, who, when, where, etc.

Nouns of Interrogationcء� ما � أس� �م �ف�ها ت �س� اال

What maa � ماWho man من�

When

mataa متى�'ayyaan(a) �ن ¦ا أي

Where 'ayn(a) �ن أي

How kayf(a) �ف كيHow many

kam How muchكم�How

'annaa ¦ى� WhenأنWhere

Which (of) 'ayy(u) أي¶

Except for 'ayy(u), all of the interrogative nouns are "built" words, which means that they do not show case inflection. They also do not change to suit different genders or numbers.

They are used in a similar way to the interrogative particles.

1) What

� ؟ ما � هذاmaa haathaa

= what this (is)

Translation: what is this?

� � ما ءc هذا ي� ؟ال�ش¦maa haathaa ('a)sh-shay'(u)

= what this the thing (is)

Translation: what is this thing?*See the section on demonstrative for information on their usage.

Question

� ؟ �ا ما مcك س�maa ('i)smu-k(a)

= what (the) name (of) you (is)

Translation: what is your name?

Answer

الر �ا cد� عب م�ي� ح�من�¦س� 'ism-ee "abd(u) ('a)r-rahmaan(i)

= (the) name (of) me (is) (the) servant (of) the merciful (=God)

Translation: my name is Abdurrahman

� ؟ قcل�ت ماmaa qult(a)

= what (you sing. masc.) said (is)

Translation: what did you say?

� � ما �د�ي cر�ي ؟ نتmaa tureedeen(a)

= what (you sing. fem.) want (is)

Translation: what do you want?

� cو� ما ؟ نستقcو�ل

maa sa-taqooloon(a)

= what will (you plu. masc.) say (is)

Translation: what will you say?

� ؟ ما �ك هcنا cو�جدc يmaa yoojad(u) hunaak(a)

= what exists there (is)

Translation: what is there?

*Note: yoojad(u) cو�جدc is a passive verb and the literal sense of it is ي"is/being found."

Maa + thaa

Interrogative maa ما� is commonly combined to the demonstrative thaa � ".this" = ذاThis combination changes nothing, but it is commonly used, especially with verbs.

� � +ما � = ذا �ما ذا

maa + thaa = maathaa

what + this → what

Examples:

�ذا ؟ قcل�ت ماmaathaa qult(a)

= what (you sing. masc.) said (is)


�ذا � ما �د�ي cر�ي ؟ن تmaathaa tureedeen(a)

= what (you sing. fem.) want (is)


� �ما cو� ذا ؟ نستقcو�لmaathaa sa-taqooloon(a)

= what will (you plu. masc.) say (is)


� �ما ؟ ذا �ك هcنا cو�جدc يmaathaa yoojad(u) hunaak(a)

= what exists there (is)


Maa + ('a)l-lathee

When used before verbs, interrogative maa ما� can be followed by the general

relative pronoun ('a)l-lathee ذ�ي�¦ ".which/that" = ال This also will change nothing. However, the difference here is that the two words will not be combined into a single word. Example:

� ¦ذ�ي� ما ؟ قcل�ت الmaa ('a)l-lathee qult(a)

= what that (you sing. masc.) said (is)

Translation: what did you say? As we showed in the relative pronoun section, it is more usual in Arabic to attach an object pronoun to the verb in such sentences; so the sentences will be as follows:

� ¦ذ�ي� ما ال �ت ؟ cهقcلmaa ('a)l-lathee qulta-h(u)

= what that (you sing. masc.) said him (is)


� ¦ذ�ي� ما � ال �د�ي cر�ي ت ؟ cهنmaa ('a)l-lathee tureedeena-h(u)

= what that (you sing. fem.) want him (is)


� ¦ذ�ي� ما cو� ال ؟ هcنستقcو�لmaa ('a)l-lathee sa-taqooloona-h(u)

= what that will (you plu. masc.) say him (is)


� ¦ذ�ي� ما ؟ ال �ك هcنا cو�جدc يmaa ('a)l-lathee yoojad(u) hunaak(a)

= what that that exists there (is)

Translation: what is there?In this last sentence there was not a pronoun attached to the verb. The reason behind this shouldn't be a mystery. Simply, this verb is an intransitive verb and it is impossible for it to have an object. It won't make sense.

Maathaa + ('a)l-latheeThis combination is also possible, but not in the regular language. This is a pompous mixture that can be found in classical literature, also in the Koran.

� �ما ¦ذ�ي� ذا ال �ت ؟ cهقcلmaathaa ('a)l-lathee qulta-h(u)

= what that (you sing. masc.) said him (is)


� ما ¦ذ�ي��ذا � ال �د�ي cر�ي ت ؟ cهنmaathaa ('a)l-lathee tureedeena-h(u)

= what that (you sing. fem.) want him (is)


¦ذ�ي� ��ذاما cو� ال ؟ هcنستقcو�لmaathaa ('a)l-lathee sa-taqooloona-

h(u)

= what that will (you plu. masc.) say him (is)


�ما ¦ذ�ي� �ذا ؟ ال �ك هcنا cو�جدc يmaathaa ('a)l-lathee yoojad(u)

hunaak(a)

= what that that exists there (is)


What for / why

Adding the preposition li- ـ� �م for" to maa will produce lima" = ل which لmeans "what for" or "why."

ـ� � + ل �مل = ماli- + maa = lima

for + what → what for / why

�م ؟ ل � هذاlima haathaa

= what for/why this (is)

Translation: what is this for?

�م ؟ ل � هcنا � أناlima 'anaa hunaa

= what for/why I (am) here

Translation: why am I here?

�م ؟ ل � هذا �ت فعلlima fa"alt(a) haathaa

= what for/why (you sing. masc.) did this

Translation: what did you do that for?

why did you do that?

�م ؟ ل �ن تض�حك

lima tadhakn(a)

= what for/why (you plu. fem.) laugh

Translation: why are you laughing?

Similarly, li- is added to maathaa to create the interrogative li-

maathaa � �ذا �ما .which means just like lima , ل

ـ� �ذا + ل �ل = ما �ذا �ما

li- + maathaa = li-maathaa

for + what → what for / why

�ذا �ما ؟ �ل � هذاli-maathaa haathaa

= what for/why this (is)

Translation: what is this for?

�ذا �ما ؟ �ل � هcنا � أناli-maathaa 'anaa hunaa

= what for/why I (am) here

Translation: why am I here?

�ذا �ما ؟ �ل � هذا �ت فعلli-maathaa fa"alt(a) haathaa

= what for/why (you sing. masc.) did this

Translation: what did you do that for?

why did you do that?

�ذا �ما ؟ �ل �ن تض�حكli-maathaa tadhakn(a)

= what for/why (you plu. fem.) laugh

Translation: why are you laughing?

Maa & Maathaa as Relative PronounsThis was covered in the relative pronoun section.

An example:

Question

cد� cر�ي ي � �ذا ما c؟ أتع�ر�ف'a-ta"rif(u) maathaa yureed(u)

= is it that (you sing. masc.) know what (he) wants

Translation: do you know what he wants?

Answer

أع�لم أن� �ي� ل �ن أي وم�ن�wa-min 'ayn(a) l-ee 'an 'a"lama(u)

= and from where for me that (I) know

Translation: how should I possibly know?

*The wa- و = "and" in the beginning of the second sentence is a superfluous word. Arabs use a lot of unnecessary "and's" in their talk.

2) Who

؟ من� �ت أنman 'ant(a)

= who you (are)

Translation: who are you?

؟ من� � هذاman haathaa

= who this (is)

Translation: who is this?

الر من� � ؟ ¦هذا cلcجman haathaa ('a)r-rajul(u)

= who this the man (is)

Translation: who is this man?*See the section on demonstrative for information on their usage.

؟ يع�لمc من�man ya"lam(u)

= who knows (is)

Translation: who knows?

�دcو� من� cر�ي ؟ نت man tureedoon(a)

= whom (you plu. masc.) want (is)

Translation: whom do you want?

Man + thaa

Like maa, man can also be followed by the demonstrative thaa � = ذا"this," but they will not form a single word here. However, this is a rare classical combination.

� من� ؟ ذا �ت أنman thaa 'ant(a)

= who you (are)

Translation: who are you?

� من� ؟ يع�لمc ذاman thaa ya"lam(u)

= who knows (is)


� من� �دcو� ذا cر�ي ؟ نت man thaa tureedoon(a)

= whom (you plu. masc.) want (is)


Maa + ('a)l-lathee

When used before verbs, man can be followed by the general relative

pronoun ('a)l-lathee ذ�ي�¦ ".which/that" = ال

¦ذ�ي� من� ؟ يع�لمc الman ('a)l-lathee ya"lam(u)

= who that knows (is)


¦ذ�ي� من� �دcو� ال cر�ي ؟ نت

man ('a)l-lathee tureedoon(a)

= whom that (you plu. masc.) want (is)


As mentioned before, the last sentence will usually be expressed as follows:

¦ذ�ي� من� �دcو� ال cر�ي ؟ cهنتman ('a)l-lathee tureedoona-h(u)

= whom that (you plu. masc.) want him (is)


Man as a Relative PronounsThis was covered in the relative pronoun section.

An example:

Question

�ت رأي ؟ من�هل� � هذا فعل

hal ra'ayt(a) man fa"al(a) haathaa

= is it that (you) saw who did this

Translation: have you seen who did this?

Answer

هcو من� cأع�لم §ي� �ن ولك ، الlaa wa-laakinnee 'a"lam(u) man

huw(a)

= no but me know who he (is)

Translation: no, but I know who he is

*The wa- و = "and" before laakinnee in the second sentence is superfluous. See the section on verb-like particles for more details.

حصد من� زرعman zara"(a) hasad(a)

= who planted harvested

Translation: he who plants harvests *The perfective was used here as subjunctive.



3) When

دc متى� �مو�ع� ؟ الmataa ('a)l-maw"id(u)

= when the appointment/date (is)

Translation: when is the appointment/date?

؟ متى� �ت أتيmataa 'atayt(a)

= when (you) came

Translation: when did you come?

؟ متى� cف�ر� cسا ستmataa sa-tusaafir(u)

= when (you) will travel

Translation: when will you leave the country/town?

�لى متى� إ ؟ � cتظ�ر� نن'ilaa mataa nantazir(u)

= to when (we) will wait

Translation: how long will we wait?

cذ� ؟ متى� مcن � هcنا cم� �ت وأنmunth(u) mataa wa-'antum hunaa

= since when and you (plu. masc.) (are) here

Translation: how long have you been here?

cتع�لم األو�الدc متى� هل� �ء ؟جاhal ta"lam(u) mataa jaa'(a)

('a)l-'awlaad(u)

= is it that (you sing. masc.) know when came the children

Translation: do you know when the kids came?

The word 'ayyaan(a) ن� ¦ا also means "when," but it is classical and أيnot used in the modern language.

و�ن cرcع يش� � �ن وما ¦ا cو�ن أي �عث cب يwa-maa yash"uroon(a) 'ayyan(a)

yub"athoon(a)

= and not (they plu. masc.) feel when (they plu.

masc.) will be resurrected

Translation: and they don't know when they will be resurrected

4) Where

�ن �ت أي ؟ أن'ayn(a) 'ant(a)

= where you (sing. masc.) (are)

Translation: where are you?

