AP250 Sustainable orchard pest management Geoff...
Transcript of AP250 Sustainable orchard pest management Geoff...
AP250 Sustainable orchard pest management
Geoff Gurr University of New England
AP250
This report is published by the Horticultural Research and Development Corporation to pass on information concerning horticultural research and development undertaken for the Apple industry.
The research contained in this report was funded by the Horticultural Research and Development Corporation with the financial support of the Rohm & Haas Australia Pty Ltd.
All expressions of opinion are not to be regarded as expressing the opinion of the Horticultural Research and Development Corporation or any authority of the Australian Government.
The Corporation and the Australian Government accept no responsibility for any of the opinions or the accuracy of the information contained in this Report and readers should rely upon their own inquiries in making decisions concerning their own interests.
Cover Price $20.00
HRDC ISBN 1 86423 182 3
Published and Distributed by:
Horticultural Research and Development Corporation Level 6 7 Merriwa Street Gordon NSW 2072
Telephone: (02) 418 2200 Fax: (02) 418 1352
© Copyright 1996
1. Summary
(a) Industry summary
Two insect growth regulator (IGR) insecticide products, fenoxycarb and tebufenozide were
evaluated as an alternative to azinphos-methyl for control of codling moth and lightbrown apple
moth. The former compound is currently available as Insegar11 and the latter is likely to be
registered in Australia in 1996 as MimicR. The trial, which contained the varieties Granny Smith,
Bonza and Red Delicious, took place in a young block of apples (planted in August 1989) in the
Orange district of New South Wales over the 1992/93 and 1993/94 production seasons. In both
years sex pheromone trapping showed there to be moderate pest pressure from codling moth and
lightbrown apple moth. IGR treatments were applied using a conventional air blast sprayer with
similar programs as for the industry standard azinphos-methyl spray program.
Both IGR products gave good control of both moth pests. Numbers of fruit damaged at
harvest, plus windfalls, were maintained below one percent in both years by both IGR treatments
and this was comparable with the level of damage under azinphos-methyl. Tebufenozide gave
significantly better control'of lightbrown apple moth in one year. Numbers of two-spotted mite
and European red mite were lower under IGR treatments in both years. The explanation for this
is thought to be the greater numbers of predatory insects and spiders which developed in plots
where the broad spectrum effects of azinphos-methyl were replaced by more target specific
(butterfly and moth) IGR products.
The adoption of IGR products is likely to give acceptable levels of codling moth and
lightbrown apple moth control provided that application dates are well coordinated to periods of
maximum pest activity, by use of sex pheromone traps, and so long as good coverage of leaves
and fruits is achieved. The latter is particularly important during the period of rapid leaf
expansion early in the season and for large, mature trees where sprayer performance must be
carefully monitored. This factor may be slightly less important with the use of tebufenozide as it
is active on young larvae which may encounter spray deposits whilst moving. In contrast
fenoxycarb is active only on young eggs so there is no opportunity for the pest to encounter spray
deposits during a vulnerable period if poor coverage had meant the egg was not previously
contacted. Lower spider mite populations may be expected, even in the first season of use, and
the action of enhanced populations of natural enemies may progressively reduce the incidence and
severity of other secondary pests such as San Jose scale and woolly aphid.
Though the use of IGRs is likely to mean as many applications as conventional
azinphos-methyl use, benefits of this new practice include: lower environmental impact and
occupational exposure to potentially toxic organophosphate compounds, enhanced consumer
acceptability of fruit, reduced spider mite damage and a commensurate reduction in the need for
miticide applications. The latter has scope for slowing the development of resistance to currently
available miticides and maintaining their useful lives. Overall the use of IGRs as a new tool for
integrated pest management may significantly improve the sustainability of production and
enhance the 'clean and green' market image of apples, particularly for export markets.
(b) Technical summary
The Australian Apple and Pear Growers' Association is a signatory to the Pesticides
Charter (Anon, 1992) which seeks to reduce pesticide use to just 25% of 1991 levels by the year
2000. One of the major threats to Australian apple crops requiring pesticide application is the
tortricids, codling moth (Cydia pomonella L.) and lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana
(Walker)) which are typically managed by a program of six to eight applications of the
organophosphate, azinphos-methyl. Penrose, Thwaite and Bower (1994) make the case for
considering the relative impacts of pesticides applied rather than absolute quantities used alone.
Thus, the replacement of a compound with a large impact (such as azinphos-methyl with its broac
spectrum invertebrate activity and mammalian toxicity) by a compound with a lower impact may
be valuable, even if the latter needs to be applied as many times.
This project has demonstrated, in a replicated field trial, that two insect growth regulators
(IGRs), fenoxycarb and tebufenozide, can control tortricids to the extent of maintaining crop
losses due to each below one percent, a level generally considered acceptable by industry and
comparable with that suffered under azinphos-methyl treatment. In addition to the benefits
accrued by the use of IGRs, which have a narrower activity including low mammalian toxicity,
there is likely to be significant scope for reducing inputs of pesticides required for pests other
than tortricids. In this study lower numbers of two-spotted mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) and
European red mite (Panonychus ulmi (Koch)) were apparent in both years in IGR treatments.
This is considered to be due to predatory insects and spiders which were significantly more
numerous under IGR treatment. Stethorus sp. beetle adults and larvae, apple dimpling bug,
Campylomma liebknechti (Girault) nymphs and spiders, Aranae, were all significantly less
numerous under azinphos-methyl treatment. This biological control value of enhancing
populations of natural enemies is unlikely to be confined to spider mite control alone and it is
anticipated that other pests also may be better controlled under IGR programs as was found in an
unreplicated evaluation of fenoxycarb in the Australian Capital Territory (Readshaw and
Cambourne, 1992). Because other insecticides and carbaryl crop regulation were not practiced in
the present study, the full benefits of enhanced biological control from IGR use may only be
realised where applications of these are minimised by pest monitoring and use of less toxic
alternative compounds.
Close observations of mite dynamics in the course of this project have revealed a separate
phenomenon which may prove of some practical significance. Relatively large numbers of
predatory phytoseiid mites, Typhlodromus spp. have been observed in the calyx of fruits after
harvest, with the mean for cv. Granny Smith exceeding four per fruit in both seasons. If the
levels of removal seen on this experimental site are duplicated on a commercial scale this
represents large numbers of predators being removed from the orchard ecosystem each autumn
and this could compromise the establishment of biological control the following season.
Consideration should be given to researching ways to enhance the retention and survival of
beneficial mites in situ.
This project has been successful in evaluating two novel pesticides and demonstrating their
important potential role in maintaining the economic and environmental sustainability of
Australian apple production.
References
Anon (1991). Pesticides Charter. Australian Consumers' Association. Marrickville, NSW,
Australia.
Penrose, L. J., Thwaite, W. G. and Bower, C. (1994) Rating index as a basis for decision
making on pesticide reduction and for accreditation of fruit produced under integrated pest
management. Crop Protection 13, 146-152.
Readshaw, J. L. and Cambourne, B. (1991). Fenoxycarb (Insegar*): a potential breakthrough for
integrated pest management in Australian apple orchards. In: Proceedings, 1st National
Conference of Horticultural Science, Sydney, 30 September-3 October. (A. Clift and M.
Daniels Eds.) pp. 455-466.
2. Recommendations
(a) Extension/adoption by industry
To date, dissemination of results from this project has focused primarily on
communication with the scientific community and industry as part of a process of peer review
and verification. This has comprised the following:
Gurr, G.M.; Valentine, B.J. & Thwaite, W.G. (1994) Sustainable orchard pest management.
Interim research report to Rohm and Haas Pty Ltd.
Gurr, G.M., Valentine, B.J., Azam, M.N.G. and Thwaite, W.G. (1995). Evolution of arthropod
pest management in apples. In: Agricultural Zoology Reviews. (Ed. K.Evans), Andover:
Intercept 8 (in press).
Valentine, B. J. (1993). Research Summary, Meeting of Pome Fruit Entomologists, 18 May 1993,
Orange.
Valentine, B.J., Gurr, G.M. and Thwaite, W.G.. (1994) Insect growth regulators and biological
control for apple IPM. In: Proceedings of the Australian Entomological Society 25th
AGM and Scientific Conference. 24-28 September, Adelaide, South Australia, p 63.
In addition to these activities, however, findings have been more broadly extended via
features in the 1992/93 and 1993/94 HRDC Research Report and articles in Good Fruit and
Vegetables (1993), University of Sydney News (26/10/1994) and Radio National World Today •
(27/10/94) and ABC Radio 2CR (28/10/94)
It is also planned to present findings at the International Plant Protection Congress (The
Hague, The Netherlands - July 1995) and the International Symposium of Population Dynamics c
Plant Inhabiting Mites (Gilleleje, Denmark - June 1995). The former will focus on the general
applicability of results and the latter the mite specific findings. The Proceedings of each
conference will include abstracts of these papers and a refereed paper relating to the latter
conference would appear in Experimental and Applied Acarology. This trip will be at the
expense of Orange Agricultural College, The University of Sydney and the Principal Investigator.
It is considered that the most appropriate means of now extending these findings to
industry would be via publicity and marketing initiatives of the respective companies involved
since both compounds are commercial products. This would make good use of the existing
infrastructure within these organisations and minimise expense to the Corporation and growers.
The promotion of Insegar11 to date has involved evening growers' meetings and demonstrations
(eg Australian National Field Days). It is likely that the launch of MimicR in 1996 will be
supported by commercial marketing and publicity monies. It is therefore proposed to make
findings from this research available to Rohm and Haas, as a significant voluntary contributor, foi
use as technical results to incorporate into the MimicR registration submission. The information
will then flow on to industry through product promotional activities.
Please note, a copies of a selection of the above publications are appended.
(b) Directions for future research
The success of this project in establishing the efficacy and biocontrol compatibility of
IGRs has led to this two year project being continued for a third year at the expense of the
voluntary contributor, with in kind contributions from NSW Agriculture and Orange Agricultural
College, The University of Sydney. This will provide information on the longer term effects of
IGR use in apple production. Results from these three production seasons of research are likely
to be sufficient to help ensure that IGRs will be adopted to a significant extent by industry.
Additional research will be required to determine the optimum timing and rate for MimicR but it
is considered that this should be carried out by Rohm and Haas.
One unexpected outcome of this project is the observation of removal of predatory mites
inside fruit. Further research, to determine whether or not this represents a significant depletion
of the total population of overwintering predators, would be valuable. If this phenomenon was
shown to be responsible for compromising predatory mite numbers the possibility of providing
artificial domatia for predatory mites on trees could be investigated. Such an approach would
aim to maximise the efficacy of phytoseiids by ensuring that large numbers overwintered in the
orchard rather than being removed inside fruits. This would favour the rapid establishment of
effective biocontrol of spider mites each spring. Suitable domatia may take the form of a "spray
on and set" type polymer which would adhere loosely to the bark of trees leaving crevices large
enough for phytoseiids but small enough to exclude overwintering pests such as codling moth.
