Name _________________________________________ Hr. ___

AP Psychology Midterm Review

Perspectives

Structural Elements of the mind. Searching for structural elements through introspection (Titchener).

Functional How mental and behavioral process function. (James and Calkins).

Evolutionary Behaviors are based on what would give an individual the best chance of survival. Darwinism.

Gestalt Understand laws behind the ability to acquire and maintain meaningful perceptions in a chaotic world. (Modern study of perception).

Behavioral Behavior is learned. Classical conditioning – Pavlov dog. Operant conditioning – B.F Skinner (reward vs punishment).

Cognitive Behavior as a result of interpretation, perception, and memories.

Psychoanalytic/dynamic Unconscious mind is what controls the majority of our cognition and behavior. (Freud)

Neuroscience Behavior is a result of genetic background, nervous system, and immune system. (Think genetics, hormones, and neurotransmitters).

Humanistic Human behavior and that we choose majority of our behaviors. (Maslow and rogers) Hierarchy of needs.

Describe introspection and its theorist

Wilhelm Wundt (developed) Titchener protégé utilized more scientific approach of introspection. Introspection = looking

inward and the self-reflective process used to discover elements of the mind.

Describe what industrial-organizational psychology study?

Study and advise on behavior in the workplace.

Research and Statistic

Draw the bell curve with the percentage of distribution

Draw a bell curve of a positive skewed date, label the mean and median and mode

What is standard deviation?

Measuring how much scores deviate from one another. Much more informative than mean alone.

Design a study with an independent variable, dependent variable, and a control

The effect of the new hydra max water drink to increase test scores

Condition Independent variable Dependent variable

Experimental Hydra max water drink Test scores

Control Plain Water Test Scores

Design a correlation study

Student class attendance in order to predict grade success

Define: population, random sample, random selection

Population = whole group

Random sample = every person in group has equal chance of participating

Random selection = how participants are chosen or selected from the population

List the American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines for using animals in research

Ensuring the comfort, health, and humane treatment

Minimizing infection, illness, and pain

List the American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines for human volunteers in research

1. Informed consent

2. Protect from harm or discomfort

3. Confidentiality

4. Fully Explain findings upon completion

Distinguish between cross sectional and longitudinal studies

Cross-Sectional Longitudinal

One point in time Overtime

Different samples Same sample

Change at societal level Change at individual level

Neuroscience

Describe the firing of a neuron

A neuron fires an impulse when it receives signals from the sense receptors or when stimulated by chemical messages

from neighboring neurons. Action potential is the impulse – electrical charge travels down the axon.

What is the function of myelin sheath?

Insulate axon. Speed up impulse.

List sympathetic reactions that are in response to a stressful situation

Distinguish the diagnoses of Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia

Let's start with Broca's area, which is located in the frontal lobe. Broca's area is the motor speech area and it helps in

movements required to produce speech. When there is an issue in this area, a patient can understand the speech of

others, but can't produce any speech him or her self. This is called Broca's aphasia.

Wernicke's area, which is located in the parietal and temporal lobe, is the sensory area. It helps in understanding speech

and using the correct words to express our thoughts. When there is an issue in this area, a patient may be able to

produce speech, but cannot understand the speech of others. This is called Wernicke's aphasia.

What are the characteristics of Alzheimer and the neurotransmitter related to it.

Alzheimer’s is a type of dementia that causes problems with memory, thinking, and behavior. Acetylcholine (ACh) plays

a major role in learning and memory - neurons deteriorate with Alzheimer’s disease.

Function

Thalamus Sensory switchboard. Receives information from all the senses (except smell).

Corpus callosum Band of neural fibers that connects left and right hemispheres.

Association area Integrate information. Associate various sensory inputs with stored memories.

Hypothalamus Body maintenance. Hunger, thirst, body temperature, sexual behavior.

Hippocampus In limbic system. Primary for memory (long-term) and regulating emotion.

Reticular activating system

Interconnected nuclei located throughout brainstem (spinal cord to thalamus). Involved with arousal.

Medulla oblongata Heartbeat and breathing. Continuation of spinal cord within the skull.

Brain lobes and their function

Distinguish between the right and left hemisphere

Left controls right--------right controls left

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) MRI creates an image of the brain structure. fMRI is a series of MRIs that measures both the structure and the functional activity of the brain through computer adaptation of multiple images. Specifically, the fMRI measures signal changes in the brain that are due to changing neural activity.