�ن ؟ أي cء� سنا'ayn(a) sanaa'(u)

= where Sana'a (female name) (is)

Translation: where is Sana'a?

�ن �ت� أي cن ؟ ك'ayn(a) kunti

= where (you sing. fem.) were

Translation: where were you?

�ن ؟ أي cم� cق�ي ت'ayn(a) tuqeem(u)

= where (you sing. masc.) dwell

Translation: where do you live?

where are you staying?

�لى� �ن إ ؟ أي �ن تذ�هب'ilaa 'ayn(a) tathhabn(a)

= to where (you plu. fem.) go

Translation: where are you going ?

�نم�ن� ؟ أي � هذا لكmin 'ayn(a) la-k(a) haathaa

= from where for you this (is)

Translation: wherefrom have you got this?

cن أتع�لم� �حف�لةc أي ؟ال'a-ta"lam(u) 'ayn(a) ('a)l-hafla(tu)

= is it that (you sing. masc.) know where the party (is)

Translation: do you know where the party is?

5) How

Question

�ف ؟ كي cك �ل حاkayf(a) haalu-k(a)

= how (the) state (of) you (sing. masc.) (is)

Translation: how are you?

Answer

�را ك cش ، �ر² �خي ب � لك ( )أنا'anaa bi-khayr(in) shukra(n) {la-

k(a)}

= I (am) in a well-being, thanking (to you)

Translation: I am fine, thanks

�ف ؟ كي هcوkayf(a) huw(a)

= how he (is)

Translation: what is he/it like?

�ف ؟ كي � هذا عرف�ت�kayf(a) "arafti haathaa

= how (you sing. fem.) knew this

Translation: how did you know this?

Question

�ف ؟ كي �دcو� أبkayf(a) 'abdoo

= how (I) look

Translation: how do I look?

Answer

� �د�ي �عة نتب �ئ را tabdeen raa'i"a(tan)

= (you sing. fem.) look magnificently

Translation: you look great/magnificent

Question

�ف ؟ سنذ�هبc كيkayf(a) sa-nathhab(u)

= how (we) will go

Translation: how will we go?

Answer

�ص� �با �ال ب cسنذ�هبsa-nathhab(u) bi-l-baas(i)

= (we) will go by bus

Translation: we will go by bus

أخ�برك� �ف هل� ؟ عرف كي � هذاhal 'akhbara-k(i) kayf(a) "araf(a)

haathaa

= is it that (he) told you (sing. fem.) how (he) knew this

Translation: did he tell you how he knew about this?

6) How many / How much

There is only one word to express these things in Arabic, kam كم� . This

word was originally ka-maa � like what?" before it evolved to the" = كماform known today.

The nouns after kam must be always singular and in the accusative, or nasb, case.

؟ كم� �ك لدي ولداkam walada(n) laday-k(a)

= how many a child (in) (the) place (of) you (sing. masc.) (are)

Translation: how many children do you have?

*The words ladaa لدى� & "ind(a) د� ن are somewhat similar in meaning to ع�the French chez, but they are also used for time meaning "at," like in "at sunset."

cك كم� ت حذ¦ر� ة ؟ مر¦kam marra(tan) haththartu-k(a)

= how many a time (I) warned you (sing. masc.)

(are)

Translation: how many times have I warned you?

cتع�لم ؟ كم�هل� cك ت �تظر� �ن ا �عة سا !

hal ta"lam(u) kam saa"a(tan) 'intazartu-k(a)

= is it that (you sing. masc.) know how many an hour (I) waited you (sing. masc.)

Translation: do you know how many hours I've been waiting for you?!

؟ كم� �ل� �ز�ي �برا ال �ن� ¦ا ك cس cعدد cغc �ل يبkam yablur(u) "adad(u) sukkaan(i)

('a)l-baraazeel(i)

= how much (he/it) reaches (the) number (of) (the) inhabitants (of) Brazil

Translation: how much is the population of Brazil?

If the noun following kam were part of a genitive construction, it would not be in the accusative case but in the regular nominative case.

�ض�ر� كم� �حا ال c �عدد ؟ ني

kam "adad(u) ('a)l-haadireen(a)

= how much (the) number (of) the present (people) (is)

Translation: How many are the present people?

The noun following kam can be omitted.

Examples:

؟ كم� cد� cر�ي تkam tureed(u)

= how much/many (you) want

Translation: how much/many do you want?

لك كم� �ل �دc قا cر�ي ي cه¦ ؟أنkam qaal(a) la-k(a) 'ann-h(u)

yureed(u)

= how much/many (he) said to you that him wants

Translation: how much/many did he tell you that he wanted?

؟هؤcالء� كم�kam haa'ulaa'(i)

= how many these (are)

Translation: how many are these?

When asking about price, kam will be preceded by preposition bi- ـ�� = ب"in/by/with."

Asking About Price

ـ� � = كم� + ب كم�ب

bi- + kam = bi-kam

by + how much → by how much (money)

The noun following bi-kam is often omitted.

Examples:

Question (Full Form)

هما �كم�ب ؟ د�ر� cء� �ح�ذا ال � هذاbi-kam dirhama(n) haathaa ('a)l-

hithaa'(u)

= by how many a dirham (I may buy) this the shoe

Translation: how many dirhams do these shoes cost?

*The dirham is an old Arab currency unit. It is still used in several Arab countries today.

Question (Reduced Form)

؟ �كم�ب cء� �ح�ذا ال � هذاbi-kam haathaa ('a)l-hithaa'(u)

= by how much (money) (I may buy) this the shoe

Translation: how much are these shoes?

Answer

هما د�ر� �ن ر�ي �ع�ش� بbi-"ishreen(a) dirhama(n)

= by twenty a dirham

Translation: the shoes cost twenty dirhams

�ب غرc �كم �م�بر� �ها ؟ الbi-kam(i) ('a)l-haambergar(u)

= by how much (money) (I may buy) the hamburger

Translation: how much is the hamburger?

Kam Stating Numerousness

kam can be used in a style that is used to state numerousness instead of interrogation or asking a question.

Example:

�دك م�ن� كم� ن ع� �ب² �تا ه! كkam min kitaab(in) "inda-k(a)

= how many of a book (is) (in) (the) place (of)

you (sing. masc.)

= so many of a book (is) (in) (the) place (of) you (sing. masc.)

Translation: you have so many books!

Nouns after preposition min = "from/of" must be in the ablative case, or 'al-jarr case.

Numerousness Stating Style

م�ن� كم�

kam min

how many/much of → so many of

The min after kam in this style can often be omitted.

Example:

�دك كم� ن ع� �ب² �تا ه! كkam kitaab(in) "inda-k(a)

= so many (of) a book (is) (in) (the) place (of)

you (sing. masc.)

Translation: you have so many books!

Emphatic la- لـ can also be used here.

�دك م�ن� كم�ل ن ع� �ب² �تا ه! كla-kam min kitaab(in) "inda-k(a)

= certainly so many of a book (is) (in) (the) place (of) you (sing. masc.)

Translation: you really have so many books!

�دك كم�ل ن ع� �ب² �تا ه! كla-kam kitaab(in) "inda-k(a)

= certainly so many (of) a book (is) (in) (the) place (of) you (sing. masc.)

Translation: you really have so many books!

cك كم�ل ت حذ¦ر� ة² مر¦la-kam marra(tin) haththartu-k(a)

= certainly so many (of) a time (I) warned you (sing. masc.)

Translation: I warned you so many times



7) 'annaa This is an obsolete, classical, interrogative word that may mean how, when, or where.

¦ى� ؟ أن غcالم� ل�ي� cو�نc ه!يك'annaa yakoon(u) l-ee rulaam(un)

= how will be for me a boy?!

Translation: how am I going to have a son?!

8) Which

The pronoun 'ayy(u) ¶أي = "which (of)" is the only interrogative word that undergoes case inflection. The rest are all "built" words, which means that they do not show case inflection.

This pronoun will only mean "which?" when it is in the construct state, or when it is a first part of a genitive construction.

Which (of) ...?cف�ع الر¦

'ayy(u) أي¶Nominative

cص�ب¦ الن'ayy(a) أي¦

Accusative / Dative

�جر¶ ال'ayy(i) أي§

Ablative / Genitive

The standard structure to begin a question with 'ayy(u) will be:

'ayy(u) (of)-a unit-of-the units-verb

which (of)-a unit-of-the units-verb

Example:

which (of)-a picture-of-the pictures-(is)-the prettiest

Translation: which one of the pictures is the prettiest?

Now an example in Arabic:

الص¶ور� أي¶ م�ن ؟ صcو�رة² cأج�مل'ayy(u) soorat(in) min(a) ('a)s-suwar(i)

'ajmal(u)

= which (of) a picture of the pictures (is) prettier

Translation: which one of the pictures is prettier than the rest?

which one of the pictures is the prettiest?

However, as it is usual in Arabic, this structure is rarely kept whole, and usually parts will be omitted from it.

It will be rendered either like this:

(1) which (of)-the units-verbOr like this:

(2) which (of)-a unit-verb

Examples in Arabic:

؟ الص¶ور� أي¶ cأج�مل'ayy(u) ('a)s-suwar(i) 'ajmal(u)

= which (of) the pictures (is) prettier

Translation: which picture is prettier than the rest?

which picture is the prettiest?

؟ صcو�رة² أي¶ cأج�مل'ayy(u) soorat(in) 'ajmal(u)

= which (of) a picture (is) prettier

Translation: which picture is prettier than the rest?

which picture is the prettiest?

More examples:

أي¶ �ال�ص¶و�رت ؟ ي cأج�مل ن�'ayy(u) ('a)s-sooratayn(i) 'ajmal(u)

= which (of) the two pictures (is) prettier

Translation: which picture is prettier?

�ت� أي± ¶غا ؟ تتحد¦ثc الل'ayy(a) ('a)l-luraat(i) tatahaddath(u)

= which (of) the languages (you sing. masc.) speak

Translation: which/what language do you speak?

which/what language are you speaking?

cغة² أي± ؟ تتحد¦ثc ل'ayy(a) lurat(in) tatahaddath(u)

= which (of) a language (you sing. masc.) speak

Translation: which/what language do you speak?

which/what language are you speaking?

In the last two examples, 'ayy(a) was in the accusative case because it was an object of the verb.

�مcدcن� أي§ م�ن� ؟ ال �ت أنmin 'ayy(i) ('a)l-mudun(i) 'ant(a)

= from which (of) the cities (are) you

Translation: which city are you from?

؟ أي§ م�ن� �ت أن �نة² مد�يmin 'ayy(i) madeena(tin) 'ant(a)

= from which (of) a city (are) you

Translation: which city are you from ?

In the last two examples, 'ayy(i) was in the ablative case because it was preceded by a particle-preposition or an ablative particle.

When 'ayy(u) is followed by pronouns, they will have to be object pronouns, and thus they will be attached.

¶ cم�أي ؟ ك � هذا أخذ'ayyu-kum 'akhath(a) haathaa

= which (of) you (plu. masc.) took this

Translation: which one of you took this?

