AP Psychology Module 2 Notes

5/21/2018 AP Psychology Module 2 Notes

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AP Psychology

Chapter Two -

NeuroscienceSeth Adler


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Table of Contents

2.1 ......................................................................................................................................................................... 3

GENERATING THE MESSAGE ............................................................................................................................................. 5

2.2 ......................................................................................................................................................................... 7

DRUGS ......................................................................................................................................................................... 8

NEUROTRANSMITTERS ..................................................................................................................................................... 8

REUPTAKE AND ENZYMES ................................................................................................................................................. 9

2.3 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 10

STEM CELLS ................................................................................................................................................................ 10

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................. 11

THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM ..................................................................................................................................... 11

THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................ 11

THE SYMPATHETIC DIVISION ........................................................................................................................................... 11

THE PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION .................................................................................................................................... 11

2.5 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 15

CLINICAL STUDIES ......................................................................................................................................................... 15

THE EEG .................................................................................................................................................................... 15

CTSCANS ................................................................................................................................................................... 15

MRISCANS ................................................................................................................................................................ 16

PETSCANS ................................................................................................................................................................. 16

FUNCTIONAL MRI(FMRI) ............................................................................................................................................. 16

THE HINDBRAIN ........................................................................................................................................................... 17

PONS ......................................................................................................................................................................... 17

THE RETICULAR FORMATION .......................................................................................................................................... 17CEREBELLUM ............................................................................................................................................................... 18

2.7 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 18

STRUCTURES UNDER THE CORTEX .................................................................................................................................... 18

LIMBIC SYSTEM ............................................................................................................................................................ 18

THALAMUS ................................................................................................................................................................. 19

HYPOTHALAMUS .......................................................................................................................................................... 19

HIPPOCAMPUS............................................................................................................................................................. 19

AMYGDALA ................................................................................................................................................................. 19

THE CORTEX ................................................................................................................................................................ 19

2.8 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 20

THE LOBES AND THEIR SPECIALTIES .................................................................................................................................. 20

OCCIPITAL LOBES ......................................................................................................................................................... 20

PARIETAL LOBES ........................................................................................................................................................... 20

TEMPORAL LOBES......................................................................................................................................................... 21

FRONTAL LOBES ........................................................................................................................................................... 21

2.9 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 21


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THE ASSOCIATION AREAS OF THE CORTEX ......................................................................................................................... 21

BROCAS AREA ............................................................................................................................................................ 21

WERNICKES AREA ....................................................................................................................................................... 21

2.10 ..................................................................................................................................................................... 22

SPLIT-BRAIN RESEARCH ................................................................................................................................................. 22

2.11 ..................................................................................................................................................................... 23

THE PITUITARY,MASTER OF THE HORMONAL UNIVERSE ...................................................................................................... 23

THE PINEAL GLAND ...................................................................................................................................................... 23

THE THYROID GLAND .................................................................................................................................................... 24

PANCREAS .................................................................................................................................................................. 24

THE GONADS .............................................................................................................................................................. 24

THE ADRENAL GLANDS .................................................................................................................................................. 24

MIRROR NEURONS ....................................................................................................................................................... 25

SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................................... 25

INDEX .................................................................................................................................................................. 27


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2.1

Nervous SystemA network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body

The field of neuroscience is a branch of the life sciences that deals with the structure and functioning of

the brain and the neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue.

Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1887) was a doctor who first theorized that the nervous system was made of

individual cells

The neuron is the specialized cell in the nervous system that receives and sends messages. The parts of

the neuron that receives messages from other cells are called the dendrites (meaning branch). The

dendrites are attached to the cell body, or soma, which is the part of the cell that contains the nucleus

and keeps the cell alive. The axon (Greek: axis) is a fiber attached to the soma to carry messages out to

other cells.


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The brain has 10% of it being neurons and the rest are glial cells, which are a structure for the neurons

to develop. Different types include those that get nutrients to the neurons, clean up dead neurons, and

providing insolation to neurons.