Computed tomography (CT) CT, or CAT scans, are special X-ray tests that produce cross-sectional images of the body using X-rays and a computer.

Positron emission tomography (PET) measure levels of the sugar glucose in the brain in order to illustrate where neural firing is taking place

Electroencephalography (EEG) Used to show brain activity in certain psychological states, such as alertness or drowsiness. It is useful in the diagnosis of seizures and other medical problems that involve an overabundance or lack of activity in certain parts of the brain.

Development

Describe Piaget’s theory on development

Describe the findings of Harry Harlow

After observing the infant monkeys over time, it was found that even though the infants received nourishment from the wire mesh mother, they still spent more time cuddling and being affectionate with the terry cloth mother. This shows that the bond between mother and infant was not solely based on whether the former is able to give the latter’s physiological needs.

Furthermore, the results of the second experiment showed that while the infants from both groups consumed the same amount of milk from their mother, the infants who grew up with the terry cloth mother exhibited emotional attachment and what is considered as normal behavior when presented with stressful variables. Whenever they felt threatened, they would come close to the terry cloth mother and cuddle with it until the monkeys were calm.

Describe the findings of Eleanor Gibson

Visual Cliff! - established that infants can perceive depth by the time they learn to crawl.

Describe Kohlberg’s theory of development

Describe Erik Erikson’s theory of development

What is a schema?

A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information

Parenting Styles

Distinguish between accommodation, adaption, and assimilation

Assimilation

– Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.

Accommodation

– This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.

Sensation and Perception

Describe the functioning of the lens.

Changes shape to help focus shape on retina.

What is the function of rods and cones?

Comparison Chart

Rods Cones

Shape Rods are the rod-shaped photoreceptors. Cons are the cone shaped photoreceptors.

Function Rods provide the vision in the dim light (night). Cones provide the vision in the bright light (daylight).

Quantity Out of the total 125 million photoreceptors in the human eye, around 120 million photoreceptors are rods.

5 million are cones.

Location Rods are located near the periphery of the retina. Cones are present in the center of the retina.

Deficiency Lack or deficiency of the rhodopsin, which is the pigment in the rods can cause night blindness.

Lack or deficiency of iodopsin, the pigment present in the cones can result in the color blindness.

What is the vestibular sense and semicircular canal?

Vestibular sense monitors the head’s position and movement.

Semicircular canal - three fluid-filled bony channels in the inner ear. They are situated at right angles to each other and

provide information about orientation to the brain to help maintain balance.

Distinguish between retinal disparity and convergence

Retinal disparity is defined as the way that your left eye and your right eye view slightly different images.

Convergence refers to the eyes' disposition to rotate inward toward each other in a coordinated manner in order to

focus effectively on nearby objects.

Distinguish between just noticeable difference, absolute threshold, difference threshold, signal detection

Absolute threshold – minimum amount of stimulation necessary to detect 50% of the time.

Signal detection theory – predicts when one would detect weak signals. Why we respond differently to the same stimuli,

and why the same persons reactions vary as circumstance change.

Difference threshold – AKA= just-noticeable difference or JND is the amount something must be changed in order for a

difference to be noticeable, detectable at least half the time (absolute threshold).

Describe an example of sensory adaption.

Our diminishing sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus.

Ex= enter a room that has a strange smell, after minutes of being in the room you no longer notice it.

What is selective attention?

Selective attention is the process of focusing on a particular object in the environment for a certain period of time.

Attention is a limited resource, so selective attention allows us to tune out unimportant details and focus on what really

matters.

Describe after images

Afterimage, visual illusion in which retinal impressions persist after the removal of a stimulus, believed to be caused by

the continued activation of the visual system. The afterimage may be positive, corresponding in color or brightness to

the original image, or negative, being less bright or of colors complementary to the original. A common afterimage is the

spot of light one sees after a camera flash has been fired

Describe gate control theory

The gate control theory of pain asserts that non-painful input closes the "gates" to painful input, which prevents pain

sensation from traveling to the central nervous system

Pain is a function of the balance between the information traveling into the spinal cord through large and small nerve

fibers.

Describe the finding of color blindness

Color blindness is a vision defect wherein the eye perceives some colors differently than others. This condition may be

hereditary or may be caused by a disease of the optic nerve or retina.

