AP Human Geo Vocab

7/29/2019 AP Human Geo Vocab

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Created by Amy L. Diem

AP Human GeographyInstructor: A. Diem Class, you have a vocab. card for

almost all of these terms.

List of Concepts for AP Human Geography Exam

Unit I. Geography: Its Nature and PerspectivesBasicVocabulary and Concepts

Basic ConceptsChanging attributes of place (built landscape, sequent occupance)

Built landscapesyn. built environment. 1) That part of thephysical surroundings which are people-made or people-organized, such as buildings and other major structures, roads,bridges, and the like, down to lesser objects such as trafficlights, telephone and pillar boxes. 2) That part of the physical

landscape that represents material culture; the buildings roads,bridges, and similar structures large and small of the culturallandscape.

Sequent occupance1) Derwent Whittleseys term for asuccession of stages in the human occupance of an area (he wasalso the guy that did the world climate map). 2) The notion thatsuccessive societies leave their cultural

imprints on a place, each contributing to the cumulative cultural landscape.Cultural attributes

Cultural landscape1) Modifications to the environment byhumans, including the built environment and agricultural

systems, that reflect aspects of their culture. 2) The human-modified natural landscape specifically containing the imprint ofa particular culture or society.

Culture traitA defining characteristic of the culture that isshared by most, if not all, members. (ex: wearing a turban)

Density (arithmetic, physiological)The frequency with whichsomething exists within a given unit of area.

ArithmeticThe total number of people divided by the totalland area.

PhysiologicalThe number of people per unit area ofarableland, which is land suitable for agriculture.

Diffusion (hearth, relocation, expansion, hierarchical, contagious,stimulus)Diffusion is the spread of some phenomenon over spaceand through time from a limited number of origins.

Hearth1)The region from which innovative ideas originate. 2)The area where an idea or cultural trait originates.

Relocation diffusion1) A process in which items beingdiffused leave the originating areas as they move to new areas

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(i.e. the items diffuse with people migrating). 2) The spread of afeature or trend through the bodily movement of people fromone place to another. 3) Spreading through physical movement; sequentialdiffusion process in which the items being diffused are transmitted by their carrier

agents as they evacuate old areas and relocate to new ones.

Expansion diffusion1) A process in which the items beingdiffused remain and often intensify in the origin area as newareas are being affected. (i.e. the items diffuse from person toperson) (ex: religions) 2) The spread of a feature or trend amongpeople from one area to another in a snowballing process. 3) Thespread of an innovation or an idea through a population resulting in an expandingarea of dissemination.

Hierarchical diffusion1) Diffusion of a disease, cultural trait,idea, or innovation from larger to smaller places, leaping overnearby but small places in the early stages. Hierarchicaldiffusion emphasizes the size distribution of urban places (i.e.

the urban hierarchy) in explaining the spread of things over timeand space. (ex: diffusion of AIDs to West Palm Beach, FL) 2) Thespread of a feature or trend from one key person or node ofauthority or power to other persons or places. 3) The spread fromauthority or power to other people. (ex: hip hop music from big cities to small

cities)

Contagious diffusion1) Diffusion of a disease, cultural trait,idea, or innovation that spreads outward from a node orepicenter in wavelike fashion. Contagious diffusion emphasizesthe frictional force of distance in explaining the spread of thingsin time and space. 2) The spread of a disease, innovation, or

cultural trait through direct contact with another person oranother place. 3) The rapid, widespread diffusion of a feature ortrend throughout the population. (Ex: influenza)

Stimulus diffusionThe spread of an underlying principle,even though a specific characteristic is rejected. (ex: diffusion ofa computer mouse from Apple computers to IBM computers)

Direction (absolute, relative) Absolute direction Relative direction

Dispersion/concentration (dispersed/scattered,clustered/agglomerated)1) Geographers are also concerned with thespread of objects in the spatial dimension. The degree of dispersioncan be describe in terms of a continuum ranging from clustered on oneend, through random, to uniform at the other end. 2) Concentration isthe extent of a features spread over space; ranges from clusteredif close together todispersedif far apart. 3) In spatial distributions, the clustering of a phenomenon around acentral location.

Dispersed/scatteredfar apart

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Clustered/agglomeratedclose togetherDistance (absolute, relative)

Absolute distanceThe distance that can be measured with astandard unit of length, such as a mile or kilometer.

Relative distanceA measure of distance that includes the

costs of overcoming the friction of absolute distance separatingtow places. Often relative distance describes the amount ofsocial, cultural, or economic connectivity between two places.

Distribution1) The arrangement of something across the Earths surface. 2) Thearrangement of a feature in space; three main properties of distribution across Earth

include density, concentration, andpattern.Environmental determinismsyn. environmentalism. 1) A 19th andearly 20th c. approach to the study of geography that argued that thegeneral laws sought by human geographers could be found in thephysical sciences. Geography was therefore the study of how thephysical environment caused human activities. 2) The view that the

natural environment has a controlling influence over various aspects ofhuman life, including cultural development.Location (absolute, relative, site, situation, place name)

Absolute locationThe exact position of an object or place,measured within the spatial coordinates of a grid system.

Relative locationThe position of a place relative to placesaround it.

SiteThe absolute location of a place, described by local relief,landforms, and other cultural or physical characteristics.