Such an investigation would take the form of an interdisciplinary project between materials
scientists and pome pest management scientists. An indication that such an approach may be
effective is the observation of T. occidentalis overwintering under old armoured scale
coverings on trees (McMurtry, 1981).
(c) Financial/ commercial benefits
The financial benefits of project AP 250 are difficult to quantify since they should be
viewed as the intellectual 'ammunition' to persuade growers to adopt IGR products. The
commercial benefits identified by this project of such a change would include:
1) efficacy against codling moth and lightbrown apple moth,
2) good control of spider mites and reduced need for acaricidal applications,
3) enhanced populations of natural enemies in the orchard.
It is likely that more general benefits of IGR use would include:
1) fewer outbreaks of secondary pests, such as woolly aphid (as a result of 3 above),
2) cost savings on total pesticide and application expenditure
3) reduced occupational exposure to organophosphate pesticides
4) potentially exploitable marketing advantage of fruit produced under low pesticide (IPM)
conditions,
5) prolonging of the useful life of azinphos-methyl and acaricides (such as propargite) before
resistance in pest populations negated their use.
Overall the adoption of IGRs should not be viewed as a panacea but a useful additional
tool to be used strategically for the management of pome fruit pests in an integrated fashion along
with other techniques such as pest monitoring, biological control and good husbandry.
3. Technical Report
Efficacy of insect growth regulators (IGRs),
tebufenozide and fenoxycarb, for lepidopteran pest
control in apples and their biological control
compatibility for integrated pest management.
B. J. Valentine11, G. M. Gurr* and W. G. Thwaiteb.
a Orange Agricultural College, the University of Sydney, Orange,
NSW, 2800.
b Agricultural Research and Veterinary Centre, Forest Road, Orange,
NSW, 2800.
Summary. Insect growth regulators (IGRs) tebufenozide and
fenoxycarb were evaluated in comparison to the industry standard
organophosphate, azinphos-methyl, in a replicated field trial. In both
the 1992/93 and 1993/94 seasons IGRs maintained damage levels to
fruit at harvest (including windfalls) below 1% for both codling
moth Cydia pomonella (L.) and lightbrown apple moth Epiphyas
postvittana (Walker). This was despite considerable pest pressure as
confirmed by sex pheromone trap catches of both species.
Tebufenozide gave better control than fenoxycarb of E. postvittana
and this was statistically significant in one season. Damage due to
early season caterpillars (predominantly Helicoverpa punctigera
(Wallengren)) was kept below 1% by both azinphos-methyl and
tebufenozide but damage under fenoxycarb treatment exceeded this
level in both seasons. Populations of two-spotted mite, Tetranychus
urticae Koch, and European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch), were
higher in plots under azinphos-methyl treatment than in IGR
treatments in both seasons. Neither IGR appeared to be toxic to the
phytoseiids Typhlodromus pyri Scheuten and T. occidentalis Nesbitt.
Limb tapping in the second season showed there to be statistically
significant differences in populations of other predators which may
have contributed to the biological control of phytophagous mites in
IGR treated plots. Numbers of spiders, Stethorus sp. adults and
larvae, and apple dimpling bug, Campylomma liebknechti (Girault)
nymphs were all lower in azinphos-methyl treated trees. Results are
discussed in relation to the goal of reducing dependence on
conventional pesticides by use of more target specific compounds
which may be more compatible with biological control.
Introduction
The apple, Malus x domestica Borkh., is a fruit crop of
worldwide significance attacked by a wide spectrum of arthropod
pests (Solomon, 1987). In Australia production is dependent on
intensive pesticide use which has led to concern, particularly from
the perspective of product contamination (Anon, 1994) and meeting
maximum residue limits for important overseas markets which may
be ten times more stringent that domestic limits (Bates and Medwell,
1994). The Australian Apple and Pear Growers Association are
signatories of the Pesticides Charter (Anon, 1992) which seeks to
reduce pesticide use to 25% of 1991 levels by the year 2000. One
of the major threats to Australian apple crops requiring pesticide
application are the tortricids, codling moth (Cydia pomonella L.) and
lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana (Walker)) which are
typically managed by a program of six to eight applications of the
organophosphate, azinphos-methyl. Penrose, Thwaite and Bower
(1994) make the case for considering the relative impacts of
pesticides applied rather than absolute quantities used alone. Thus,
the replacement of a compound with a large impact (such as
azinphos-methyl with its broad spectrum invertebrate activity and
mammalian toxicity) by a compound with a lower impact may be
valuable, even if the latter needs to be applied as many times. One
particularly important reason for this is that use of broad spectrum
insecticides had been shown to adversely affect biological control in
apples (eg, Ohira and Oku, 1993), so the development and use of
narrow spectrum compounds could alleviate this problem and, along
with more strategic use of broad spectrum pesticides, is the main
approach of 'second stage' integrated pest management for apples
(Prokopy et ai, 1990).
This study aimed to investigate two narrow spectrum
compounds, the insect growth regulators (IGRs) fenoxycarb and
tebufenozide, in comparison with the industry standard
azinphos-methyl program, for control of lepidopteran pests of apple
and the effects of using such compounds on indirect pests and
natural enemies.
Methods
A randomised block trial comprising three replicates was
established in a young apple block (planted in August 1989) in a
research orchard in the Orange district of New South Wales. Plots
consisted of 35 trees of which only the centre nine were used for
monitoring in order to minimise the influence of edge effects. Plots,
including the central nine trees, were split for cultivar and contained
cvs Granny Smith, Bonza and Red Delicious. Insecticide
treatments were applied using a conventional air blast sprayer
between November and February over the 1992/93 and 1993/94
production seasons. GusathionR (350g/kg azinphos-methyl wp)
applications were made at the rate of 140 g/lOOL, applications of
Insegar* (250g/kg fenoxycarb wp) at the rate of 20g/100L for the
initial three applications and 40g/100L on three further occasions
and applications of MimicR (230g/L tebufenozide) were made on
eight occasions at the rate of 62.5 mL/lOOL. Sex pheromone
trapping was used in both seasons to establish the presence of C.
pomonella and in the second season for E. postvittana and H.
punctigera. In both seasons tree searches to determine presence of
larvae and/or damage to fruits attributable to each species was
conducted during the growing season. Damage was also assessed by
inspection of fruits (including windfalls) at harvest. Leaf samples
were taken at two week intervals in the first year and at three week
intervals in the second and these leaves were inspected for
phytophagous and predatory mites using a binocular microscope.
Mite populations were expressed as mite days, a concept employed
by Hardman et al. (1985) to represent P. ulmi pest pressure over
time. In this context mite days are expressed per leaf, thus a value of
200 may, for example, represent the presence of an average of two
mites per leaf for one hundred days. Limb jarring was employed to
sample other arthropods in the second season.
Results
Insect growth regulators tebufenozide and fenoxycarb
performed as well as azinphos-methyl treatment for the control of C.
pomonella and E. postvittana, all treatments maintaining end of
season fruit losses due to each below one percent (Table 1).
Tebufenozide gave significantly better control than fenoxycarb of E.
postvittana in the 1992/93 season. Tebufenozide also afforded the
best control of early fruit caterpillars in both years though treatment
means did not differ to a statistically significant extent.
The dominant indirect pest present in the trial was T. urticae
though P. ulmi was also present (Fig. 1). The populations of both
species, expressed as mite days (Hardman et al. 1985) meaned over
all three cultivars, did not differ to a statistically significant extent
though there was a consistent trend apparent in which mite densities
were greatest under azinphos-methyl treatment and lower under IGR
treatment, particularly under tebufenozide treatment. Within
cultivars the same treatment effect was apparent on individual
sample occasions and this was statistically significant for cv. Granny
Smith in the 1993/94 season (Fig. 2).
The most numerous predatory mite observed was T. pyri
though T. occidentalis was present (Fig. 3). In IGR treated plots the
latter species was less numerous in both seasons but not to a
significant extent. Numbers of T. pyri were consistent over
treatments. There were statistically significant differences between
cultivars in the numbers of predatory mites detected inside fruits
following harvest with the highest numbers being in cv. Granny
Smith which was harvested latest (Table 2).
Limb jarring showed statistically significant treatment effects
on natural enemies with such taxa as spiders, Stethorus spp. and C.
liebknechti being least common under azinphos-methyl treatment
(Table 3).
Discussion
IGRs have previously been evaluated for use in managing
apple pests in a variety of ways including as a quarantine tieatment
for control of C. pomonella (Yokoyama and Miller, 1991), as a
barrier treatment to protect orchards in which mating disruption was
being used (Boscheri, Rizzolli and Paoli, 1992) and as a
replacement of organophosphate blanket sprays (Bailey, 1991; Ebert
and Henderson, 1991; Readshaw and Cambourne, 1991). The results
of the present study indicate that the insect growth regulators
fenoxycarb and tebufenozide are capable of giving good control of
tortricid pests of apples when used in the latter mode.
Though this trial did not include an unsprayed control
treatment, both IGRs kept fruit damage due to C. pomonella and E.
postvittana below one percent, a level generally considered
acceptable by growers (Hoyt et ai, 1983) and comparable with the
damage level recorded under azinphos-methyl treatment in this
study. It is considered that the use of an unsprayed control in a trial
using plots of the size used in this study would have led to
unacceptable edge effects from migration of pests from such plots,
particularly during the second production season.
Tebufenozide gave better control than fenoxycarb of E.
postvittana and this may be because it is an example of what is
considered to be a new class of IGRs, non-steroidal ecdysone
agonists (Silhacek, Oberlander and Porcheron, 1990). Consequently
it has activity on neonate larvae (Chandler, Pair and Harrison, 1992;
Heller and Mattioda, 1992) which are likely to encounter spray
deposits during locomotion and feeding. In contrast fenoxycarb, a
juvenile hormone mimic, is active on eggs and 5th instar larvae
(Ebert and Henderson, 1991; Readshaw and Cambourne, 1991),
hence, if applications of this compound fail to provide good
coverage or are not well timed to pest phenology, neonates will
escape the lethal effects of deposits and not become susceptible
again until after feeding has led to fruit damage. Such an
advantage of tebufenozide is less applicable for control of C.
pomonella since neonates of this species rapidly enter fruit on
hatching so are less likely to encounter spray deposits during
locomotion. Though fenoxycarb gave poorer control than
tebufenozide of early season caterpillars in the present study, under
normal production conditions control of these by either IGR would
be augmented by the applications of endosulfan made for control of
thrips (Thrips imaginis Bagnall) and C. liebknechti. Such
applications were not made in this trial in order to determine the
effects of IGRs under conditions of minimal pesticide use.
The consistently lower populations of phytophagous mites in
plots under IGR treatment indicate a potentially important advantage
of these new compounds. Management of spider mites normally
requires the application of synthetic acaricides, an approach which is
unsustainable due to the rapid development of resistance in both T.
urticae and P. ulmi. The spider mite control achieved under IGR
treatments in the present study is similar to that previously observed
under fenoxycarb treatment (Ebert and Henderson 1991, Readshaw
and Cambourne 1991). In both these studies the mite control was
considered to be due to enhanced biological control rather than
direct toxicity of the IGR on mites. A number of mite growth
regulators have been described (Dakeyser et al. 1993, Raizer et al.