Myelin is made up of oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. Oligodendrocytes produce myelin in the

brain and spinal cord and the Schwann cells produce myelin in the neurons in the body. Myelin is a type

of glial cell. Myelin wraps around the shaft of the axons to form a protective sheath. The axons do most

of the moving and the somas are near the spinal cord. The axons of those various neurons travel

together without touching each other directly. Its like a power cable. Bundles of myelin-coated axons

travel together in cables called nerves.

Myelin also protects the neuron from damage and speeds up the messages. The places where the

myelin seem to bump into each other are actually small spaces on the axon called nodes which are not

covered with myelin. When the electrical impulse travels down an axon coated with myelin, it jumps

between the sections which makes it faster. The disease called multiple sclerosis damages the myelin

sheath leading to a loss of function in those cells.

Axons of neurons in the body are also coated in a thin membrane called the neurilemma (Schwannsmembrane). This surrounds the axon and the myelin sheath to serve as a tunnel to repair damaged

nerve fibers. This is why a severed toe can regain some function yet the brain and spine cannot because

they are not coated with this.


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Neuroanatomy Function

DendritesBranching fibers or extensions of the neuron thatreceive information from sensory receptors or otherneurons. Also conducts impulses toward the soma.

Soma (also known as the cellbody)

Central area of the neuron that contains the nucleus

and other structures common to all cells such asmitochondria. It tells the neuron whether to fire ornot.

Axon

Single, long fiber that extends from the soma to theterminal buttons. Information passes down the axonto other neurons or gland cells.

(Bundles of axons coming from many neurons arewhat we call nerves)

Myelin SheathLayer of fatty tissue (lipids) that insulates andprotects the axon, and speed up neural impulses.

Terminal Buttons (also

known as axon terminals,synaptic knobs, or axonbuds)

The branches at the end of the axon, which contain

the neurotransmitters, release them, and send themacross the synapse.

VessiclesSmall, bubbly sacs located inside the terminal buttonsthat house the neurotransmitters and suck up excess

neurotransmitters during the process of reuptake.

Synapse (also known assynaptic gap or synapticcleft)

The space in between each neuron.Remember: neurons never touch.

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps between the myelin sheath where sodium andpotassium ions pass through during an action

potential. Location where "electrical" conduction takes

place.

Generating the Message

A neuron thats at rest is electrically charged. The inside of the cell is a semiliquid solution with charged

particles. The semiliquid surrounding the outside of the cell also has ions. The ions in the cell are mostly

negative while the ions outside are positive. The cell membrane is semipermeable, meaning some

substances can enter through tiny openings. Outside the cell are positively charged sodium ions that are

unable to enter the cell when it is at rest. Since the ions are attracted to each other, the sodium ions

will cluster around the membrane making electrical potential.

When a cell is resting (resting potential), the sodium ions are outside the cell. They cannot enter

because their gates have not opened yet. When the cell receives are strong stimulation from another

cell (the dendrites are active), the cell membrane opens the gates one after another. This causes the

cell to become positive. This electrical charge reversal will start at the part of the axon closest to the


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soma and provide to another axon in a chain reaction. This is called the action potential and each

sequence can take 2 to 270 miles per hour.

Since the cell is positively charged, it needs to become negative again. After the action potential

sequence has passed, the gates to allow the sodium ions immediately close. The cell membrane starts

to pump the positive sodium ions back out with positively charged potassium ions inside the neurons tospeed up the process. Since the cell is negatively charged again, it is capable of firing off another

message.

Each neuron is receiving many signals from other neurons, some which cause the neuron to fire and

others to prevent it. If the fire messages are great enough, the threshold is crossed and the neuron fires

in an all-or-none fashion. Like a light switch, on or off, no in between. A strong message will cause the

neurons to fire repeatedly and more neurons involved (more pain).


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2.2

The end of the axon fans out into several shorter fibers called axon terminals. The tip of each terminal

has a little knob on it, called the synaptic knob (terminal button), that is not empty. Is has saclike

structures called synaptic vesicles. Inside each synaptic vesicle are chemicals in fluid, which are

molecules of substances called neurotransmitters. Between the knob and the dendrite of another

neuron is a fluid-filled space called the synapse or the synaptic gap. The vesicles at the end of the axon

contain the molecules of neurotransmitters while the surface of the dendrite contain locks called

receptor sites. These have a unique shape to only a certain neurotransmitter. To get across the gap,

the neurotransmitters float across the synapse and into the receptor sites, activating the next cell.

