AQA Examinations A Level Sport and Physical Education A 6581 Module 4 part B

2A Module 4B.1

AQA A Level Physical Education A 6581

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AQA ExaminationsA Level Sport and Physical Education

A 6581

Module 4 part B

Physiological, Biomechanical and Psychological Factors which Optimise Performance

2A Module 4B.2


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INDEX25 - MEASUREMENT OF STRESS QUESTIONNAIRES / BEHAVIOURAL / PHYSIOLOGICAL26 - RELAXATION TECHNIQUES IMAGERY / PROGRESSIVE RELAXATION TRAINING (PRT) CENTRING / SELF-DIRECTED RELAXATION TRAINING27 - STRESS CONTROL TECHNIQUES COGNITIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT BIOFEEDBACK / SELF-TALK28 - MENTAL PREPARATION FOR PERFORMANCE MENTAL REHEARSAL / GOAL SETTING29 - SELF-CONFIDENCE AND SELF-EFFICACY30 - SELF-CONFIDENCE - CONFIDENCE31 - SELF-CONFIDENCE OVERCONFIDENCE / FALSE CONFIDENCE32 - THE ROLE OF THE COACH33 - SELF-EFFICACY - BANDURA’S MODEL VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES34 - SELF-EFFICACY - BANDURA’S MODEL VERBAL PERSUASION35 - SELF-CONFIDENCE - WEINBERG’S MODEL36 - VEALEY’s MODEL OF SPORT CONFIDENCE37 - LEARNED HELPLESSNESS (LH) GLOBAL / SPECIFIC LH - ATTRIBUTION RETRAINING38 - THE SELF-CONCEPT - SELF-ESTEEM39 - ATTRIBUTION - WEINER’S MODEL LOCUS OF CAUSALITY / STABILITY / CONTROLLABILITY40 - DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION PERSONAL / SITUATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS41 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH) / AVOID FAILURE (NAF)42 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION PERSONALITY COMPONENTS43 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS

Index

3 - AROUSAL - RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM4 - AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY5 - INVERTED U THEORY THE POSITION OF OPTIMUM AROUSAL6 - AROUSAL CURVES - EXAMPLES7 - CATASTROPHE THEORY8 - TASK DIFFERENCES - OPTIMUM AROUSAL9 - TASK DIFFERENCES COMPLEX / SKILFULLY DIFFICULT - SIMPLE / GROSS TASKS10 - ATTENTION SELECTIVE ATTENTION / ATTENTIONAL NARROWING11 - PERCEPTION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION12 - CONCENTRATION - CUE UTILISATION USE OF COGNITIVE TECHNIQUES TO ASSIST CONCENTRATION13 - CONCENTRATION AND ATTENTIONAL STYLES NIDEFFER - BROAD / NARROW / INTERNAL / EXTERNAL14 - ANXIETY TRAIT / STATE ANXIETY - A TRAIT / STATE15 - THE EFFECT OF AUDIENCE

AROUSAL CAUSED BY AUDIENCE EVALUATION DEVELOPMENT OF A CORRECT DOMINANT RESPONSE16 - THE DISTRACTION EFFECT17 - STRESS AND STRESSORS18 - STRESSORS19 - GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME20 - PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS - EXTERNAL - THE SITUATION INTERNAL / COMPETITIVE ORIENTATION21 - EUSTRESS22 - EFFECT OF STRESS ON PERFORMANCE INHIBITION / PERFORMANCE OF SKILLS / CONCENTRATION 23 - SYMPTOMS OF STRESS PHYSIOLOGICAL / PSYCHOLOGICAL / BEHAVIOURAL24 - THE MANAGEMENT OF STRESS