The whole form of this sentence would be:

which (of)-a one-of-you-took-this In Arabic:

cم� أي¶ �ك م�ن �ح�د² ؟ وا � هذا أخذ'ayy(u) waahid(in) min-kum 'akhath(a)

haathaa

= which (of) a one of you (plu. masc.) took this

Translation: which one of you took this?

More examples:

¦ �تر هcم�أي ؟ أي'ayya-hum ra'ayt(a)

= which (of) them (plu. masc.) (you sing. masc.) saw

Translation: which of them did you see?

which of them have you seen?

�لى� §إ cن¦أي � ك cها ل س� ر�c ؟ أ

'ilaa 'ayyi-kunn(a) 'ursilu-haa

= to which (of) you (plu. fem.) (I) will send her/it

Translation: to which of you will I send her/it?

to whom of you should I send her/it?

Attachment of 'ayy(u) to different object pronouns:

Attachment of 'ayy(u) to Object Pronouns

Which (of) you (dual) 'ayyu-kumaa ¶ �أي cما ك

Which (of) them (dual) 'ayyu-humaa ¶ �أي هcما

Which (of) us 'ayyu-naa ¶ �أي ناWhich (of) you (plu.

masc.) 'ayyu-kum ¶ cمأي �ك

Which (of) you (plu. fem.)'ayyu-

kunn(a) ¶ cنأي ¦كWhich (of) them (plu.

masc.) 'ayyu-hum ¶ �هcمأيWhich (of) them (plu.

fem.)'ayyu-

hunn(a) ¶ ¦هcنأي

'ayy(u) Meaning "Any"

The meaning of 'ayy(u) can change to "any" in questions and in negative statements.

Examples:

�ت رأي ¦ة² أي±هل� ؟بطhal ra'ayt(a) 'ayy(a) battat(in)

= is it that (you sing. masc.) saw which/any (of) a duck

Translation: did you see which duck?

have you seen which duck?

did you see any duck?

have you seen any duck?

أر لم� ، ¦ة² أي±ال بطlaa lam 'ara 'ayy(a) battat(in)

= no not (I) saw any (of) a duck

Translation: no, I didn't see which duck

no, I haven't seen which duck

no, I didn't see any duck

no, I haven't seen any duck

Any's

Anybody 'ayy(u) shakhs(in) شخ�ص² أي¶

Anyone

'ayy(u) waahid(in) د² �ح� وا أي¶

'ayy(u) 'ahad(in) أحد² أي¶

Anything 'ayy(u) shay'(in) ء² شي� أي¶

Anytime

'ayy(u) waqt(in) وق�ت² أي¶'ayy(u)

zamaan(in) �ن² زما أي¶

'ayy(u) zaman(in) زمن² أي¶

'ayy(u) heen(in) �ن² ي ح� أي¶

'ayy(u) 'awaan(in) �ن² أوا أي¶

'ayy(u) saa"a(tin) �عة² سا أي¶

Anyway

'ayy(u) tareeqa(tin) �قة² طر�ي أي¶

'ayy(u) waseela(tin) �لة² ي وس� أي¶

Anywhere 'ayy(u) makaan(in) �ن² مكا أي¶

'ayy(un)

When 'ayy(u) is not in the construct state, or not a first part of a genitive

construction, it will not only have Nunation or tanween 'ayy(un), but it will also lose its interrogative function and will always mean "any" instead of "which (of)?"

Any

cف�ع الر¦'ayy(un) ºأي

Nominative

cص�ب¦ الن'ayy(an) أيا

Accusative / Dative

�جر¶ ال'ayy(in) Ãأي

Ablative / Genitive

However, "any" alone does not provide a full meaning, and this word will

usually be followed by the preposition min = "from/of" and a plural word, or a pronoun referring to plural, to complete its meaning.

'ayy(un)-min-the units

any-of-the units

Examples:

�ت�لم� �بط§ م�ن أيº يأ ال lam ya'<ti 'ayy(un) min(a) ('a)l-batt(i)

= did not come any of the ducks

Translation: no one of the ducks came

no one of the ducks have come

�هcم�م�ن أيا أرلم� lam 'ara 'ayy(an) min-hum

= did not (I) see any of them

Translation: I didn't see any of them

I haven't seen any of them

� أيا تج�دcو�الن� �ها م�ن lan tajidoo 'ayy(an) min-haa

= will not (you plu. masc.) find any of her/it

Translation: you won't find any of it/them

'ayy(u) as Intensifier

'ayy(u) can be used in an intensive style as follows:

�د� �ئ قا �د� �يا �دc ! ²أي± إ �ئ هقا 'iyaad(un) qaa'id(un) 'ayy(u) qaa'id(in)

= Iyad (is) a leader which (of) a leader

Translation: Iyad is a great leader!

Iyad is one hell of a leader!

ºر� حا �جو¶ �رc ! Ãأي± ال هحا 'al-jaww(u) haarr(un) 'ayy(u) haarr(in)

= the weather (is) a hot (one) which (of) a hot (one)

Translation: it is scorching hot!

Polite Request

The polite way to ask for something in English and other European languages would be by using the subjunctive mode of verbs; e.g. would you do this? could you do that?

In Arabic, there are several formulas for request, and several of them employ the subjunctive mood of verbs as well.

One of the most common phrases for request in Arabic is the following:

سمح�ت ... هلو�

law samaht(a) ...

= if (you sing. masc.) allowed ...This formula is not a question. It uses the subjunctive mood of the verb "allow," though in the form of a perfective, or past, verb rather than a subjunctive imperfective, or present, verb. Perfective verbs are often used as subjunctive verbs in Arabic.

This phrase will be followed by a normal command, using the imperative mood of verbs.

، سمح�ت �طبق لو� ال �ي� �ن �و�ل ناlaw samaht(a) naawil-nee ('a)l-

tabaq(a)

= if (you sing. masc.) allowed, hand me the dish

Translation: please, hand me the dish

Another way:

�طبق ال �ي� �ن �و�ل سمح�ت نا لو�naawil-nee ('a)l-tabaq(a) law

samaht(a)

= hand me the dish if (you sing. masc.) allowed

Translation: hand me the dish, please

Another variant of this phrase, which means just the same:

سمح�ت ... � �ذا هإ

'ithaa samaht(a) ...

= if (you sing. masc.) allowed ...

Example:

، سمح�ت� � �ذا �ب إ �با ال �ق�ي� أغ�ل'ithaa samaht(i) 'arliqee ('a)l-baab(a)

= if (you sing. fem.) allowed, close the door

Translation: please, close the door

Another way:

�ب �با ال �ق�ي� سمح�ت� أغ�ل � �ذا إ'arliqee ('a)l-baab(a) 'ithaa samaht(i)

= close the door if (you sing. fem.) allowed

Translation: close the door, please

A third less common variant:

سمح�ت ... �ن� هإ

'in samaht(a) ...

= if (you sing. masc.) allowed ...This is used like the previous ones.

Conjugation for all subjects:

If You Allowed

Sing. masc. law samaht(a) سمح� تلو�

Sing. fem. law samaht(i) سمح� �تلو�

Dual law

samahtumaa لو�cماسمح� �ت

Plu. masc. law samahtum سمح� cم�لو� تPlu. fem. law samahtunna سمح� cن¦لو� ت

*The word law can be replaced with 'ithaa or 'in.

The phrase law samaht(a), usually translated to "please" or "excuse me," can be used in other ways than being followed by a direct command.

Example:

مcك� �س� ا � ؟ ما سمح�ت� لو�maa ('i)smu-k(i) law samaht(i)

= what (the) name (of) you (sing. fem.) (is) if (you sing. fem.) allowed

Translation: what's your name, please?

، سمح�ت ؟ لو� cء� الح�ذا � هذا �كم� بlaw samaht(a) bi-kam haathaa ('a)l-

hithaa'(u)

= if (you sing. masc.) allowed, by how much this the shoe (is)

Translation: excuse me, how much are these shoes?

Another similar phrase to law samaht(a) that is very common is:

�ك ... فض�ل هم�ن�

min fadli-k(a) ...

= from/of (the) favor (of) you (sing. masc.) ...This phrase does not use any subjunctive verbs. It will be followed often by a direct command, like the previous one. It is also usually translated to "please" or "excuse me."

Examples:

، �ك فض�ل �قلم م�ن� ال �ي� أع�ط�نmin fadli-k(a) 'a"ti-nee ('a)l-qalam(a)

= please, (you sing. masc.) give me the pen

Translation: please, give me the pen

Another way:

�قلم ال �ي� �ك أع�ط�ن فض�ل م�ن�'a"ti-nee ('a)l-qalam(a) min fadli-k(a)

= (you sing. masc.) give me the pen please

Translation: give me the pen please

cم� هcدcو�ء´ا �ك فض�ل م�ن�hudoo'a(n) min fadli-kum

= (I ask for) a quietness please (plu. masc.)

Translation: quiet, please


Of Your Favor

Sing. masc. min fadli-k(a) � م�ن� كفض�لSing. fem. min fadli-k(i) �ك�فض�ل م�ن�

Dual min fadli-kumaa م�ن�� cمافض�ل �ك

Plu. masc. min fadli-kum م�ن�� cم�فض�ل ك

Plu. fem. min fadli-kunna م�ن�� cن¦فض�ل ك

A third way for request is by using the following word:

�ء´ ... هرجا

rajaa'a(n) ...

= (I beg) a begging ...This is more urgent than the previous two. It also means "please" or "excuse me" and it is used just like the formulas mentioned above. However, it does not have other conjugations than this one.

Examples:

�ء´ �ي� رجا �ع�د�ن ساrajaa'a(n) saa"id-nee

= please (you sing. masc.) help me

Translation: please, help meOr:

�ي� �ع�د�ن �ء´سا رجا saa"id-nee rajaa'a(n)

= (you sing. masc.) help me please

Translation: help me, please

A common polite formula for request in Arabic is the following:

أن� ... �مcم�ك�ن� ال م�ن ههل�

hal min(a) ('a)l-mumkin(i) 'an ...

= is it that (he/it) (is) of the possible that ...?

Translation: is it possible that ... ?

The particle 'an = "that" is called in Arabic "infinitival 'an" because it is used to form "infinitival phrases" or infinitives, just similar to how the particle "to" is used to form infinitives in English (e.g. the infinitive "to go"). An imperfective verb following 'an must be in the subjunctive mood.

Example:

أن� �مcم�ك�ن� ال م�ن ؟ هل� �ي� �ع�دن cسا تhal min(a) ('a)l-mumkin(i) 'an

tusaa"ida-nee

= is it possible that (you sing. masc.) help me

Translation: would/could you help me?

Another variant of the phrase:

أن� �مcم�ك�ن� ال ؟ أم�ن �ي� �ن �ع�د�ي cسا ت'a-min(a) ('a)l-mumkin(i) 'an

tusaa"idee-nee

= is it possible that (you sing. fem.) help me

Translation: would/could you help me?The difference in this variant is that the interrogative particle 'a- was used instead of hal, which changes nothing anyway.

One more formula:

أن� ... cمح هأتس�

'a-tasmah(u) 'an ...

= is it that (you sing. masc.) allow that ...?

= is it that (you sing. masc.) will allow that ...?