Neurons also need to be turned off. Just like muscle can contract and relax, glands are told to secrete or

stop secreting chemicals. The neurotransmitters found at various synapses (around 100 of them) can

either turn cells on ( excitatory effect )( excitatory synapses ) or off ( inhibitory effect )( inhibitory

synapses ).


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Drugs

agonists are chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effect of neurotransmitters on receptors.

This will result in an increase or decrease in the activity of the receiving cell, depending on whether the

original neurotransmitter was excitatory or inhibitory. There are drugs that bind to receptors in the

heart muscle (called beta receptors) that can increase the action causing the contraction of heart valvesto increase. Digoxin is an example.

antagonists are chemical substances that block the cells response to actions caused by

neurotransmitters, whether they are inhibitory or excitatory. The antagonist blocks the inhibitory

effect.

Neurotransmitters

The first neurotransmitter to be identified was acetylcholine. It is found between neurons and musclecells and cause the skeletal muscles to contract but also slows contractions in the heart. If their

receptor sites are blocked by antagonist, then the muscles become paralyzed. That is what happens in

the drug, curare, used in Indian blow darts. The nervous systems major excitatoryneurotransmitter is

glutamate, which is involved in learning and memory. GABA (gamma-aminobutyic acid) is the most

common neurotransmitter that produces inhibition to the brain. It can calm anxiety. Alcohol is an

agonist for GABA. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter associated with sleep, mood, and appetite.

Dopamine is found in the brain and if there is too much, it causes schizophrenia, and too little causes

Parkinsonsdisease. Neural regulators or neural peptides are neurotransmitter that control the release

of other neurotransmitters. Endorphins are pain-controlling chemicals in the body that sends

neurotransmitters when there is pain. Some drugs, like morphine and heroin, cause the body to stopproducing endorphins so everything hurts. This is called withdrawal.


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Reuptake and Enzymes

Since the neurotransmitter have to get out of the receptors for the next stimulation, some diffuse and

others end up back in the synaptic vesicles in a process called reuptake in a suction manner. Cocaine

will block this process. Because acetylcholine is responsible for muscle activity and needs to be cleared

fast, enzymes will break apart the acetylcholine in a process called enzymatic degradation.

If not enough serotonin is produced, then people become depressed. Most drugs to treat this are called

SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors). They block the reuptake of serotonin leaving more of it

available to bond with the receptor sites.


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2.3

The brain

Core of the nervous system

The Spinal Cord

A long bundle of neurons that serves 2 functions for the system

The outer part is made of myelinated axons and nerves

o White

o

Purpose is to carry messages from and to the body and the brain

The inner part is made of neurons

o Gray

The Reflex ARC: Three Types of Neurons

Inside of the spinal cord is like a primitive brain

Reflexes

afferent (sensory) neuronscarry messages from the body to the spinal cord

efferent (motor) neuronscarry messages from the spinal cord to the muscles

interneuronsconnect the afferent and efferent neurons

o Make up most of the brain and spinal cord

Afferent neurons access the spinal cord, efferent neurons exit.

neuroplasticitythe ability to change the structure and function of cells in response to trauma.

Dendrites grow and synapses are formed in some areas of the brain as we learn things

throughout life.

Stem Cells

stem cells can become other cells, such as blood, nerve, or brain cells. Many are obtained from human

embryos. They can help make cures for Parkinsonsand Alzheimers. President George W. Bush(2001)

said that federal funding will fund stem cell research using existing cell lines. In 2004, the House

proposed a bill called the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act, which would allow researchers to use

donated embryos. In 2006, President Bushvetoes it. President Barack Obama(2009) reversed the

2001 limitations on stem cell lines. Stem cells are also found in bone marrow. Stem cells that are

embryotic are more like plastic.


