App18 WLG2012-60 Seabirds - EPA

Volume Two May 2014

Appendix 21

Seabirds of the Chatham Rise (Thompson 2013)

In su

pport of

Pre

Seab

f an env

epared f

No

birds of

ironmenRock

for Chat

ovember 20

f the Ch

ntal impak Phosp

tham Ro

012 (Update

hatham

act assephate

ock Phos

ed April 201

Rise

essment

sphate L

13)

t for Cha

Ltd.

atham

© All rights reserved. This publication may not be reproduced or copied in any form without the permission of the copyright owner(s). Such permission is only to be given in accordance with the terms of the client’s contract with NIWA. This copyright extends to all forms of copying and any storage of material in any kind of information retrieval system.

Whilst NIWA has used all reasonable endeavours to ensure that the information contained in this document is accurate, NIWA does not give any express or implied warranty as to the completeness of the information contained herein, or that it will be suitable for any purpose(s) other than those specifically contemplated during the Project or agreed by NIWA and the Client.

Authors/Contributors: David Thompson

For any information regarding this report please contact:

+64-4-386 0300 National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research Ltd 301 Evans Bay Parade, Greta Point Wellington 6021 Private Bag 14901, Kilbirnie Wellington 6241 New Zealand Phone +64-4-386 0300 Fax +64-4-386 0574

NIWA Client Report No: CRP12302 Report date: November 2012 (Updated April 2013) NIWA Project: WLG2012-60

Seabirds

Cont

Execut

1 Se

2 Sp

2.

3 Fi

4 En

4.

4.

4.

4.

5 A

6 Re

Tables

No tablReviewe Leigh T

s of the Chat

ents

ive summa

eabird spe

pecies acc

.1 Summa

isheries by

nvironmen

.1 Direct e

.2 Indirect

.3 Pollutio

.4 Lighting

cknowledg

eferences .

e of figureed by

orres

tham Rise

ary .............

cies using

counts .......

ary of speci

ycatch on t

ntal issues

effects of fis

t effects of f

on ..............

g ...............

gements ...

..................

s entries fo

..................

the Chath

..................

es account

the Chatha

affecting s

shing activit

fishing activ

..................

..................

..................

..................

ound.

..................

am Rise ....

..................

ts ................

m Rise ......

seabirds at

ty ...............

vity .............

..................

..................

..................

..................

Appro

Julie

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

t sea ..........

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

oved for rele

Hall

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

ease by

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

..................

........... 5

........... 7

........... 8

......... 22

......... 25

......... 26

......... 26

......... 26

......... 27

......... 27

......... 31

......... 32

Seabirds of the Chatham Rise 5

Executive summary An overview of New Zealand seabird use of the Chatham Rise area is provided. This overview includes individual species account for those species that are known to, or are likely to, frequent the Chatham Rise. Each species account includes two threat or conservation rankings, information about breeding locations in New Zealand, population sizes and information on at-sea distributions and foraging locations, with particular reference to the Chatham Rise.

Information on commercial fisheries-related seabird mortality from the Chatham Rise area is summarised from five recent fishing years, with information on where mortality could be related to deck strike (rather than from interaction with the fishing gear).

A range of issues that can potentially impact seabirds at sea have been identified and summarised: these are:- direct and indirect impacts of commercial fishing, pollution and the use of lights on ships at night. Of these, only two were identified as potentially impacting seabirds through the proposed activity – pollution and use of ships’ lights. A suite of recommendations to mitigate the potential impact of lights on seabirds is provided.


1 Seabird species using the Chatham Rise New Zealand supports the most diverse seabird assemblage on Earth, with over 80 breeding species of which approximately 43% are endemic, breeding nowhere else (Taylor 2000a). Within the New Zealand region, the Chatham Rise, defining the eastward extension of the Subtropical Front from South Island, is certainly the most important zone for seabirds – it would be no exaggeration to say that the majority of New Zealand’s seabirds could be encountered here at some point over the course of the year, with the possible exceptions of those species breeding at the Kermadec Islands far to the north. Marine productivity is relatively high over the Chatham Rise, supporting several commercially important fisheries (Bradford-Grieve et al. 1999, Clark et al. 1999). This elevated productivity also attracts avian consumers from both northern, sub-tropical and southern, sub-Antarctic environments.

As noted above, while it is possible to encounter a very large proportion of New Zealand’s seabird species over the Chatham Rise, a smaller proportion of species are known to, or are likely to, use the Chatham Rise area more extensively, either because they breed close to the Chatham Rise at the Chatham Islands or because they chose to forage over the Chatham Rise from breeding sites further afield. Use of the Chatham Rise area will for most species focus on prey acquisition, but for others could also include seasonal migrations north or south through the area. Seabird species that utilise the Chatham Rise environment more extensively are identified and discussed in greater detail in the species accounts below.

Absentee species from the species accounts include all species breeding exclusively at the Kermadec group within New Zealand (wedge-tailed shearwater Puffinus pacificus, white-necked petrel Pterodroma cervicalis, Kermadec petrel Pterodroma neglecta, white-bellied storm petrel Fregetta grallaria, red-tailed tropicbird Phaethon rubricauda, masked booby Sula dactylatra, blue noddy Procelsterna cerulea, brown noddy Anous stolidus, lesser noddy Anous tenuirostris and sooty tern Sterna fusca); while it is feasible that some species from the Kermadec Islands, particularly the larger petrels, could forage over the Chatham Rise, it is likely that these species tend to utilise marine environments far to north. Similarly excluded are New Zealand species that are also unlikely to forage over the Chatham Rise or to pass through this zone to any great extent because they tend to utilise habitats much further south (for example, grey-headed albatross Thalassarche chrysostoma, light mantled albatross Phoebetria palpebrata and Antarctic prion Pachyptila desolata), or because species’ breeding and foraging distributions very likely exclude the Chatham Rise area (for example, several species of penguins including the crested penguins Eudyptes spp., and several species of shags Phalacrocorax spp.), which tend to exhibit relatively limited foraging distributions centred on their breeding sites.

Seabird taxonomy is in a state of constant flux: here, I follow the taxonomy adopted by BirdLife International (www.birdlife.org) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), which produces the ‘Red List’ of threatened species. The IUCN’s Red List threat classifications define the threat of extinction for species: classifications include three decreasing ‘threatened’ classifications (‘critically endangered’, ‘endangered’ and ‘vulnerable’), ‘near threatened’ and ‘least concern’. IUCN threat classifications are noted for each seabird species below. These can be considered at a global scale. Further information on the IUCN Red List criteria can be found at www.iucn.org. Additionally, the conservation status of each species based on New Zealand criteria, as reported by Miskelly et al. (2008),

8 Seabirds of the Chatham Rise

is also noted here. Further information on the criteria used and their definitions can be found in Miskelly et al. (2008): these include three decreasing ‘threatened’ classifications (‘nationally critical’, ‘nationally endangered’ and ‘nationally vulnerable’), a ‘data deficient’ classification, four ‘at risk’ classifications (‘declining’, ‘recovering’, ‘relict’ and ‘naturally uncommon’), ‘not threatened’ and ‘coloniser’.

2 Species accounts Species included in this section can be considered as at least likely to use the Chatham Rise area to some extent. I include summary information on each species’ conservation status, abundance and breeding locations and specific distribution information where this is known.

Penguins: Family Spheniscidae

Blue penguin Eudyptula minor

IUCN threat ranking: least concern

NZ conservation status: threatened – nationally vulnerable, at risk – declining or at risk – naturally uncommon depending on sub-species

BirdLife International recognise a single species of blue penguin, whereas in New Zealand conservation status has been assigned to four separate sub-species (Miskelly et al. 2008), including Eudyptula minor chathamensis, the Chatham Island blue penguin, which breeds only within the Chatham Islands group. Imber (1994) noted breeding at main Chatham, Pitt, Rangatira, Star Keys, Mangere, Houruakopara and Kokope islands. The overall size of the Chatham Islands population of blue penguin is poorly known, but likely to be in the order of low thousands of pairs, with relatively large numbers on Rangatira Island and Star Keys (Taylor 2000b). Likely to disperse relatively locally to the islands.

Albatrosses: Family Diomedeidea

Antipodean albatross Diomedea antipodensis antipodensis

IUCN threat ranking: vulnerable

NZ conservation status: at risk – naturally uncommon

Antipodean albatross is endemic to New Zealand and breeds almost exclusively at Antipodes and Campbell islands. At Antipodes Island, complete counts of nesting birds revealed an average of 5180 breeding pairs during the three years 1994-96 (Clark et al. 1995, Walker & Elliott 2002a). As this species breeds biennially, the total breeding population at Antipodes is likely to be about 9,000 pairs (Walker & Elliott 2002a). The number of breeding pairs at Campbell Island is relatively small: six pairs in 1995 (P. Moore in Gales 1998). Antipodean albatrosses have recently begun to breed at the Chatham Islands, a total of five chicks have fledged from Pitt Island since 2004 (Department of Conservation 2012). Satellite telemetry has revealed that Antipodean albatross regularly visit the Chatham Rise area (Walker & Elliott 2006), and this species will be a conspicuous component of the Chatham Rise seabird assemblage.


Gibson’s albatross Diomedea antipodensis gibsoni


NZ conservation status: threatened – nationally vulnerable

Extrapolations based on counts in 1997 suggested that Adams Island in the Auckland Islands group holds 92% of the breeding population, about 7,000 pairs, with 352 pairs on Disappointment Island (in 1993), and 72 pairs on main Auckland Island (in 1995) (Walker & Elliott 2002b). These equate to total breeding populations of about 11,655, 590 and 120 pairs, respectively, in this biennially-breeding sub-species. More recently, the number of breeding pairs of Gibson’s albatross appears to have declined markedly (Walker & Elliott unpublished data). Satellite telemetry revealed that this sub-species tends to forage further to the west of New Zealand, into the Tasman Sea, but some birds utilise the Chatham Rise area (Walker & Elliott 2006).

Southern royal albatross Diomedea epomophora



Southern royal albatross is endemic to New Zealand and breeds at Campbell Island and at Adams and Enderby islands within the Auckland Islands group. The Campbell Island breeding population was 8,200-8,600 pairs in 1996 (Moore et al. 1997), in 2001 there were 69 pairs breeding at Enderby Island (Childerhouse et al. 2003), and the most recent estimate reported 15 pairs nesting at Adams Island in 1991 (K. Walker in Gales 1998). Using satellite telemetry, Waugh et al. (2002) found that southern royal albatrosses foraged primarily over slope areas (80% of foraging time) from the Chatham Rise south to the Campbell Plateau. This species will be a regular visitor to the Chatham Rise area throughout the year.