1988) but neither fenoxycarb or tebufenozide are claimed to have
such properties (Anon n.d. a, Anon, n.d. b respectively). The
observation of significantly greater numbers of natural enemies
under IGR treatment in the present study suggests that biological
control was at least largely responsible for spider mite control.
Survival of phytoseiids under the IGR treatments reinforces this
notion by indicating low toxicity to mites and demonstrates that IGR
use- will be compatible with integrated mite control (Bower and
Thwaite, 1986).
The effects of IGRs on beneficial organisms has been an
aspect of many previous studies and these have been reviewed by
Gurr et al. (in press). Though adverse effects on some natural
enemies are likely under IGR treatment the present study found that
in the second year of use spiders and beetles of the genus Stethorus
were favoured by IGR use. The relative abundance of C.
liebknechti under IGR treatment, though valuable from a biological
control perspective, may present a problem if enhanced populations
persist from season to season. This species is also an economically
significant early season pest of apples in Australia (Bower, Nicol
and Valentine, 1993).
The biological control value of enhanced populations of
natural enemies, especially polyphagous predators such as spiders, is
unlikely to be confined to spider mite control alone and it is
anticipated that other pests also may be better controlled under IGR
programs as was found in an unreplicated evaluation of fenoxycarb
in the Australian Capital Territory (Readshaw and Cambourne,
1992).
The observation of phytoseiids inside fruit after harvest
represents potentially large numbers of predators being removed
from the orchard ecosystem each autumn and could compromise the
reestablishment of biological control the following season. The fact
that numbers tended to increase in the later harvested cultivars
indicated that these mites were seeking overwintering refuge. T.
occidentalis has previously been recorded overwintering under old
armoured scale coverings on trees (McMurtry, 1981) and it may be
feasible to provide similar artificial domatia, particularly for young
trees with smooth bark, by applications of 'spray-on' solidifying
synthetic materials. However, characteristics of these would need to
be such that refuge was not provided for pest species.
Since IGRs represent a new class of pesticides, they are
likely to be useful for slowing the development of resistance in pest
populations by offering an alternative for rotational use in resistance
management programs. However, they are likely to select resistance
themselves if used intensively and some cross resistance may be
encountered. Resistance to diflubenzuron has been detected in C.
pomonella despite the fact that the population had not previously
been exposed to this IGR or other related compounds (Moffitt et
ah, 1988). If used strategically IGRs constitute a valuable
alternative to organophosphates for integrated pest management in
apples which are more compatible with biological control and so
may aid in the reduction of pesticide related disadvantages for
sustainable production and marketing.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Helen Nicol for assistance with trial design
and statistical analysis, Anne Hately, Marion Eslick and Bill Cole
for technical assistance. Financial support of the Horticultural
Research and Development Corporation and Rohm and Haas
Australia Pty Ltd is gratefully acknowledged.
References
Anon. (1994). Chemical Residue Monitoring of Horticultural
Products, Options for Industry Action - A Discussion Paper.
> Horticultural Policy Council.
Anon. (1992). Pesticides Charter. Australian Consumers' Association,
Marrickville, NSW, Australia.
Anon (n. d., a). Your passport to the world of IPM, Insegar* product
literature. Ciba Geigy Limited, Basel, Switzerland.
Anon (n. d., b). Pip fruit. MimicR product literature. Rohm and Haas
New Zealand Ltd, Otahuhu, Auckland, New Zealand.
Bailey, P. (1991). Insect growth regulators: alternatives to broad-
spectrum pesticides. In 'Proceedings, 1st National Conference
of the Australian Society of Horticultural Science', Sydney,
Australia, 30 September-3 October, 1991. (Eds, A. Clift and
M. Daniels), pp. 415-421. (Australian Society of Horticultural
Science, Sydney, Australia.)
Bates, V. and Medwell, W. (1994). Minimising the risk of excessive
chemical residues on pears. In 'Proceedings, Second
Horticultual Industry Technical Conference, Gaining the
Competitive Edge', Wentworth NSW, Australian Society of
Horticultural Science.
Boscheri, S., Rizzolli, W. AND Paoli, N. (1992). Experience with
mating disruption for control of the codling moth and
leafrollers at the Laimburg experiment. In 'Proceedings
Working Group Meeting, Working Group Use of Pheromones
and other Semiochemicals in Integrated Control', 31 August-3
September 1992, Italy, pp. 81-87, IOBC/WPRS Bulletin.
Bower, C. C. and Thwaite, W. G. (1986) Integrated Control of Mite
Pests of Apples. Agfact H4.AE.4, second edition.
Department of Agriculture New South Wales.
Bower, C.C., Nicol, H. I. and Valentine, B. J. (1993). Variable
spray threshold for apple dimpling bug, Campylomma
liebknechti Girault (Hemiptera: Miridae) on apple. In 'Pest
Control and Sustainable Agriculture' (Eds S. A. Corey, D. J.
Dall and W. M. Milne), pp. 142-145 (CSIRO, Melbourne,
Australia.)
Chandler, L. D., Pair, S. D. and Harrison, W. E. (1992). RH-5992, a
new insect growth regulator active against corn earworm and
fall army worm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Journal of
Economic Entomology 85, 1100-1103.
Dekeyser, M. A., Mc Donald, P. T., Angle, G. W. and Downer, R.
G. H. (1993). Synthesis and miticidal and insecticidal
activities of 4-(2-fluoroethyl)-5,6-dihydro-4H-l,3,4-oxidases.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 41, 1329-1331.
Ebert, M. A. and Henderson, L. J. (1991). Insegar* 250WP - a
breakthrough for integrated pest management in Australian
orchards. In 'Proceedings, 1st National Conference of the
Australian Society of Horticultural Science', Sydney,
Australia, 30 September-3 October 1991. (Eds A. Clift and
M. Daniels) pp. 489-496 (Australian Society of Horticultural
Science, Sydney, Australia.)
Gurr, G. M, Valentine, B. J., Azam, M. N. G. and Thwaite, W. G.
(in press). Evolution of arthropod pest management in apples.
In 'Agricultural Zoology Reviews' (Ed K. Evans) (Intercept:
Andover, U. K.)
Hardman, J. M., Herbert, H. J. and Sanford, K. H. (1985). Effect of
populations of the European red mite, Panonychus ulmi, on
the apple variety Red Delicious in Nova Scotia. The
Canadian Entomologist, 117, 1257-1265.
Heller, J. J. and Mattioda, H. (1992). Field evaluation of RH 5992
on lepidopterous pests in Europe. In 'Proceedings of Brighton
Crop Protection Conference - Pests and Diseases' pp. 59-65.
Hoyt, S. C, Leeper, J. R., Brown, C. G. and Croft, B. A. (1983).
Basic biology and management components for insect IPM.
In 'Integrated Management of Insect Pests of Pome and
Stone Fruits' (Eds B. A. Croft and S. C. Hoyt), pp. 93-152.
(Wiley, New York.)
McMurtry, J. A. (1981). The use of phytoseiids for biological
control: progress and future prospects. In 'Proceedings of
Formal Conference of the Acarology Society of America,
Entomological Society of America Meeting', December 1991,
. San Diego, (Ed M. A. Hoy), pp. 23-48.
Moffitt H. R., Westigard, P. H., Mantey, K. D. and van de Baan, H.
E. (1988). Resistance to diflubenzuron in the codling moth
(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Journal of Economic Entomology
81, 1511-1515.
Ohia, Y. and Oku, T. (1993). A trial to promote the effect of
natural control agents, especially of Trichogramma sp., on the
apple tortrix, Archips fuscocupreanus Walsingham, by
disrupting the mating of the pest. In 'Proceedings
International Symposium on the Use of Biological Control
Agents Under Integrated Pest Management' Fukuoka, Japan,
4-10 October, 1993, 251-265.
Penrose, L. J., Thwaite, W. G. and Bower, C. C. (1994). Rating
index as a basis for decision making on pesticide use
reduction and for accreditation of fruit produced under
integrated pest management. Crop Protection 13, 146-152.
Prokopy, R. J., Christie, M., Johnson, S. A. and O'Brien, M. T.
(1990). Transitional step toward second-stage integrated
management of arthropod pests of apple in Massachusetts
orchards. Journal of Economic Entomology 83, 2405-2410.
Razier, A. J., Motta, R., Sugahara, C. A., Silva, J. M., Arashiro, F.
Y. and Mariconi, F. A. M. (1988). Control of the leprosis
mite Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes, 1939) on citrus, with
chemical acaricides, including chitin synthesis inhibitors.
Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil 17, 271-281.
Readshaw, L. and Cambourne, B. (1991). Fenoxycarb (Insegar*): a
potential breakthrough for integrated pest management in
Australian apple orchards. In 'Proceedings, 1st National
Conference of Horticultural Science' Sydney, Australia 30
September-3 October 1991. (Eds A. Clift and M. Daniels)
pp. 455-466. (Australian Society of Horticultural Science,
Sydney, Australia.)
Silhacek, D. L., Oberlander, H. and Porcheron, P. (1990). Action of
RH 5849, a non-steroidal ecdysteroid mimic, on Plodia
interpunctella (Hiibner) in vivo and in vitro. Archives of
Insect Biochemistry and Physiology 15, 201-212.
Solomon, M. G. (1987). Fruit and hops. In 'Integrated Pest
Management' (Eds A. J. Burn, T. H. Coaker and P. C.
Jepson) pp. 329-348. (Academic Press, London.)
Yokoyama, V. Y., Miller, G. T. and DoweU, R. V. (1991).
Response of codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) to high
temperature, a potential quarantine treatment for exported
commodities. Journal of Economic Entomology 84, 528-531.
Table 1. Fruit damage by lepldopteran pests under azinphos-methyl and Ins
Treatment Fruit Damage at Harvest (%) *
Codling moth Lightbrown apple moth Ea
1992/93 1993/94 1992/93 1993/94 19
Azinphos-methyl 0.28a 0.11a 0.23ab 0.10a 0.
Fenoxycarb 0.61a 0.44a 0.47b 0.09a 1.
Tebufenozide . 0.42a 0.70a 0.00a 0.00a 0.
* Means of three replicates and three cultivars.
Values within a column followed by the same letter not significantly different (P= 0.05)
Table 2. Numbers of predatory mites (Typhlodromus spp) Inside apples at ti
Cultlvar Motile8 per fruit *
1992/93 1993/94
Bonza no data 0.42a
Red Delicious 0.97 1.21a
Granny Smith 4.18 4.12b
NS LSD = 2.50
(P=0.07) (P=0.001)
* Means of three replicates, >40 fruits per plot examined.
Values within a column followed by the same letter not significantly different (P= 0.05)
Table 3. Numbers of natural enemies in apple trees under azinphos-methyl a
treatment.