Example:

أن� cمح ؟ أتس� �ب �تا �ك ال آخcذ'a-tasmah(u) 'an 'aakhuth(a) ('a)l-

kitaab(a)

= is it that (you sing. masc.) will allow that (I) take the book

Translation: may I take the book?

Another variant:

مح�ي تس� ´؟ أن� ن�هل� �ال ؤا cس ئلك� أس�hal tasmaheen(a) 'an 'as'ala-k(i)

su'aala(n)

= is it that (you sing. fem.) will allow that (I) ask you a question

Translation: may I ask you a question?


Will you allow that ...?

Sing. masc. 'a-tasmah(u) 'an أن� cمح أتس�

Sing. fem.'a-tasmaheen(a)

'an� ي مح� نأتس�

أن�

Dual 'a-tasmahaan(i) 'an

� محا �نأتس� أن�

Plu. masc.'a-tasmahoon(a)

'anو� cمح نأتس�

أن�

Plu. fem. 'a-tasmahn(a) 'anمح�ن أتس�

أن�*The word 'a- may be replaced with hal.

Another way for polite request in formal Arabic would be by means of the "urging" particles.

Urging Particles

Particles of "urging," or "inducement," ض�� ¦ح�ض�ي �ت ال cت� are a set of أدواparticles used to "urge" somebody to do something. They can be followed by indicative imperfective verbs, but they are often followed by perfective (≡subjunctive) verbs instead.

Urging Particles�ض� ¦ح�ض�ي �ت ال cت� أدوا

≡ will / would have ?

can / could have ?

hal-laa ¦ هال

'a-laa أال

'allaa ¦ أال

law-laa لو�ال

law-maa � لو�ماExcluding the first one, hal-laa, all of those compound particles are archaic and not used in modern Arabic.

The particle hal-laa is often used for request, although it can also mean reproach, depending on the situation.

Examples:

¦ ؟ هال �ي� �عد�تن ساhal-laa saa"adta-nee

= would have (you sing. masc.) helped me?


OR: you could have helped me :(

Another possibility:

¦ ؟ هال �ي� �ع�دcن cسا ت

hal-laa tusaa"idu-nee

= will (you sing. masc.) help me ?

Translation: will/can you help me?

When hal-laa is followed by an imperfective verb, it means only "urging" or request, and maybe command. When it is followed by an imperfective verb, it can mean request, command, or reproach.

Examples on classical particles:

؟ أال �ي� �تن أعن'a-laa 'a"anta-nee

= would have (you sing. masc.) helped me?


OR: you could have helped me :(

� م�ن لو�ما �ت cن ك �ن� إ �كة� �مالئ �ال ب � �نا �ي ت� تأ

�د�ق� ؟ يالص¦ا �نlaw-maa ta'<tee-naa bi-l-malaa'ika(ti) 'in kunt(a) min(a) ('a)s-saadiqeen(a)

= will (you sing. masc.) come (to) us with the angels if (you) were from/of the honest

(people)?

Translation: would/could you bring us the angles if you were honest?

OR: you could have brought us the angels if you were honest

Common Ways for Request in Arabic

Please / Excuse me

سمح�ت ... لو�law samaht(a) ...

�ك ... فض�ل م�ن�min fadli-k(a) ...

�ء´ ... رجا

rajaa'a(n) ...

Is it possible that ...?

أن� ... �مcم�ك�ن� ال م�ن هل�hal min(a) ('a)l-mumkin(i) 'an ..

Will you allow that ...?

أن� cمح ... أتس�'a-tasmah(u) 'an ...

≡ will / would have ... ?

can / could have ... ?

... ¦ هالhal-laa ...

Infinitival / Indefinite maaThe word maa � :.can mean several things in Arabic ما

It can be an interrogative pronoun meaning "what?" It can be a relative pronoun meaning "what..." It can be a negative word meaning "not."

The remaining major function of maa is that it can be a word denoting

indefiniteness, or a word functioning very much as infinitival 'an أن� , which means "that" as in "I know that you like it."

This kind of maa will be translated most of the time to the English word "ever."

Ever"Ever" can be combined to several pronouns in English to confer a sense of indefiniteness on them, e.g. whatever, whenever, whoever, etc.

In Arabic, this is the job of maa. This word is often used to confer a sense of indefiniteness on other words.

Examples:

�ن � + أي = ما �ن �ماأي'ayn(a) + maa = 'ayna-maa

where + that = where that ≡ wherever

� � +ما �مامه� = ماmaa + maa = mah-maa

what + that = what that ≡ whatever

Sometimes maa will be conjoined to the other word, like in the two examples, and sometimes it will not.

Following is a list of interrogative pronouns with infinitival/indefinite maa.

Interrogative Pronoun + maa

Whatever mah-maa �مامه�

Whenever

mataa maa �متى� ما

'ayyaana maa �ن ¦ا � أي ما

Wherever 'ayna-maa �ن �ماأي

However kayfa-maa �ف �ماكي

Whichever 'ayyu-maa ¶ �ماأي

Examples:

� تف�شل� مهما �و�ل� cحا تmah-maa tuhaawil tafshal

= whatever (you) try (you) fail

Translation: whatever you try, you will fail *Note: this is a conditional style and the imperfective verbs here must be in the jussive mood.

� متى� �ت ما �ي� أتي تج�د�نmataa maa 'atayt(a) tajid-nee

= whenever (you) came (you) find me

Translation: when you come, you will find me

*The first verb was a perfective verb because it was meant as a subjunctive verb.

� �نما ضc أي األر� تخ�ضر§ cمطر� ال قcط� يس�'ayna-maa yasqut(i) ('a)l-matar(u)

takhdarr(i) ('a)l-'ard(u)

= wherever (he) fall the rain (she) green the earth

Translation: wherever the rain falls, the earth greens up

�ي� �ذ�هب � ا �فما � كي �ي �ئ نتشا'ithhabee kayfa-maa tashaa'een(a)

= (you sing. fem.) go however (you sing. fem.) wish

Translation: go in however way you like

Some people may have noticed that the word "whoever" was not mentioned in the table. The indefinite pronouns "whoever" and "whomever" are commonly used in English, but they are never used in Arabic. The usual way of

expressing these words in Arabic is by using the word 'ayyu-maa = "whichever."

E.g. when we want to say in Arabic "whoever knows this will be killed," we will say "whichever of a man/woman/person knows this will be killed." The word "whichever" has to be followed by another noun to complement it.

Examples:

� ¶ما �ب أي ¦وا الث ينل� �ي� �ع�د�ن cسا ي رجcل²'ayyu-maa rajul(in) yusaa"id-nee

yanal(i) ('a)th-thawaab(a)

= whichever (of) a man helps me (he) gets the reward

Translation: whoever man helps me will be rewarded

على� ل�ي� cر� cع�ث � ا §ما �عc أي �ي تط تس� شق¦ة² 'u"thur l-ee "alaa 'ayyi-maa

shaqqat(in) tastatee"(u)

= (you sing. masc.) trip for me on/over whichever (of) an apartment (you sing. masc.) can

Translation: find me whichever apartment you can

*Note: the phrase على� literally "tripped over" figuratively means = عثر"found."

Infinitival maa can be combined to many words other than the interrogative pronouns mentioned above.

Examples:

Whenever heena-maa

�ن ي time (of) that (at the)�ماح�

waqta-maa

�ماوق�ت(at the) time (of) that

Untilraytha-maa

�ث �ماري(the) slowing (of) that

Before that ...qabla-maa �ل �ماقب

before that

After that ...ba"da-maa

�مابع�دafter that

Whereverhaythu-maa

c �ث �ماحي(at the) place (of) that

When / Where"inda-maa

�د ن �ماع�(at the) time/place (of) that

Likemithla-maa �ل �like thatمام�ث

Every time that ...kulla-maa ¦ cل �ماك

every that

Mayberubba-maa

¦ ب cمار�there is a lot/a little (of) that

Especially laa siyya-maa

¦ ي س� �not (a thing) like thatماال

In order to / so that ...kay-maa � �in order to thatماكي

Likeka-maa �like thatماك

Some of these words may also be joined to the other types of maa; and

some words may be followed by the same infinitival maa without being joined to form a single word.

Infinitival maa can also be combined to several perfective verbs to produce adverbs. See here for examples.

SomeMaa is the Arabic equivalent for the word "some" in such words as "somebody." However, in this case it will not mean "that" but it will be just a mere indicator of indefiniteness.

Some'sSomebody

shakhs(un) maa�شخ�ص� a person unspecificما

Someone'ahad(un) maa

�أحد� a one unspecificما

Somedayyawma(n) maa

�يو�ما a day unspecificما

Someway

Somehow

Somewise

bi-tareeqa(tin) maa �قة² �طر�ي �ب ما

in a way unspecific

bi-waseela(tin) maa �لة² ي �وس� �ب ما

in a way unspecific

Somethingshay'(un) maa

ء� �شي� a thing unspecificما

Sometime

fee waqt(in) maa وق�ت² ف�ي�� in a time unspecificما

Somewhat

naw"a(n) maa � �نو�عا a kind unspecificما

'ilaa hadd(in) maa Ãحد �لى� �إ to a limit unspecificما

Somewhere

fee makaan(in) maa �ن² مكا ف�ي�

� in a place unspecificما

Notes

When "sometime" is an adjective meaning "former," it will be in Arabic

�ق� �ب . سا

"Sometimes" is usually understood as "some of the times," so the word

maa cannot be used in translating this word, because it is only used with singular nouns but not plural ones. When translating "sometimes," the actual word for "some" will be used instead of the indefinite adjective

maa; or more commonly, the word "times" alone will be declined in the temporal case (= adverbial, accusative, or nasb case).

Sometimes'ahyaana(n) � �نا يا times (at)أح�

fee ba"d(i) ('a)l-'ahyaan(i) بع�ض�ف�ي�

�ن� يا in some (of) the timesاألح�

fee ba"d(i) ('a)l-'awqaat(i) بع�ض�ف�ي�

�ت� in some (of) the timesاألو�قا

Example:

´ �ال ؤا cس �ه� �ي أل �س� �ا ما 'is'alee-h(i) su'aala(n) maa

= (you sing. fem.) ask him a question unspecific

Translation: ask him some question

Meanings for maaMeaning Example

Interrogative Pronoun

What ... ? what is your name?

Relative Pronoun

What ... what you did was outrageous

... what ... I know what you did

Negative Word

not you can not do that

Indefinite

ever whatever you do, I'll find out about it

some (with countable

singulars)

somebody left his glasses here

he was reading some book

Dialects

Arabic of modern days is two types, the formal or literary Arabic, a.k.a. modern standard Arabic, and the modern spoken Arabic, or modern colloquial Arabic.