Northern royal albatross Diomedea sanfordi

IUCN threat ranking: endangered


Northern royal albatross is endemic to New Zealand and breeds primarily at the Chatham Islands (Forty-Fours, Big Sister and Little Sister), with a few tens of pairs breeding at Taiaroa Head, Otago Peninsula, South Island. Robertson (in Gales 1998) reports 5200 pairs for the Chatham Islands in 1995, while aerial photographic surveys of the Forty-Fours and Sisters (2006-2010) suggested total numbers of breeding pairs from 5388 to 5744 (Scofield 2011). The northern royal albatross feeds over the continental shelf. Satellite tracking of four birds breeding on the Sisters in 1996 showed that 78% of their foraging locations occurred on the outer Chatham Rise (Nicholls et al. 2002). Likewise, satellite tracking of birds breeding at Taiaroa Head showed that most foraging occurred along the shelf east of the South Island (Nicholls et al. 1994, Birdlife International 2004, Waugh et al. 2005) and the Chatham Rise (Birdlife International 2004, Waugh et al. 2005). Given the proximity of this species’ major breeding sites, the Chatham Rise represents a major foraging location.


Northern Buller’s albatross Thalassarche bulleri platei

IUCN threat ranking: near threatened


Northern Buller’s albatross is a sub-species endemic to New Zealand, where it breeds primarily on the Chatham Islands (Forty-Fours, Big Sister and Little Sister), with a very small colony also on the Three Kings Islands (Rosemary Rock). Recent counts of nests on the Forty-Fours resulted in estimated totals of about 15,000 breeding pairs (Scofield et al. 2008a; Fraser et al. 2009, 2010), with an estimated 200 nests on Little Sister (Scofield 2005). Given the proximity of this species’ major breeding sites, the Chatham Rise represents a major foraging location.

Southern Buller’s albatross Thalassarche bulleri bulleri



Southern Buller’s albatross is a sub-species endemic to New Zealand and breeds only at the Snares and Solander islands. On the Snares Islands, systematic counts of occupied nests during the egg stage showed that the breeding population was 8713 pairs in 2002 (Sagar & Stahl 2005). However, annual surveys 2005-2012 showed a consistent decline in the numbers of breeding pairs during the period 2005 to 2010, followed by increases in 2011 and 2012 (Sagar et al. 2012). On the Solander Islands, the breeding population was estimated at 4912 breeding pairs in 2002 (Sagar & Stahl 2005). Southern Buller’s albatrosses primarily forage over shelf and shelf edge areas and based on satellite tracking of breeding and non-breeding birds, the foraging distribution extends from Tasmania to the Chatham Rise and from the southern edge of the Snares Shelf (49oS) north to about 40oS (Sagar & Weimerskirch 1996, Stahl & Sagar 2000a, 2000b). Although this sub-species breeds far to the south of the Chatham Rise, this zone is utilised to a moderate extent.

Chatham albatross Thalassarche eremita



Chatham albatross is endemic to New Zealand and breeds successfully only at The Pyramid, Chatham Islands. Counts of occupied and empty nests on the island during late November-December 1999-2001 and 2007-2010 ranged from 5194 to 5407, with 29-41% of these being empty (Robertson et al. 2003a; Scofield et al. 2008b; Fraser et al. 2008, 2009, 2010). Robertson et al. (2003b) and Fraser et al. (2010) report that foraging is within 750 km of the Pyramid during incubation and chick rearing, and more recent GPS tracking of this species (NIWA unpublished data) identified the Chatham Rise as a key foraging zone during the breeding season.


Salvin’s albatross Thalassarche salvini



Salvin’s albatross is indigenous to New Zealand and breeds at the Bounty Islands (Proclamation, Tunnel, Depot, Ruatara, Penguin, Spider, Funnel and Molly Cap) and at the Snares Western Chain (Rima and Toru). The total Bounty Islands population was estimated at 30,752 pairs in 1997-98 (A. Booth & J. Amey in Taylor 2000a), and at the Snares Western Chain 1195 breeding pairs were recorded in 2008-09 and 1116 breeding pairs were recorded in 2009-10 (Charteris et al. 2009, Carroll et al. 2010). During the breeding season (August-April), at-sea sighting data revealed that Salvin’s albatrosses forage primarily over shelf to oceanic waters east of New Zealand in a wide area between 36S and 52S (Jenkins 1981, Robertson & Jenkins 1981, Petyt 1995). More detailed tracking studies, particularly of the Bounty Islands population, will likely reveal the importance of the Chatham Rise area for this species.

Campbell albatross Thalassarche impavida



Campbell albatross is endemic to New Zealand and breeds only at the Campbell Islands, on main Campbell Island and on Jeanette Marie. Moore (2004) showed that there were about 31,300 Campbell albatross nests in the 1940s and ground counts found a mean of 24,600 nests in 1995-97. Recent GPS tracking of this species has revealed that breeding birds disperse widely throughout New Zealand waters to forage, including to the Chatham Rise (NIWA unpublished data). Campbell albatross is likely a reasonably common species over the Chatham Rise.

Black-browed albatross Thalassarche melanophrys


NZ conservation status: coloniser

Globally, black-browed albatross is relatively abundant (hundreds of thousands of breeding pairs overall), but is a relatively uncommon breeding species in New Zealand, with just over 100 pairs at Bollons Islands (Antipodes group) in 1995 (Tennyson et al. 1998) and a few pairs at Campbell Island (Gales 1998), among the Campbell albatrosses. Frequently encountered at sea around New Zealand, suggesting birds from elsewhere visit New Zealand waters. Likely a regular visitor to the Chatham Rise area.

White-capped albatross Thalassarche steadi


NZ conservation status: at risk – declining


White-capped albatross is an endemic species breeding at the Auckland Islands (main Auckland Island, Disappointment Island and Adams Island), Antipodes Islands (Bollons Island), and occasionally within the Chatham Islands (Forty-Fours). Baker et al. (2011) estimated a total breeding population at Disappointment Island of between 110,649 pairs in 2006-07 and 70,569 pairs in 2009-10, and an estimated total population at South West Cape (main Auckland Island) of between 6,548 breeding pairs in 2006-07 and 4,161 pairs in 2009-10 (Baker et al. 2011). Baker et al. (2010) noted 132 pairs at Adams Island in 2009-10. Tennyson et al. (1998) estimated 20 pairs breeding at Bollons Island (Antipodes group) in 1995, a single pair has nested occasionally at the Forty-Fours during the 1990s (Robertson et al. 1997), with perhaps up to three pairs at the Forty-Fours more recently (Fraser et al. 2010). White-capped albatrosses are distributed widely throughout New Zealand waters at all times of the year, with particular emphasis on shelf and shelf-edge zones, including the Chatham Rise (NIWA unpublished data). Although this species’ breeding sites are far to the south, white-capped albatross will be a frequent and conspicuous visitor to the Chatham Rise.

Petrels and shearwaters: Family Procellariidae

Snares Cape petrel Daption capense australe



The endemic New Zealand sub-species of Cape petrel breeds at all of New Zealand’s sub-Antarctic islands, including the Chatham Islands. The majority breed at the Snares, with an estimated 8,000 breeding pairs in the mid-1980s (Miskelly 1984, Taylor 2000b). There are perhaps a few tens of pairs at each of the other islands, including the Chatham Islands (Taylor 2000b). Ubiquitous throughout southern seas of New Zealand and a conspicuous component of the Chatham Rise avifauna, where this sub-species will mix with the nominate sub-species Daption capense capense which breeds outside New Zealand.

Northern giant petrel Macronectes halli



Northern giant petrel is an indigenous species breeding in New Zealand at the Chatham Islands (Forty-Fours, Big Sister, Middle Sister), Auckland Islands (Enderby, Ewing, Ocean, Disappointment, Adams), Campbell Island (Campbell, Folly, Jacquemart) and Antipodes Island. The Chatham Islands support the majority of breeding pairs within New Zealand, with perhaps 2,000 plus nests throughout the entire group (Hunter 1986, Robertson & Sawyer 1994). Wiltshire & Scofield (2000) and Wiltshire & Hamilton (2003), based on complete nest counts, estimated totals of 234 breeding pairs at Campbell Island in 1996-97 and 233 breeding pairs at Antipodes Island in 2000-01, respectively. Although northern giant petrels occupy a wide distribution (McQuaid & Ricketts 1984), little is known about the specific movements of birds from a particular breeding colony. However, northern giant petrels are seen throughout New Zealand waters and birds from the Chatham Islands colonies will frequent the Chatham Rise area.


Fulmar prion Pachyptila crassirostris



In New Zealand this species breeds at the Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Snares Western Chain and at The Pyramid and Forty-Fours within the Chatham Islands. The overall population size is poorly-known, but likely to be in the order of tens of thousands of breeding pairs (Taylor 2000a). At-sea distributions and movements are similarly poorly documented, but most sightings are relatively close to breeding colonies (Taylor 2000a). Likely to be a relatively conspicuous component of the Chatham Rise seabird community.

Fairy prion Pachyptila turtur


NZ conservation status: at risk – relict

An abundant species in New Zealand, breeding at many sites from the Poor Knights Islands in the north to sub-Antarctic islands in the south. No reliable population estimates, but likely to in excess of one million pairs (Taylor 2000b). Likely to be a relatively conspicuous component of the Chatham Rise seabird community.

Broad-billed prion Pachyptila vittata


NZ conservation status: at risk - relict

A common breeding species in New Zealand: breeding sites include islands in Fiordland, in Foveaux Strait, off Stewart Island, The Snares and many islands within the Chatham Islands (Imber 1994, Taylor 2000b). Relatively numerous with the overall breeding population likely to be in the order of hundreds of thousands of pairs (Taylor 2000b). Likely to be a relatively conspicuous component of the Chatham Rise seabird community.

White-chinned petrel Procellaria aequinoctialis



White-chinned petrel is indigenous to New Zealand, breeding at the Auckland Islands (Disappointment, Adams, Ewing and probably main Auckland), Antipodes Islands (Antipodes and Bollons) and at the Campbell group (Dent, Jacquemart, Monowai and Cossack Rock). Accurate information about population sizes is lacking for this species: Taylor (2000a) estimated at least 100,000 breeding pairs on Disappointment Island in the Auckland Islands, and Tennyson et al. (2002) suggested a similar figure for Antipodes Island. Taylor (2000a) estimated at least 10,000 pairs on Monowai Island, in the Campbell group, in 1985 and perhaps a few tens of pairs at Ewing Island, in the Auckland Islands, in 1988. However, recent work has shown that the Antipodes Island population is very likely much smaller than 100,000 pairs, closer perhaps to 20,000-30,000 annual breeding pairs (NIWA unpublished data), and the population estimate for Disappointment Island (above) is a guess at best.


Detailed distribution data are almost completely lacking for this species, but preliminary data indicate that white-chinned petrels disperse widely throughout New Zealand waters during the summer breeding season, and that they will be relatively abundant on the Chatham Rise (NIWA unpublished data).

Grey petrel Procellaria cinerea



Grey petrel, a winter-breeding species, is indigenous to New Zealand breeding at the Antipodes and Campbell island groups. Bell (2002) estimated the breeding population at Antipodes Island to be 53,000 pairs in 2001. The population size at Campbell Island has not been estimated, but is probably in the order of a few hundreds of pairs (Taylor 2000a). In New Zealand waters, grey petrels are observed in sub-Antarctic waters throughout the breeding season, and extend into sub-tropical waters north to 35S during May-October (Marchant & Higgins 1990, Petyt 1995). This species will likely form a moderately abundant component of the Chatham Rise seabird assemblage during the winter months.

