APPLIED

THERMODYNAMICS

For Engineering Students Preparing for B.E./B.Tech.;AMIE-Section B (India); UPSC (Engg. Services) Examinations

By

Er. R.K. RAJPUTM.E. (Hons.), Gold Medallist; Grad. (Mech. Engg. & Elect. Engg.);

M.I.E. (India); M.S.E.S.I.; M.I.S.T.E.; C.E. (India)Recipient of :

‘‘Best Teacher (Academic) Award’’‘‘Distinguished Author Award’’

‘‘Jawahar Lal Nehru Memorial Gold Medal’’for an outstanding research paper

(Institution of Engineers–India)Principal (Formerly):

• Thapar Polytechnic College;• Punjab College of Information Technology,

PATIALA (Punjab)

LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTDBANGALORE � CHENNAI � COCHIN � GUWAHATI � HYDERABADJALANDHAR � KOLKATA � LUCKNOW � MUMBAI � RANCHI

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EAT-0781-695-APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS-RAJ C—16333/08/08

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All rights reserved with the Author and the Publisher. No part of thispublication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmittedin any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher.

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Chapters Pages

0. INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS—DEFINITIONS AND FORMULAE (i)—(vi)

1. PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND STEAM GENERATORS 1—130

A. PROPERTIES OF STEAM

1. Definition of the Pure Substance ... 12. Phase Change of a Pure Substance ... 23. p-T (Pressure-Temperature) Diagram for a Pure Substance ... 44. p-V-T (Pressure-Volume-Temperature) Surface ... 55. Phase Change Terminology and Definitions ... 66. Property Diagrams in Common Use ... 77. Formation of Steam ... 78. Important Terms Relating to Steam Formation ... 99. Thermodynamic Properties of Steam and Steam Tables ... 1110. External Work Done During Evaporation ... 1211. Internal Latent Heat ... 1212. Internal Energy of Steam ... 1213. Entropy of Water ... 1214. Entropy of Evaporation ... 1315. Entropy of Wet Steam ... 1316. Entropy of Superheated Steam ... 1317. Enthalpy-entropy (h-s) Chart or Mollier Diagram ... 1418. Determination of Dryness Fraction of Steam ... 28

18.1. Tank or Bucket Calorimeter ... 2818.2. Throttling Calorimeter ... 3118.3. Separating and Throttling Calorimeter ... 32

B. STEAM GENERATORS

19. Introduction ... 3520. Classification of Boilers ... 3521. Comparison between ‘Fire-Tube and Water-Tube’ Boilers ... 3622. Selection of a Boiler ... 37

Contents

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23. Essentials of a Good Steam Boiler ... 3724. Boiler Terms ... 3825. Fire Tube Boilers ... 38

25.1. Simple Vertical Boiler ... 3825.2. Cochran Boiler ... 4025.3. Cornish Boiler ... 4125.4. Lancashire Boiler ... 4225.5. Locomotive Boiler ... 4325.6. Scotch Boiler ... 45

26. Water Tube Boilers ... 4626.1. Babcock and Wilcox Water-Tube Boiler ... 4626.2. Stirling Boiler ... 48

27. High Pressure Boilers ... 4927.1. Introduction ... 4927.2. Unique Features of the High Pressure Boilers ... 4927.3. Advantages of High Pressure Boilers ... 5027.4. LaMont Boiler ... 5027.5. Loeffler Boiler ... 5127.6. Benson Boiler ... 5227.7. Velox Boiler ... 5427.8. Super-Critical Boilers ... 5527.9. Supercharged Boiler ... 55

28. Combustion Equipment for Steam Boilers ... 5528.1. General Aspects ... 5528.2. Burning of Coal ... 57

C. BOILER MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES

29. Introduction ... 6530. Boiler Mountings ... 66

30.1. Water Level Indicator ... 6630.2. Pressure Gauge ... 6730.3. Safety Valves ... 6930.4. High Steam and Low Water Safety Valve ... 7230.5. Fusible Plug ... 7230.6. Blow-off Cock ... 7430.7. Feed Check Valve ... 7430.8. Junction or Stop Valve ... 76

31. Accessories ... 7731.1. Feed Pumps ... 7731.2. Injector ... 7831.3. Economiser ... 8031.4. Air Preheater ... 8131.5. Superheater ... 8331.6. Steam Separator ... 8531.7. Steam Trap ... 86

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D. DRAUGHT

32. Definition and Classification of Draught ... 8633. Natural Draught—Chimney ... 8734. Chimney Height and Diameter ... 8835. Condition for Maximum Discharge Through a Chimney ... 9036. Efficiency of a Chimney ... 9237. Draught Losses ... 9238. Artificial Draught ... 93

