AP Psychology

AP Psychology

3.1 LearningLearningA lasting change in behavior or mental processes as the result of an experienceBehavior can be observedMental processes are more difficult to study

Instincts vs. LearningInstinctsInstincts are unlearned behaviors due to evolutionary programming that are found in almost all members of a speciesExamplebears hibernate, geese migrate, salmon swim upstream to spawnHumansdebated, butGrasping reflex, sucking reflex, pull hand away from fire, blinkingLearningRepresents a significant evolutionary advance over instinctive behaviorEnables humans to acquire new knowledge that can be transferred from one generation to another

Classical ConditioningIvan Pavlov (1849-1936)Russian (later Soviet) physiologist who was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1904 for his research on the digestive system of dogsWhile conducting experimentsPavlov noticed that his dogs tended to salivate before food was actually delivered to their mouths

Classical ConditioningSpent 3 decades532 experiments to studying classical conditioningDiscovered classical conditioning (because first to be extensively studied in psych)Condition = learnedElicit = cause / produce / bring forth

5 Components of Classical Conditioning1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) (US)natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learningPavlov used food as the US because it produced naturally occurring salivation reflexUnlearned stimulus = automatic

5 Components of Classical Conditioning2. Unconditioned Response (UCR) (UR)Unlearned response that is elicited by an USIn Pavlovs experiments, salivation was the UR

5 Components of Classical Conditioning3. Neutral Stimulus (NS)Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learningIn Pavlovs experiments a ringing bell was originally a neutral stimulus.

5 Components of Classical ConditioningConditioned Stimulus (CS)- The CS was originally the NS.When systematically paired with the US, the NS becomes a conditioned (learned) stimulus as it gains the power to cause a responseIn Pavlovs experiments, the ringing bell became a CS when it began to produce the same salivating response that the food once produced

5 Components of Classical Conditioning5. Conditioned Response (CR)A CR is a learned response elicited by the CSPavlov called the process by which a CS elicits a CR acquisitionIn Pavlovs experiments, he paired the ringing bell with food. Originally a NS, the ringing bell became a CS when the dog reacted with a CR by salivatingThe dogs salivation was both an UR and CR**CC is most efficient when the CS immediately precedes the US**

Example of CCToilet flush and showerUS hot waterUR jumping backNS originally the toilet flushCS becomes the toilet flushCR jumping back

John B. Watson Little AlbertTaught baby Albert to fear a ratNS - RatReflex: US (loud noise) UR (cry)Acquisition: NS + US URAcq. Demonstrated:CS (rat) CR (cry)Shows how phobias and human emotions developExtinctionGradual weakening of a conditioned behavior when the CS is not followed by the USExamplePavlov presented the ringing bell without food --- as a result, the ringing bell gradually lost its power to elicit the CR of salivation

Spontaneous RecoveryThe reappearance of an extinguished CR after a time delayExamplePavlov discovered that after a period of time, his dogs began salivating when they heard the sound of the bell **Note the CR reappears at a lower intensityThis shows how difficult it can be to eliminate a CR

GeneralizationOccurs when stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus also elicit the CR (when a new stimulus was not paired with the USExamplePavlov found that a dog conditioned to a low-pitched tone would also respond to a high-pitched toneDiscriminationAbility to distinguish between two similar stimuliExamplestudents have learned different responses to the sound of bells in the classroom, cell phones, and front doorsExamplegardeners demonstrate discrimination when they respond differently to weeds and to flowersGeneralization/DiscriminationExampleA young boy is bitten by his neighbors dogHe runs away when he sees any neighborhood dog (Generalization)He still enjoys playing with his family's pet collie (Discrimination)Higher-order conditioningAka second-order conditioningA CS from one learning trial is paired with a new The new US becomes the new CS capable of eliciting the CR even though it has never been paired with the USExample Pavlov CC a dog to salivate to the sound of a ticking metronome . He then paired the metronome with a black square. After several pairings, the black square produce salivation even though it had never been paired with food.

A rat has already been conditioned to associate the blue stick with a cat odor(US). A red light is flashed on before the blue stick is placed in its cage. The rat displays a second-order conditioned response when just the red tight is turned on. Taste AversionA CC dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the foodMany people have experienced vivid examples of taster aversion

Taste AversionAka Aversive ConditioningNS: foodReflex: US (stomach virus) UR (vomiting)Acquisition: NS + US URAcq. Demonstrated:CS (food) CR (vomiting sick)Taste AversionJohn Garcia experiments (1917)Conducted experiments to demonstrate that taste aversions could be produced in laboratory ratsNS (saccharin-flavored water)US (drug) -> UR (gastrointestinal distress)After recovering from illness, the rats refused to drink the flavored water (taste aversion)

Taste AversionGarcias findings challenged two basic principles of CC1. conditioning only required a single pairing2. conditioning does not always need to be separated by seconds he separated the stimuli by several hours**demonstrated there are biological constraints on conditioning!Taste AversionExample Wolves and Sheep

Operant ConditioningLimitations on Classical ConditioningCC focuses on existing reflexive behaviors that are automatically elicitedLearning, however, involves new behaviors or voluntary actions that classical conditioning cannot explain

Edward L. ThorndikeHis studies on baby chicks and cats were the first systematic investigation of animal learningFocused on how voluntary behaviors are influenced by their consequences

Thorndike and the Law of EffectResponses that lead to satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeatedResponses followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to be repeated

Thorndike Cat in a Puzzle Box

BF SkinnerBehaviorist who believed that psychologists should focus on observable behavior that could be objectively measured and verified