Formal Arabic is largely derived from Classical Arabic (Arabic spoken about 1000 years ago), with new added words, styles, and expressions. Formal Arabic is the only written form of Arabic. Modern spoken Arabic, or modern colloquial Arabic, is not really one language like the standard formal Arabic. Modern spoken Arabic has many varieties across the Middle East and North Africa. These regional verities are called the

modern "dialects" of Arabic. Dialects are called in Arabic lahjaat ت�� . له�جا The dialects constitute the everyday spoken language. They are not typically written, although a certain amount of literature (particularly plays and poetry) exists in many of them. They are often used to varying degrees in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows. Modern dialects differ from formal Arabic and from one another in pronunciation of letters, in vocabulary, and in grammar. They are less complex and less inflective than formal Arabic, and they often use different words than those used in formal Arabic, although related to them most of the time. The dialects are usually labeled according to major geographic areas, such as North African, Levantine, Egyptian, Gulf, etc. Within these broad classifications, the daily speech of urban, rural, and nomadic speakers can be distinctively different. The truth to say is that dialect changes from town to the next one in the Arab world. Formal Arabic is the official language of all Arab countries and is the only form of Arabic taught at schools at all stages. The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia–the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their local dialect and their school-taught literary Arabic (to an equal or lesser degree).

How much is the difference between all the forms of Arabic? Classical Arabic (including the Arabic of the Koran) and modern formal Arabic have very much in common. They share a unified grammar, and the difference is only in words, styles, and expressions. I have been presenting

them together in this site, and this is what is usually done in teaching Arabic at Arab schools. The modern spoken dialects, on the other hand, are rather different from both the classical and modern standard Arabic. They have different pronunciations of letters from the formal language and from each other, and they have different grammars, vocabulary, and styles. Learning the formal Arabic alone will not enable the learner to understand or talk in most of the dialects, although it will certainly make it easier to learn them. Learning one modern dialect will help in understanding other dialects to variable degrees, depending on the relations between the dialects. For example, learning a Gulf dialect will certainly help in understanding a Saudi dialect, because of the relations between the two regions. However, it will not help as much with e.g. an Egyptian dialect.

Origins of the Modern DialectsSpoken Arabic did not start out as a single thing then broke into several new things. At least this was not the case by the time of Muhammad and the Koran. We have shown in the page about the history of Arabs that the ancient Arab tribes had already different languages by the time they were called Arabs. Thus, the modern spoken dialects are the outcome of centuries of evolution of several variants of Arabic not only one.

We will now briefly discuss the major factors that have contributed to the development of the modern spoken dialects of Arabic.

Variants of Classical ArabicClassical Arabic refers today mostly to the standard language of the Koran, the Muslim holy book, which is mainly the language of ancient western Arabia, and more specifically the language of Muhammad's tribe, Quraysh.

However, this was not the only Arabic spoken in Arabia. Arabs spoke different dialects of Arabic from the beginning. Each one of the four regions of Arabia, namely the west (Hijaz), the center (Najd), the east (Bahrain), and the south (Yemen), had its specific dialect; and each tribe within each general region usually had its own touch to add to the region's dialect.

Those dialects could be rather different from each other, I am going to present here quick examples of differences between the dialect of ancient Hijaz (west) and other regions of Arabia.

Imperfective VerbsThe conjugation of the imperfective verb in formal Arabic was derived from the ancient dialect of western Arabia. However, nearly all of the other Arabian dialects had different ways of conjugating imperfective verbs. This explains why most of the modern dialects conjugate imperfective verbs differently from formal Arabic.

An example regarding the pronominal prefixes is the conjugation of fa"il(a) verbs in the imperfective. Following is the imperfective conjugation of the verb

"amil(a) عم�ل = "(he) worked" in different old dialects. The left column shows the western Arabian standard conjugation, and the right column shows conjugations that were used elsewhere else in Arabia.

Variations of Imperfective Verb Structure

Western ArabiaOther Regions of

Arabia

SING

(I) work 'a"mal(u) cأع�مل'a"mal(u) cأع�مل

'i"mal(u) cع�مل� إ

ULAR

(You) work

(masc.)ta"mal(u) cتع�مل ti"mal(u) cع�مل� ت

(You) work (fem.)

ta"maleen(a

)� �ي نتع�مل

ti"maleen(a)

� �ع�مل ت� ني

(He) works ya"mal(u) cيع�مل

ya"mal(u) cيع�مل

yi"mal(u) cع�مل� ي(She) works ta"mal(u) cتع�مل ti"mal(u) cع�مل� ت

DUAL

(You) work

ta"malaan(i) �نتع�مال ti"malaan(i)

�ع�م ت�نال

(They) work

(masc.)

ya"malaan(i) �نيع�مال

ya"malaan(i)

يع�م�نال

yi"malaan(i)

�ع�م ي�نال

(They) work (fem.)

ta"malaan(i)

تع�م�نال

ti"malaan(i)�ع�م ت

�نالPL

(We) work

(dual / plu.)

na"mal(u) cنع�مل ni"mal(u) cع�مل� ن

URAL

(You) work

(masc.)

ta"maloon(a

)

c تع�ملنو�

ti"maloon(a)

c �ع�مل تنو�

(You) work (fem.)

ta"maln(a)� تع�ملن

ti"maln(a)� �ع�مل تن

(They) work

(masc.)

ya"maloon(a

)

c يع�ملنو�

ya"maloon(a

)

c يع�ملنو�

yi"maloon(a)

c �ع�مل ينو�

(They) work (fem.)

ya"maln(a)� يع�ملن

ya"maln(a)� يع�ملن

yi"maln(a)� �ع�مل ين

The variants in the right-hand column are the ancestors of the conjugations in most of the modern spoken dialects.

Attached Feminine Pronoun "Thee"We have explained that, in formal Arabic, it is not possible to stop talking right after pronouncing a short vowel. Therefore, short vowels at the end of words are omitted when the word is the last thing said.

However, this could cause ambiguity between the singular masculine pronoun "you" -k(a) and the singular feminine pronoun -k(i), because both will sound the same when one stops on them. Many of the ancient Arabian dialects solved this issue by changing the final -(i) of the feminine pronoun -k(i) to consonants such as -s or -sh.

The effects of these variations are evident in many of the dialects spoken in modern Arabia and Iraq.

Variations of the Attached Feminine Pronoun "Thee"

Western Arabia

Other Regions of Arabia

Not last thing

pronounced

ـك� ـك� ـك� ـك� ـك�-ki -ki -ki -ki -ki

Last thing pronounced

ـك� � �سـك � �شـك ـس� ـش�-k -ks -ksh -s -sh

The Long A VowelThe standard long A vowel (aa) sounds like the a in "far" or "star." However, many old tribes, especially tribes that inhabited Najd (central Arabia), had a different pronunciation for this vowel. They pronounced it as a long E instead of long A; this sounds like the ai in "air" and "fair."

Examples:

Meaning Hijaz (Western Arabia) Najd (Central Arabia)

A book (masc.)ki

taab(un) �ت �ب�اك kitaib(un) �ت ب�يكA door (masc.) baab(un) �ب�اب baib(un) ب�يب

(I) help'u

saa"id(u) cس �ع�دcاأ 'usai"id(u) cس ع�دcيأThis is similar to the standard American pronunciation of a in "make" and "cake."

This pronunciation of the long A still shows today in many places in where old

Najdi tribes settled, especially tribes of Qays-Aylan الن� عي cس� It most . قيnotably shows in north Syria, Mount Lebanon, some parts of Egypt, Libya, and the Maghreb in general (Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco).

Paradoxically, this pronunciation is not heard today in Najd itself, although there are traces of it.

ConclusionThe diversity of the ancient Arabian dialects played THE major rule in creating the diversity of the modern spoken dialects of Arabic. Each ancient Arabian tribe had its own dialect, and as tribes migrated to other regions of the modern Arab world, such as Iraq, Syria, Egypt, and North Africa, they carried with them the features of their dialects to the dialects of their new homes.

Formal Arabic does not exactly reflect this diversity, and it can be primarily regarded as the dialect of the Quraysh tribe, the tribe of prophet Muhammad

which inhabited the western region of Arabia or Hijaz cز� جا �ح� . ال

Some of the characteristics of Hijazi dialect, which became characteristics of formal Arabic, were almost unique to Hijazi dialect and they are hardly heard in any spoken dialect today except in Hijaz itself.

Time EffectThe mere passing of time can change any language, and this has indeed happened with all the dialects of Arabic.

The changes are many; one of the most important changes is the total loss of case and mood inflection (different endings for the same word). Although there are still some traces of case and mode inflection in some modern dialects, the fact is that it has been lost. The dual ending has also been lost from everything except nouns.

Other changes involve pronunciation of consonants. This has also evolved dramatically from the classical pronunciation. An example is the pronunciation

of the letter qaaf ق . This letter has at least five different pronunciations in the modern dialects:

Pronunciation of Letter Qaaf in the Modern Dialects

G as in "go." This is the most common pronunciation in the modern Arab world G

ق

Glottal stop or letter hamza(t) ء . This is the prevalent pronunciation in urban Levant and

northern Egypt'

Pharyngealized letter K. This pronunciation is heard in rural southern Levant, parts of Iraq,

and other placesK

French R, this pronunciation is heard in Sudan, parts of Yemen, and other places R

The classical pronunciation; it is heard in rural areas throughout the Arab world Q

Example, the word qaal(a) = "(he) said" pronounced in five different ways:

*you may click on the word to hear it pronounced.

Arabia, Iraq, South Egypt, North Africa gaal

�ل قا(he) said

Levant, North Egypt 'aal

Rural Southern Levant kaal

Sudan raal

Syrian Mountains qaal

Pronunciation of vowels has also evolved very much. There are new vowels in the modern dialects that were not present in the classical language.

New Vowels in Modern Dialects

Vowel Romanization Sound In Arabic

Short O o of No symbol

Long O ō loan و

Short E e bed No symbol

Long E ai air يSchwa e telephone No symbol

An important development is the appearance of combined vowels or diphthongs instead of the classical vowel combinations.

*you may click on the word to hear it pronounced.

Modern Classical Example

'ō 'aw أو�'ai 'ay أي�

The appearance of these diphthongs has led to changes in the pronunciation of many words. These diphthongs are present in all of the modern dialects with few exceptions, like e.g. rural Syrian dialect which preserves the classical vowel pronunciation.

Examples, click on the word to hear its pronunciation:

Modern Classical Example

yōm yawm(un) يو�م�

bait bayt(un) �ت� بي

As we have mentioned, grammar rules in the spoken dialects have evolved different from the formal language, this includes, for example, verb structures and the way tenses are expressed.

A good example is how the present progressive tense is expressed in the spoken dialects. It is very different from formal Arabic, and it is also very different from one dialect to the other.

Example, the phrase "I am writing" expressed in different dialects.

"I Am Writing"

Formal 'anaa 'aktub(u) cبc �ت أك � أنا

Arabia 'anaa akteb �تب� أك � أنا

Iraq 'anaa da-akteb �تب� دأك � أنا

Syria 'anaa "amm ektob �تب� إك عم± � أنا

Egypt'anaa "ammaal

akteb�ل� عم¦ا � أنا

�تب� أكMorocco 'anaa ka-nkteb �تب� �ك كن � أنا

* e means a schwa like in "telephone."

The changes in grammar include also changes in the order of the elements of a sentence. Contrary to formal Arabic, nominal sentences are more common than verbal sentences in the modern spoken Arabic.

Indigenous LanguagesArabs began migrating outside Arabia about 2000 years ago, and as they settled in new regions, which were mainly Syria and Iraq at first and North Africa later, they did absorb a good deal of language from the native populations.