Treatment Arthropod count *
Stethorus Stethorus Apple dimpling Spiders
adults larvae bug nymphs
Azinphos-methyl 0 01a 0 01a 0 00a 0.46a
Fenoxycarb 0.13b 0.13b 0.03b 2.77b
Tebufenozide 0.08ab 0.08a 0.04b 2.48b
P< 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.001
* Total catch from limb jarring on 4 dates during summer. Retransformed (from square root) means of three r
Values within a column followed by the same letter not significantly different (P= 0 05)
Figure 1. Levels of phytophagous mitest In plots under azinphos-methyl and
treatment.
Twospotted mite (Tetranychus uriicae) 1992/93
AzinphosHTiethyl Fenoxycatb Tebufenozide Azinptios-metliyl F
European red mite (Panonychus ulmi) 1992/93
3 T
?••
1 -
0 Azkipho&fnethyl Fenoxycarb Tebufenozide
3 T
2
H
0 Azinp!ios-nietlr/l F
t Values on y axes are log base 10 "Mite-days" per leaf for the entire season derived from regular counts of m
Figure 2. Population dynamics of twospotted mite (Tetranychus urtlcae) In
azinphos-methyl and Insect growth regulator treatment In 1993/94 season.
9
Motllea/leaf
2 ••
.L^^MMfeMMttt
6 Nov 1 Dec 15 Dec 5 Jan 26 Jan 16 Feb 9 Mar 30 Mar
Azi
Fen
Teb
Date
LSD (P=0.05) = 0.733
Figure 3. Levels of predatory mitest in plots under azinphos-methyl and Inse
Typhlodromus occidentalis 1992/93
Typhlodromus pyri
1992/93
t Values on y axes are log base 10 "Mite-days" per leaf for the entire season derived from regular counts of
Appendix 1. Selected Publicity and Publications Associated with Project.
Valentine, B. J. (1993). Apple pest control results promising.
Good Fruit and Vegetables, 4, p. 4.
Article featuring the research.
Anon (1994). Strategies for reducing chemical use. HRDC Research Report for 1993/94, p. 14.
Article extending preliminary results to industry.
Valentine, B.J., Gurr, G.M. and Thwaite, W.G.. (1994) Insect growth regulators and biological control for apple IPM. Proceedings of the Australian Entomological Society 25th AGM and Scientific Conference. 24-28 September, Adelaide, South Australia, p 63.
Conference oral paper and published abstract reporting results to research peers.
Gurr, G. M., Valentine, B. J., Azam, M. N. G. and Thwaite, W. G. (1995). Evolution of arthropod pest management in apples. In Agricultural Zoology Reviews. (Ed. K. Evans), Andover: Intercept, 8, (in press).
Refereed review article including research findings in the broad context of apple pest management.
APPLES/AVOCADOS PEST & CROP MANAGEMENT
Apple pest control results promising By BRUCE VALENTINE
Promising results were achieved in the fust year of a research project in Orange, NSW, aimed at eliminating broad spectrum insecticides from the spray program for apples.
The joint project, by Orange Agricultural College and NSW Agriculture, is assessing the importance of two insect growth icgulators (IGRs) for codling moth control and comparing them with the standard organophos-pliale insecticide, a/inphos methyl.
A possible benefit of switching to the "softer" IGRs is the potential build-up of beneficial insects that will aid in the control of many of the other pests apple growers have to deal with.
A successful production system for apple's that involves the use of a specific chemical control of codling moth and the action of predators and parasites for other pests will be a major contributor to the apple industry's drive for Integrated Pest Management.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM), where apple growers can combine biological, cultural and monitoring techniques to reduce their reliance on chemicals, will help the apple and pear industry
50 per cent by 1996 and by 7Spc by the year 2000.
The Orange project, which Ills into the research and development component of the apple industry's strategy for pesticide use, is being conducted in a young block of trees at the Agricultural Research and Veterinary Centre and is being supported by funds from Rohm and Haas Australia and the Horticultural Research and Development Corporation.
Dr Geoff Gurr from Orange Agricultural College and Graham Thwaite from NSW Agriculture are supervising a postgraduate research student to conduct the research program, to be run over at least two seasons. The scholarship grant is mainly funded by the college.
Codling moth was successfully controlled in the 1992/93 growing season by the IGRs. Secondary pests such as woolly apple aphid and San Jose scale did not emerge as a problem. Two spotted and European red mite populations were kept in check by predatory miles and late in the season beneficial Slellwrus beetles aided mile control.
Detailed observations of the changes in population levels of pest and beneficial species under
the research trees are only four years-old, the project is similar to a situation where an apple grower decides to start on IPM in a new block or trees this may give 1PM the best chance of success.
Unforeseen pest problems are a major concern of apple growers who wish to reduce their reliance on broad spectrum pesticides by using "soft" pesticides such as IGRs and developing IPM.
The research will monitor the levels of all pests but the project has already provided an unexpected benefit. Detailed examination of the 1992/93 harvest showed a significant infestation of mealy bug in the research trees, so the project presents an ideal opportunity to study the effects of new spray programs on the levels of ibis potential pest.
If one or both of the IGRs cause mealy bugs to be a problem this knowledge will be useful.
Afler the 1993/94 season's results have been analysed there should be a clear indication of the efficacy of the IGR, relative to the standard organophosphate treatment, and whether one of these new products has an advantage in the development of a "clean green" IPM apple orchard.
1 4 HRDC RESEARCH REPORT PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMEN
Strategies for reducing chemical use ommunity concern on pesticides
[i (he environment and food is ncreasing. and ;i National Pesticide "hailer has heen drawn with the litn of reducing prolicide use by >(>"'.. in five \ears and h\ 75% by lie year 2<W«"i
I'hc Australian Apple and Tear ndnstry lias si cued this charter. "or' apples the most important I i sense is apple scab \'enturin nncqu;tlis and the sinulc iarcest isc of fnnuicides in the industry is or the conltol of ihis .(incase. A -Mevions llorticnllutal Research and Development Corporation (IIUIH ) ;ludy by the Tasmanian Department >f 1'rimary Industry showed that ipplicnlions of slaked ltrne lo the irees can control scab effectively.
In a new Tasmanian Department :tf Primary Industry co-ordinated project, the neu approach of controlling black spot of apples based on increasing the pH on leaf and fruit surface has been investigated in Tasmania. Victoria. NSW. .South Australia and Queensland. Although the trials arc still in progress. assessments of leaf and sub-sample fntii infections to date indicate that Until (hydrntcd lime) is still the hesi and must economical pi I maierial for controlling black spot. I 'nder low disease pressure. Limil
APPLES AND PEARS where XO'% (if the Australian crop is produced in the Goislburu Valley, including export fruit valued at about %}Q million annually.
A Victorian Department of Agriculture project has started with the aim of improving pear scab control and minimising fungicide usage. Field sites have been established at Tallin* and Strathcwen, where leaf wetness, temperature and other relevant parameters are being monitored.
Ascospore discharge is being monitored and peak discharges occurred from green tip to early petal fall. Field trials to assess the efficacy of calcium hydroxide sprays, and to compute them with conventional fungicide sprays, are in progress. Preliminary results indicate that calcium hydroxide sprays give some control, although not as good as conventional fungicides. especially under conditions of high disease pressure.
• Powdery mildew is also a major cause of disease in apples. When unchecked it can reduce vigour and productivity. Vegetative shoots and flower buds may be killed and infected fruits can be downgraded because of skin russet.
Technical assistant, Datiri Jennings, assesses apples for colour and firmness as part of a Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries project on the use of gihbercllic acid for russet control in red Fuji.
used alone gave good control. At high disease pressure. Limil should be integrated with two sprays of benornyl (Hcnlate) or hexaconazole (Anvil) to give reliable and satisfactory black spot control.
A new method of reducing black spot inoculum has been discovered. based on applying a copper fungicide plus oil mixture to trees at about one week before green lip. Using this pre-gteen tip spray, subsequent Limit treatments appeared to be a hie to control black spot more reliably. When Limil was further integrated with two sprays of benornyl (Henlale) or hexaconazole (Anvil) applied at the pink and full-bloom stages, there was good to excellent black spot control.
Reducing the experimental rate of Limil by 50% (from two kilograms to 1kg/100 litres) did not appear lo significantly reduce its effectiveness when it was integrated with licnomyt or hexaconazole. Adding a reduced amount of sulphur or copper fungicide lo Limil generally gave better black spot control than when each of the materials was used on its own; also the incidence of copper-induced russet was reduced
• Pear scab is the most important Held: disease of pears in Victoria
cide. phosphorous acid, has given promising results against infections when applied as a foliar spray.
Results from a glasshouse pre-inoculalion spraying trial confirmed that phosphorous acid at 250 miliiltres in 100 litres of water prevented new infections. There were no advantages in using 500ml rates of phosphorous acid.
Field applications were scheduled to evaluate the glasshouse fundings.
• Codling moth {(\di:i pomonellu L.) is a major pest problem in the pome fruit industry and the Horticultural Research and Development Corporation is supporting a number of projects dealing with its control.
There are signs that the moth may be developing resistance to azinphos-methyl, and (here is an urgent need for a management package which reduces the dependence on a single chemical. Azinphos-methyl may be used up to 12 limes per season in some orchards to achieve acceptably low levels of fruit damage.
Studies to develop an integrated management package are being coordinated hy the CSIRO Division of fintomofogy with co-operation from Department of Agriculture researchers in New South Wales, Queensland. Victoria and South Australia.
Strategies being used in developing the package include mating disruption with pheromones. entomopalhogenic nematodes. granulosis virus. Bacillus thunngiensis and environmentally friendly insecticides, such as the insect growth regulator, fenoxycarb (Insegar).
Early season results were promising when codling moth granulosis virus (CMCJV) formulations -Carpovirusine and Granupoin — were compared with azinphos-methyl applications at the Granite Beit Horticultural Research Station in Queensland.
Virus formulations were applied in five and seven-day schedules while azinphos-methyl was applied fortnightly.
Total codling moth damage was about 1.5% in un-replicated trials
Disease control relies on regular fungicide applications at 14-21 day intervals throughout the tree growth period. —, ••- _.. v r ; . _ _ - - - --
A Queensland Department of ^ w " h early apple varieties. This was Primary Industries project at t h e £ ' " a season where moth numbers in Granite Belt Horticultural Resea rch r ' phc romone traps were moderate to Station is testing a biological a g e n t ^ b i g h and weather conditions were (MIO) for field control of r — » « - ~ ^ h n i nnd drv mildew to replace or substantially A project at Orange Agricultural reduce the number of fungicide College is investigating sustainable sprays required
Preliminary results indicate that, when MIO is applied regularly under ideal conditions or combined in a spray program where MIO is
orchard pest management and has a component of codling moth
t studies. I Pheromone trapping indicated i that population levels of the pest
substituted for' hair the fungicide * * < « no higher with insect growth sprav applications, powdery mildew * regulator treatments — fenoxycarb
.' i •_ _ _rr _. _ _- _ i-_ - f lneoonrt ft nit Ir-hniVnriTtrli" / M i m i c l control is as effective as a regular fungicide program alone.