Skinner and Operant ConditioningFormulated the principle of Operant ConditioningOC any active behavior that operated upon the environment to generate consequencesOC is a learning process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences (rewards or punishments) that follow a responseCC (SR) / OC (RS)Skinner BoxThe box is a chamber that includes at least one lever, bar, or key that the animal can manipulate. When the lever is pressed, food, water, or some other type of reinforcement might be dispensed. Other stimuli can also be presented including lights, sounds, and images. In some instances, the floor of the chamber may be electrifiedSkinner Box

Operant Conditioning: ReinforcementReinforcement occurs when a stimulus (reinforcer) follows an active behavior or responseThe reinforcer increases the probability that the behavior or response will be repeated

Positive ReinforcementBehavior is followed by the addition of reinforcing stimulusStimulus increases the probability that the response will occur againNOTE positive does not mean good or desirablePositive like a + signIndicates a response is strengthened because something is added

Examples of + ReinforcementFlawless performance is school play (the operant) / your drama coach applauds and exclaims Bravo! reinforcing stimulus)You earn a A on an AP Psychology Test (the operant) / your teacher writes you a letter (reinforcing stimulus))Negative ReinforcementBehavior or response is followed by the removal of an adverse stimulusNOTE - negative does not mean bad or undesirableNegative like a - signIndicates that a response is strengthened because something is subtracted or removed

Examples of - ReinforcementYou take out the garbage (the operant) to avoid your mothers repeated nagging (aversive stimulus)You put on sunscreen (the operant) to avoid getting sunburned (aversive stimulus)You give your little brother a candy bar (the operant) to prevent him from crying (aversive stimulus)Your little sister is crying (the operant), you hug her and she stops crying (aversive stimulus)

Premack PrincipleDavid PremackStated that the opportunity to engage in a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity

Premack Principle ExamplesYou enjoy playing video games far more than studying for the ACT.Knowing this, you tie the less-preferred activity (studying for the ACT) to your preferred activity (playing video games)You enjoy eating ice cream for dessert far more than eating vegetables.Knowing this, your mother ties the less-desired activity (eating veggies) to your preferred activity (eating ice cream)

Types of ReinforcersPrimary ReinforcersNaturally reinforcing for a speciesExfood, water, shelter, sexSecondary ReinforcersGains effectiveness by a learned association with primary reinforcersExmoney

Types of ReinforcersToken EconomyIndividuals rewarded with tokens that can act as secondary reinforcers. The tokens can be redeemed for rewards and priveledgesElementary Teachers gold stars

Continuous ReinforcementReinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforcedResponses extinguish faster when they are learned through this

ShapingTechnique of strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior until the entire correct routine is displayedUsed by athletic coaches and animal trainers

Intermittent Reinforcement Rewarding of some, but not all, correct responsesAdvantagesMost efficient way to maintain behaviors already learnedAre very resistant to extinctionExample Gambling (very difficult habit to extinguish)

Schedule of ReinforcementRatio SchedulesBased on number of responses

Fixed ratioVariable rationInterval SchedulesBased on responses made within a certain time period

Fixed intervalVariable intervalFixed Ratio ScheduleReinforcement occurs after a predetermined set of responsesProduce high response rates (brief drop-off after reinforcement)Examplesan employer pays workers every three baskets of fruitMario Bros 100 coins = life

Variable Ratio ScheduleReinforcement is unpredictable because the ratio variesHigh response rates and resistant to extinctionExamplesCasino slot machinesGolfDoor-to-door salesman

Fixed Interval ScheduleReinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsedModerate response rates followed by a flurry of activity near the end of each intervalExamplesEmployers paying employees every two weeksTeachers who give a quiz every weekBaking a cake

Variable Interval ScheduleReinforcement occurs unpredictably since the time interval variesProduce low but steady response rates ExamplesTeachers and pop quizzesFishingParent attending to children crying

PunishmentProcess by which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood the behavior being repeated.

Is NOT the same as reinforcementPunishment decreases the likelihood of a behaviorReinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior

Positive PunishmentApplication or adding of an aversive stimulus after a responseExamplesYou arrive late for work (operant) you are docked pay (aversive stimulus)You show off your knowledge by answering all the teachers questions (operant) a popular girl makes a snide remark about you (aversive stimulus)Negative Punishment (Omission Training)Removal or subtraction of a reinforcing stimulus (privilege) NOT negative reinforcement!Negative punishment makes a behavior less likely to happenNegative reinforcement makes a behavior more likely to happenExamplesYou arrive at work late (operant) and are sent home without pay (loss of reinforcing stimulus)You show off your knowledge by answering all the teachers questions (operant) and the popular girl doesnt invite you to her party (loss of reinforcing stimulus)Person who was caught driving while intoxicated also loses her drivers license

Drawbacks of PunishmentCan produce undesirable results (fear, hostility, aggression)Often produces temporary changeCan produce Learned HelplessnessOccurs when a learner feels that it is impossible to escape punishmentLeads to passive feeling hopelessness that may lead to depressionExampleA student is doing poorly in AP PsychNo matter what I do, Im going to fail

Effective Use of PunishmentShould be delivered immediately after the offensive behaviorShould be certainShould be limited and sufficient so that it fits the crimeShould focus on the behavior, not the character, or the offenderComparing CC and OCClassical ConditioningPioneersPavlov and WatsonTypes of BehaviorInvoluntary responsesTiming of StimuliPrecedes the responseS RUse of Rewards/PunishmentDoes not useOperant ConditioningPioneersThorndike and SkinnerTypes of BehaviorVoluntary responsesTiming of StimuliFollows the responseR SUse of Rewards/PunishmentBased on