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2.4

The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made up of all the nerves and neurons not in the brain or spine.

This system is divided into the somatic nervous system (thought controlled) and the autonomic nervous

system (ANS) (reflexes).

The Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system is made up of the sensory pathway, which is all the nerves carrying

messages from the senses to the central nervous system, and the motor pathway, the nerves carrying

messages from the central nervous system to the voluntary muscles (skeletal). The involuntary muscles

(heart, stomach) are controlled by nerves near the spinal cord, call the autonomic nervous system.

The Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic

division.

The Sympathetic Division

Located on the middle of the spinal column.

Fight or flight response

Deal with stress

Pupils dilate and the heart and lungs pump faster.

The Parasympathetic Division

Eat-drink-and-rest system

The neurons are located at the top and bottom of the spinal cord

Restores the body to normal functioning after a stressful event

Slows the heart rate and breathing an constricts pupils

Feel hungry

Day-to-day functions


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Nervous System

Central NervousSystem

Brain Spine

Afferent (to) and

Efferent (away)neurons

PeripherialNervous System

Somatic NervousSystem (thought)

Sensory Pathway

(from the senses)

Motor Pathway(to voluntary

muscles)

AutonomicNervous System

(reflex)

Sympathetic

Division (fight orflight)

ParasymphatheticDivision (relax)


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2.5

French surgeon Paul Broca(1861) performed autopsies and located the speech center of the brain.

Clinical Studies

One way to get an idea about various areas of the brain is to study animals with damages to those areas.

After the animal is anesthetized, a thin wire is surgically inserted into the brain. If the goal is to destroy

the part of the brain, then a strong electrical current is passed though. This is called deep lesioning. If

the goal is to stimulate the area, then a milder current is passed though causing the neurons to react.

This is called electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB).

The EEG

A harmless way to study the activity of the living brain is to record the electrical activity of the cortex

just below the skull by using an electroencephalograph (EEG). Small metal disks electrodes are placed

on the scalp using a jelly like substance to conduct electrical messages from the cortex just below. These

electrodes are connected to an amplifier and then to a computer to view the information.

Beta waves are fast and irregular and indicate waking activity. Slower waves are called alpha waves and

are a sign of relaxation. Theta waves are associated with drowsiness and delta waves, which are the

longest, indicated deep sleep.

Scientists have developed a new technique involving the way EEG recordings are interpreted. Thisprocess, called Independent Component Analysis (ICA), allows identification of individual signals coming

from different areas of the brain. It allows for a more detailed interpretation. Another technique,

known as event-related potentials (ERPs), that average the results of multiple presentations of a

stimulus to remove the variations in random brain activity. They are being used to follow the

progression of Alzheimersdisease and lie detection.

CT Scans

The EEG only allows researchers to look at the activity on the surface of the brain. CT scans, which stand

for computer tomography (or mapping slices) ,can look inside the brain by taking a series of X-rays of

the brain. They can show stroke damage, tumors, injuries, and abnormal brain structure.


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MRI Scans

A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides more detail of the brain than a CT scan. The person gets

in a machine that generate a magnetic field, which then creates a 3D image.

PET Scans

A PET scan (position emission tomography) will show a brain in action. A person is injected with a

radioactive glucose (a kind of sugar) that the computer detects to find the activity of the brain cells by

looking at which cells are using up the glucose. The computer uses colors to indicate the activity level; a

light color will indicate active activity and a dark blue color the opposite.

Functional MRI (fMRI)

A technique called functional MRI (fMRI) is when the computer tacks the changes in the oxygen levels of

the blood. They are usually clearer than regular MRIs. By placing this picture of where the oxygen goes

in the brain on top of a picture of the brains structure, researchers can tell what areas of the brain are

active.


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2.6

The Hindbrain

The medulla is located at the top of the spinal column. It controls life sustaining functions, such as

heartbeat, breathing, and swallowing. Here, the sensory nerves from both sides of the body cross over.

Pons

The pons is the larger swelling above the medulla. This term means bridge. It brings the messages from

the brain to the body and allows for the movements. This also influences sleep and dreaming.