These preliminary results indicate that powdery mildew fungicide applications could be reduced by at
-, (Insegar) and lebufenozidc (Mimic) » — than with traditional azinphos-' methyl treatments (Figure 1). | Fruit damage was absent with " azinphos-methyl and tebufenozide
least 50% where M IO is included J treatments and only minimal when in the spray program ! fenoxycarb was used.
• Research scientists at the Insti- { Populations of pest mites — tute of Sustainable Agriculture, f two-spotted mite and European red Tatura are investigatine the control | mite — were greater with azinphos-of root and collar rot of pome and • methyl while those of predatory stone fruit which are caused by the « miles {Typhlodromus pyri and T. fungus, rhilophlhrra cactom'm. I occidental!*) were similar under all
Recent studies have revealed a I treatments, indicating that insect severe, though less obvious, form '! growth regulators did not eliminate of infection in autumn/winter. The '--the beneficial species new. low-toxicity. systemic fungi- • A concluding project at the
Azinphos - methyl (Gusathlon) at 140g/100L
» i t n i t t o« I I i » U J3.ll MVl! OfrOI l&Ol 7O0I 77 01 OKtt l<M» 1?*?
Fenoxycarb | Insegar)
l 75 11 tl?II a*-!* I H * 7317 30-17 OMl 10-01 ?<WJ1 11 01 0307 l&O? !>03
Tebufenozide (Mimic) at 65g/10OL
CL 1 0
| OS
5 „„ MJ-H M M « U M-l ! tft-ll ? M I XM] Ot-41 10-01 IO-0I JMJt *WH 10-01 IT02
Institute for Sustainable Agriculture. Tatura, Victoria, has successfully developed economic damage thresholds for two-spotted miles on Williams' Bon Chretien pears.
The main outcome has been a practical procedure for the monitoring of two-spotted mite infestation which allows the need for chemical control to be accurately predicted. The complete method has been compiled into a model named Mite Master which is available either for computer or pencil and paper. In tests on 30 commercial blocks over two seasons the model successfully predicted spray requirements on each occasion. Overall the number of sprays applied were reduced compared with recommendations from commercial scouting procedures.
In the project it was shown that leaf scorch, which is the major visible damage caused by two-spotted mite in Williams* pears, could be directly related to reduced fruit set and yield in the following season. As in other monitoring systems for two-spotted mite, spray prediction is based on mite counts from weekly leaf samples.
Presence/absence counts gave similar results to the much more laborious total count method. It
- was shown that, by calculating a I cumulative mite index, the precision I of predictions was significantly im-t proved over other methods. At a - -iven mile index, leaf scorch was
Pheromone trap* are checked regularly for numbers of codling moth.
higher when orchards were wale: stressed compared with irrigated
• The role of lesion nematode" (Pratylcnchus penetrans and P jordanesis), a number o rhizosphcre-inhabiling bacteria amine root-infecting fungi Fusuriuii sp.. Cylindrocarpon sp. a n<-Pythium sp. in apple replant disea.se is being investigated by researcher at the Granite Belt Horlicultura Research Station in Queensland.
Glasshouse experiments h u v shown thai when apple seedling are grown in soil from appi orchards, their growth is general!-improved if sod is pasteurised o treated with the ncmaucidi fenamiphos (Nemacur). However the responses vary from one soil t the next, suggesting that the cans,! agents of apple replant discas differ from field to field.
Both species of lesion ncmaiod appear to be involved in replan disease in the Granite Belt, Queens land, while Cylindrocarpon sp. wa consistently associated with disco! oured roots. Other fungi and bac teria have not been implicated i the disease complex.
Results of a field trial a Applethorpe, Queensland ha\ shown that one of the lesio nematodes (P. jordanesis) can \r kept under control in replanie apple orchards without the nee for nematicides. The successful mai agement strategy involves: • Removal of trees at least
i months prior to replanting. j •Pre-plani management practic
which reduce nematode population •a suitable rotation crop incorpo ated into soil with urea, ba fallow, application of animal m nure + or - urea, •choice of an appropriate rootsto< •maintenance of a layer of orgar mulch around trees.
Mulching is an important comp nent of this strategy. Results of t field trial showed that four-ye: old apple irees mulched with sa dust produced as much fruit methyl bromide-treated trees a had fewer lesion nematodes arou their roots.
Fungicide resistance being studied Research at the QDPI Plant Protection Division at Indooroopllly It seeking to Identify Instances of fungicide resistance In AustraKan horticultural production areas through systematic surveys and analysis ot samples where resistance Is suspected.
Sample* wer*e taken from cucurbit crops In several producing areas of Queensland and screened for sensitivity to
GENERAL HORTICULTURE the lour groups of fungicides used to control cucurbit powdery mildew.
The retults showed that resistance to the Benztmldazolea and Sterol Inhibitors Is still high ( 4 1 % , and 45V.) while resistance to fungicides In the Hydroxypyrlmldlnes and Organophosphate groups Is comparatively low (5% and
16%). There were also differences In the level of resistance found In the four main regions probably reflecting the fungicide cholcee.
H the Mareeba district all Isolates were sensitive to benzlmldazoles and hydroxy-pyrlmfrilnes.
In the Burdekln, resistance to benztmldazolea and Sterol Inhibitors was higher than average.
METALAXYL CONCENTRATION (ppm)
0 01 <*-T^S9£} 0 1 ~ £*S
Screening aa Isolate of /VaUuyHouusnors cabeods for phtnylamide lungfctdn — metaiaxyt (RlooraU) In this instance.
•ensUrriry
100? 93
Australian Entomological Society 25th AGM and Scientific Conference
reducing the number of azinphos-methyl applications by using pheromone trap monitoring to improve timing.
INSECT GROWTH REGULATORS AND BIOLOGICAL CONTROL FOR APPLE IPM
Bruce Valentine1, Geoff Gurr1 and Graham Thwaite 1 Orange Agricultural College, the University of Sydney, Orange, NSW, 2800 2 Agricultural Research and Veterinary Centre, Forest Road, Orange, NSW, 2800
Insect growth regulators (IGRs) tebufenozide and fenoxycarb were evaluated in comparison to the industry standard organophosphate, azinphosmethyl, in a replicated field trial. In both the 1992/93 and 1993/94 seasons IGRs maintained damage levels to fruit at harvest (including windfalls) below 1% for both codling moth Cydia pomonella (L.) and lightbrown apple moth Epiphyas postvittana (Walker). This was despite considerable pest pressure as confirmed by sex pheromone trap catches of both species. Tebufenozide gave better control than fenoxycarb of E. postvittana and this was statistically significant in the second season of the trial. Populations of two-spotted mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, and European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch), were higher in plots under azinphosmethyl treatment than in !GR treatments. Neither IGR appeared to be toxic to the phytoseiids Typhlodromus pyri Scheuten and T. occidentalis Nesbitt. Limb tapping in the second season showed there to be statistically significant differences in populations of other predators which may have contributed to the biological control of phytophagous mites in IGR treated plots. Numbers of spiders, Stethorus sp. adults and larvae, and apple dimpling bug, Campylomma liebknechti (Girault) nymphs were all lower in azinphosmethyl treated trees. Results are discussed in relation to the goal of reducing dependence on conventional pesticides by use of more target specific compounds which may be more compatible with biological control.
BIOCONTROL OF INSECTS: BUSINESS, BIODIVERSITY AND BLUE SKIES
Jeff Waage International Institute of Biological Control, Silwood Park, UK
After years in the wings, biological control of insect pests sits today at the centre of many new initiatives in integrated pest management around the world. This has brought more interests and players into the discipline, and has raised some interesting challenges. As the biocontrol business commercialises natural enemies, ppemiums are placed on impact and not persistence - is this the best way to use them? Persistence itself is a growing issue in the environmental arena. The introduction of exotic natural enemies - even as biopesticides - needs to be rethought in terms of safety and the rights of countries to own their biodiversity. Finally, the biotechnology boom has selected insect control as one of its first commercial targets, with both commercial and environmental implications - how can we ensure that biological control is best used in this context?
63
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this crop in an holistic sense.
Pest Management Categories
A number of conceptual frameworks have been developed for
considering general approaches to pest management (I ig. I). Zadoks
(1993) considered the period of 1940 to 1990 as the 'chemism'
paradigm era. The latter date, somewhat arbitrarily set, marks the
start of the 'environmentalist!!' era. Hill (1984) gives what may be
viewed as a series of steps in methodology by which such a transition
may be made: (I) 'efficiency', in which pest monitoring and
application technology refinements allow conventional pesticides to be
better used, (2) 'substitution', which makes use of alternative methods
such as biological control and (3) 'redesign', which aims to identify
and confront the root causes of pest problems rather than simply
dealing with their symptoms. The latter makes use of cultural
techniques such as habitat modification to maximise natural mortality
factors and prevent problems arising. More recently Tail (1987) used
'routine pest management' to describe prophylactic pesticide use. and
the terms: 'rational pest management', 'integrated pest management'
and 'biological systems' to describe substantially the same categories as
Hill (1984). Hach of these authors indicate, either explicitly or
implicitly, the desirability of such transitions for such reasons as
avoiding the 'pesticide treadmill', or more general agricultural
sustainability.
3
lor
of terms ha
the UK thi
the USA 'fi
Pasqualini
control'.
'advanced'
pesticides
microbial i
not constit
either Hill
(Prokopy e
it includes
defined for
Jacobsen,
plant resist
be conside
this catego
Hill (1984)
Apple Pes
The domin
1965 was.
This took
codling moth Cydia pomonclla (I.) and other key pests, employing
lead arsenate prior to. and DDT after, the second world war (Whalon
and Croft, 1984). During this period the major problem encountered
was the development of pesticide resistance and this was countered by
development of new compounds rather than the development of non-
chemical approaches. There were exceptions, however, most notably
the use of 'harmonised' control in Nova Scotia as outlined by Mint
and Van den Bosch (1981) but even this episode may be viewed as a
temporary aberration of the contemporary philosophy, largely
induced by the imperative of reducing pesticide inputs during the
second world war (Whalon and Croft, 1984).