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AROUSALRETICULAR ACTIVATING

SYSTEM• RAS is a system within the

brain which causes arousal• extroverts have lower levels of

intrinsic arousal than introverts• hence extroverts seek

situations of high arousal• introverts seek low arousal

situations

Arousal

AROUSAL• a state of mental and physical

preparedness for action• this is the level of inner drives• which forces the sportsperson

to strive to achieve• it needs to be under control• and at the right level

depending on the task• a faster heart rate• faster breathing rate• sweating• ability to focus (concentrate)• response to danger

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AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY

WITH INCREASED AROUSAL• the dominant habit / most usual

behaviour will be reproduced• a poorly-learned skill will give a

performance full of mistakes• a well-learned skill will give a

skilled performance

Arousal

DRIVE THEORY

increasedarousal

expert novice

increasedperform ance

w orseperform ance

• the higher the arousal level• the higher the achievement /

performance level• the more likely that a well-

learned skill (a dominant response) will be produced

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INVERTED U THEORY

INVERTED U THEORY THE POSITION OF OPTIMUM AROUSAL DEPENDS ON

type of activity / task complexity

• gross skills (weight lifting) require high arousal

• fine skills (snooker) require low arousal

skill level of the performer• the more skilful the performer • the higher the optimum

arousal could be

personality of the performer• the more extrovert the

performer• the higher the arousal likely

for optimum performance

Arousal

• there is an optimum arousal level• if aroused more than this• performance will decline

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AROUSAL CURVES

BEST PERFORMANCE• Sam’s performance has the

highest level

Arousal

PSYCHING UP• Jon’s best performance takes

place at the highest arousal level• he needs to psych himself up the

most to achieve optimum performance

CONTROLLED AROUSAL• Ted’s best performance takes

place between a narrow range of arousal levels

• therefore arousal needs to be carefully controlled

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CATASTROPHE THEORY

CATASTROPHE THEORY• here performance increases as

arousal increases• but if arousal gets too high• a complete loss of

performance occurs

Arousal

• example : the golfer who tries too hard and completely misses the fairway from his drive at the 18th hole when in a winning position

• example : the gymnast who completely messes up her previously well-executed routine in a national final

• anxiety affects arousal

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TASK DIFFERENCES

OPTIMUM AROUSAL• can be identified• can be controlled by successful

performers• depends on

– circumstances– personalities

• whether tasks are– simple or complex– fine or gross– strength or endurance– information processing

• whether the performer directs attention – concentrates– narrows attention to the specific

task

Arousal - Tasks

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TASK DIFFERENCES

COMPLEX / SKILFULLY DIFFICULT TASKS

• fine, delicate and highly controlled• or information processing tasks• high arousal interferes with task• sometimes very low arousal is

required (calmness)• close control required• narrow band of arousal best

Arousal - Tasks

SIMPLE / GROSS TASKS• easy / large basic movements /

strength or endurance tasks• bigger margin for error• broader optimal arousal zone• tolerate bigger arousal levels

before performance falls

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ATTENTIONAttention

ATTENTION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION• relates to the amount of information we can cope with• since the amount of information we can attend to is limited• we have limited attentional capacity• the performer must therefore attend to only relevant information• and disregard irrelevant information• this is called selective attention

ATTENTIONAL NARROWING AND CONCENTRATION• when some parts of a performance become automatic• the information relevant to those parts does not require attention• this gives the performer spare attentional capacity• which allows the performer to attend to new elements of a skill• such as tactics or anticipating the moves of an opponent

• the coach will need to help the performer to make best use of spare attentional capacity

• the coach will also need to direct the attention of the performer to enable him / her to concentrate and reduce the chance of attentional switching to irrelevant information or distractions

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PERCEPTION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTIONSelective Attention

PERCEPTION• perception is stimulus identification• as information is received from the environment, the

performer needs to make sense of it• to interpret it and identify the elements which are

relevant and important• consists of three elements :