The Reticular Formation

The reticular formation (RF) is an area of neurons located between the medulla and the pons. The RF

allows people to ignore constant information, like the air conditioning noise, and notice if something

stops, like the air conditioner turns off. The RF also controls the alertness in people. The reticular

activating system (RAS) is part of the RF that stimulates the upper part of the brain. People with ADHD

usually have a problem with this. If the RF is electrocuted, the person awakes. If it is destroyed, the

person goes into a coma


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Cerebellum

The cerebellum is located below the main part of the brain and looks like a little brain. This part of the

brain controls all involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement. This controls all the little muscles allowing a

person to sit upright. Also controls walking, typing, diving, and speech. Learned reflexes and skills are

also stored here, making them a habit. A disease called spinocerebellar degeneration affects thecerebellum and symptoms include tremors, unsteady walk, slurred speech, and muscle weakness.

2.7

Structures under the Cortex

Limbic System

The limbic system includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala. This system is

involved in emotions, motivation, and learning.


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Thalamus

Triage is the process of sorting injured people into groups based on their need for immediate medical

treatment. The thalamus is like a triage nurse. It sorts incoming sensory information before sending it

where it needs to go. Damage to this part may result in the loss of the senses. The sense of smell is

unique in that it does not pass though the thalamus, but goes directly to the olfactory bulbs.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus regulates body temperature, thirst, hunger, sleeping and waking, sexual activity, and

emotions. It is right above the pituitary gland and controls it, regulating the hormones in the body.

Hippocampus

The hippocampus is a Greek word for seahorse and is located on each side of the brain. The

hippocampus also forms long-term memories. Acetylcholine is also involved in the memory function of

the hippocampus. People who have Alzheimershave lower levels of acetylcholine in the hippocampusand the drugs given to these people boost the levels of acetylcholine. Deterioration in the hippocampal

area may spread and affect other areas, like the parahippocampal gyrus, which is where memories of

the locations of objects are stored. This area is used when planning a trip of finding a parked car.

Amy gdal a

The amygdala is located near the hippocampus responsible for fear and fear responses. In 1939,

researchers found that when it is removed from moneys, they do not become afraid of snakes or

humans. This effects is known as the Kluver-Bucy syndrome.

The Cortex

The cortex is the outermost part of the brain. It is the wrinkled part that most people think of. It is

pinkish-grayish and is 1/10 of an inch thick. It is made up of tightly packed neurons. It is wrinkled to

allow for more area of cortical cells to exist in the small space. As the brain develops before birth, a

smooth outer covering on all the other brain structures start for form and that is the cortex. As it gets

more wrinkled, that is called corticalization, and is the measure of human intelligence.


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2.8

The Lobes and Their Specialties

The cortex is divided into 2 sections called the cerebral hemispheres, which are connected by a thick,

tough band of neural fibers (axons), called the corpus callosum.

Occipital Lobes

The occipital lobe is located at the back of the brain and at the base of the cortex. This area processes

visual information from the eyes in the primary visual cortex and the part of the brain that identifies the

visual information is the visual association cortex. Oliver Sacksonce had a patient who had a tumor in

his right occupational lobe. He could still see objects, but just did not know what they were. If a persongets hit in the back of the head, he could see stars.

Parietal Lobes

The parietal lobes (parietal: wall) are at the top and back of the brain. This area contains the

somatosensory cortex, an area of neurons that are responsible for processing information from the skin

and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, and body position. The cells are arranged opposite


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than you would think. The cells at the top of the brain receive information from the bottom on the body

and vice versa.

Temporal Lobes

The temporal lobes (temporal: near the temples) are found just behind the temples of the head. These

lobes contain the primary auditory cortex and the auditory association area. If a person gets hit in the

side of the head, he can hear ringing sounds. The temporal lobe also contains the area for language and

sense of taste.

Frontal Lobes

The frontal lobes are at the front of the brain. This is where all the higher mental functions take place.

Controls planning, personality, memory storage, decision making, emotions. The frontal lobes also

contain the motor cortex, which are a band of neurons located at the back of each lobe that control the

movement of voluntary muscles.