38.1. Forced Draught ... 9338.2. Induced Draught ... 9338.3. Balanced Draught ... 9338.4. Advantages of Mechanical Draught ... 9338.5. Power Required to Drive Fan ... 9438.6. Steam Jet Draught ... 95Worked Examples ... 95

E. PERFORMANCE OF STEAM GENERATORS

39. Evaporative Capacity ... 10140. Equivalent Evaporation ... 10141. Factor of Evaporation ... 10242. Boiler Efficiency ... 10243. Heat Losses in a Boiler Plant ... 103

Highlights ... 116Objective Type Questions ... 119Theoretical Questions ... 125Unsolved Examples ... 127

2. BASIC STEAM POWER CYCLES 131—191

1. Carnot Cycle ... 1312. Rankine Cycle ... 1323. Modified Rankine Cycle ... 1454. Regenerative Cycle ... 1505. Reheat Cycle ... 1646. Binary Vapour Cycle ... 172

Highlights ... 189Objective Type Questions ... 189Theoretical Questions ... 190Unsolved Examples ... 191

3. RECIPROCATING STEAM ENGINE 192—254

1. General Aspects of Heat Engines ... 1922. Definition and Classification of a Reciprocating Steam Engine ... 1933. Steam Engine Parts and Their Description ... 1944. Working of a Steam Engine ... 1985. Steam Engine Terminology ... 1986. Hypothetical or Theoretical Indicator Diagram ... 199

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7. Actual Indicator Diagram and Diagram Factor ... 2018. Methods of Reducing Condensation ... 2029. Mean Effective Pressure (m.e.p. or pm) ... 20210. Engine Indicators ... 206

10.1. Definition and Uses ... 20610.2. Types of Indicators ... 20710.3. Crosby Pencil Indicator ... 207

11. Indicated Power (I.P.) ... 20812. Brake Power (B.P.) ... 21013. Efficiencies of Steam Engine ... 21114. Mass of Steam in Cylinder ... 21215. Saturation Curve and Missing Quantity ... 21416. Governing of Steam Engines ... 21517. Valves ... 21818. Heat Balance Sheet ... 22219. Performance Curves ... 224

Worked Examples ... 224Highlights ... 249Objective Type Questions ... 251Theoretical Questions ... 251Unsolved Examples ... 252

4. COMPOUND STEAM ENGINES 255—286

1. Introduction ... 2552. Advantages of Compound Steam Engines ... 2553. Classification of Compound Steam Engines ... 2564. Multi-Cylinder Engines ... 2605. Estimation of Cylinder Dimensions (Compound Steam Engines) ... 2616. Causes of Loss of Thermal Efficiency in Compound Steam Engines ... 2637. The Governing of Compound Steam Engines ... 2638. Uniflow Steam Engine ... 265

Worked Examples ... 266Highlights ... 283Objective Type Questions ... 283Theoretical Questions ... 284Unsolved Examples ... 285

5. STEAM NOZZLES 287—333

1. Introduction ... 2872. Steam Flow Through Nozzles ... 288

2.1. Velocity of Steam ... 2882.2. Discharge Through the Nozzle and Conditions for its

Maximum Value ... 2893. Nozzle Efficiency ... 2924. Supersaturated or Metastable Expansion of Steam in a Nozzle ... 2945. General Relationship between Area, Velocity and Pressure in Nozzle Flow ... 2966. Steam Injector ... 299

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Worked Examples ... 301Highlights ... 330Objective Type Questions ... 331Theoretical Questions ... 332Unsolved Examples ... 332

6. STEAM TURBINES 334—422

1. Introduction ... 3342. Classification of Steam Turbines ... 3343. Advantages of Steam Turbine Over Steam Engines ... 3364. Description of Common Types of Turbines ... 3365. Methods of Reducing Wheel or Rotor Speed ... 3396. Difference between Impulse and Reaction Turbines ... 3427. Impulse Turbines ... 342

7.1. Velocity Diagram for Moving Blade ... 3427.2. Work done on the Blade ... 3447.3. Blade Velocity Co-efficient ... 3457.4. Expression for Optimum Value of the Ratio of Blade Speed

to Steam Speed (For Maximum Efficiency) for a Single StageImpulse Turbine ... 345

7.5. Advantages of Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine ... 3508. Reaction Turbines ... 381

8.1. Velocity Diagram for Reaction Turbine Blade ... 3818.2. Degree of Reaction (Rd) ... 3818.3. Condition for Maximum Efficiency ... 388

9. Turbines Efficiencies ... 39110. Types of Power in Steam Turbine Practice ... 39111. “State Point Locus” and “Reheat Factor” ... 40812. Reheating Steam ... 41113. Bleeding ... 41114. Energy Losses in Steam Turbines ... 41215. Steam Turbine Governing and Control ... 41216. Special Forms of Steam Turbines ... 415