– detection– comparison– recognition

SELECTIVE ATTENTION• the process of sorting out relevant bits of information from

the many which are received• attention passes the information to the short-term memory

which gives time for conscious analysis• a good performer can focus totally on an important aspect

of his / her skill• which can exclude other elements which may also be

desirable• sometimes a performer may desire to concentrate on

several different things at once

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CONCENTRATIONCONCENTRATION• a state of mind in which attention

is directed towards a specific aim or activity

• attentional focus• control of attention towards a task

CUE UTILISATION• cues can be used by the

sportaperson– to direct attention – to trigger appropriate arousal

responses– to enable attentional focus at a

relevant moment• sometimes, narrowing of

attentional focus by an aroused player– will cause lack of awareness of

broader play issues

USE OF COGNITIVE TECHNIQUES TO ASSIST CONCENTRATION

• imagery• mental rehearsal• relaxation• can be used to direct the

sportsperson’s mind towards a specific task

• these techniques can be thought to manage the stress of the situation

• to manage anxiety in a productive way

Concentration

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CONCENTRATION AND ATTENTIONAL STYLES

NIDEFFER’S ATTENTIONAL STYLES

BROAD• a player concentrates on the whole

game – all players’ positions and

movements– open skills

NARROW• the player concentrates on one

aspect of the game– the goalkeeper– closed skills

INTERNAL• the player decides to concentrate on

his own techniqueEXTERNAL• the player focuses on the position of

his opposite number

Concentration

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ANXIETYANXIETY• an emotional state• similar to fear• associated with

– physiological (somatic) arousal

– psychological (cognitive) arousal

– feelings of nervousness– feelings of apprehension

Anxiety

TRAIT ANXIETY - A TRAIT• an inbuilt (trait) part of the

personality• a tendency to be fearful of

unfamiliar situations• a tendency to perceive competitive

situations as threatening• a tendency to respond to

competitive situations with apprehension and tension

STATE ANXIETY - A STATE• an emotional response to a

particular situation• characterised by feelings of

nervousness and apprehension

• often temporary

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THE EFFECT OF AUDIENCEAROUSAL CAUSED BY AUDIENCE

EVALUATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF A CORRECT DOMINANT RESPONSE

• audience evaluation causes arousal

• if a skill is poorly learnt (early in the learning curve)

• then arousal causes incorrect response• because incorrect response is

dominant

Arousal and Audience

• if a skill is well-learnt (later in the learning curve)

• then arousal causes correct response• because the correct response is

dominant

• look at inverted U theory for connection between arousal and performance

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THE DISTRACTION EFFECTDISTRACTION• is an aspect of concentration

(or lack of concentration)• attentional focus is very

important for the effective sportsperson

• if this is disrupted then he / she is distracted from his / her task

• audience and evaluation apprehension can act as a distraction

• the sportsperson needs therefore to practise in distracting circumstances

• and practise switching attentional focus when faced with potentially distracting circumstances

Attention

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STRESS AND STRESSORSSTRESS• a response of the body to any demands made on it• symptoms of stress

– physiological– psychological– behavioural

Emotional Control

STR ESSO R S

social

psychological

chem ical

bacterial

biochem ical

physical

clim atic

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STRESSORSSTRESSORSsocial• disapproval of parents / peers• rejection by peers / parents• isolation from normal social interactionschemical / biochemical• harm by ingestion of substancesbacterial• illness caused by micro-organismsphysical• injury / pain / exhaustionclimatic• extremes of weather• hot weather for endurance activities• rain and cold on bare skinpsychological• mismatch between perception of demands of

task• and ability to cope

Emotional Control

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GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

• homeostasis = the process of establishing body equilibrium in its functions

• well-being

Emotional Control

STR ESSOR

ALAR MR EACTI ON

R ESI STAN CE

EXH AUSTI ON

stressorm aintained -

illness happens

stressor rem oved- hom eostasis

regained

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PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS

EXTERNAL - THE SITUATION• perception of the demands of

the situation• example : I’ve got to run a PB to

win

INTERNAL• perception of the performer’s

ability to cope• example : I got a terribly slow

start last time

COMPETITIVE ORIENTATION• perception of the importance

of the situation• example : there’s a gold medal

hanging on this

Emotional Control

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EUSTRESS

EUSTRESS• a type of stress with a positive

effect• the performer actively seeks the

thrill of the danger• and enjoys the excitement and

feeling of satisfaction when it is over

• examples :– bungy jumping– free rock climbing– extreme sport skiing– ultra high diving

• ‘I like an unforgiving situation where if you make a mistake you suffer for it’

Emotional Control

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EFFECT OF STRESS ON PERFORMANCEINHIBITION• inhibition of performance

PERFORMANCE OF SKILLS• stress may act directly on the

information processing of skill

• motor elements of skill are performed less well

• muscles tense• muscular control is reduced

CONCENTRATION• concentration is difficult• span of attention is narrowed

STRESS• awareness of being under

stress itself acts as a stressor

Emotional Control

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SYMPTOMS OF STRESSPHYSIOLOGICAL SYMPTOMS• increased heart rate• increased blood pressure• increased sweating• increased breathing rate• decreased flow of blood to the skin• increased oxygen uptake• dry mouth

PSYCHLOGICAL SYMPTOMS• worry• feeling overwhelmed• inability to make decisions• inability to concentrate• inability to direct attention appropriately• narrowing of attention• feeling out of control

BEHAVIOURAL SYMPTOMS• rapid talking• nail biting• pacing• scowling• yawning• trembling• raised voice pitch• frequent urination

Emotional Control

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THE MANAGEMENT OF STRESS

Emotional Control

STR ESSMAN AGEMEN T

self-inducedstress -

w orrying aboutperform ance

cognitivereplacing

negative thoughtsw ith positive ones

lim it anxiety tom anageable

levels

som aticpersuading the bodythat the stressor does

not ex ist

relaxation

self-directed

biofeedback

im agery

progressiverelaxation training

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MEASUREMENT OF STRESSQUESTIONNAIRES• Marten’s Sport Competitive Anxiety Test (SCAT)• measures emotional and physiological responses

to stress in the competitive situation• Speilberger’s State, Trait Anxiety Inventory

(STAI)• measures emotional and physiological responses

to stress in general and specific situations

BEHAVIOURAL MEASURES• the performance of sports players is observed• a subjective method

PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES• require laboratory testing equipment, objective

methods• examples :

– galvanic skin response– electrocardiogram– electroencephalogram

Stress and Anxiety

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RELAXATION TECHNIQUESIMAGERY RELAXATION• think of a place with associations of warmth and

relaxation• imagine the activity or technique• practise in non-stressful situations• use prior to competition

PROGRESSIVE RELAXATION TRAINING (PRT)• learn to tense then deeply relax separate muscle groups

CENTRING• control of physiological symptoms of stress by focusing

on control of the diaphragm and deep breathing

SELF-DIRECTED RELAXATION TRAINING• focus on each of the major muscle groups in turn• allow breathing to become slow and easy• visualise the tension flowing out of a muscle group• until completely relaxed• eventually combine muscle groups• and achieve total relaxation quickly

Control of Stress

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STRESS CONTROL TECHNIQUESBIOFEEDBACK• monitor skin temperature

– cold if stressed– warm if unstressed

• galvanic skin response– electrical conductivity of skin increases when

moist– tense muscle cause sweating

• electromygraphy– electrodes taped to specific muscles – can detect electrical activity– hence tension in muscle

SELF-TALK• talking through the process of a competitive situation• talking positively, building self-confidence

Control of Stress

COGNITIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT• control of emotions and thought processes• linked to attributions• eliminate negative feelings• develop self-confidence

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MENTAL PREPARATION FOR PERFORMANCEMENTAL REHEARSAL• consciously imagine a performance• rerun a past experience• preview hope-for success• helps concentration• helps focus on strengths and weaknesses• positive effect on skill learning• but not as good as actual practice