2.9

The Association Areas of the Cortex

The association areas are made of neurons that are devoted to making connections between sensory

information coming into the brain and stored memory and knowledge. Association help people make

sense of incoming sensory input.

Brocas Area

In the left frontal lobe of most people is an area devoted to the production of speech. This is called

Brocas Areaafter Paul Broca(1800) first studied people with damage to this area. Damage to this area

causes a person to be unable to speak fluently. They understand what to say, it just doesnt come out.

This is called Brocas aphasia. Aphasia refers to an inability to use written or spoken language.

Wernickes Area

In the left temporal lobe is an area called Werniches area, named after Carl Wernichewho first studied

problems from damage to this area. This area is involved in understanding the meaning of words. A

person with Werniches aphasiawould be able to speak fluently but use incorrect words. Oh, thats so

Saturday hard.


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Spatial neglect is when a person has a stroke on one side of the brain (mostly the right) and it causes

them not to notice the opposite (left) side of their body. They understand when you point it out but

they are not blind.

2.10

The cerebrum is the upper, larger part of the brain with two hemispheres

Split-Brain Research

Roger Sperrywas a pioneer in the field of hemisphere specialization. He won a Nobel prize for his work

in showing that the left and right hemispheres are different when he was looking for a cure for epilepsy.

Springerand Deutsch(1998) found that the left hemisphere processes information in sequences and is

good at breaking things down or performing analysis. The right hemisphere, by contrast, looks at things

at a whole and processes information all at once.


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2.11

The Pituitary, Master of the Hormonal Universe

The pituitary gland is located in the brain, just under the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland is themaster gland and controls all of the other endocrine glands. Hormones include producing milk and

growing.

The Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is located near the back of the brain. It secretes a hormone called melatonin at night to

influence the sleep cycle.

LeftHemisphere

RightHemisphere

Left Hand

Holistic view

Facial recognition

Artistic

Right hand

Analysis

Break down

Math


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The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is located in the neck and secretes a hormone called thyroxin to regulate metabolism

(how fast the body burns energy).

Pancreas

The pancreas controls the level of blood sugar by secreting insulin and glucagons. If too little insulin is

secreted, it results in diabetes. If there is too much insulin, it results in hypoglycemia, or low blood

sugar, which causes a person to always feel hungry.

The Gonads

The gonads are the sex glands. They regulate sexual behavior and reproduction.

The Adrenal Glands

The two adrenal glands (renal:kidney) are located on top of the kidneys and contain two sections, the

adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex. The adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine

to aid when people are under stress. The adrenal cortex produces over 30 different hormones, called

corticoids or steroids. They regulate salt intake, control stress reactions, and provide some sex

hormones. Cortisol is released when the body experiences stress.


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Mirror Neurons

Monkey see, monkey cortexdo. Giacomo Rizzolattiwanted to examine neural activity in monkeys

and wanted to determine which neurons controlled movements in the hands. The same neurons fired

when the monkey picked up food and when they saw humans pick up food. These premotor cortex

neurons, which fire when someone does something and sees the same thing performed by another, arecalled mirror neurons.

These are why we feel pain if someone gets hit or we are happy when other people are happy. This is

why babies imitate the facial expressions of adults. If a person has a stroke, some studies find that when

they need to relearn a motor skill, watching another person perform that skill can help. Autism may be

because of a fault in the mirror system. They cannot emphasize with other people and do not feel what

they feel.

Summary

How the nervous system, nerves, and neurons relate to one another.

Parts of the neuron.

How and when a neuron fires.

Neural communication (Action potential and the process)

Presynaptic vs. Postsynaptic neurons.

Neurotransmitters.

Excitatory vs. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters.

Agonists vs. Antagonists

How the brain and spinal cord interact.

The two functions of the spinal cord.

The three types of neurons.

The parts of the nervous system:

o CNS

o PNS

o Somatic


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o Autonomic

o Sympathetic

o Parasympathetic

Neuro-imaging methods:

o EEG

o PET scan

o CAT scan (CT scan)

o MRI

o fMRI

Brain structures and what they do:

o Lower

o Midbrain

o Limbic System

o Cerebral cortex

o Wernickes and Brocas area

o

Association areas

How the left brain differs from the right.