Black petrel Procellaria parkinsoni



Black petrel is endemic to New Zealand and breeding is now confirmed only from Little Barrier and Great Barrier Islands (Taylor 2000a). The population on Great Barrier Island was estimated at 1290 breeding pairs in the 2005-06 breeding season (Bell et al. 2009). The population on Little Barrier Island is likely to be in the order of low hundreds of pairs (Taylor 2000a). Recent GPS tracking of black petrels breeding at Great Barrier Island showed that birds remained north of the Chatham Rise, in sub-tropical waters (Freeman et al. 2010), but is possible that a few individuals may range as far south as the Chatham Rise area.

Westland petrel Procellaria westlandica



Westland petrel is endemic to New Zealand, breeding inland under forest in the coastal foothills of the Paparoa Range, Westland, South Island (Taylor 2000a). Bartle (in Adams 1998) estimated that the total population in 1982, including non-breeding birds was 20,000 ± 5,000 birds, with about 2,000 breeding pairs in any year. During the winter breeding season Westland petrels forage mainly over the shelf and slope off central New Zealand including the Chatham Rise (Taylor 2000a, Freeman et al. 2001, Landers et al. 2010), where they will be encountered relatively infrequently.

Chatham petrel Pterodroma axillaris


NZ conservation status: threatened- nationally vulnerable


This endemic and rare species breeds on Rangatira Island in the Chatham Islands, and has additionally been reintroduced as a breeding species to main Chatham Island and Pitt Island. A mark-recapture census in 2004 estimated a breeding population of about 250 pairs (Taylor unpublished data). Recent tracking work indicated that an area to the south and southeast of the Chatham Islands was important for this species during the chick-rearing phase of the breeding cycle (Rayner et al. 2012), and this species is likely to be encountered relatively frequently, generally as single birds, along the Chatham Rise.

Cook’s petrel Pterodroma cookii



Cook’s petrel is endemic to New Zealand and breeds at only three locations: Little Barrier Island, Great Barrier Island and Codfish Island. Little Barrier Island is by far the largest Cook’s petrel breeding colony with an estimated a breeding population of 286,000 pairs on Little Barrier Island in 2004-05 (Rayner et al. 2007a). Rayner et al. (2008) suggested a population of approximately 5,000 breeding pairs on Codfish Island. Rayner et al. (2007a, 2007b) suggested that the Great Barrier Island population of Cook’s petrel is in the final stages of extirpation by introduced mammalian predators. The current populations appear to spend little time foraging over the Chatham Rise, although there is some evidence from tracking work that the Codfish Island population may move across the Chatham Rise as they migrate eastwards following breeding (Rayner et al. 2010, 2011). A relatively infrequent visitor to the Chatham Rise area.

Mottled petrel Pterodroma inexpectata



An endemic species breeding on islands in Fiordland, Foveaux Strait, off Stewart Island and at the Snares. Overall population size is very poorly known, but perhaps in the order of hundreds of thousands of breeding pairs (Taylor 2000b). At sea generally encountered as single birds, this species tends to favour colder, sub-Antarctic waters to the south of New Zealand. An uncommon and relatively infrequent visitor to the Chatham Rise area during the summer breeding season, and likely to be encountered in relatively low numbers given the overall population size.

White-headed petrel Pterodroma lessonii


NZ conservation status: not threatened

In New Zealand this species breeds at the Antipodes Islands (Antipodes and Bollons islands) and at the Auckland Islands (Adams, Disappointment, Enderby, Ewing, Rose and Ocean islands). Taylor (2000b) concluded that both island groups are likely to support 100,000 breeding pairs. No detailed distribution data exist, but likely to disperse widely throughout southern waters. Like other Pterodroma petrels, usually encountered singly at sea, and probably a relatively common visitor to the Chatham Rise area.


Grey-faced petrel Pterodroma macroptera gouldi



An endemic, winter-breeding sub-species, which In New Zealand breeds on islands, stacks and headlands around the northern half of North Island, perhaps over 100 distinct locations, from near New Plymouth in the west, north to the Three Kings Islands and south to Mahia Peninsula in the east (Taylor 2000b). The two largest Grey-faced petrel breeding colonies appear to be at Moutohora (Whale Island) and Hongiora (Flat Island). Imber et al. (2003) estimated a breeding population of 95,000 pairs at Moutohora between 1998-2000. The population at Hongiora was estimated to number between 20,000 and 50,000 pairs (G. Taylor & A. Tennyson in Taylor 2000b). Taylor (2000b) estimated the total New Zealand population at between 200,000 and 300,000 breeding pairs. This sub-species tends to disperse widely throughout northern waters, but also further south into sub-Antarctic waters, and is seldom encountered close to land, except near breeding sites. Will be a regular and relatively common visitor to the Chatham Rise area.

Magenta petrel Pterodroma magenta

IUCN threat ranking: critically endangered

NZ conservation status: threatened – nationally critical

One of the rarest seabirds in the world (note the extreme threat and conservation status rankings above), only six breeding burrows were known to 1998 (Taylor 2000a), with an additional five located during 1999 and a total population estimated at less than 150 birds (Anon 2001). Miskelly et al. (2009) reported the total breeding population to be approximately 15 pairs, all on main Chatham Island. Given this species’ rarity, very seldom encountered at sea, but likely to traverse the Chatham Rise to and from its breeding sites when undertaking foraging trips.

Soft-plumaged petrel Pterodroma mollis


NZ conservation status: coloniser

In New Zealand this species breeds only Antipodes Island, where the population was first discovered in 1969 (Warham & Bell 1979) and was estimated at 50-100 pairs in 1978 (Imber 1983). Surveys in 1995 suggested an expanding and increasing population of several thousand pairs (Taylor 2000b). Virtually no information on this species’ at-sea distribution, but likely a relatively rare component of the Chatham Rise avifauna.

Black-winged petrel Pterodroma nigripennis




A tropical to sub-tropical species that in New Zealand breeds at islands in the Kermadec group, Three Kings Islands, East and Portland islands and at the Chatham Islands (Rangatira, Mangere and possibly Star Keys), with further expansion and prospecting of new sites (Taylor 2000b). The Chatham Islands populations are relatively small, numbering tens to hundreds of pairs (Tennyson 1991). Likely a regular but relatively uncommon visitor to the Chatham Rise area given its local breeding sites and modest population size at the Chatham Islands.

Little shearwater Puffinus assimilis


NZ conservation status: at risk – recovering or naturally uncommon depending on sub-species

In New Zealand this species breed at the Kermadec Islands, islands in the Hauraki Gulf and Bay of Plenty, at the Antipodes Islands and at Star Keys and possibly Little Mangere Island in the Chatham Islands (Taylor 2000b). While populations at some sites are in the order of tens or low hundreds of thousands of pairs, the population at the Chatham Islands is relatively small, possibly low hundreds of pairs (Marchant & Higgins 1990). Often encountered singly at sea, or in relatively small groups, this species will likely be a relatively frequent visitor to the Chatham Rise area.

Buller’s shearwater Puffinus bulleri



An endemic species breeding only at the Poor Knights Islands in New Zealand. The total population in 1981 was estimated as 2.5 million birds, with about 200,000 pairs nesting on Aorangi Island within the Poor Knights group (Harper 1983). However, this estimate was not based on systematic counts of occupied burrows, and so may not be accurate. During the breeding season (September-May inclusive) Buller’s shearwaters are among the commonest seabirds over the shelf off norrtheast New Zealand (North Cape to Banks Peninsula), with occasional records as far as 48oS (Jenkins 1974, 1988). Likely to be seen frequently towards the west of the Chatham Rise area.

Flesh-footed shearwater Puffinus carneipes



Flesh-footed shearwater is indigenous to New Zealand and breeding occurs at a relatively large number of islands around North Island and Cook Strait (Taylor 2000b). Taylor (2000b) considered the New Zealand population to be 25,000-50,000 pairs, but more recent work by Baker et al. (2010) indicated this is likely to be an over-estimate. Flesh-footed shearwater tend to feed over the continental shelf in areas north of the Subtropical Front (Jenkins 1981), but birds are also seen regularly off Kaikoura (www.oceanwings.co.nz), as far south as Foveaux Strait (Marchant & Higgins 1990) and eastwards to the Chatham Islands (Marchant


& Higgins 1990, Robertson et al. 2003b). This species will likely be a relatively frequent visitor to the Chatham Rise area during the summer breeding season.

Fluttering shearwater Puffinus gavia



An endemic species that breeds on numerous islands between the Three Kings group and Cook Strait and northwest Nelson. There are no reliable population estimates, although Taylor (2000b) suggested that an overall population of at least 100,000 birds was possible. Fluttering shearwaters tend to forage over the continental shelf and coastal waters in sub-tropical waters. Relatively uncommon visitor to the Chatham Rise area.

Sooty shearwater Puffinus griseus



Sooty shearwater has a very wide breeding distribution in New Zealand, from the Three Kings Islands in the north to islands in the Campbell Island group in the far south, also including the Chatham Islands (Taylor 2000b). Taylor (2000b) estimated that the total population was likely to be in the order of 5 million pairs in New Zealand (about 15-30 million birds), an extremely numerous and conspicuous species. However, there is evidence that this species has declined in recent years: for example, the number of sooty shearwater burrow entrances on North East Island, The Snares, declined 37% from an estimated 3.29 million between 1969 and 1971, to 2.06 million between 1996 and 2001 (Scott et al. 2009). The sooty shearwater is probably the most abundant and widespread seabird in New Zealand seas during the breeding season, with abundance decreasing markedly after mid-May, when most birds migrate to the north Pacific Ocean and then return to New Zealand seas during September (Shaffer et al. 2006). A very common species over the Chatham Rise during the summer.

Hutton’s shearwater Puffinus huttoni



Hutton’s shearwater is endemic to New Zealand and breeds only in two valleys in the Seaward Kaikoura Range, South Island. These two remaining breeding sites are located at altitudes of 1200-1800 m in the remote and almost inaccessible Kowhai Valley and Shearwater Stream (Cuthbert & Davis 2002a). Cuthbert & Davis (2002b) concluded that the population may be close to 106,000 breeding pairs. During the breeding season (August-April inclusive) Hutton’s shearwaters forage mainly over the continental shelf east of South Island from the Kaikoura coast to Canterbury Bight (Marchant & Higgins 1990, Taylor 2000a). It is possible that a relatively modest number of birds venture into the Chatham Rise area.


Diving petrels: Family Pelecanoididae

Common diving-petrel Pelecanoides urinatrix



This species has a very wide breeding distribution in New Zealand, from the Three Kings Islands in the north to Campbell Island in the south (Taylor 2000b). At the Chatham Islands, breeding has been confirmed at Rangatira, Murumurus, Star Keys, Middle Sister, Rabbit and Houruakopara (Imber 1994). The Rangatira population was estimated at 164,000 pairs (West & Nilsson 1994). Will very likely be numerous and widespread throughout the Chatham Rise area.