GOAL SETTING• success is more likely because :• learning is focused• uncertainty is reduced• confidence is increased• practice is planned and structured• evaluation and feedback are

specific

Emotional Control

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SELF-CONFIDENCE AND SELF-EFFICACY

SELF-CONFIDENCE

SELF-EFFICACY

Self-Confidence and Self-Efficicacy

SELF-CON FI DEN CE

SELF-EFFI CACY

an attitude

belief that onecan succeed

an aspect ofself-esteem

the perception ofan ability to

perform a particularsporting tasksuccessfully

a situation specificform of

self-confidence

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SELF-CONFIDENCECONFIDENCE


CON FI DEN CE

positive calm

assertive

concentration

focus

effort realistic goals

playing to w in

taking risks

never give up

• arouses positive emotions• allows the athlete to

– remain calm under pressure– be assertive when required

• facilitates concentration• enables focus on the important aspects of a task

• enables the setting of challenging but realistic goals

• increases effort

• affects game strategies – a confident player plays to win even if it means

taking risks• affects psychological momentum

– a confident athlete take each point or play at a time– and never gives up– even when defeat is imminent

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SELF-CONFIDENCE

OVERCONFIDENCE OR FALSE CONFIDENCE

• is dangerous because it can lead to– inadequate preparation– low motivation– low arousal

• which are difficult to correct when competition is under way

LACK OF CONFIDENCE• causes stress under pressure• causes concentration on outside

stressors– mistakes – spectators

• causes the setting of goals which are either too easy or too hard

• causes the athlete to try to avoid mistakes

• non-confident athletes find it difficult to reverse negative psychological momentum– once things start to go wrong – it is difficult to think positively


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THE ROLE OF THE COACH

ROLE OF THE COACH• develop self-confidence• and self-efficacy• through successful

achievement

• ensure early and continued success

• by careful selection of– goals– tasks– levels of competition

• focusing on successful personal performance not on winning


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SELF-EFFICACY - BANDURA’S MODEL

VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES• consist of what has been observed

in others• performing a similar skill• example : observing another player

in your team dribbling a soccer ball• if the model is of similar age / ability• and is successful• then this may lead to greater self-

efficacy


PERFORMANCE ACCOMPLISHMENTS• consist of past experiences• example : previously performed skill

at dribbling a soccer ball• if this is successful• then this leads to greater self-

efficacy• at this particular task• in the future

EFFI CACYEXPECTATI ON S

ATH LETI CPER FOR MAN CE

perform anceaccom plishm ents

m odelling -vicarious

experiences

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SELF-EFFICACY - BANDURA’S MODEL

VERBAL PERSUASION• encouragement can lead to

greater self-efficacy• if the person giving

encouragement is of high status• compared with the performer


EMOTIONAL AROUSAL• if arousal is too high

– state anxiety - A-state• this could lead to low self-efficacy• mental rehearsal / physical

relaxation could – lead to greater confidence– and a calmer approach

performanceaccom plishm ents

m odelling -vicarious

experiences

ATH LETI CPER FOR MAN CE

EFFI CACYEXPECTATI ON S

verbalpersuasion

em otionalarousal

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SELF-CONFIDENCEWEINBERG’S MODEL of

developing self-confidence


SELF-CON FI DEN CE

use im agery prepare w ell

be in goodshape

actconfidently

thinkconfidently

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VEALEY’s MODEL OF SPORT CONFIDENCE


VEALEY’S MODEL

SPOR TCON FI DEN CE

trait sportconfidence

com petitiveorientation

state sportconfidence

trait sport confidence• the usual level of self-confidence• example : a discus thrower is generally

confident about making a throw

competitive orientation• the perceived opportunity to

achieve a sport performance• example : the discus thrower is

motivated by a national championships to throw well

state sport confidence• the level of self confidence

related to a specific situation• example : the discus thrower feels

confident because the wind is in the right direction

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LEARNED HELPLESSNESS (LH)