Color blindness can be classified as inherited, partial or complete. Inherited color blindness is most common in males,

affecting both eyes but does not worsen over time - in other words, once you have it, you have it. Partial color blindness

affects some colors while complete color blindness, which is a rare condition, affects all your color vision. Some color

blinded people, for example, see red instead of green or blue instead of yellow.

Linear perspective Parallel lines appear to converge with distance. The more the lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.

Motion parallax As we move, objects that are actually stable may appear to move. Closer to you = faster it appears to move.

Relative size Depth perception – smaller image (person) being further away if we perceive them as same size

Texture gradient Distortion in size which closer objects have compared to objects farther away. It also involves groups of objects appearing denser as they move farther away. Also could be explained by noticing a certain amount of detail depending on how close something is, giving a sense of depth perception

States of Consciousness

Describe how neurotransmitters can be inhibitory or excitatory and examples of each.

Some neurotransmitters are generally viewed as “excitatory," making a target neuron more likely to fire an action

potential. Others are generally seen as “inhibitory," making a target neuron less likely to fire an action potential. For

instance:

Glutamate is the main excitatory transmitter in the central nervous system.

GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the adult vertebrate brain.

Glycine is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord.

Define hypnosis and what are its uses?

Hypnosis is an altered state of awareness, perception or consciousness that is used, by licensed and trained doctors or

masters prepared individuals, for treating a psychological or physical problem. It is a highly relaxed state. Hypnosis is a

state of inner absorption, concentration and focused attention.

What are circadian rhythm?

24 hour body cycle

What is paradoxical sleep?

REM sleep is characterized by partial paralysis, vivid dreaming, and an EEG that resembles waking brain activity. It is also

referred to as paradoxical sleep because the sleeper, although exhibiting waking-state EEG waves, is harder to arouse

than at any other sleep stage.

What is a stimulant and give examples.

Stimulants are drugs that speed up the activity of the central nervous system. Stimulants are useful in treating many

medical conditions, including ADHD, narcolepsy, asthma, obesity, and depression. There are several types of stimulants,

including caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, and methamphetamines.

Neurotransmitters

Dopamine Movement, learning, attention, and emotion. Too much – Schizophrenia. Not enough – Parkinson’s.

Serotonin Mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Not enough – depression. Prozac – increases as antidepressant.

Gamma Inhibitory. Undersupply – seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Acetylcholine Muscle action, learning, and memory. Alzheimer’s – ACh producing neurons deteriorate.

Endorphins Similar to morphine. Natural opiates. Linked to pain control and pleasure.

Glutamate Excitatory neurotransmitter. Memory. Too much- migraines or seizures.

Motivation and Emotions

Instinct theory the root of all motivations is the motivation to survive

Arousal theory One of the assertions of the arousal theory of motivation is that our levels of arousal can influence our performance. This is commonly referred to as the Yerkes-Dodson Law. The law states that increased levels of arousal will improve performance, but only up until the optimum arousal level is reached

Drive reduction The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

What is catharsis?

A catharsis is an emotional release. According to psychoanalytic theory, this emotional release is linked to a need

to relieve unconscious conflicts. For example, experiencing stress over a work-related situation may cause feelings

of frustration and tension. Rather than vent these feelings inappropriately, the individual may instead release these

feelings in another way, such as through physical activity or another stress relieving activity.

State the sequence of each of the following theories of emotions

The Cannon-Bard theory proposes that emotions and arousal occur at the same time.

The James-Lange theory proposes the emotion is the result of arousal.

Schachter and Singer's two-factor model proposes that arousal and cognition combine to create emotion

Personality

List personality tests used by a psychoanalytical psychologist.

A projective test, in psychology, is a personality test designed to allow a person to respond to ambiguous stimuli,

presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts. This is different from an "objective test" in which

responses are analyzed according to a universal standard (for example, a multiple choice exam) rather than an

individual's judgment. The best known projective test is the Rorschach inkblot test in which a patient is shown an

irregular spot of ink and asked to explain what they see

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a psychological test that assesses personality traits and

psychopathology. It is primarily intended to test people who are suspected of having mental health or other clinical

issues

Describe Freud’s personality structure (id,ego,superego).

Describe the five factor theory of personality