More widespread rationalisation of pesticide use occurred
during the late 1960s and early 1970s when the increasing problem of
resistance, especially in mites (Hoyt and Caltagirone. 1971), was
complemented by growing awareness of the environmental effects of
overuse of pesticide as initiated by Carson (1963). Such rationalisation
was achieved by an improved knowledge of pest biology and by
monitoring schemes. More recently there has been growing consumer
pressure for agricultural produce with a lower perceived pesticide
residue risk and this has been particularly apparent in apples as a
result of the Alar® affair (Auld, 1992). Though there is debate about
the relative risk posed by residues from conventional pesticide use.
compared to that constituted by compounds such as inhibitins and
phytoalexins which may occur naturally in plant tissue (e.g. Ames and
5
(iold. 1989
response in
this has led
Charter' wh
1991 levels
background
agriculture,
and Sweden
The
the world is
on convent
four decad
effective o
during this
approach b
pressure an
been attemp
adverse im
monitoring
phenology
from 'routin
In
predators (
as phytoph
'integrated'
e.g. Typhlodromus occidcntalis Ncsbitt (Croft and Jcppson. 1970) and
Stethorus punctum (l.cConte) (Asquith et iiL 1980). Such predators
have been employed in 'integrated mite control' (Bower and Thwaile,
1986; Page et ai., 1991). Thus, the use of pesticide tolerant biological
control agents has enabled a 'two-tiered' evolution of pest management
systems in a single crop, in which primary pests arc essentially
managed by 'rational' pesticide use and other pests by 'integrated'
management. However, in an holistic view of apple pest management it
is important to consider the effects of action against any one pest on
other pests and beneficial organisms. Most natural enemies, especially
those native to specific regions, do not have pesticide tolerance so are
prevented from contributing to biological control of pests. The
development and use of narrow spectrum compounds could alleviate
this problem and, along with more strategic use of broad spectrum
pesticides, is the main approach of 'second stage IPM' (Prokopy et al.,
1990).
Current research on new techniques for control of the
spectrum of pests which attack apples offers considerable scope for
the further evolution of pest management. If, for example, such a
further shift in management can be achieved for primary pests, in
which broad spectrum pesticides are replaced by technologies which
have a minimal effect on natural enemies, then this may have a 'knock-
on' effect such that for a greater proportion of other pests the
'biological' approach is possible, in which cultural practices maintain
natural enemies at effective levels. In the following sections,
7
techniques
pest manage
Recent Ad
RATIONAL
The .disadva
residue risk
relatively m
small comp
percent (So
generally h
environmen
recent year
(Kovach et
information
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Panonychus tilmi (Koch) (Nyrop and Minns, 1992).
An indication of the adoption rates of monitoring which can
be achieved is given in Travis ct ah (1992). where the proportion of
growers monitoring P. ulmi during the summer months in
Pennsylvania, USA. exceeded 60 percent in 1989/1990. Shaw.
Cruickshank and Suckling (1993) estimated that 25 percent of pome-
fruit growers in the Nelson area of New Zealand used pheromone
trap monitoring for leafroller pests, particularly lightbrown apple
moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker). Since 91 percent of these
growers were able to reduce insecticide costs in the 1992-93 season,
prospects for wider adoption in this area appear good.
Examples will serve to illustrate the complexities involved in
developing and using thresholds. The economic threshold for C
pomonella is generally considered to be in the region of 0.5-1 percent
of fruits damaged at harvest (Uoyt et al., 1983) though this is difficult
to determine in an holistic fashion since certain costs such as
environmental impact, occupational health and safety and development
of resistance are hard to quantify (Pimentel e i ah, 1980).
Furthermore, control measures used against this pest may have a
direct and desirable effect on other pests. Penrose, Thwaitc and
Bower, (1994) give the example of chlorpyrifos, which as well as
affecting C. pomonella wi l l also control San Jose scale,
Quadraspidiotus pcrniciosus (Comstock), E. postvittana and E.
lanigerum. However, conventional pesticides also have undesirable
effects on natural enemies. For example, Hardman. Rogers and
11
Macl.ellan
multiple ap
years for th
correlated w
rust mite, A
and more f
the toxicity
Scheuten.
Th
monitoring
enemies.
monitoring
predatory m
have been
etal., 1993
En
to integra
dynamics a
the automa
and Walk
based exp
application
number of
been used
and one is
However, this task is complicated by the lad Ilia! systems will need to
be custom designed for particular production conditions because ol
factors such as variability between local strains of a given species:
for example, in response to prey density for T. pyri (Hardman and
Rogers, 1991). A major barrier to a greater shift in this direction is
considered by Wearing (1988) to be the constraints of presently
available monitoring methods. The development of superior
monitoring techniques is likely to be important in achieving greater
sustainability of pest management.
Resistance Management
The development of pesticide resistance within populations of various
pest species has been an important factor in driving the evolution of
pest management in apples and a comprehensive listing of this
phenomenon in North America is given in Croft and Bode (1983).
This puts the earliest reports of lead arsenate resistance in C.
pomonclla well before the advent of organic pesticides. DDT
resistance was recorded five to fifteen years after its widespread use in
the USA (Madsen and Morgan, 1970). Resistance to the currently
most widely used pesticide for this pest, azinphosmcthyl, has recently
been reported from the USA (Varela et a[., 1993) and Australia
(Thwaile, Williams and Hately, 1993). The development of resistance
to this organophosphate presents serious problems, for its replacement
with an alternative compound may adversely affect the common
13
practice o
a/.inphosme
Markwick.
which had
which reta
evaluated in
afforded go
pyrethroid
lepidoptera
organophos
applications
(Pseudoco
organophos
synthetic p
advantage o
pressure for
Res
important f
managemen
resistance i
pressure o
approaches
has recentl
(Thwaite, 1
Pes
such as to chlorpyrifos in the mealybugs Pscudococcus al'finis
(Maskell) (Walker, White and Charles. 1993) and I', longispinus
(Targioni Tozzctti) (Charles, Walker and White, 1993) and to K.
postvittana (Suckling and Khoo, 1993) in New Zealand. Resistance to
azinphosmcthyl in tufted apple bud moth, Platynota idacusalis
(Walker) has been reported in the USA (Meagher and Hull. 1986;
Knight et al-, 1990; Bush et al., 1993).
As pesticide use comes under closer scrutiny, the
deregistration of products may lead to a greater reliance on remaining
compounds which may in turn hasten the development of resistance to
these (Kazmierczak etaf, 1993). Pheromonc trapping has been used
to identify and monitor pesticide resistance levels in some pests and
this is discussed under scmiochemicals below.
15
INTEGRAT
Novel Pestic
Oatman (196
thuringiensi
mites to a le
has been dem
e i a].., 199
associated w
compounds
derivatives
Bower (199
may not be
being a nat
Despite this
research a
sustainability
Microbial I
control of C
Vaal, 1992;
failed fully
has suggest
from year to
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modes of action (either on moulting or metamorphosis, which have no
equivalent in vertebrates) means that they have low mammalian
toxicity. Because the mode of action differs radically from most
conventional pesticides, insect growth regulators (IGRs) tend to cause
mortality over several days in contrast to neurotoxins which act more
immediately. However, they may cause cessation of feeding within
hours of exposure, thus preventing further plant damage (Chandler,
Pair and Harrison, !992).
Krysan (1991) recognises three classes of IGRs: chitin
synthesis inhibitors, anti-juvenile hormone agents and juvenile
hormone analogues and mimics. Methoprene, an example of the
latter, was the first insect growth regulator registered for practical use
(Graham-Bryce, 1987) and since then a number of others, including
pyriproxyfen, fenoxycarb and tebufenozide, have been developed.
The latter is an example of what is considered to be a new class of
IGRs, non-steroidal ecdysone agonists (Silhacek, Oberlander and
Porcheron, 1990; Heller and Mattioda, 1992).
IGRs have been evaluated for use in managing apple pests in a
variety of ways. Yokoyama and Miller (1991) investigated the
potential of pyriproxyfen as a quarantine treatment for control of C.
pomonclla and found it to have ovicidal effects, particularly against
young eggs. Boschcri. Rizzolli and Paoli (1992) used two applications
of fenoxycarb, 0.015 percent, as a barrier treatment to protect
orchards in which mating disruption was being used from pest
migration from packing sheds.
19
In A
demonstrate
(Bailey, I99
199I; Vale
found tebufe
agreement w
in a series o
has also bee
(Hull, Barre
activity 3-4
comparable
An
on natural
species. Hel
laboratory c
and 'some p
assessing th
arthropods w
testing prot
pesticides.
1991; Vale
found that u
of natural e
been indica
significant a
The effects of (riHiimuron and lenoxycarb on I'hytosciulus
persimilis Athias-llcnriot have been investigated by Mansour (1989)
and found to include reductions in fecundity whilst increasing the
fecundity of the pyhytophagous species Tclranychus cinnabarinus
(Boisduval). Rumpf and Penman (1993) found lenoxycarb to be
harmful to larvae of the green and brown lacewing species
Chrvsoperla carnea (Stephens) and Micromus tasmaniae (Walker) in
laboratory and field experiments which indicated adverse effects on
metamorphosis that prevented successful pupation. An early study of
diflubenzuron use in Australian apple orchards indicated toxicity to
Stethorus spp (Bower, 1980). Peleg (1983) reported that when
armoured scales were treated with this IGR at 250 ppm. subsequent
feeding by the coccinellid Chilocorus bipustulatus L. resulted in
complete mortality of first instar larvae. Treatment with methoprene
and fenoxycarb did not affect larval development but inhibited
pupation. All three IGRs completely inhibited egg hatch. Niemczyk
et aj.. (1990) investigated the effect of diflubenzuron, teflubenzuron
and trifiumuron on five predatory species and one parasitoid wasp in
Polish orchard trials. The developmental stage at which exposure
occurred was found to be important, with young larvae generally
being most susceptible, and they concluded that IGRs exert only partial
selectivity on the majority of natural enemies.
It appears that although IGR use in apples will give more
selective control of lepidopteran pests, the effects on natural enemies
may not be negligible. Combined with the significant expense of such
21
compounds
minimise c
represent an
pest popula
compounds
intensively.
by laborato
(Cahill and
detected in
particular co
laboratory s
previously b
Oth
compounds
action (whic
developmen
ordinated w
Bryce, 1987
early juveno
more recent
more stable
further enha
Petroleum
agricultural
1993) and have been reviewed by Johnson (19X5) and Ik-attic (1991).
They have become an increasingly important component of
contemporary management of phytophagous mites as a result of the
erosion of numbers of useful acaricides by deregistration and
development of resistance in T. urticae and P. ulmi. They arc also
useful for other pests such as Q. pemiciosus, and currently comprise
part of the recommended management of this pest and of P. ulmi in
New South Wales as 'winter oils' (with >25 carbons) aimed at
destroying the sedentary overwintering stages of these organisms
(Thwaite e_! a].., 1993). A similar programme is used in North
America against the same pest species and rosy apple aphid, Dvsaphis
plantaginea Passerini, though control of the latter is enhanced by the
addition of organophosphates such as chlorpyrifos to oil sprays applied
at the green tip stage of plant growth (Horton, Pfeiffer and Hendrix,
1991). A major factor which has limited the use of oils is
phytotoxicity and this has confined their use to the winter in order to
avoid damage to foliage or fruits. Hodgkinson (1994) stated that the
ideal carbon chain length for pcsticidal oils was C2I-C23. Heavier
oils were phytotoxic whilst lighter ones, though less damaging, were
less effective pesticides. 'Summer oils' have now been developed
which allow use when pests are active on foliage. Bower (1992)
reported encouraging preliminary field results for control of P. ulmi
by a summer oil which, applied as two sprays 10 - 14 days apart, was
able to reduce pest numbers by more than 90 percent. I^awson and
Weires (1991), in a more comprehensive study, reported good
23
control of s
plantaginea.