Highlights ... 416Objective Type Questions ... 417Theoretical Questions ... 419Unsolved Examples ... 420

7. STEAM CONDENSERS 423—463

1. Introduction ... 4232. Vacuum ... 4243. Organs of a Steam Condensing Plant ... 4244. Classification of Condensers ... 424

4.1. Jet Condensers ... 4244.2. Surface Condensers ... 4274.3. Reasons for Inefficiency in Surface Condensers ... 4294.4. Comparison between Jet and Surface Condensers ... 430

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5. Sources of Air in Condensers ... 4306. Effects of Air Leakage in a Condenser ... 4317. Methods for Obtaining Maximum Vacuum in Condensers ... 4318. Vacuum Measurement ... 4329. Vacuum Efficiency ... 43210. Condenser Efficiency ... 43311. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures ... 43312. Determination of Mass of Cooling Water ... 43413. Heat Transmission Through Walls of Tubes of a Surface Condenser ... 43514. Air Pumps ... 43615. Cooling Towers ... 439

Worked Examples ... 441Highlights ... 460Objective Type Questions ... 460Theoretical Questions ... 462Unsolved Examples ... 462

8. GAS POWER CYCLES 464—539

1. Definition of a Cycle ... 4642. Air Standard Efficiency ... 4643. The Carnot Cycle ... 4654. Constant Volume or Otto Cycle ... 4735. Constant Pressure or Diesel Cycle ... 4896. Dual Combustion Cycle ... 4997. Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual Combustion Cycles ... 515

7.1. Efficiency Versus Compression Ratio ... 5157.2. For the Same Compression Ratio and the Same Heat Input ... 5157.3. For Constant Maximum Pressure and Heat Supplied ... 516

8. Atkinson Cycle ... 5179. Ericsson Cycle ... 52010. Brayton Cycle ... 521

Highlights ... 536Objective Type Questions ... 537Theoretical Questions ... 538Unsolved Examples ... 538

9. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 540—693

1. Heat Engines ... 5402. Development of I.C. Engines ... 5413. Classification of I.C. Engines ... 5414. Applications of I.C. Engines ... 5425. Basic Idea of I.C. Engines ... 5426. Different Parts of I.C. Engines ... 5437. Terms Connected with I.C. Engines ... 5678. Working Cycles ... 5689. Indicator Diagram ... 56910. Four-Stroke Cycle Engines ... 569

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11. Two-Stroke Cycle Engines ... 57512. Comparison of Four-Stroke and Two-Stroke Cycle Engines ... 57713. Comparison of Spark Ignition (S.I.) and Combustion Ignition (C.I.) Engines ... 57814. Comparison between a Petrol Engine and a Diesel Engine ... 57915. How to Tell a Two-Stroke Cycle Engine from a Four-Stroke Cycle Engine ? ... 58016. Ignition System ... 58017. Fuel Injection System ... 58418. Electronic Fuel Injection ... 58519. Cooling Systems ... 58620. Lubrication Systems ... 59221. Governing of I.C. Engine ... 59722. Liquid Fuels for Reciprocating Combustion Engines ... 59823. Combustion Phenomenon in S.I. Engines ... 59924. Pre-Ignition ... 60125. Detonation or “Pinking” ... 60326. Factors Affecting Knock ... 60427. Performance Number (PN) ... 60428. Desirable Characteristics of Combustion Chamber for S.I. Engines ... 60529. Combustion Chamber Design—S.I. Engines ... 60530. Octane Number ... 60631. Turbulence in S.I. Engines ... 60732. Combustion Phenomenon in C.I. Engines ... 60833. Delay Period (Or Ignition Lag) in C.I. Engines ... 61134. Diesel Knock ... 61135. Cetane Number ... 61136. Basic Designs of C.I. Engine Combustion Chambers ... 61237. Supercharging ... 61438. Dissociation ... 61739. Performance of I.C. Engines ... 61740. Engine Performance Curves ... 62741. The Wankel Rotary Combustion (RC) Engine ... 62942. Stratified Charge Engines and Duel-Fuel Engines ... 630

Worked Examples ... 630Highlights ... 685Objective Type Questions ... 686Theoretical Questions ... 689Unsolved Examples ... 690

10. AIR COMPRESSORS 694—833

1. General Aspects ... 6942. Classification of Air Compressors ... 6953. Reciprocating Compressors ... 696

3.1. Construction and Working of a Reciprocating Compressor(Single-stage) ... 696

3.2. Single-stage Compressor : Equation for Work(Neglecting Clearance) ... 697

3.3. Equation for Work (with clearance volume) ... 700

Chapters Pages

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Applied Thermodynamics By Er.R.K.Rajput

Publisher : Laxmi Publications ISBN : 9788131805831 Author : Er. R.K.Rajput

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