Storm petrels: Family Hydrobatidae

Black-bellied storm petrel Fregetta tropica



In New Zealand, black-bellied storm petrel breeds at the Auckland and Antipodes islands. Population sizes are poorly known, but likely to be in the order of low tens of thousands of pairs (Taylor 2000b). In the summer birds range widely over sub-Antarctic waters, but move northwards into sub-tropical waters during the winter. Will likely to be encountered in relatively modest numbers over the Chatham Rise area.

Grey-backed storm petrel Garrodia nereis



This species breeds throughout the New Zealand sub-Antarctic – at Campbell, Auckland and Antipodes islands, together with the Chatham Islands, where Imber (1994) recorded breeding at Rangatira, Mangere, Rabbit, Star Keys, Middle Sister, The Pyramid, Houruakopara and possibly main Chatham Island. An estimated 10,000 to 12,000 pairs breed at the Chatham Islands (Marchant & Higgns 1990). Will very likely be relatively numerous and widespread throughout the Chatham Rise area.

White-faced storm petrel Pelagodroma marina



White-faced storm petrel breeds on islands off North, South, Stewart, Chatham and Auckland islands. In the Chatham Islands, breeding occurs at Rangatira, Rabbit, Star Keys, Middle Sister, Murumurus and Kokope (Imber 1994). The Rangatira population alone has been estimated at 840,000 pairs (West & Nilsson 1994), making this a very abundant breeding species. Will very likely be relatively numerous and widespread throughout the Chatham Rise area.


Shags: Family Phalacrocoracidae

Pitt Island shag Phalacrocorax featherstoni


NZ conservation status: threatened – nationally endangered

This rare and range-restricted shag breeds only within the Chatham Islands at Chatham, Pitt, Rangatira, Mangere, Little Mangere, Rabbit, Star Keys, Big and Middle Sister, The Pyramid, Murumurus and The Castle islands (Taylor 2000a). In 1997-1998 the population was 729 pairs, following a complete census over the entire breeding range (Bell & Bell 2000). However, new information suggests that the population has declined by 25% over six years from 1997 to 2003, with 547 pairs counted in the second complete census over the 2003-2004 breeding season (Bester & Charteris 2005). This species feeds near to the breeding islands and has never been recorded away from the Chatham Islands.

Chatham Islands shag Phalacrocorax onslowi

IUCN threat ranking: critically endangered

NZ conservation status: threatened – nationally endangered

The Chatham Island shag is endemic to New Zealand and breeds only at the Chatham Islands (Chatham, Rabbit and Star Keys) and has not been recorded elsewhere (Taylor 2000a). A breeding season survey in 1997-1998 estimated the breeding population at 842 pairs in 10 discrete colonies (Bell & Bell 2000). A survey during the 2003-2004 breeding season, using the methods of Bell & Bell (2000), estimated only 271 pairs in 13 colonies (Bester & Charteris 2005), a decline of 68%. As for the Pitt Island shag (above), Chatham Islands shag feeds near to the breeding islands and has never been recorded away from the Chatham Islands.

Black shag Phalacrocorax carbo



A species with a very widespread distribution, breeding on every continent except South America and Antarctica. In New Zealand, similarly widespread including breeding sites in the Chatham Islands, and an overall population in the low thousands of pairs (Taylor 2000b). Rarely found far from the coast, this species will likely be encountered relatively close to the Chatham Islands.

Spotted shag Phalacrocorax punctatus




This endemic species breeds from near Auckland in the north to Stewart Island in the south, with the main concentrations on Banks Peninsula, Otago Peninsula and in the Marlborough Sounds (Taylor 2000b). Taylor (2000b) suggested that the total New Zealand population was less than 30,000 breeding pairs, and further noted that spotted shags feed in open water up to 16 km from the coast. It is therefore feasible that this species could be encountered at the extreme west of the Chatham Rise area.

Gannets: Family Sulidae

Australasian gannet Morus serrator



In New Zealand this species breeds around North Island and South Island, but not at the Chatham Islands. The New Zealand population is likely to be in the order of tens of thousands of pairs (Taylor 2000b), and relatively small numbers of gannets will likely be encountered throughout the Chatham Rise area.

Skuas: Family Stercorariidae

Brown skua Stercorarius lonnbergi



A sub-Antarctic species with a circumpolar breeding distribution. In New Zealand, brown skuas breed from Fiordland southwards through the sub-Antarctic islands and also at many of the Chatham Islands (Pitt, Rangatira, Mangere, Little Mangere, Rabbit, Star Keys, The Sisters, Fourty-Fours, The Pyramid, Murumurus and The Castle islands: Taylor 2000b). The overall New Zealand population is relatively small, perhaps a few hundreds of breeding pairs (Taylor 2000b). Small numbers of brown skuas could be encountered throughout the Chatham Rise area.

Gulls and terns: Family Laridae

Black-backed gull Larus dominicanus



Breeds throughout New Zealand, including the Chatham Islands, with a population in the order of hundreds of thousands of pairs (Taylor 2000b). Seldom seen too far from land, black-backed gulls are likely to be encountered throughout the Chatham Rise area out to the continental shelf

Red-billed gull Larus scopulinus




A widespread and relatively abundant breeding species in New Zealand with a population in the order of tens of thousands of breeding pairs (Taylor 2000b). Breeds at many sites in the Chatham Islands and likely to be encountered along the Chatham Rise out to the continental shelf.

White-fronted tern Sterna striata



A widespread species In New Zealand, but with a relatively modest overall population size of approximately 15,000 pairs (Taylor 2000a). Breeding sites throughout the Chatham Islands with birds likely to be encountered along the Chatham Rise out to the edge of the continental shelf.

2.1 Summary of species accounts Conservatively, at least 40 taxa, mostly species but including some sub-species, use the Chatham Rise to some extent. It is very probable that further taxa not identified in the species accounts utilise the Chatham Rise, but these will likely be uncommon and infrequent visitors to the region. This relatively high diversity of seabirds makes the Chatham Rise one of the key, if not the key, marine zones for seabirds in the New Zealand region. The Procellariiform or ‘tubenose’ group of seabirds (including albatrosses, petrels and shearwaters) is by far the most important group of seabirds using the Chatham Rise, with nearly 75% of the taxa listed in the species accounts from this order. Within this group there are some species of very high conservation concern (for example, Chatham albatross, Magenta petrel) as well as very abundant and widespread species of much lower conservation status (for example, fairy prion, common diving petrel). Close to the Chatham Islands, the Rise supports two very range-restricted, relatively rare and declining species of shag (Pitt Island shag and Chatham Islands shag), with total breeding populations in the order of a few hundred pairs each.

It should also be noted that while the Chatham Rise supports a diverse seabird assemblage, there is great inter-specific temporal variation in the use of the Rise – not all species included in the species accounts use the Chatham Rise throughout the year. Indeed, many species of seabirds that breed in New Zealand migrate away from New Zealand, often covering large distances, on the completion of breeding. For example, sooty shearwaters spend the austral winter in the far north Pacific Ocean (Shaffer et al. 2006) and Westland petrels migrate to the west coast of South America in November following the completion of breeding (Landers et al. 2011). Conversely, other species are either non-migratory and remain relatively close to breeding sites throughout the year. For example, species such as Pitt Island shag, Chatham Island shag and white-fronted tern, which breed at the Chatham Islands, birds will be present on the Chatham Rise year-round. For some other species, breeding and successfully raising a chick to fledging takes up to a full year: the ‘great’ albatrosses (royal and wandering type albatrosses) fall into this category, and so species such as northern royal albatross will be present on the Chatham Rise year-round.


A compilation of species’ conservation status and other key characteristics is provided in Table 1. The IUCN Threat Ranking (www.iucn.org) should be viewed on global basis, whereas the New Zealand Conservation Status (Miskelly et al. 2008) should be interpreted at a national scale. This difference in scale between the two conservation rankings can lead to some apparently anomalous outcomes. For example, black-browed albatross is considered ‘endangered’ by the IUCN system, largely due to declining populations outside New Zealand, whereas the New Zealand rank of ‘coloniser’ suggests a small population expanding its range into new territory. The relative abundance score in Table 1 reflects the New Zealand breeding population, rather than the population of a particular species utilising the Chatham Rise, which would be extremely difficult to estimate for many species. Only the Magenta petrel (highlighted in red in Table 1) has an abundance score of 1 (1-100 breeding pairs), and as noted in the species account remains an extremely rare seabird. In addition, black-browed albatross, Chatham petrel, Pitt Island shag, Chatham Islands shag and brown skua (highlighted in pink in Table 1) have abundance scores of 2 (101-1,000 pairs), indicating relatively small and potentially vulnerable local populations.

Table 1: Summary conservation rankings, Chatham Islands breeding status and New Zealand population abundance scores for each species included in the species accounts. An abundance score of 1 indicates 1-100 breeding pairs, 2 indicates 101-1,000, 3 indicates 1,001-10,000, 4 indicates 10,001-100,000 and 5 indicates more than 100,000 breeding pairs. * - for blue penguin and little shearwater, the New Zealand Conservation Status is that for the taxon (either sub-species or separate species) breeding at the Chatham Islands.

Common Name IUCN Threat Ranking

NZ Conservation Status Breeds at Chatham Islands

Relative Abundance

Blue penguin* Least Concern At risk – naturally uncommon

Yes 3

Antipodean albatross Vulnerable At risk – naturally uncommon

Yes 3

Gibson’s albatross Vulnerable Threatened – nationally vulnerable

No 3

Southern royal albatross

Vulnerable At risk – naturally uncommon

No 3

Northern royal albatross

Endangered At risk – naturally uncommon

Yes 3

Norhern Buller’s albatross

Near threatened At risk – naturally uncommon

Yes 4

Southern Buller’s albatross

Near threatened At risk – naturally uncommon

No 3

Chatham albatross Vulnerable At risk – naturally uncommon

Yes 3

Salvin’s albatross Vulnerable Threatened – nationally vulnerable

No 4

Campbell albatross Vulnerable At risk – naturally uncommon

No 4

Black-browed albatross

Endangered Coloniser No 2

White-capped albatross

Near threatened At risk – declining No 4

Snares Cape petrel Least concern At risk – naturally uncommon

Yes 3

Northern giant petrel Least concern At risk – naturally uncommon

Yes 3


Fulmar prion Least concern At risk – naturally uncommon

Yes 4

Fairy prion Least concern At risk – relict Yes 5 Broad-billed prion Least concern At risk – relict Yes 5 White-chinned petrel Vulnerable At risk – declining No 4 Grey petrel Near threatened At risk - declining No 4

Black petrel Vulnerable Threatened – nationally vulnerable

No 3

Westland petrel Vulnerable At risk – naturally uncommon

No 3

Chatham petrel Endangered Threatened- nationally vulnerable

Yes 2

Cook’s petrel Vulnerable At risk – relict No 5 Mottled petrel Near threatened At risk – relict No 5 White-headed petrel Least concern Not threatened No 5 Grey-faced petrel Least concern Not threatened No 5