American f
phytotoxicit
bloom appli
loss of fruit
rate of use.
which caus
performanc
improvemen
Botanical D
antibiosis re
these and
employed as
means of p
Munetsi, 19
confined to
rainfastness
cotton sugg
and soybean
1985). Cot
control of
y^Jutinana (
oil was less
eggs and adult females of of I*. ulmi and of eggs of the other species
when compared to water controls. However, under field conditions
control of P. ulmi motilcs was poor and phytotoxicity was observed in
one of the two cultivars tested. A commercial blend of vegetable oils
(Naturo i l®) performed in a similar manner against eggs of E^
postvittana (Tomkins and Thomson, 1992) giving potentially useful
ovicidal effects if applied to kiwifruit leaves post-oviposition but not
pre-oviposition. Toxic effects of a canola (rapeseed) oil formulation
(Syner t ro l® Oil) on eggs and motiles of T. urticae have been
demonstrated in the laboratory (G. Herron, pers. comm).
One probable mode of action for vegetable oils is suffocation
following the coating of the organism, though behavioural disruption
of motiles may also occur on previously treated substrates. In
contrast to this, non-oil plant derivatives operate via a chemical mode
of action. Of these, pyrethrum has been described as the most reliable
but a 'last resort option' because of its effect on non-target arthropods
(Van Epenhuijsen, Wright and De Silva, 1992). Ryania is more
selective and has been widely researched for use in apples as reviewed
by Wearing (1991). This author lists 19 natural enemy genera or
species which have been recorded from New Zealand orchards under
regular treatment with ryania. This suggests its high degree of
compatibility with IPM systems. However, adequate control of C.
pomonella was only achieved by relatively frequent applications since
ryania is readily washed from plant surfaces. Hence, when used alone
25
it may not
with Ht. C
As well a
control of
unspecifie
reportedly
less well
neriifolin a
(Euphorbi
C.pomone
wider rang
Susceptibil
been demo
significantl
to be the m
Semiochem
category ar
most exten
and Rothsc
use of the
monitoring
a practical
used. One
manageme
example, in New South Wales, Austral ia, sex phcromone mating
disruption systems stil l require registration even (hough monitoring
devices have recently been exempted (W. ( i . Thwai te pcrs.
observation).
Other scmiochcmicals to have been researched for apple pest
management are antipheromones such as (L .E) -8, 10-dodecadicn-l-ol
acetate (Hathaway, Mo f f i t t and George, 1985), and oviposi t ion
deterring pheromones as reviewed by Roitberg and Angeri l l i (1986).
Kairomones have been less wel l explored but there would appear to be
scope for using these to enhance eff icacy of biological contro l .
Tuml inson, Lewis and Vet (1993) outl ine a number of approaches
such as 'programming' parasitoid wasps to search for certain host
species and keeping them in predefined areas, which could greatly
improve inundative biological control of less apparent pests such as
C.pomonella.
Moni tor ing wi th sex pheromones has two chief applications:
( I ) monitoring pest population dynamics as a decision aid for short
term pest management action and (2) monitoring levels of resistance to
pesticides wi th in pest populations for longer term management. The
potential of phcromone trap monitoring to reduce insecticide use has
been investigated in New Zealand by McLaren and Suckling (1993)
and Suckling, Walker and Shaw (1990). In the latter study, trapping
was able to identify orchards in which numbers of lcafroller pests
(part icular ly E. postvittana) were low, and thereby to achieve
reductions in insecticide applications of up to 25 percent. Shaw,
27
Cruickshank
Nelson area
moni tor ing
insecticide u
damage.
How
not operate w
relationship
(Suckl ing, 1
Suckling and
pest species
stage (Roi tb
al low identi
therefore, th
example, T h
South Wale
pesticide app
require pesti
by other info
sampling for
give more
damage. Ho
trap perform
density, trap
design. In a
c- *l
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months (Suckling nnd Shaw. 1992) is an indication that disruption may
be economically attractive as well as technically viable, at least under
certain conditions. In Japan. Ohira and Oku (1993) employed mating
disruption against the apple tortrix, Archips fuscocupreanus
Walsingham, and succeeded in keeping damage below the economic
injury level, largely because withholding of broad spectrum
insecticides induced high levels of parasitism by Triehogramma sp.
The chief challenge faced by researchers in this field is the
optimal formulation of pheromones and their incorporation into
dispensing structures for consistent, effective action over prolonged
periods under field conditions. Howell el a[. (1992) cite a number of
studies which indicate that the blend of pheromone components used is
important. The pheromones codlemone, dodecanol and tetradecanol
have been employed together for the effective control of C. pomonclla
in Asian pear (Barnes et aL, 1992). However, it is not likely that
growers will be prepared to deploy multiple sets of dispensers to
manage different pest species in this manner, so a major objective will
be to achieve a broad spectrum effect by formulating several
pheromones together or developing a widely active compound.
Brown et a[. (1992) investigated emission characteristics of
pheromone dispensers and found solar radiation to be a significant
factor affecting dispenser performance. Brown and McDonough
(1986) also recognised the importance of minimising exposure to
sunlight to minimise isomerization of pheromones. This raises the
possibility of using radiation protectants (as discussed under Microbial
31
Pesticides
field life.
improved
behavioura
Ma
Zealand (T
females. M
pomonclla
attributed f
males. Roi
strategy de
success, e
Rothschild
reports for
giving ade
the most c
Peters (197
without ins
apple orch
caught in a
in this area
Biological
Classical
introduction of I. occidentals from ('alil'ornia (o Australia in 1972
(Rcadshaw, 1975) led to good establishment and control of mites.
T. urticac in particular, and is an excellent example. The later
introduction of '['. pvri from New Zealand to enhance control of R.
ulmi has met with similar success (Thwaite and Bower, 1980).
Generally, biological control of phytophagous mites has been far more
successful than for most other apple pests. Hoyt (1981) gave the
estimate of US $5 million per annum saved on pesticide and
application costs in Washington state alone due to the use of T.
occidental is during the preceding 14 years. A large number of other
predatory mite species are known and at least eight have developed
some tolerance to insecticides (Croft and Strickler, 1983). Croft and
MacRae (1992) studied the interactions between the predatory mite
species T. pvri, T. occidentalis and Z. mali and considered that
interspecific competition may lead to both positive and negative effects
on biological control. The use of such a guild of predators may be
considered advantageous where the population of any one is disrupted
by a pesticide application or adverse environmental conditions, since
the aggregate characteristics give greater flexibility in response to pest
outbreaks (Croft and MacRae, 1993). Compounds applied as fruit
thinners may also have an adverse effect on predatory mites with
carbaryl being particularly harmful (Thistlewood and Hlfving, 1992).
In this study, the alternative compounds naphthalencacetic acid (NAA)
and benzyladenine were found to be less disruptive to the predatory
mites Z. mali. Amblvseius fallacis (Garman), and Balaustium putmani
33
Smiley. Su
may aid the
Inu
apple pest
microbial p
review the
include nem
(1985) con
control age
habitats. H
biological
ultraviolet
foliage and
apple pest s
constraints
ai. (1992)
biological
broadcast
carpocapsa
achieved, p
bark crevic
feltiae for
mortality w
percent kil
direct resu
Nachligall and Dicklcr (1992) found S. bibioms (o cause 75 percent
mortality of larvae of Synanlhedon myopaeformis Borkh though
Hetcrorhahditis spp. had no effect. They noted that levels of parasitism
observed after applications were very dependent upon humidity. The
sensitivity of nematodes to environmental conditions may be reduced
by formulation with antidesiccants (e.g. MacVcan, Brewer and
Capinera, 1982) and radiation protectants (e.g. Gaugler and Boush,
1979), so nematodes constitute an attractive prospect for future
research, especially as they may be applied using conventional spray
equipment fitted with large nozzles (Kaya, 1985).
Sterile Male Release
This technique has been used for management of C. pomonella i n
North American apple orchards and demonstrated to be technically
feasible but not economically viable when compared to conventional
pesticide use (Hoyt and Burts, 1974). Roitberg and Angerilli (1986)
discuss factors which influence the success of this technique. They
state that a ratio of 40 sterile males to each wild male has to be
achieved in order to reduce populations to near extinction. Although
the flight range of most adults is said to be within 50 m of the orchard
of origin (Audemard, 1991), this author cites a number of studies in
which longer range dispersal has been noted. Thus, there is scope for
successful mating in areas where this method is being attempted
because of immigrant males, from unmanaged host trees for example.
For this reason the method is best suited to relatively isolated
35
regions.
Cultural an
Techniques
and the pl
pomonella
managed o
pomonella,
approach to
The
researched
effect (Tuli
from rain
characterise
physical en
mite popula
affect phyt
temperature
Burts (1974
overhead i
other pest s
beneficial v
otherwise
overhead i
as apple scab, incited by Venluria inaequalis (Ckc.) Winl.. and would
also erode any previously applied pesticide. Addition of surfactants to
achieve more thorough coverage by scheduled pesticides may have an
incidental benefit by increasing the water induced mortality in
phytophagous mites. Tulisalo (1974) observed elevated levels of
mortality in T. urticae when they were sprayed with water containing
a wetting agent.
Brandenburg and Kennedy (1987) cite a number of examples
of elevated humidity and free water favouring epizootics of pathogenic
fungi such as Neozygites spp. and, since the use of surfactants may
lead to more thorough wetting within webbing of T. urticae colonies.
such compounds may constitute a means of manipulating the
microclimate in such sites.
When growing fruit for export a particularly low tolerance of
pests is demanded in order to comply with quarantine restrictions.
This leads to high pesticide use since other methods of pest
management may not be able to guarantee pest freedom to the same
extent. However, controlled atmosphere storage for periods prior to
export may help disinfest fruit coming from low pesticide input
orchards. Soderstrom and Brandl (1985) investigated the separate
effects of high carbon dioxide (60 percent) and low oxygen (0.5
percent) for in vitro control of C. pomonella eggs and adults. Both
atmospheres gave 100 percent mortality of both life stages within 72
hours and eggs and adults were both killed more quickly at 60 percent
than at 95 percent relative humidity. Waddell, Dentener and
37
Batchelor (1
carbon dioxi
of three lep
Walker and
a, b) used t
different de
to temperatu
42 days. Th
as an alterna
storage for
limited to eg
directly ex
treatments.
investigate
temperature
apples but
nuts.
Host Plant R
Field obse
currently av
at least pa
liebknechti
and Pawar, 1991). (i. lohar/cwskii, I), plantaginca and I'. tilmi ((iral.
Ilopli and Hohn, 1992). (iooncwardcnc ct a[. (1975) investigated
resistance to C. pomonclla. plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar
(Herbst)), apple maggot (Rhagoletis pomonclla (Walsh)) and the
redbanded Icafrollcr ( A r g y r o t a e n i a vclut inana (Walker)) and
compared selections with cv. Jonathan. They found significantly less
damage from these four pests in 9.7, 22.9, 32.3 and 17.0 percent of
the selections respectively, compared with the the control cultivar.
Improving pest resistance in commercially acceptable cultivars is
dependent upon breeding programmes as discussed below.