LEARNED HELPLESSNESS• a belief acquired over time• that one has no control over events• that failure is inevitable• a feeling of hopelessness

GLOBAL LH• a person attributes failure to internal

/ stable factors• applied to all sports• ‘I am useless at all sports’

SPECIFIC LH• a person attributes difficulties to

internal / stable factors• applied to one specific sport• ‘I am good at soccer but hopeless at

racquet games’

ATTRIBUTION RETRAINING• low achievers need to learn to

attribute success • and failure to the same

reasons• as high achievers• success to stable factors• failure to unstable factors

Learned Helplessness

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THE SELF-CONCEPT

The SELF-CONCEPT • is the descriptive picture we

have of ourselves

• including :– physical attributes– attitudes– abilities– roles– emotions

• representing how we see ourselves

• which may not reflect reality or the way others see us

SELF-ESTEEM• the extent to which we value

ourselves

• this may or may not match up to the expectations of others

• example :– player may take pride in an

ability to tackle hard– the referee may see this as

unnecessary aggression

Self Concept and Self Esteem

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ATTRIBUTIONATTRIBUTION• the process of giving reasons for behaviour• and ascribing causes for events• example : the player played badly today because the weather was

poor

WEINER’S MODEL• has four attributions :• ability• effort• task difficulty• luck

• arranged in two dimensions :• LOCUS OF CAUSALITY• STABILITY• with a possible third dimension :• CONTROLLABILITY more on attribution later

Attribution Theory

ability'w e w ere m ore

skilful'

eff ort'w e tried hard'

task diffi culty'the opposition arew orld cham pions'

luck'the court w as

slippy'

I NTER NAL EXTER N AL

LOCUS OF CAUSALI TY

STABLE

UN STABLE

STABI LI TY

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DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATIONMOTIVATION IS A COMBINATION OF• personal characteristics• situational aspects

MOTIVATION IS HIGHEST WHEN• the performer is keen to participate• the performer is keen to learn• the performer is keen to perform• the performer is keen to perform

effectively• when the motivational climate is

right• when the training programme is

interesting and varied

MOTIVATION IS REDUCED BY• routine• competition between motives

PEOPLE• have multiple motives• share motives• have unique motivational profiles• need variation in training and

competition• need variation in intensity and

competitiveness• need structured coaching and

teaching environments

MOTIVES CHANGE OVER TIME

TEACHERS AND COACHES ARE IMPORTANT MOTIVATORS

Motivation

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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION• the drive to achieve success for its

own sake• related to

– competitiveness– persistence– striving for perfection

• influenced by– personality factors

• need to achieve• need to avoid failure

– situational factors• probability of success• incentive value of success

NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH)Tendency to approach success (Ts)• this personality type likes a

challenge• likes feedback• is not afraid of failure• has high task persistence

NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF)Tendency to avoid failure (Taf)• this personality type avoids

challenges• does not take risks• often gives up• does not want feedback

Motivation

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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS

A =• someone with a high need to

achieve• will probably have a low need to

avoid failure• will choose difficult or demanding

tasks which are more risky• the hard route up a rock face

Motivation

B =• someone with a high need to

avoid failure• will probably have a low need

to achieve• will choose tasks which are less

risky and more easily achieved• the easy route up the rock face

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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS

A =• probability of success low• (competing against the world

champion)• therefore strive very hard to win• (incentive high)• (will be highly chuffed if win)

Motivation

B =• probability of success high• (competing in local club match)• therefore don’t need to try as

hard to win• (incentive low)• (and expect to win easily)• (not so pleasing)

AQA Examinations A Level Sport and Physical Education A 6581 Module 4 part B

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Transcript of AQA Examinations A Level Sport and Physical Education A 6581 Module 4 part B