Magenta petrel Critically endangered

Threatened – nationally critical

Yes 1

Soft-plumaged petrel Least concern Coloniser No 3 Black-winged petrel Least concern Not threatened Yes 3

Little shearwater* Least concern At risk – naturally uncommon

Yes 4

Buller’s shearwater Vulnerable At risk – naturally uncommon

No 5

Flesh-footed shearwater

Least concern At risk – declining No 3

Fluttering shearwater Least concern At risk – relict No 4 Sooty shearwater Near threatened At risk – declining Yes 5 Hutton’s shearwater Endangered At risk – declining No 4 Common diving petrel Least concern At risk – relict Yes 5 Black-bellied storm petrel

Least concern Not threatened No 4

Grey-backed storm petrel

Least concern At risk – relict Yes 4

White-faced storm petrel

Least concern At risk - relict Yes 5

Pitt Island shag Endangered Threatened – nationally endangered

Yes 2

Chatham Islands shag Critically endangered

Threatened – nationally endangered

Yes 2

Black shag Least concern At risk – naturally uncommon

Yes 3

Spotted shag Least concern Not threatened No 4 Australasian gannet Least concern Not threatened No 4

Brown skua Least concern At risk – naturally uncommon

Yes 2

Black-backed gull Least concern Not threatened Yes 5

Red-billed gull Least concern Threatened – nationally vulnerable

Yes 4

White-fronted tern Least concern At risk – declining Yes 4


3 Fisheries bycatch on the Chatham Rise During each fishing year Government observers are present on a non-random selection of fishing trips within New Zealand’s EEZ. One component of the observers’ remit is to return for autopsy all seabirds caught and killed as incidental bycatch during fishing operations. The placement of observers on boats operating within particular fisheries varies from year to year, and some fisheries are relatively well-observed (a relatively large proportion of vessels operating in that fishery carry an observer) while others are relatively poorly-observed. In addition to birds killed directly by fishing operations, observers also return those birds killed through deck strike.

It is worth noting that due to the non-random nature of seabird capture and return, the totals for each species of seabird presented in this report do not reflect ‘catch rates’ for particular year, fishing methods or fisheries generally.

Data on seabird returns from five recent fishing years (2005-06 through to 2009-10 inclusive) are presented here. The Chatham Rise has been defined as Fishery Management Area 3 (FMA3), bounded to the north by 42 degrees S, to the south by 45 degrees S, to the west by 176 degrees and to the east by the limit of the NZ EEZ. All seabirds returned from within these coordinates for each of the five recent years are summarised in Table 2.

Table 2: Seabirds returned from five recent fishing years captured within Fishery Management Area 3. Sources: Thompson (2009, 2010a, 2010b, 2010c, in press).

Species Fishing Year 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 Southern Buller's albatross 3 1 2 4 1 Chatham albatross 2 10 2 3 Common diving petrel 1 Gibson’s albatross 1 Grey petrel 1 1 Salvin's albatross 3 17 3 10 9 Sooty shearwater 1 3 Southern cape petrel 2 2 Southern royal albatross 1 Unidentified albatross 1 1 White-chinned petrel 10 3 1 White-faced storm petrel 1 1 FMA3 Total 20 33 11 22 15 NZ EEZ Total 369 324 251 381 280 % of Total Returned 5 10 4 6 5 Overall across the five years of returns presented here, birds from FMA3 account for between 4 and 10% of all seabirds returned. Not surprisingly, the mixture of species returned from the Chatham Rise includes those species which are known to forage over this area – particularly Chatham albatross, Salvin’s albatross, sooty shearwater and white-chinned petrel


(Table 2). The numbers of birds killed and returned over the five years noted here are relatively modest when the number of fishing events within FMA3 is considered. For example, in calendar year 2008, a total of 123 different fishing vessels operated at some time in FMA3, undertaking a total of 18,568 fishing events – each ‘event’ being the setting and the subsequent retrieval of nets or long lines.

4 Environmental issues affecting seabirds at sea Seabirds are exposed to a wide range of environmental issues. An increasing global human population continues to place increased demands on the marine environment with both direct and indirect effects on seabirds. It is beyond the scope of this report to deal in great depth with the full spectrum of environmental issues affecting seabirds: human-induced climate change and the complex, often interactive and sometimes additive effects on seabirds are not considered here, the effects of commercial fishing, both direct and indirect, and pollution are briefly summarised. The effects of artificial light, the most relevant risk posed by the proposed activity are considered in more detail.

4.1 Direct effects of fishing activity It is now widely recognised that commercial fishing activity represents the most severe direct impact on many seabird species and populations. Fishing-related impacts act across the globe and in all oceans. For example, Anderson et al. (2011), in a global assessment of seabird mortality in longline fisheries, concluded that at least 160,000, potentially as many as 320,000, seabirds were killed annually in longline fisheries. It is clear also that many trawl fisheries also impact seabird directly, causing mortality through collision with trawl warps or entanglement in the net (Sullivan et al. 2006, Croxall 2008, Watkins et al. 2008). The key issue here, as concluded in several reviews, is that recent and/or current reported levels of seabird bycatch are demographically unsustainable for the species and populations involved (Tuck et al. 2001, Arnold et al. 2006, Barbraud et al. 2009, Rivalan et al. 2010). In other words, seabird mortality via fisheries interactions has caused some populations to decline. It is worth noting that many New Zealand species, for example virtually all Pterodroma petrels including very rare species such as Magenta petrel, are not attracted to commercial fishing vessels for food.

The proposed activity will not impact seabirds through this threat.

4.2 Indirect effects of fishing activity Fisheries have demonstrably changed, even greatly perturbed, marine food webs (Jackson et al. 2001, Hilborn et al. 2003, Estes et al. 2006). The indirect effects of fisheries on seabirds are determined by a combination of the fisheries’ target species, and the intensity, persistence and spatial distribution of fishing effort. Fisheries (a top-down force) reduce the prey base and indirectly affect seabirds through prey depletion, a negative effect. However, fisheries may also reduce the number of competitors that rely on the same prey as seabirds, and this may yield a positive effect. Overfishing of large target species can lead to increases in the abundances of smaller species. This is often evident when fisheries target large predators, including pelagic species (Sherman et al. 1981), demersal species (Bundy 2005) or large marine mammals (Springer et al. 2003, Estes et al. 2006).

The proposed activity will not impact seabirds through this threat.


4.3 Pollution Pollutants include hydrocarbons, heavy metals, hydrophobic persistent organic pollutants, and small plastic debris. Since seabirds are at or near the top of marine food webs, they are particularly sensitive to these pollutants (see review in Burger & Gochfeld 2002). For the same reason, seabirds can serve as excellent sentinels with which to monitor temporal and spatial trends of pollutants in the marine environment (Furness 1993).

Pollutants affect seabirds in many different ways, at both individual and population levels. Direct mortality is the most obvious effect, particularly when it is related to point-source pollution such as oil spills, which can kill large numbers of birds in a short time period (Piatt et al. 1990). However, sub-lethal effects can also be very important, affecting development, physiology and behaviour, and ultimately reproductive performance and survival rates of seabirds (Finkelstein et al. 2006). Pollutants can also affect seabirds indirectly by altering their habitat structure and prey availability.

There is some potential for the presence of a vessel to impact seabirds through this threat should there be loss of fuel or other material from the vessel. This potential threat exists for any vessel operating on any part of the Chatham Rise or within the New Zealand EEZ.

4.4 Lighting The increase in anthropogenic nocturnal light has been the subject of several recent reviews (for example, Longcore & Rich 2004, Depledge et al. 2010). Depledge et al. (2010) noted that light pollution of the sea has become a significant issue in only the last 50-80 years and further suggested that ‘light pollution occurs when organisms are exposed to light in the wrong place, at the wrong time or at the wrong intensity’. Elvidge et al. (2001) identified four principal sources of anthropogenic light in 1994-95 using remotely-sensed satellite data: lights from light-fishing fleets, human settlements and urbanisation, gas flares and forest fires. It is well-established that the behaviour, reproduction and survival of a wide range of marine animals (from invertebrates through to fish, marine reptiles, seabirds and marine mammals) have been shown to be influenced by artificial lights (Verheijen 1985).

This report considers the effects of nocturnal artificial light on seabirds, with consideration of the likely light regime on the operation’s vessel. While the attraction of some species of squid and fish to light is utilised by commercial fisheries which employ relatively powerful directed light in order to enhance captures of target species, other vessels generally do not intend to attract marine animals specifically with lights, but sometimes seabirds, for example, can become disorientated in ships’ lights and collide with the ship.

In the absence of artificial light, nocturnal oceans are essentially dark, flat environments negotiated by seabirds, many of which are active at night, in part to avoid diurnal predators. Additionally, many species of seabirds feed at night on vertically-migrating and bioluminescent prey (for example, Weimerskirch et al. 2005). Many nocturnally-active seabird species tend to be attracted to artificial light sources: this attraction has been suggested to result from their adaption to feed on bioluminescent prey (Imber 1975) or from their use of specific star patterns (Reed et al. 1985) – in these cases, artificial light might be perceived to be attractive, super-normal stimuli (Montevecchi 2006). Indeed, humans used to exploit birds by lighting fires to specifically attract nocturnal birds (Maillard 1898, Murphy 1936, Murie 1959), and it has long been recognised that birds can become disorientated and


sometimes killed at night in the presence of relatively strong, artificial light (for example, Allen 1880, Brewster 1886).

Seabirds can be impacted directly by a wide range of artificial light sources within marine environments: seabirds can be attracted to and collide with lighthouses (Evans 1968, Crawford 1981, Verheijen 1981, Roberts 1982), coastal resorts and other urban lighting (Reed et al. 1985, Telfer et al. 1987, Le Corre et al. 2002), offshore hydrocarbon platforms (Ortego 1978, Hope-Jones 1980, Tasker et al. 1986, Baird 1990, Wiese et al. 2001, Burke et al. 2005) and commercial fishing vessels and other boats using lights (Dick & Donaldson 1978, Ryan 1991, Arcos & Oro 2002, Black 2005, Merkel & Johansen 2011).