Endocrine system:

o Glands

o Hormones (released into blood stream)


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Index

A

acetylcholine, 8, 9, 20

action potential, 5, 6

adrenal cortex, 25

adrenal glands, 25

adrenal medulla, 25

afferent, 10

agonist, 8

agonists, 7

alpha waves, 16

Alzheimers, 11, 16, 20

amygdala, 19, 20

antagonist, 8

antagonists, 8

association areas, 22

auditory association area, 22

autonomic nervous system, 11, 12

axon, 3, 4, 5, 7

axon terminals, 7

B

Beta waves, 16

brain, 3, 4, 8, 10, 11, 16, 17, 18, 19,

20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27

Broca, Paul, 16, 22Brocas aphasia, 22

Brocas Area, 2, 22

C

cerebellum, 19

cerebral hemispheres, 21

cerebrum, 23

corpus callosum, 21

cortex, 16, 20, 21, 26, 27

corticalization, 20

corticoids, 25Cortisol, 25

CT scans, 16

D

deep lesioning, 16

dendrites, 3, 5

Deutsch, 23

Dopamine, 8

E

efferent, 10

electrical stimulation of the brain,

16

electroencephalograph, 16

enzymatic degradation, 9

epinephrine, 25

event-related potentials, 16

excitatory, 7, 8

F

fMRI, 1, 17, 27

frontal lobes, 22

G

GABA, 8

glial cells, 4

glucagons, 25

glutamate, 8

gonads, 25

Hhippocampus, 19, 20

hypothalamus, 19, 20, 24

I

Independent Component Analysis,

16

inhibitory, 7, 8

insulin, 25

interneurons, 10

K

Kluver-Bucy syndrome, 20

L

limbic system, 19

M

medulla, 18

melatonin, 24

mirror neurons, 26

motor cortex, 22

motor pathway, 11

MRI, 1, 17, 27

multiple sclerosis, 4

Myelin, 4, 5

N

nerves, 3, 4, 5, 10, 11, 18, 26nervous system, 3, 8, 10, 26

Nervous System, 1, 3, 11, 12

neural peptides, 8

neurilemma, 4

neuron, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 26

neuroplasticity, 10

neuroscience, 3

neurotransmitter, 7, 8

neurotransmitters, 5, 7, 8

nodes, 4

norepinephrine, 25

O

occipital lobe, 21

olfactory bulbs, 20

oligodendrocytes, 4

P

pancreas, 25

parahippocampal gyrus, 20

parasympathetic division, 12

parietal lobes, 21

Parkinsons, 8, 11

peripheral nervous system, 11

PET scan, 17, 27

pineal gland, 24

pituitary gland, 20, 24

pons, 18

President Barack Obama, 11

President Bush, 11


29/29

President George W. Bush, 11

primary auditory cortex, 22

primary visual cortex, 21

R

receptor sites, 7, 8, 9resting potential, 5

reticular activating system, 18

reticular formation, 18

reuptake, 5, 8, 9

RF, 18

Rizzolatti, Giacomo, 26

S

Santiago Ramon y Cajal, 3

Schwann cells, 4

sensory pathway, 11serotonin, 9

Serotonin, 8

soma, 3, 5, 6

somatic nervous system, 11

somatosensory cortex, 21

Spatial neglect, 23

Sperry, Roger, 23

spinal cord, 4, 10, 11, 12, 26

spinocerebellar degeneration, 19

Springer, 23

Stem Cell Research Enhancement

Act, 11

stem cells, 11

sympathetic division, 12

synaptic gap, 5, 7

synaptic knob, 7

synaptic vesicles, 7, 8

T

temporal lobes, 22

thalamus, 19, 20

Theta waves, 16

thyroid gland, 25

thyroxin, 25Triage, 20

V

visual association cortex, 21

W

Werniche, Carl, 22

Werniches aphasia, 22

Werniches area, 22

withdrawal, 8

AP Psychology Module 2 Notes

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