The influence of indigenous languages on the different spoken dialects is evidenced by both loanwords and grammatical influence. The indigenous influence on Syrian and Iraqi dialects came mainly from old Semitic languages such as Syriac. Egyptian was somewhat influenced by Coptic, Sudanese was influenced by Nubian and by other African languages. The main influencer on North African dialects was the Berber languages.

The influence of indigenous and foreign languages on dialects appears mostly in dialects spoken on the periphery of the Arabic-speaking world. Most notably in northern Syria, Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia), and Sudan.

Foreign languages

Persian, or Farsi, had a great influence on classical Arabic, and it has continued its great influence on the different dialects of Arabic throughout the centuries. There are many Persian loanwords in Arabic, both formal and colloquial. (See: Persian influence on Arabic)

Turkic languages also influenced modern Arabic greatly, as the Arab world was part of the Ottoman Empire for hundreds of years. Many Turkish personal titles and Turkicized names of people and professions are still heard in several dialects of Arabic.

Other influencer languages included Kurdish, Italian, and Spanish. French and English became very important during the colonization period in the last century. Many French and English loanwords are still used in the dialects of many Arab countries.

Family & Social Relations

This page contains classical vocabulary in addition to the modern vocabulary.

A family

"aaila(tun) (sing. fem.) �لة� �ئ عا

'usra(tun) (sing. fem.) رة� س�c أ

'ahl(un) (plu. masc.) أه�ل�

A (greater) family 'aal(un) (plu. masc.) آل�

Relatives

'aqaarib(u) (plu. masc.) cر�ب� أقا'aqribaa'(un) (plu.

masc.) �ء� أق�ر�باqaraaba(tun)

(figurative plu. masc.)�بة� قرا

Relatives by Birth

A father 'ab(un) أب� A mother 'umm(un) cم� أ

A male parent waalid(un) �د� �ل واA female parent waalida(tun) �دة� �ل وا

Parents waalidaan(i) �د �ل �ن�اوا A brother 'akh(un) أخ� A sister 'ukht(un) cخ�ت� أ

A brother (from the same two

parents)shaqeeq(un) �ق� شق�ي

A sister (from the same two

parents)shaqeeqa(tun) �قة� شق�ي

A twin (either gender) taw'am(un) تو�أم�Two twins taw'amaan(i) �تو�أم ن�ا

A son 'ibn(un) �ن� �ب اnajl(un) نج�ل�

A daughter 'ibna(tun) �نة� �ب ا bint(un) �ت� �ن ب

A male descendentA son

saleel(un) �ل� �ي سلA female

descendentA daughter

saleela(tun) �لة� �ي سل A grandfather jadd(un) ºجد

A grandmother jadda(tun) جد¦ة�

A paternal uncle "amm(un) ºعمA paternal aunt "amma(tun) عم¦ة�

A maternal uncle khaal(un) �ل� خاA maternal aunt khaala(tun) �لة� خا

A paternal cousin (son of paternal uncle)

'ibnu "amm(in) Ãعم cن� �ب ا A paternal cousin

(son of paternal aunt)

'ibnu "amma(tin) عم¦ة² cن� �ب ا

A paternal cousin (son of maternal uncle)

'ibnu khaal(in) �ل² خا cن� �ب ا A paternal cousin (son of maternal aunt)

'ibnu khaalat(in) �لة² خا cن� �ب ا

A nephew(son of brother)

'ibnu 'akh(in) أخ² cن� �ب اA nephew(son of sister)

'ibnu 'ukht(in) cخ�ت² أ cن� �ب اA niece

(daughter of brother)

'ibnatu 'akh(in) أخ² cنة� �ب ا

A niece(daughter of sister)

'ibnatu 'ukht(in) cخ�ت² أ cنة� �ب ا

A male relative (usually by birth)

qareeb(un) �ب� ق�ر�يA female relative

(usually by birth) qareeba(tun) �بة� ق�ر�ي

Relatives By Marriage

A fiancé khateeb(un) �ب� خط�ي

A fiancée khateeba(tun) �بة� خط�يA bridegroom

A newly wedded man

"arees(un) �س� عر�يA bride

A newly wedded woman

"roos(un) و�س� cعرA husband

zawj(un) زو�ج�ba"l(un) بع�ل�

qareen(un)�ن� قر�ي

haleel(un) �ل� �ي حل "asheer(un) �ر� ي عش�

"irs(un) ع�ر�س�

A wife

zawja(tun) زو�جة�

zawj(un) زو�ج�'imra'a(tun) �م�رأة� ا

qareena(tun) �نة� قر�يhaleela(tun) �لة� �ي حل

"asheera(tun) �رة� ي عش�"irs(un) ع�ر�س�

A father-in-law

ham(un) حم�ham'(un) ء� حم� hama(n) � حما

A mother-in-law hamaa(tun) �ة� حماA son-in-law

A sister's husbandsihr(un) ص�ه�ر�

A daughter-in-lawA brother's wife

sihra(tun) ص�ه�رة�

kanna(tun) ¦ة� كنAny male of the

wife's familykhatan(un) ختن�

Any female of the wife's family

khatana(tun) ختنة�A husband of a

wife's sister"adeel(un) �ل� عد�ي

A wife of a husband's brother

silfa(tun) �فة� ل س�Another wife of the

same mandurra(tun) ة� ضcر¦

A male in-law naseeb(un) �ب� ي نس�

A female in-law naseeba(tun) �بة� ي نس�

A boyfriend --- ---

A girlfriend --- ---

Social Status

A single (man)

"aazib(un) �ز�ب� عا

'a"zab(u) cأع�زب

"azab(un) عزب�

'ayyim(un) §م� أي

A single (woman)

"aaziba(tun) �ز�بة� عا

'a"zabaa'(u) cء� با عز�

"azaba(tun) عزبة�

'ayyima(tun) §مة� أي

A married (masc. adj.)

mutazawwij(un) مcتزو§ج�muta'ahhil(un) مcتأه§ل�

naakih(un) �ح� �ك نا

A married (fem. adj.)

mutazawwija(tun) مcتزو§جة�

naakih(un) �ح� �ك نا

A divorced man* --- ---

A divorced woman mutallaqa(tun) ¦قة� مcطل

A widower 'armal(un) مل� أر�

A widow 'armala(tun) cة� مل أر�An engaged (masc.

adj.)murtabit(un) �ط� تب مcر�

An engaged (fem. adj.)

murtabita(tun) �طة� تب مcر�

*Colloquial for a divorced man: mutallaq(un) ق�¦ . مcطل

A fetus janeen(un) �ن� �ي جن

A male infant radee"(un) �ع� رض�ي

A female infant radee"a(tun) �عة� رض�ي

A male child tifl(un) ط�ف�ل�

A female child tifla(tun) ط�ف�لة�

A child / a boy walad(un) � ولد

A girl bint(un) �ت� �ن ب

A boy sabiyy(un) ºي� صب

A girl sabiyya(tun) ¦ة� �ي صبA young man, a

teenagerfataa(n) فتى�

A young woman, a teenager

fataa(tun) �ة� فتاA young man, a

teenagerrulaam(un) غcالم�

A male teenager muraahiq(un) �ه�ق� مcرا

A female teenager muraahiqa(tun) �ه�قة� مcرا

A male minor qaasir(un) �ص�ر� قا

A female minor qaasira(tun) �ص�رة� قا

A male juvenile (delinquent)

hadath(un) حدث�A female juvenile

(delinquent)hadatha(tun) حدثة�

A young man shaabb(un) �ب� شا

A young woman shaabba(tun) ¦ة� �ب شا

A man rajul(tun) رجcل�

A male adult

baalir(un) �غ� �ل با

raashid(un) د� �ش� را

A woman 'imra'a(tun) �م�رأة� ا

A female adult

baalira(tun) �غة� �ل با

raashida(tun) دة� �ش� را

A middle-aged man

kahl(un) كه�ل�A middle-aged

womankahla(tun) كه�لة�

An old man shaykh(un) �خ� شي

An old woman shaykha(tun) �خة� شي

An old person "ajooz(un) عجcو�ز�

A young (man)

sareeru ('a)s-sinn(i) cر� صغ�ي

ن§ small (of) the ageالس§

sareer(un)

�ر� صغ�يsmall

yaafi"(un) �ف�ع� ياfatiyy(un) ºي� فت

An old (man) kabeeru ('a)s-sinn(i) cر� �ي ن§ كب الس§

big (of) the age

kabeer(un)

�ر� �ي bigكب

A very old (man)

taa"inu ('a)s-sinn(i)

cع�ن� طان§ الس§

harim(un) هر�م�

A young (woman)

sareeru ('a)s-sinn(i) cرة� صغ�ي

ن§ small (of) the ageالس§

sareer(un)

�رة� صغ�يsmall

yaafi"(un) �ف�عة� ياfatiyy(un) ¦ة� �ي فت

An old (woman)kabeeru ('a)s-

sinn(i) cرة� �ي كب

ن§ big (of) the ageالس§

kabeer(un)

�رة� �ي bigكب

A very old (woman)

taa"inu ('a)s-sinn(i)

cنة �ع� طان§ الس§

harim(un) هر�مة�

Week Days

A day yawm(un) (masc.) �يو�م Days 'ayyaam(un) (fem.) �م� ¦ا أي

A week 'usboo"(un) (masc.) cو�ع� ب س�c أ

Weeks 'asaabee"(u) (fem.) cع� �ي �ب أسا

Days of the Weekcو�ع� ب س�

c األ cم� ¦ا أي

Saturday yawm(u) ('a)s-sabt(i) cيو�م �ت� ب الس¦

Sunday yawm(u) ('a)l-'ahad(i) األحد� cيو�م

Monday yawm(u) ('a)l-'ithnayn(i) �ن� �ني �ث اال cيو�م

Tuesday yawm(u) ('a)th-thulaathaa'(i) �ء� ¶الثا الث cيو�م

Wednesday yawm(u) ('a)l-'arbi"aa'(i) cيو�م �ء �ع�ا ب �األر�

Thursday yawm(u) ('a)l-khamees(i) cيو�م

�س� الخم�ي

Friday yawm(u) ('a)l-jum"a(ti) cيو�م الجcم�عة�

*Omitting the word cيو�م is common.

Months

A month shahr(un) (masc.) شه�ر�

Months

'ashhur(un) (fem.) هcر� أش�

shuhoor(un) (fem.) هcو�ر� cش

A year

sana(tun) (fem.) �سنة

"aam(un) (masc.) �م� عا

Years sinoon(a) (fem.) c ن �نوس�

sanawaat(un) (fem.) �ت� سنوا

'a"waam(un) (fem.) �م� أع�وا

1. Syriac CalendarUsed in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine.

Syriac Calendar cة¦ �ي �ن يا ر� الس¶ نة� الس¦ cرcه أش�

Januarykaanoon(u) ('a)th-

thaaneecو�نc �ن كا�ي� �ن ¦ا الث

February shubaat(u) �طcش cبا

March 'aathaar(u) cر� آذا

April naysaan(u) cن� �سا ني

May 'ayyaar(u) cر� ¦ا أي

June hazeeraan(u) cن� �را حز�ي

July tammooz(u) cتم¶و�ز

August 'aab(un) آب�

September 'aylool(u) cو�لc �ل أي

Octobertishreen(u)

('a)l-'awwal(u)cن� ر�ي �ش� تcاألو¦ل

Novembertishreen(u) ('a)th-

thaaneecن� ر�ي �ش� ت�ن�ي ¦ا �الث

Decemberkaanoon(u)

('a)l-'awwal(u)cو�نc �ن كاcاألو¦ل

2. Gregorian CalendarUsed, with slight variations in spelling of months' names, in the rest of Arab countries except Libya and Saudi Arabia.