In the case of vessels, it is generally well known that nocturnal bird strikes tend to occur when bright, artificial light sources are used at times of poor visibility, typically during bad weather, often angled outwards or upwards from the vessel and when the vessel is relatively close to large breeding aggregations of seabirds (rather than further offshore). However, there are relatively few sources of quantified information relating to seabird strikes on vessels. In extreme cases, the number of birds hitting the vessel and accumulating on decks can threaten the stability of the vessel (Dick & Donaldson 1978). During the course of a single night in Alaska, an estimated 6,000 crested auklets Aethia cristatella, or approximately 1.5 metric tonnes, were on board the FV Lynda at once, blocking scuppers and causing the vessel to list. The vessel was relatively close to land and operating bright fishing lights (Dick & Donaldson 1978). Ryan (1991) reported an average of 131 seabirds of eight species, all relatively small nocturnal petrels and shearwaters, found on board the commercial lobster vessel FV Hekla each night over a two week period when operating close to islands in the Tristan da Cunha archipelago. There was a great deal of variation around this average figure, with very few birds landing on the vessel on clear, moonlit nights, and approximately 900 birds on board on very misty nights (Ryan 1991). Black (2005) reported on two events which involved relatively large numbers of seabirds: on a single night the MV Dorada collected 899 seabirds in the South Atlantic, mainly prions diving petrels and storm petrels, of which 215 were killed. Similarly, the MV Aurora Australis collected over 200 dead birds (again mainly prions and diving petrels) while anchored at night near Heard Island (Black 2005). In both cases, the weather was calm but misty and overcast with poor visibility and in both cases the vessels were operating a variety of deck and other lighting. Additionally, both incidents occurred in relative close proximity to nesting seabird colonies. Similarly, Merkel & Johansen (2011) noted that significantly more birds were recorded striking a range of vessel types in Greenland waters when visibility was poor compared to when visibility was moderate or better.

One potential indirect effect of nocturnal artificial light from a vessel, especially if the sources of light directed the light downwards into the water, could be to aggregate prey species attracted by the relatively bright lights (see section on fish and squid above). Seabird predators may, in turn, be attracted to these prey aggregations, and indeed, many species of marine birds have been recorded feeding in artificial nocturnal lighting, including at offshore fishing vessels and hydrocarbon platforms (for example, Hope-Jones 1980, Burke et al. 2005). In such situations, seabirds may actually benefit to some extent from artificial nocturnal light sources.

Black (2005) suggested that bird strikes on vessels operating in the southern oceans are an almost nightly occurrence, but that the level of mortality is generally low. Perhaps this low


mortality level could at least partly explain why relatively few birds are returned from commercial fishing vessels operating in New Zealand waters – the only reported source of seabird-vessel strike information available for the region. New Zealand Government observers are placed on a selection of commercial fishing vessels and are tasked with returning all seabirds incidentally killed as part of fishing operations, including seabirds killed as a result of deck strike: over five recent years (fishing years 2005-06 to 2009-10, where the start of the year begins at 1 October and finishes 30 September of the following year) of seabird bycatch returns there were deck strike totals of 8 (of 369 total returns), 3 (of 324), 6 (of 251), 7 (of 381) and 7 (of 280), respectively (Table 3: Thompson 2009, 2010a, 2010b, 2010c, in press). While light was not specifically identified as the cause of the deck strikes on fishing vessels it is highly likely to have been the key attractant for most of the seabirds affected. It is noteworthy that the vast majority of the New Zealand deck strikes were of small petrels, typically diving petrels, prions and storm petrels, but also including Pterodroma petrels (mottled petrel and white-headed petrel). Nevertheless, the numbers of seabirds killed through deck strike are remarkably low, especially when the total number of fishing vessels operating on the Chatham Rise is considered. As noted above (Section 3), in a typical year across FMA3, which covers most of the Chatham Rise area, there are well in excess of 100 different fishing vessels operating, deploying and retrieving fishing gear with the aid of artificial lights many thousands of times.

Table 3: Seabirds, plus one cattle egret, returned from five recent fishing years and killed through deck strike across the New Zealand EEZ. Sources: Thompson (2009, 2010a, 2010b, 2010c, in press).

Species Fishing Year 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 Broad-billed prion 1 Cattle egret 1 Common diving petrel 4 1 2 2 Fairy prion 1 2 2 Fulmar prion 2 Grey-backed storm petrel 1 Mottled petrel 1 Short-tailed shearwater 1 Sooty shearwater 1 1 1 1 Southern royal albatross 1 Westland petrel 1 White-faced storm petrel 1 2 White-headed petrel 1 Deck Strike Total 8 3 6 7 7 NZ EEZ Total 369 324 251 381 280 % of Total Returned 2 1 2 2 3 In New Zealand there are a number of codes of practice and policies relating to vessel lighting and seabirds, mainly with a commercial fishing vessel focus. For example the Protected Species Handbook for Inshore Vessels produced by the Department of


Conservation notes that ‘vessel lighting is shielded to avoid shining out onto the longline and illuminating the baits’ and that ‘stern lights are switched off when not required for shooting and hauling as lights attract seabirds to the vessels’. Similarly, the Department’s code of best practice for surface longliners notes that ‘vessel lighting needs to be shielded to avoid shining out onto the longline, less light on the longline helps reduce the ability of the bird to see the baited hooks’ and that ‘the stern deck lights should be switched off when not required for shooting and hauling as lights attract seabirds to the vessel’. The Department’s draft Sub-Antarctic and Kermadec Regional Coastal Plan (see http://www.doc.govt.nz/getting-involved/consultations/current/proposed-regional-coastal-plan-kermadec-and-subantarctic-islands/), Policy 18 states ‘to encourage anyone undertaking activities in the coastal marine area of the islands to minimise the generation of artificial light (excluding lights required for navigation) and, where use of artificial light cannot be avoided, to remedy or mitigate the effects as far as practicable’.

Black (2005) suggests several recommendations for reducing light-induced seabird mortality on vessels, including:

1. a. alerting vessels to the risk associated with the use of ice-lights and other deck lighting, particularly on nights when visibility is poor and in the vicinity of seabird islands.

2. b. black-out blinds should be mandatory on all portholes and windows with external lighting kept to the minimum required for safe navigation and operation of vessels.

3. c. keeping deck lights to a minimum when at anchor or close inshore overnight.

4. d. providing information on how to treat and release birds found on deck.

To the recommendations of Black (2005) it could be added that deck lights should, wherever possible and practicable be directed downwards and shielded to reduce as much horizontal light shining out from the vessel as possible. Interestingly, there is some experimental evidence that red filters in front of white floodlights on tall structures reduced avian casualties by up to 80% (Wiese et al. 2001), and on an offshore gas-production platform in the North Sea, the use of green lights, instead of the usual white lights, reduced the number of birds that were disorientated (Poot et al. 2008). Poot et al. (2008) found no difference in the effects of red and white light, and it should be noted that their results related mainly to migrating passerine birds, shorebirds, ducks and geese. Nevertheless, it would be very worthwhile experimenting with light colours and their attractiveness to seabirds as this field appears to offer great potential as a mitigation measure.


5 Acknowledgements The author thanks Igor Debski, Department of Conservation, for information on the use of ships’ lights on vessels in New Zealand and Leigh Torres for reviewing this report.


6 References Adams, L.K. (1998). Westland petrel (Taiko) (Procellaria westlandica) draft recovery

plan. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Allen, J.A. (1880). Destruction of birds by light-houses. Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club 5: 131-138.

Anderson, O.R.J.; Small, C.J.; Croxall, J.P.; Dunn, E.K.; Sullivan, B.J.; Yates, O.; Black, A. (2011). Global seabird bycatch in longline fisheries. Endangered Species Research 14: 91-106.

Anon (2001). Chatham Island taiko recovery plan 2001-2011. Threatened species recovery plan 36. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 23p.

Arcos, J.M.; Oro, D. (2002). Significance of nocturnal purse seine fisheries for seabirds: a case study off the Ebro Delta (NW Mediterranean). Marine Biology 141: 277-286.

Arnold, J.M.: Brault, S.; Croxall, J.P. (2006). Albatross populations in peril? A population trajectory for black-browed albatrosses at South Georgia. Ecological Applications 16: 419–432.

Baird, P.H. (1990). Concentrations of seabirds at oil-drilling rigs. Condor 92: 768-771.

Baker, B.; Hedley, G.; Cunningham, R. (2010). Data collection of demographic, distributional and trophic information on the flesh-footed shearwater to allow estimation of effects of fishing on population viability: 2009-10 field season. Unpublished report to the New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries.

Baker, B.; Jensz, K.; Cunningham, R. (2010). Data collection of demographic, distributional and trophic information on the white-capped albatross to allow estimation of effects of fishing on population viability – 2009 field season. Unpublished report to the Ministry of Fisheries, Wellington.

Baker, B.; Jensz, K.; Cunningham, R. (2011). Data collection of demographic, distributional and trophic information on the white-capped albatross to allow estimation of effects of fishing on population viability – 2010 field season. Unpublished report to the Ministry of Fisheries, Wellington.

Barbraud, C.; Delord, K.; Marteau, C.; Weimerskirch, H. (2009). Estimates of population size of white-chinned petrels and grey petrels at Kerguelen Islands and sensitivity to fisheries. Animal Conservation 12: 258–265.

Bell, E.A. (2002). Grey petrels (Procellaria cinerea) on Antipodes Island, New Zealand: research feasibility, April to June 2001. DOC science internal series 60. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 31p.

Bell, E.A.; Sim, J.L. Scofield, R.P. (2009). Population parameters and distribution of the black petrel (Procellaria parkinsoni), 2005/06. DOC Research & Development Series 307. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 47p.


Bell, M.; Bell, D. (2000). Census of the three shag species in the Chatham Islands. Notornis 47: 148-153.

Bester, A.J.; Charteris, M. (2005). The second census of Chatham Island shag and Pitt Island shag - are numbers declining? Notornis 52: 6-10.

Birdlife International (2004). Tracking ocean wanderers: the global distribution of albatrosses and petrels. Results from the Global Procellariiform Tracking Workshop 1-5 September, 2003, Gordon’s Bay, South Africa. Birdlife International, Cambridge. 100p.

Black, A. (2005). Light induced seabird mortality on vessels operating in the Southern Ocean: incidents and mitigation measures. Antarctic Science 17: 67-68.

Bradford-Grieve, J.M.; Boyd, P.W.; Chang, F.W.; Chiswell, S.; Hadfield, M.; Hall, J.A.; James, M.R.; Nodder, S.D.; Shushkina, E.A. (1999). Pelagic ecosystem structure and functioning in the Subtropical Front region east of New Zealand in austral winter and spring 1993. Journal of Plankton Research 21: 405-428.

Brewster, W. (1886). Bird migration. Part 1. Observations on nocturnal bird flights at the light-house at Point Lepreaux, Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick. Memoirs of the Nuttall Ornithological Club 1: 5-10.

Bundy, A. (2005). Structure and functioning of the eastern Scotian Shelf ecosystem before and after the collapse of groundfish stocks in the early 1990s. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 62: 1453−1473.

Burger, J.; Gochfeld, M. (2002). Effects of chemicals and pollution on seabirds. In: Schreiber, E.; Burger, J. (eds.) Biology of marine birds, pp. 485−524. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

Burke, C.M.; Davoren, G.K.; Montevecchi, W.A.; Wiese, F.K. (2005). Seasonal and spatial trends of marine birds along offshore support vessel transects and at oil platforms on the Grand Banks. In: Armsworthy, S.l.; Cranford, P.J.; Lee, K. (eds.) Offshore oil and gas environmental effects monitoring: approaches and technologies, pp. 587-614. Battelle Press, Columbus, Ohio, USA.