Conventional Breeding. The apple belongs to a relatively large genus
with estimates of the number of Malus species as high as 122
(Ponomarenko, 1986). A number of polygenic and major gene disease
resistance sources have been identified in this genus and transferred to
the cultivated apple and these are reviewed by Korban and Chen
(1992). Many of these have successfully conferred disease resistance
and the use of such cultivars has implications for arthropod pest
management since they reduce the need for fungicides, which may
otherwise disrupt natural enemies of insect and mite pests (Walker et
a]., 1988; Sclby and White, 1993).
Resistance to some significant arthropod pest species has also
been identified. Korban (1986) cites a number of studies which
indicated resistance to C. pomonclla. P. ulmi, E. lanieerum and rosy
leaf curling aphid (Dysaphis devecta Walker) but commented that
39
breeding s
difficult. M
(Rat-Morris
Ap
expensive
generations
the long juv
Even using
30 years (H
relative lac
recent effor
Genetic En
resistance g
the germpl
rapidly. Li
u s i n g Agr
The biolisti
transfer (Br
engineering
reviewed by
affect rege
described b
such work
considered
(icnctic engineering has been used lor llie production ol apple
plants which express the insecticidal crystal protein of IM in an effort
to achieve C. pomonclla resistance (Dandckar et a]., 1992). However.
analysis of tissue from m vitro grown plants revealed only low levels
of gene expression, though higher levels of expression and subsequent
pest mortality were reportedly achieved in walnut using a synthetic
version of the crylA(c) gene in this study.
Despite the enormous potential of genetic engineering in this
crop, Raffa (1989) has pointed out that the persistence of tree crops in
agroecosystems may favour selection for resistance in pest
populations. Recent records of resistance to EU in field populations
of diamondback moth, Plutella xvlostella (E.), (Tabashnik et al., 1990)
following relatively transitory foliar applications, indicates that use of
transgenic apples expressing Bl genes over more prolonged periods
will need to be in an integrated fashion along with other control
measures to reduce selection pressure.
AGROECOSYSTEM REDESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE PEST
MANAGEMENT
Croft and Hull (1983) considered the orchard ecosystem and provided
an illustration of the complexity of trophic interactions which prevail
in North American orchards. From this it would appear reasonable to
consider that there was at least some scope for manipulating apple
agroecosystems in order to suppress phytophagous species. This has
41
been acc
agroecosy
Intensive
of tortric
ungrazed
The mech
not discus
removal o
M
predators
four grou
(Trifolium
pomi) and
other mor
consisted
grassed all
O
phytoseiid
numbers a
numbers u
increase.
a block of
means of
orchard in
mites fou
suggesting thai miles were seeking o\ cr-w intering rclugc. Such
deplet ions o f local populat ions ma\ compromise the rapid
establishment of biological contro l the fo l l ow ing season. T .
occidenlal is has been recorded overwintering under old armoured
scale coverings on trees (McMur t r y . 1981) and it may be feasible to
provide similar art i f icial domatia. particularly for young trees wi th
less scaly bark, by applications of 'spray-on' sol id i fy ing synthetic
materials. However, characteristics o f these would need to be such
that refuge was not provided for organisms such as C. pomonella pre-
pupae.
Habitat manipulation may aid phwoseiid survival during short
periods o f low prey numbers dur ing the growing season by the
provision o f alternative prey or other food such as pollen and fungi.
This may be important when populations of mites are increasing since
phytoseiid mites are susceptible to food shortages, particularly as
nymphs (Hardman and Rogers. 1991). Flaherty (1969) found that
Johnson grass, Sorghum halepense (1..), grown in vineyards served as
a host for T. urticae, an alternative prey for T . occidenlal is, so
stabi l ised populat ions o f this predator and the pest species
Eotetranvchus willamettei Hwing. Tydeid and eriophyid mites may be
of value in apples as an alternate source o f prey for phytoseiids,
though eriophyids may assume some significance as pests in their own
right i f biological control is insufficient!) effective.
The presence o f f lower ing plants in the understorey of
orchards is often avoided since it may prolong the period over which
43
bees are att
use. How
pesticide us
tanacctifolia
of pollen w
mites durin
could be m
provide a
wi th in the o
enhancing
(Cowgi l l , W
a_L (1990)
longevi ty a
availabil i ty
plants selec
pests such a
in New Zea
The incorp
diversifies
review by R
lead to redu
or interferin
diversity an
(1994) who
floral resou
management by incorporating critical characteristics ol habitat
diversity which would enhance natural enemy populations. A less
focused way of increasing natural enemies is simply to withhold
pesticides. Kelly and Scott (1990) found the winter soil surface
arthropod fauna in an apple orchard under 'organic' treatment had
consistently greater species number, species evenness and diversity
than in a conventionally managed orchard. In particular, predators
such as the harvestman, Phalangium opilio L., and rove beetle,
Thvroceophalus orthodoxus (Olliff), were more numerous in the
organic orchard, though an unidentified parasitoid was most common
in the conventional block. The latter may reflect greater mobility of
the organism such that it was able to recolonise previously sprayed
areas more readily than others with poorer powers of dispersal.
Regardless of the means by which natural enemy populations
are enhanced, their ability to maintain a given pest population below
the damage threshold will be affected by the characteristics of the pest
organisms. Pest species with K-strategist bionomic strategies
(MacArthur and Wilson, 1967; Pianka, 1970), such as C. pomonella,
may not be well controlled by natural enemies. The synoptic
population modelling of Southwood and Comins (1976) predicts that
for K-strategist organisms natural enemies will be relatively
ineffective because they have evolved defence strategies. In the case of
C. pomonella, the larval stage feeds within fruit so is largely protected
from natural enemies. During winter, pre-pupae may suffer predation
but this is largely confined to homeothcrmic predators, particularly
45
birds, whic
arthropod
key pest, (
univoltine,
economica
C. pomone
orchards re
of fruits a
Bosch, 198
study drop
remained a
control of
synoptic p
Phytophag
organisms
of increase
mechanism
vulnerable
perturbed
maintain e
for extreme
but it is im
relative rat
the relativ
extreme r-s
(he transient, uncertain conditions of annual cropping. Kvcn aphids
which, because of (heir greater powers of dispersal. Croft and Hull
(1983) classified as the most r-adapted of apple pests, arc likely to be
under some degree of biological control (especially if broad spectrum
pesticides are withheld) e.g. Asan(e and Danthanarayana (1993).
An additional reason why natural enemies may be sufficiently
effective in maintaining populations of mite and aphid pests below
damaging levels is because these are indirect pests, attacking plant
organs other than the harvested fruit. Consequently, a higher
tolerance of damage applies than for direct pests, such as C
pomonella. which cause intolerable damage even at relatively low
densities.
Conclusion
Tette and Jacobsen (1992) use the term 'biologically intensive' pest
management to describe use of host plant resistance, scmiochemicals.
biological and cultural controls but comment that 'pests were not being
totally eliminated with these methods, but were merely reduced in
damaging numbers'. We would argue that such a result is actually
quite valid since a key tenet of modern pest management is to maintain
pest numbers below damage thresholds rather than to eradicate them.
As the above sections on these respective techniques indicate, there is
considerable scope for the further development and application of
'biologically intensive' approaches. However, in the near future the
47
level of pes
sufficient (o
direct pest s
above will b
plant deriva
trap monito
phenologica
programmes
will be expe
for optimal
become mo
require som
coverage a
stage(s) of
fenoxycarb
than two da
co-ordinated
Henderson,
as Bt and gr
formulation
protectants.
require fur
before it ca
The
encouraged
Fruits with reduced levels of perceived residue risk wi l l he dif f icult to
achieve without some reduction in cosmetic quality of the fruit, which
runs counter to the desire for high cosmetic appeal (Anon, I WO). This
paradox is somewhat analogous to that exist ing for quarantine
purposes which demands freedom from pesticide residues and from
pest organisms.
Estimates of the y ie ld penalty which may be incurred by
'organic' growing of apples vary to as high as 50 percent (Barnes,
1991) and it is unlikely that consumers would be w i l l ing to pay a
suff ic ient ly high premium for such produce to make production
economically sustainable, regardless of the ecological sustainability
which may be attained. Mattedi (1991) recorded 11 percent of fruit
damaged by C. pomonella in plots treated with granulosis virus and
10.6 percent damage where ryania was used. Whilst these levels were
well below the untreated damage levels, they would not be acceptable
to most growers and serve as a good i l lustration of the need to
integrate several techniques rather than relying upon only one. Wi th
current technology, 'organic' production w i l l not be viable under most
conditions but, in field trials conducted in Italy, pesticide reductions of
90-100 percent and the use of codling moth granulosis virus were able
to keep fruit damage below six percent (Pasqualini et a j \ , 1992).
These authors termed this an 'advanced' strategy to distinguish it
from an 'intermediate' strategy employing insect growth regulators
and Bt which, like conventional management, gave four percent fruit
damage. An additional problem associated wi th the switch to such
49
compound
quarantine
controlled
Ul
quarantine
priced fru
manageme
ecological
Acknowle
T w o of us
f rom the
(Australia)
LEVEL OF PESTICIDE USE Prophylactic Fleduced Low /Nil
GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS
Zadoks(1993)
Hill (1984)
Tail (1987)
Chemism
Efficiency
Environmentalism —-
Substitution Redesign
Routine Rational Integrated Biological pest pest pest systems management management management
TREE FRUIT / APPLE CLASSIFICATIONS
Carden(1987)
Prokopy et a! (1990)
Pasqualini et al (1992)
Tette and Jacobsen (1992)
Low
Supervised control
First-stage IPM
Classic integrated control
Second-stage -IPM
Intermediate Advanced integrated integrated control
SUSTAINABILITY
control
Biologically intensive IPM
High
Fig. 1 Classification Schemes for Pest Management
51
References
AMI 'S , B. N. A N D
757.
A N O N . (1990). Fru
8-9.
ANON. (1991). Pes
Australia.
ASANTE, S. K. AN
(Hald) as a
(Hausm.) in
Sustainable
CSIRO, Aus
ASQUITH, D., CR
systems app
and stone fr
144, Wiley,
AUDEMARD, II. (
Their Biolo
Evenhuis, E
AULD, M. E. (1992). Food risk communication: lessons from the Alar controversy. Health
Education Research 5, 535-543.
BAILEY, P. (1991). Insect growth regulators: alternatives to broad spectrum pesticides. In:
Proceedings, 1st National Conference of the Australian Society of Horticultural
Science, Sydney. Australia. 30 September-3 October, 1991. (A. Clift and M. Daniels,
Eds), pp. 415-421, Australian Society of Horticultural Science, Sydney, Australia.
BALASUBRAMANIAN, S., MISRA, R. P. AND PA WAR, A. D. (1991). Laboratory trials
on differential susceptibility of apple varieties to the attack of codling moth (Cydia
pomonella). Plant Protection Bulletin. Faribadad 43, 24-25.
BARNES, B. (1991). Organic farming. Can deciduous fruit growers survive the pest
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