Note that names of Latin months are often pronounced in the English or French way of pronouncing these names, and not the Arabized way mentioned below.

Gregorian Calendarنة� أ الس¦ cرcه ¦ة�ش� �الد�ي الم�ي

January yanaayir(u) cر� �ي ينا

February fibraayir(u) cر� �ي �را ف�ب

March maaris(u) cر�س� ما

April 'abreel(u) cل� �ر�ي أب

May maayoo cو� �ي ما

June yooniyoo cو� �ي cو�ن ي

July yooliyoo cو� �ي cو�ل ي

August 'urustus(u)cط cغcس� أ

cسSeptember sibtimbar(u) cم�بر� �ت ب س�

October 'uktoobar(u) cو�برc �ت كc أ

November noofimbar(u) cو�ف�م�برc ن

December deesimbar(u) cم�بر �س� د�ي

3. Hegira CalendarA lunar calendar, the calendar of ancient Arabs and of the Islamic civilization. It is used officially only in Saudi Arabia.

Hegira Calendarنة� أ الس¦ cرcه ¦ة�ش� اله�ج�ر�ي

Muharram 'al-muharram(u) cم �مcحر¦ ال

Safar safar(un) صفر�

Rabi Irabee"(un)

('a)l-'awwal(u) cاألو¦ل �ع� �ي رب

Rabi IIrabee"(un)

('a)l-'aakhir(u) �ع� �ي اآلخ�رcرب

Jumada Ijumaadaa ('a)l-'oolaa

�دى� ما cج

و�لى�c األ

Jumada IIjumaadaa

('a)l-'aakhira(tu)�دى� ما cج cرة اآلخ�

Rajab rajab(un) رجب�

Shaban sha"baan(u) cن� شع�با

Ramadan ramadaan(u) cن� رمضا

Shawwal shawwaal(un) �ل� شو¦اDhu al-Qadah

thoo ('a)l-qi"da(ti) cالق�ع�دة� وذ �Dhu al-Hijjah

thoo ('a)l-hijja(ti) cة� وذ الح�ج¦ �

Seasons

A season fasl(un) (masc.) فص�ل�

Seasons fusool(un) (fem.) �فcصcو�ل

Seasons of the Year cو�لcصcنة�ف الس¦

Summer fasl(u) ('a)s-sayf(i)cفص�ل

�الص¦ي�ف

Fallfasl(u) ('a)l-khareef(i)

cفص�ل �الخر�ي�ف

Winterfasl(u) ('a)sh-

shitaa'(i)

cفص�ل �ء تا �الش§

Spring fasl(u) ('a)r-rabee"(i) cع فص�ل� �ي ب �الر¦

When the word fasl(u) = "(the) season (of)" is omitted, the cases have to be changed to the nominative or raf" case.

Seasons of the Yearنة� الس¦ cو�لcصcف

Summer ('a)s-sayf(u) cف� الص¦ي

Fall ('a)l-khareef(u) cف� الخر�ي

Winter ('a)sh-shitaa'(u) cء� تا الش§

Spring ('a)r-rabee"(u) cع� �ي ب الر¦

Numbers

Numberscد� األع�دا

One waahid(un) ١ �ح� وا

د�

Two 'ithnaan(i) ٢� �ث ا

�ن�انThree thalaatha(tun) ٣ ثالثة�

Four 'arba"a(tun) ٤ بع أر�ة�

Five khamsa(tun) ٥ خم�سة�

Six sitta(tun) ٦ ¦ة� ت س�

Seven sab"a(tun) ٧ �ع سبة�

Eightthamaaniya(

tun) ٨ �ي �ن ثماة�

Nine tis"a(tun) ٩ ع �س� ت

ة�

Ten "ashara(tun)١٠

عشرة�

Zero sifr(un) ٠ ص�ف�ر�

Eleven 'ahada "ashar(a)١١

أحدعشر

Twelve'ithnaa

"ashar(a)١٢

�ن �ث �اا عشر

Thirteenthalaathata "ashar(a)

١٣

ثالثةعشر

Fourteen'arba"ata "ashar(a)

١٤

بعة أر�عشر

Fifteenkhamsata "ashar(a) ١ خم�سة

٥ عشر

Sixteen sittata "ashar(a)١٦

¦ة ت س�عشر

Seventeen

sab"ata "ashar(a)١٧

�عة سبعشر

Eighteenthamaaniyata

"ashar(a)١٨

�ية �ن ثماعشر

Nineteen tis"ata "ashar(a)١٩

عة �س� تعشر

Twenty "ishroon(a) ٢٠ ر �نcوع�ش�

Thirtythalaathoon(a) ٣٠ c �نوثالث

Forty 'arba"oon(a) ٤٠ cبع �نوأر�

Fifty khamsoon(a) ٥٠ cنوخم�س�

Sixty sittoon(a) ٦٠ ¶ ت �نوس�

Seventy sab"oon(a) ٧٠ cع� �نوسب

Eightythamaanoon(a) ٨٠ c �ن �نوثما

Ninety tis"oon(a) ٩٠ cع �س� �نوت

Twenty-onewaahidun

wa-"ishroon(a)

٢١

�ح�د� واو

cر �وع�ش�ن

Twenty-two'ithnaani

wa-"ishroon(a)٢ �ن �ث �ا ن�ا

٢و

ر �cوع�ش�ن

Twenty-three

thalaathatun

wa-"ishroon(a)

٢٣

ثالثة�و


Twenty-four'arba"atun

wa-"ishroon(a)

٢٤

بعة� أر�و


Twenty-fivekhamsatun

wa-"ishroon(a)

٢٥

خم�سة�و


Twenty-sixsittatun

wa-"ishroon(a)

٢٦

¦ة� ت س�و


Twenty-seven

sab"atun

wa-"ishroon(a)

٢٧

�عة� سبو


Twenty-eight

thamaaniyatun

wa-"ishroon(a)

٢٨

�ية� �ن ثماو


Twenty-nine tis"atun

wa-"ishroon(a)٢٩

عة� �س� تو

cر �وع�ش�

نBy replacing the word و�ن cر with other "decade words" we obtain the restع�ش�of the numbers.

Examples:

Thirty-one

waahidun

wa-thalaathoon(a)

٣١

�ح�د� واو

c �نوثالث

Fifty-two

'ithnaani

wa-khamsoon(a)

٥٢

�ن �ث �ن�اا و

cوخم�س�ن

Seventy-four'arba"atun

wa-sab"oon(a)

٧٤

بعة� أر�و

cع� �وسبن

Eighty-seven

sab"atun ٨ �عة� سب

wa-thamaanoon(a)

٧ وc �ن �نوثما

Ninety-ninetis"atun

wa-tis"oon(a)

٩٩

عة� �س� تو

cع �س� �وتن

One hundred

mi'a(tun) ١٠٠ م�ئة�Two

hundredmi'ataan(i) ٢٠٠ �ن�ام�ئت

Three hundred

thalaathu-mi'a(tin) ٣٠٠ cم�ئة² ثالث

Four hundred

'arba"u-mi'a(tin) ٤٠٠ بعcم�ئة² أر�Five

hundredkhamsu-mi'a(tin) ٥٠٠ م�ئة² cخم�س

Six hundred

sittu-mi'a(tin) ٦٠٠ ¶م�ئة² ت س�

Seven hundred

sab"u-mi'a(tin) ٧٠٠ �عcم�ئة² سبEight

hundredthamaanu-mi'a(tin) ٨٠٠ cم�ئة² �ن ثما

Nine hundred

tis"u-mi'a(tin) ٩٠٠ عcم�ئة² �س� ت

١٠١د� �ح� ووا م�ئة�

mi'atun wa-waahidun

Hundred and one

١٠٢ �ن �ث وا �ن�ام�ئة�

mi'atun wa-thnaani

Hundred and two

١١١عشر وأحد م�ئة�

mi'atun wa-'ahada "ashar(a)

Hundred and eleven

٢١٢ �ن�ام�ئت �ن �ث عشر اوا �

mi'ataan(i) wa-thnaa "ashar(a)

Two hundred and twelve

٦٢٠¶م�ئة² ت ر س� �نcووع�ش�

sittu-mi'a(tin) wa-"ishroon(a)

Six hundred and twenty

٩٩٩ عcم�ئة² �س� عc ت �س� وت عة� �س� �نووتtis"u-mi'a(tin) wa-tis"atun wa-

tis"oon(a)

Nine hundred and ninety-nine

One thousand

'alf(un) ١٠٠٠ �ف� ألTwo

thousand'alfaan(i) ٢٠٠٠ �ف �ن�األ

Threethousand

thalaathatu'aalaaf(in) ٣٠٠٠ cثالثة

آالف²Four

thousand'arba"atu 'aalaaf(in) ٤٠٠٠ cبعة أر�

آالف²Ten

thousand"asharatu 'aalaaf(in) ١٠٠٠٠ cعشرة

آالف²

١١٠٠٠

�فا أل عشر أحد'ahada "ashar(a) 'alfa(n)

Eleven thousand

١٢٠٠٠

�ن �ث �ا �فا ا أل عشر'ithnaa "ashar(a) 'alfa(n)

Twelve thousand

٢٠٠٠٠

cر �فا وع�ش� أل �ن"ishroon(a) 'alfa(n)

Twenty thousand

٢٥٠٠٠

cر وع�ش� �فا و�خم�سة� أل نkhamsa(tun) wa-"ishroon(a) 'alfa(n)

Twenty-five thousand

٩٩٠٠٠

cع �س� وت عة� �س� �فا وت أل �نtis"atun wa-tis"oon(a) 'alfa(n)

Ninety-nine thousand

١٠٠٠٠٠

�ف² أل cم�ئةmi'atu 'alf(in)

Hundred thousand

٢٠٠٠٠٠

�م�ئت �ف² ا ألmi'ataa 'alf(in)

Two hundred thousand

٩٠٠٠٠٠

�ف² أل عcم�ئة� �س� تtis"u-mi'ati 'alf(in)

Nine hundred thousand

٩٩٩٠٠٠

cع �س� وت عة� �س� وت عcم�ئة² �س� �فا وت أل �ن

tis"u-mi'a(tin) wa- tis"atun wa-tis"oon(a) 'alfa(n)

Nine hundred and Ninety-nine thousand

٦٥٤٣٢١

cوخم�س بعة� وأر� ¶م�ئة² ت �فا وس� أل �ن cر و�ع�ش� �ح�د� ووا cم�ئة² نو�وثالث

sittu-mi'atin wa-'arba"atun wa-khamsoona 'alfan wa-thalaathu-

mi'atin wa-waahidun wa-"ishroon(a)