Carroll, J.; Charteris, M.; Sagar, P. (2010). Population assessment of Salvin’s albatrosses at the Snares Western Chain, 29 September – 14 October 2009. Unpublished report, Ministry of Fisheries, Wellington.

Charteris, M.; Carroll, J.; Sagar P. (2009). Population assessment of Salvin’s albatrosses at the Snares Western Chain, 29 September – 17 October 2008. Unpublished report, Ministry of Fisheries, Wellington.

Childerhouse, S.; Robertson, C.; Hockly, W.; Gibbs, N. (2003). Royal albatross (Diomedea epomophora) on Enderby Island, Auckland Islands. DOC science internal series 144. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 19p.

Clark, G.; Amey, J.; McAllister, G. (1995). Unexpectedly large number of wandering albatrosses (Diomedea exulans) breeding on Antipodes Island, New Zealand. Notornis 42: 42-46.


Clark, M.R.; Anderson, O.F.; Francis, R.I.C.C.; Tracey, D.M. (1999). The effects of commercial exploitation on orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) from the continental slope of the Chatham Rise, New Zealand, from 1979 to 1997. Fisheries Research 971: 1-22.

Crawford, R.L. (1981). Bird kills at a lighted man-made structure: often on nights close to a full moon. American Birds 35: 913-914.

Croxall, J.P. (2008). Seabird mortality and trawl fisheries. Animal Conservation 11: 255-256.

Cuthbert, R.; Davis, L.S. (2002a). The breeding biology of Hutton’s shearwater. Emu 102: 323-329.

Cuthbert, R.; Davis, L.S. (2002b). Adult survival and productivity of Hutton’s shearwaters. Ibis 144: 423-432.

Department of Conservation (2012). Chatham Islands conservation updates, Footnotes June 2012. Published online at http://www.doc.govt.nz/about-doc/news/newsletters/footnotes/footnotes-june-2012/chatham-islands-conservation-updates/

Depledge, M.H.; Godard-Codding, C.A.J.; Bowen, R.E. (2010). Light pollution in the sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60: 1383-1385.

Dick, M.H.; Donaldson, W. (1978). Fishing vessel endangered by crested auklet landings. Condor 80: 235-236.

Elvidge, C.D.; Imhoff, M.L.; Baugh, K.E.; Hobson, V.R.; Nelson, I.; Safran, J.; Dietz, J.B.; Tuttle, B.T. (2001). Night-time lights of the world: 1994-1995. Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 56: 81-89.

Estes, J.; Demaster, D.; Doak, D.; Williams, T.; Brownell, R. (2006). Whales, whaling, and ocean ecosystems. University of California Press, Berkeley, California, USA.

Evans, G. (1968). Lighthouse report 1968. Bardsey Observatory Report 16: 49-53.

Finkelstein, M.; Keitt, B.S.; Croll, D.A.; Tershy, B. and others. (2006). Albatross species demonstrate regional differences in North Pacific marine contamination. Ecological Applications 16: 678−686.

Fraser, M.; Bell, M.; Scofield, P.; Robertson, C.J.R. (2009). Population assessment of northern Buller’s albatross and northern giant petrels at the Forty-Fours, Chatham Islands, 9-18 November 2008. Final research report, Ministry of Fisheries. 11p.

Fraser, M.; Cameron, N.; Scofield, P.; Robertson, C.J.R. (2010). Population assessment of northern Buller’s albatross and northern giant petrels at the Forty-Fours, Chatham Islands, 1-8 December 2009. Final research report, Ministry of Fisheries. 11p.


Fraser, M.; Hunt, S.; Scofield, P.; Robertson, C.J.R. (2009). Population dynamics of the Chatham albatross at The Pyramid, 22 November – 7 December 2008. Final research report, Ministry of Fisheries. 5p.

Fraser, M.; Palmer, D.; Deppe, L.; Scofield, P.; Robertson, C.J.R. (2010). Population dynamics of the Chatham albatross at The Pyramid, 20 November – 14 December 2009. Final research report, Ministry of Fisheries. 6p.

Fraser, M.; Henderson, G.; Robertson, C.J.R.; Scofield, P. (2011). Population dynamics of the Chatham albatross at The Pyramid, 19 November – 2 December 2010. Final research report, Ministry of Fisheries. 7p.

Freeman, A.N.D.; Wilson, K-J.; Nicholls, D.G. (2001). Westland petrels and the hoki fishery: determining co-occurrence using satellite telemetry. Emu 101: 47-56.

Freeman, R.; Dennis, T.; Landers, T.; Thompson, D.; Bell, E.; Walker, M.; Guilford, T. (2010). Black petrels (Procellaria parkinsoni) patrol the ocean shelf-break: GPS tracking of a vulnerable Procellariiform seabird. PLoS ONE 5(2): e9236. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009236.

Furness, R.W. (1993). Birds as monitors of pollutants. In: Furness, R.W.; Greenwood, J.J.D. (eds.) Birds as monitors of environmental change, pp. 86−143. Chapman & Hall, London.

Gales, R. (1998). Albatross populations: status and threats. In: Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (eds.) Albatross biology and conservation, pp. 20-45. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton.

Harper, P.C. (1983). Biology of Buller’s shearwater (Puffinus bulleri) at the Poor Knights Islands, New Zealand. Notornis 30: 299-318.

Hilborn, R.; Branch, T.A.; Ernst, B.; Magnusson, A.; Minte-Vera, C.V.; Scheuerell, M.D.; Valero, J.L. (2003). State of the world’s fisheries. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28: 359−399.

Hope-Jones, P. (1980). The effect on birds of a North Sea gas flare. British Birds 73: 547-555.

Hunter, S. (1986). An internationally coordinated study into the dispersal of giant petrels Macronectes. Report to SCAR sub-committee on bird biology. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research, Cambridge.

Imber, M.J. (1975). Behaviour of petrels in relation to the moon and artificial lights. Notornis 22: 302-306.

Imber, M.J. (1983). The lesser petrels of Antipodes Islands, with notes from Prince Edward and Gough islands. Notornis 30: 283-298.

Imber, M.J. (1994). Seabirds recorded at the Chatham Islands, 1960 to May 1993. Notornis 41: 97-108.


Imber, M.J.; Harrison, M.; Wood, S.E.; Cotter, R.N. (2003). An estimate of numbers of grey-faced petrels (Pterodroma macroptera gouldi) breeding on Moutohora (Whale Island), Bay of Plenty, New Zealand, during 1998-2000. Notornis 50: 23-26.

Jackson, J.B.C.; Kirby, M.X.; Berger, W.H.; Bjorndal, K.A. and others. (2001). Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science 293: 629−637.

Jenkins, J.A.F. (1974). Local distribution and feeding habits of Buller’s shearwater (Puffinus bulleri). Notornis 21: 109-120.

Jenkins, J. (1981). Birds seen at sea around New Zealand during the 1978 BAAS Expedition. Australasian Seabird Group Newsletter 16: 3-16.

Jenkins, J.A.F. (1988). The distribution of Buller’s shearwater (Puffinus bulleri) in New Zealand coastal waters and in the Tasman Sea. Notornis 35: 203-215.

Landers, T.J.; Rayner, M.E.; Phillips, R.A.; Hauber, M.E. (2011). Dynamics of seasonal movements by a trans-pacific migrant seabird, the Westland petrel Procellaria westlandica. Condor 113: 71-79.

Le Corre, M.; Ollivier, A.; Ribes, S.; Jouventin, P. (2002). Light-induced mortality of petrels: a 4-year study from Réunion Island (Indian Ocean). Biological Conservation 105: 93-102.

Longcore, T.; Rich, C. (2004). Ecological light pollution. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment 2: 191-198.

McQuaid, C.D.; Ricketts, L.H. (1984). Seabird records from the Transglobe Expedition, part 1: African and New Zealand sectors of the Southern Ocean, 1979-1981. Cormorant 12: 14-28.

Maillard, J. (1898). Notes on the nesting of the fork-tailed petrel (Oceanodroma furcata). Auk 15: 230-233.

Marchant, S.; Higgins, P.J. (1990). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic birds. Volume 1, Part A. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. 735p.

Merkel, F.R.; Johansen, K.L. (2011). Light-induced bird strikes on vessels in southwest Greenland. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62: 2330-2336.

Miskelly, C.M. (1984). Birds of the Western Chain, Snares Islands, 1983-84. Notornis 31: 209-223.

Miskelly, C.M.; Taylor, G.A.; Gummer, H.; Williams, R. (2009). Translocations of eight species of burrow-nesting seabirds (genera Pterodroma, Pelecanoides, Pachyptila and Puffinus: family Procellariidae). Biological Conservation 142: 1965-1980.


Montevecchi W.A. (2006). Influences of artificial light on marine birds. In: Rich, C.; Longcore, T. (eds.) Ecological consequences of artificial night lighting, pp. 94-113. Island Press, Washington, USA.

Moore, P.J.; Scott, J.J.; Joyce, L.J.; Peart, M. (1997). Southern royal albatross Diomedea epomophora epomophora census on Campbell Island, 4 January – 6 February 1996, and a review of population figures. Science and research series 101. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 27p.

Murie, O.J. (1959). Fauna of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska Peninsula. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service North American Fauna 61: 1-364.

Nicholls, D.G.; Murray, M.D.; Robertson, C.J.R. (1994). Oceanic flights of the northern royal albatross Diomedea epomophora sanfordi using satellite telemetry. Corella 18: 50-52.

Nicholls, D.G.; Robertson, C.J.R.; Prince, P.A.; Murray, M.D.; Walker, K.J.; Elliott, G.P. (2002). Foraging niches of three Diomedea albatrosses. Marine Ecology Progress Series 231: 269-277.

Ortego, B. (1978). Blue-faced boobies at an oil production platform. Auk 95: 762-763.

Petyt, C. (1995). Behaviour of seabirds around fishing trawlers in New Zealand subantarctic waters. Notornis 42: 99-115.

Piatt, J.F.; Lensink, C.J.; Butler, W.; Kendziorek, M.; Nysewander, D.R. (1990). Immediate impact of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on marine birds. Auk 107: 387−397.

Poot, H.; Ens, B.J.; de Vries, H.; Donners, M.A.H.; Wernand, M.R.; Marquenie, J.M. (2008). Green light for nocturnally migrating birds. Ecology and Society 13: 47.

Rayner, M.J.; Clout, M.N.; Stamp, R.K.; Imber, M.J.; Brunton, D.H.; Hauber, M.E. (2007a). Predictive habitat modelling for the population census of a burrowing seabird: a study of the endangered Cook’s petrel. Biological Conservation 138: 235-247.

Rayner, M.J.; Hartill, B.W.; Hauber, M.E.; Phillips, R.A. (2010). Central place foraging by breeding Cook’s petrel Pterodroma cookii: foraging duration reflects range, diet and chick meal mass. Marine Biology 157: 2187–2194.

Rayner, M.J.; Hauber, M.E.; Clout, M.N. (2007b). Breeding habitat of the Cook’s petrel (Pterodroma cookii) on Little Barrier Island (Hauturu): implications for the conservation of a New Zealand endemic. Emu 107: 59-68.

Rayner, M.J.; Hauber, M.E.; Steeves, T.E.; Lawrence, H.A.; Thompson, D.R.; Sagar, P.M.; Bury, S.J.; Landers, T.J.; Phillips, R.A.; Ranjard, L.; Shaffer, S.A. (2011). Contemporary and historical separation of transequatorial migration between genetically distinct seabird populations. Nature Communications 2: 332. DOI: 10.1038/ncomms1330.


Rayner, M.J.; Parker, K.A.; Imber, M.J. (2008). Population census of Cook's Petrel Pterodroma cookii breeding on Codfish Island (New Zealand) and the global conservation status of the species. Bird Conservation International 18: 211-218.

Rayner, M.J.; Taylor, G.A.; Gummer, H.D.; Phillips, R.A.; Sagar, P.M.; Shaffer, S.A.; Thompson, D.R. (2012). The breeding cycle, year-round distribution and activity patterns of the endangered Chatham petrel (Pterodroma axillaris). Emu 112: 107-116.

Reed, J.R.; Sincock, J.L.; Hailman, J.P. (1985). Light attraction in endangered procellariiform birds: reduction by shielding upward radiation. Auk 102: 377-383.

Rivalan, P.; Barbraud, C.; Inchausti, P.; Weimerskirch, H. (2010). Combined impacts of longline fisheries and climate on the persistence of the Amsterdam albatross Diomedea amsterdamensis. Ibis 152: 6–18.

Roberts, P. (1982). Birds at Bardsey lighthouse 1982. Bardsey Observatory Report 26: 33-34

Robertson, C.J.R.; Bell, D.; Scofield, P. (2003a). Population assessment of the Chatham mollymawk at The Pyramid, December 2001. DOC Science Internal Series 91, Department of Conservation, Wellington. 17p.

Robertson, C.J.R.; Bell, E.A.; Sinclair, N.; Bell, B.D. (2003b). Distribution of seabirds from New Zealand that overlap with fisheries worldwide. Science for conservation 233. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 102p.

Robertson, C.; Jenkins, J. (1981). Birds seen at sea in southern New Zealand waters, February-June 1981. Australasian Seabird Group Newsletter 16: 17-27.

Robertson, C.J.R.; Robertson, G.G.; Bell, D. (1997). White-capped albatross (Thalassarche steadi) breeding at Chatham Islands. Notornis 44: 156-158.

Robertson, C.J.R.; Sawyer, S. (1994). Albatross research on (Motuhara) Forty-Fours islands: 6-15 December 1993. Conservation advisory notes 70. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Ryan, P.G. (1991). The impact of the commercial lobster fishery on seabirds at the Tristan da Cunha islands, South Atlantic. Biological Conservation 57: 339–350.

Sagar, P.M.; Stahl, J-C (2005). Increases in the numbers of breeding pairs in two populations of Buller’s albatross (Thalassarche bulleri bulleri). Emu 105: 49-55.

Sagar, P.M.; Torres, L.G.; Thompson, D.R. (2012). Demography and distribution of Buller’s albatrosses Thalassarche bulleri bulleri: Final research report of the 2012 field season. NIWA Client Report CHC2012-063. 19p.

Sagar, P.M.; Weimerskirch, H. (1996). Satellite tracking of southern Buller’s albatrosses from The Snares, New Zealand. Condor 98: 649-652.


Scofield, P. (2005). Report on trips to The Forty-Fours and Little (Middle) Sister (ChEARS – Jan 2005). Unpublished report to the Wellington Conservancy, Department of Conservation, Wellington. 5p.

Scofield, P. (2011). Aerial photography of northern royal albatrosses at the Chatham Islands, 2006-2010. Final research report project PRO2006-01, Ministry of Fisheries. 6p.

Scofield, P.; Fraser, M.J.; Robertson, C.J.R. (2008a). Population assessment of northern Buller’s albatross and northern giant petrels at the Forty-Fours, Chatham Islands, 13-19 November 2007. Final research report, Ministry of Fisheries. 11p.

Scofield, P.; Fraser, M.J.; Robertson, C.J.R. (2008b). Population dynamics of the Chatham albatross at The Pyramid, 19-29 November 2007. Final research report, Ministry of Fisheries. 6p.

Scott, D.; Scofield, P.; Hunter, C.; Fletcher, D. (2009). Decline of sooty shearwaters, Puffinus griseus, on The Snares, New Zealand. Papers & Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania 142: 185-196.

Shaffer, S.A.; Tremblay, Y.; Weimerskirch, H.; Scott, D.; Thompson, D.R.; Sagar, P.M.; Moller, H.; Taylor, G.A.; Foley, D.G.; Block, B.A.; Costa, D.P. (2006). Migratory shearwaters integrate oceanic resources across the Pacific Ocean in an endless summer. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences 103: 12799-12802.

Sherman, K.; Jones, C.; Sullivan, L.; Smith, W.; Berrien, P.; Ejsymont, L. (1981). Congruent shifts in sandeel abundance in western and eastern North Atlantic ecosystems. Nature 291: 486−489.

Springer, A.M.; Estes, J.C.; van Vliet, G.B.; Williams, T.M. and others. (2003). Sequential megafaunal collapse in the North Pacific Ocean: an ongoing legacy of industrial whaling? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 100: 12223−12228.

Stahl, J.C.; Sagar, P.M. (2000a). Foraging strategies of southern Buller’s albatrosses Diomedea b. bulleri breeding on The Snares, New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 30: 299-318.

Stahl, J.C.; Sagar, P.M. (2000b). Foraging strategies and migration of southern Buller’s albatrosses Diomedea b. bulleri breeding on the Solander Is, New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 30: 319-334.

Sullivan, B.J.; Reid, T.A.; Bugoni, L. (2006). Seabird mortality on factory trawlers in the Falkland Islands and beyond. Biological Conservation 131: 495–504.

Tasker, M.L.; Hope-Jones, P.; Blake, B.F.; Dixon, T.; Wallis, A.W. (1986). Seabirds associated with oil production platforms in the North Sea. Ringing and Migration 7: 7-14.


Taylor, G.A (2000a). Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Part A: threatened seabirds. Threatened Species Occasional Publication No. 16. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Taylor, G.A (2000b). Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Part B: non-threatened seabirds. Threatened Species Occasional Publication No. 17. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Telfer, T.C.; Sincock, J.L.; Bryd, G.V., Reed, J.R. (1987). Attraction of Hawaiian seabirds to lights: conservation efforts and effects of moon phase. Wildlife Society Bulletin 15: 406-413.

Tennyson, A.J.D. (1991). The black-winged petrel on Mangere Island, Chatham Islands. Notornis 38: 111-116.

Tennyson, A.; Imber, M.; Taylor, R. (1998). Numbers of black-browed mollymawks (Diomedea m. melanophrys) and white-capped mollymawks (D. cauta steadi) at the Antipodes Islands in 1994-95 and their population trends in the New Zealand region. Notornis 45: 157-166.

Tennyson, A.; Taylor, G.; Imber, M.; Greene, T. (2002). Unusual bird records from the Antipodes Islands in 1978-1995, with a summary of other species recorded at the island group. Notornis 49: 241-245.

Thompson, D.R. (2009). Autopsy report for seabirds killed and returned from observed New Zealand fisheries: 1 October 2005 to 30 September 2006. DOC Marine Conservation Services Series 2. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 35p.

Thompson, D.R. (2010a). Autopsy report for seabirds killed and returned from observed New Zealand fisheries. 1 October 2006 to 30 September 2007. DOC Marine Conservation Services Series 3. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 37p.

Thompson, D.R. (2010b). Autopsy report for seabirds killed and returned from observed New Zealand fisheries. 1 October 2007 to 30 September 2008. DOC Marine Conservation Services Series 5. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 33p.

Thompson, D.R. (2010c). Autopsy report for seabirds killed and returned from observed New Zealand fisheries. 1 October 2008 to 30 September 2009. DOC Marine Conservation Services Series 6. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 37p.

Thompson, D.R. (in press). Autopsy report for seabirds killed and returned from observed New Zealand fisheries. 1 October 2009 to 30 September 2010. DOC Marine Conservation Services Series. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Tuck, G.S.; Polacheck, T.; Croxall, J.P.; Weimerskirch, H. (2001). Modeling the impact of fishery by-catches on albatross populations. Journal of Applied Ecology 38: 1182–1196.


Verheijen, F.J. (1981). Bird kills at tall lighted structures in the USA in the period 1935-1973 and kills at a Dutch lighthouse in the period 1924-1928 show similar lunar periodicity. Ardea 69: 199-203.

Verheijen, F.J. (1985). Photopollution: artificial light optic spatial control systems fail to cope with incidents, causations, remedies. Experimental Biology 44: 1-18.

Walker, K.; Elliott, G. (2002a). Monitoring Antipodean wandering albatross 1995/96. DOC science internal series 74. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 17p.

Walker, K.; Elliott, G. (2002b). Population changes and biology of the wandering albatross Diomedea exulans gibsoni at the Auckland Islands. DOC science internal series 68. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 18p.

Walker, K.; Elliott, G. (2006). At-sea distribution of Gibson’s and Antipodean wandering albatrosses, and relationships with longline fisheries. Notornis 53: 265-290.

Warham, J.; Bell, B.D. (1979). The birds of Antipodes Island, NewZealand. Notornis 26: 121-169.

Watkins, B.P.; Petersen, S.L.; Ryan, P.G. (2008). Interactions between seabirds and deep-water hake trawl gear: an assessment of impacts in South African waters. Animal Conservation 11: 247–254.

Waugh, S.; Filippi, D., Fukuda, A.; Suzuki, M.; Higuchi, H.; Setiawan, A.; Davis, L. (2005). Foraging of royal albatrosses, Diomedea epomophora, from the Otago Peninsula and its relationships to fisheries. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 62: 1410-1421.

Waugh, S.; Troup, C.; Filippi, D.; Weimerskirch, H. (2002). Foraging zones of southern royal albatrosses. Condor 104: 662-667.

West, J.A.; Nilsson, R.J. (1994). Habitat use and burrow densities of burrow-nesting seabirds on South East Island, Chatham Islands, New Zealand. Notornis 41: 27-37.

Wiese, F.K.; Montevecchi, W.A.; Davoren, G.K.; Huettmann, F.; Diamond, A.W.; Linke, J. (2001). Seabirds at risk around offshore oil platforms in the north-west Atlantic. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42: 1285-1290.

Wiltshire, A.; Hamilton, S. (2003). Population estimate for northern giant petrels (Macronectes halli) on Antipodes Island, New Zealand. Notornis 50: 128-132.

Wiltshire, A.J.; Scofield, R.P. (2000). Population estimate of breeding northern giant petrels Macronectes halli on Campbell Island, New Zealand. Emu 100: 186-191.

App18 WLG2012-60 Seabirds - EPA

Documents

Transcript of App18 WLG2012-60 Seabirds - EPA