Six hundred and fifty-four thousand and three hundred and twenty-one

In Classical Arabic:

٦٥٤٣٢١

cر و�ع�ش� �ح�د� بعة� نو�وا وأر� cم�ئة² وثالث cف² ووخم�س� أل ¶م�ئة� ت وس� �ن

waahidun wa-"ishroona wa-thalaathu-mi'atin wa-'arba"atun wa-khamsoona

wa-sittu-mi'ati 'alfin

Twenty-one and three hundred and fifty-four and six hundred thousand

One million

milyōn(u) ١٠٠٠٠٠٠ cيون� م�ل

Twomillion

milyōnaan(i) ٢٠٠٠٠٠٠ �يون �م�ل ن�ا

Threemillion

thalaathatumalaayee

n(a)

٣٠٠٠٠٠٠cثالثة

�ن �ي مالي

Tenmillion

'arba"atu malaayee ١٠٠٠٠٠٠٠ cعشرة

n(a) �ن �ي ماليHundre

dmillion

mi'atu milyōn(a)

١٠٠٠٠٠٠٠٠

cم�ئة �يون م�ل

One billion

bilyōn(u) cيون� �ل بTwo

billionbilyōnaan(i) �يون �ل �ب ن�ا

Threebillion

thalaathatu

balaayeen(a)

cثالثة �ن �ي بالي

Tenbillion

'arba"atu balaayeen(a)

cعشرة �ن �ي بالي

Hundredbillion

mi'atu bilyōn(a) �يون �ل ب cم�ئة

Thousandbillion

'alfu bilyōn(a)cف� أل

�يون �ل ب

One milliard (billion)

milyaar(u) cر� �يا م�لTwo

milliard (billion)

milyaaraan(i) �ر �يا �م�ل ن�اThree

milliard (billion)

thalaathatu

milyaaraat(in)

cثالثة �ت² �را �يا م�ل

Tenmilliard (billion)

'arba"atu milyaaraat(in)

cعشرة �ت² �را �يا م�ل

Hundredmilliard (billion)

mi'atu milyaar(a) �ر �يا م�ل cم�ئة

Thousandmilliard (billion)

'alfu milyaar(a) �ر �يا م�ل cف� أل

One trillion

trilyōn(u) cيون� �ر�ل ت

Twotrillion

trilyōnaan(i) �يون �ر�ل �ت ن�ا

Threetrillion

thalaathatu

trilyōnaat(in)

cثالثة �ت² �يونا �ر�ل ت

Tentrillion

'arba"atu trilyōnaat(in)

cعشرة �ت² �يونا �ر�ل ت

Hundredtrillion

mi'atu trilyōn(a) �يون �ر�ل ت cم�ئة

Thousandtrillion

'alfu trilyōn(a)cف� أل

�يون �ر�ل ت

Colors

Colors cن� �وا األل

Red 'ahmar(u) cأح�مرOrange

burtuqaaliyy(un) � �ل cقا ت cر� ب

ºيYellow 'asfar(u) cأص�فرGreen 'akhdar(u) cأخ�ضرBlue 'azraq(u) cرق أز�

Purplebanafsajiyy

(un)بنف�سج�

ºيPink wardiyy(un) ºد�ي ور�

Brown bunniyy(un) ºي� cن بGray ramaadiyy(un) ºد�ي� رماWhite 'abyad(u) cيض� أبBlack 'aswad(u) c ود أس�

Survival Phrases

Levantine Arabic / Damascus

Spoken dialects of Arabic use more vowels than those of formal Arabic. You may click here in order to see a list of vowels in the spoken dialects.

A feature of the dialect in Damascus is that short vowels in the final syllables

of words are often extended to become the corresponding long vowels (e.g. a becomes aa, and e becomes ai ). However, this is not shown in the phrases below.

I. Basics

Yes

na"am نعم�'ai إي

'ai wa و إي

No la'< الء�

O.K.tayyeb

±ب� fineطي

Please(to a male)

mėn fadl-akفض�لك� من�

of your favor

law samahėtسمحت� if you allowedلو�

'ėzaa samahėtسمحت� � �ذا if you allowedإ

'ėzaa bėtreed�د� �ر�ي بت � �ذا if you want إ

Please(to a female)

mėn fadl-ekفض�لك� من�

of your favor

law samahtiسمحت� لو�

if you allowed

'ėzaa samahtiسمحت� � �ذا if you allowedإ

'ėzaa bėtreedee�د�ي� �ر�ي بت � �ذا if you want إ

Thank you(to a male)

shukran �را ك cشthanks

yėslamooلمcو�ا they be safe (your hands) (may)يس�

ya"teek ėl-"aafye �ك� يع�ط�ي�ف�ية� �عا give you the well-being (may he)ال

Thank you

(to a female)

shukran�را ك cشthanks

yėslamooلمcو�ا يس�

(may) they be safe (your hands)

ya"teeki ėl-"aafye �ك� يع�ط�ي�ف�ية� �عا give you the well-being (may he)ال

You're welcome

"afwan

عف�وا(I beg) pardoning

(responding to thank you)

yaa 'ahlainأه�لين� � يا

welcome

Excuse me

"afwan


"adam ėl-mu'aakhaze عدم��خذ �مcؤا ال

ة�no objection

I am sorry(male)

'anaa 'aasefآسف� � أنا

I (am) sorry

I am sorry(female)

'anaa 'aasfe

آس�فة � أناI (am) sorry

'aasef

Sorry(male)

sorryآسف�

Sorry(female)

'aasfe

آس�فةsorry

No problem

maa fee mėshkle ف�ي� � ما�لة ك not exists a problemمش�

"aadee

�د�ي� normalعا

Hello

ės-salaamu "alaikom cالم الس¦

the peace on youعليكم�

marhabaa � حبا مر�welcome

Hello(response)

wa-"alaikom ės-salaam cمc �ك وعلي

cالم and on you the peaceالس¦

'ahlain

أه�لين�welcome

Welcome

marhabaa � حبا مر�welcome

'ahlain

أه�لين�welcome

'ahlain w-sahlain أه�لين�welcomeو�سه�لين�

Good morning

sabaah ėl-khair �ح� صبا�خير� morning of well-being (the)ال

sabaah ėn-noor

Good morning

(response)

�ح� صبا¶و�ر� �ن ال

(the) morning of brightness

Good afternoon Not used

Good evening

masaa ėl-khair �ء مسا�خير� evening of well-being (the)ال

Good evening

(response)

masaa ėn-noor �ء مسا¶و�ر� �ن evening of brightness (the)ال

Good night(to a male)

tėsbah "alaa khair على� تص�بح�-you be in morning with wellخير�

being

Good night

(to a female)

tėsėbahee "alaa khair تصبح�ي�

خير� you be in morning withعلى�well-being

Good night

(response)

(to a male)

w-'ėnte mėn 'ahl-o من� �ت و�إن

and you (are) of itsأه�لهpeople

Good night(response)

(to a female)

w-'ėnti mėn 'ahl-o من� �ت� و�إن and you (are) of its peopleأه�له

Goodbye

salaam

peaceسالم�

ma" ės-salaameالس¦المة with safetyمع�

Survival Phrases

Najdi Arabic / Riyadh

Najd is the central region of Arabia. In Najdi dialect, the letter qaaf ق is

pronounced g most of the time. Also the letter daad ض is often pronounced

zaa'< ظ .

I. Basics

Yes

na"am نعم�

'ee �ي� إ

'ee na"am نعم� �ي� إ

Nolaa الla' أل

O.K.tayyib

§ب� fineطي

zain

fineزين�

Please

(to a male)

min fazl-ėkفض�لك �م�ن�

of your favor

law samahtسمح�ت �if you allowedلو�

law tismėh�س�مح�لو� if you allowت

Please(to a female)

min fazl-ėkفض�لك� of your favorمن�

law samahtiسمح�ت �if you allowedلو�

law tismėhain�س�محين�لو� if you allowت

Thank you(to a male)

shukran �را ك cشthanks

mashkoorcو�ر� ك thanked (you are)مش�

Thank you shukran�را ك cشthanks

(to a female)

mashkooracو�ر ك ةمش�

(you are) thanked

You're welcome

(responding to thank you)

al-"afoo

�عفcو� ال(I beg) the pardoning

yaa halaa � هاليا

welcome

hayyaa-k �ك� ¦ا praised you (God)حي

Excuse me(to a male)

"afwan


law samaht لو��if you allowedسمح�ت

Excuse me(to a female)

"afwanعف�وا

(I beg) pardoning

law samahti

لو��سمح�ت

if you allowed

I am sorry(male)

'anaa 'aasėfآسف� � أنا

I (am) sorry

I am sorry(female)

'anaa 'aasfa

� فةأنا آس�I (am) sorry

Sorry(male)

'aasėf

آسف�sorry

Sorry(female)

'aasfa

فة آس�sorry

maa fee mushkila

No problem

ف�ي� � ماك�لة مcش�

not exists a problem

maa ykhaalėf

�لف� �خا ي � ماnot contradicts

Hello

as-salaamu "alay-kum cالم الس¦

cم� �ك the peace on youعلي

halaa

هالwelcome

Hello(response)

wa-"alay-kum as-salaam �كcم �وعلي

�الس¦الم and on you the peace

yaa halaa

� هالياwelcome

Welcome

yaa halaa � هاليا

welcome

yaa halaa fee-k � �ك� يا ف�ي هال

welcome to you

hayyaak al-laah¦ه� الل �ك� ¦ا God praised youحي

yaa halaa w-marhabaa � هاليا

� حبا welcomeو�مر�

Good morning

sabaah al-khair �ح �صبا morning of well-being (the)�ال�خير

sabbahk al-lah b-al-khair ¦ح�ك� صب

¦ه� اللبالخير�

may God make you be in the morning in well-being

Good sabaah an-noor �ح �صبا

morning(response)

¶و�ر� morning of brightness (the)الن

sabbahk al-lah b-an-noor ¦ح�ك� صب

¦ه� ¶و�ر� الل بالنmay God make you be in the

morning with brightness

Good afternoon Not used

Good evening

masaa' al-khair �ء �مسا evening of well-being (the)�ال�خير

massaak al-lah b-al-khair �ك� ا مس¦

¦ه� اللبالخير�

may God make you be in the evening in well-being

Good morning

masaa' an-noor �ء �مسا ¶و�ر� evening of brightness (the)الن

(response)

massaak al-lah b-an-noor �ك� ا مس¦

¦ه� الل¶و�ر� بالن

may God make you be in the evening with brightness

Good night

(to a male)

tisbėh "alaa khair�ص�بح� على� ت

�you be in morning with well-beingخير

Good night

(to a female)

tisbėheen "alaa khair �ن� ي �ص�بح� ت

خير� -you be in morning with wellعلى�being

Goodbye

salaam

سالم�peace

ma" as-salaama مع�with safetyالس¦المة

faamaan ėl-laah

�ن� �ما فا¦ه� الل

(may you be) in God's security

See you later

nshoofėk "alaa khair و�فك� cش� نخير� see you in well-beingعلى�

Arabic Alphabet

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Transcript of Arabic Alphabet