SituationThe relative location of a place in relation to thephysical and cultural characteristics of the surrounding area andthe connections and interdependencies within that system; aplaces spatial context.

Place nameToponym.Pattern (linear, centralized, random)1) The geometric or regulararrangements of something in a study area. 2) The design or arrangement of phenomena

in earth space.

Linear

Centralized

RandomPhysical attributes (natural landscape)

PossibilismGeographic viewpoint (a response to environmentaldeterminism) that holds that human decision making, not theenvironment, is the crucial factor in cultural development.Nonetheless, possibilists view the environment as providing a set ofbroad constraints that limits the possibilities of human choice.Region (formal/uniform, functional/nodal, perceptual/vernacular)Aregion is an area characterized by similarity or by cohesiveness thatsets it apart from other areas.

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Formal/uniform regionAn area of near uniformity in one orseveral characteristics (ex: Wheat belt, Corn belt, Rust belt,Latin America. Anglo-America)

Functional/nodal region1) A region created by theinteractions between a central node and surrounding locations.

(ex: broadcasting zone); 2) A region defined by the particular set ofactivities or interactions that occur within it; area organized around a focal point.

Perceptual/vernacular regionAn area defined by subjectiveperceptions that reflect the feelings and images about key placecharacteristics. (ex: the South) When these perceptions comefrom the local, ordinary folk, a perceptual region can be called avernacular region.

Scale (implied degree of generalization)SizeSpatial--of or pertaining to space on or near Earths surface.Spatial interaction (accessibility, connectivity, network, distance

decay, friction of distance, time-space compression) AccessibilityThe relative ease with which a destination may

be reached from some other place.

ConnectivityThe degree of economic, social, cultural, orpolitical connection between two places.

NetworksA set of interconnected nodes without a center.

Distance decay-- The declining intensity of an activity withincreasing distance from its point of origin.; The decrease ininteraction between two phenomenon, people, or places as thedistance between them increases.

Friction of distanceA measure of how much absolutedistance affects the interaction between two places.

Time-space compressionA term associated with the work ofDavid Harvey that refers to the social and psychological effectsof living in a world in which time-space convergence has rapidlyreached a high level of intensity.

Geographic ToolsDistortionGeographic Information System (GIS)A set of computer toolsused to capture, store, transform, analyze and display geographic

data.Global Positioning System (GPS) A set of satellites used to helpdetermine location anywhere on the earths surface with a portableelectronic device.Grid (North and South Poles, latitude, parallel, equator, longitude,meridian, prime meridian, international date line)the set of imaginarylines that intersect at right angles to forma coordinate referencesystem for locating points on the surface of the earth.

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Latitudethe angular distance north or south of theequator, defined by lines of latitude, or parallels.

Parallelsanother name for lines of latitude; east-westlines of latitude that run parallel to the equator and thatmark distance north or south of the equator.

equator Longitudethe angular distance east or west of the prime

meridian, defined by lines of longitude, or meridians.

Meridiansanother name for lines of longitude; lines oflongitude that run north-south; all lines of longitude areequal in length and intersect at the poles.

Prime MeridianAn imaginary line passing through theRoyal Observatory in Greenwhich, England, which marksthe 0 degree line of longitude.

International Date LineThe line of longitude thatmarks where each new day begins, centered on the 180th

meridian.MapA two dimensional graphical representation of the surface of theearth (or of events that occur on the earth). Maps are the tool mostuniquely identified with geography; the ability to use and interpretmaps is an essential geographic skill.Map scale--distance on a map relative to distance on Earth.; the ratiobetween the size of an area on a map and the actual size of that samearea on the Earths surface.

Large-scale mapsusually have higher resolution andcover much smaller regions than small scale maps (ex:

South Beach) Small-scale mapsusually depict large areas (ex: state of

Florida)Map types (thematic, statistical, cartogram, dot, choropleth, isoline)

Thematic mapa map that demonstrates a particular featureor single variable. Four types are: dot maps, choropleth maps,proportional symbol maps, and isoline maps.

Cartograma type of thematic map that transforms spacesuch that the political unit with the greatest value for some typeof data is represented by the largest relative area.

Choropleth mapa thematic map in which ranked classes of

some variable are depicted with shading patterns or colors forpredefined zones.

Dot mapa thematic map in which a dot represents somefrequency of the mapped variable.

Isoline mapa thematic map with lines that connect points ofequal values.

Mental mapThe maplike image of the world, country, region, city, orneighborhood a person carries in mind.

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Model--a simplified abstraction of reality, structured to clarify causalrelationships. Geographers use models (e.g., Demographic Transition,Epidemiological Transition, Gravity, Von Thnen, Weber, Stages ofGrowth [Rostow], Concentric Circle [Burgess], Sector [Hoyt], MultipleNuclei, Central Place [Christaller], and so on) to explain patterns, make

informed decisions, and predict future behaviors.ProjectionA systematic method of transferring a spherical surfaceto a flat map.Remote sensingThe use of satellite images of the Earth. 2)Observation and mathematical measurement of the earths surfacesuing aircraft and satellites. The sensors include both photographicimages thermal images, multispectral scanners, and radar images. 3)The observation and mathematical measurement of the Earths surfaceusing aircraft and satellites. .Time zonesThere are 24 times zones. Longitude plays an importantrole in calculating time. Earth is divided into 360 degrees of longitude

(from 0 to 180 west, plus 0 to 180 east). Every 15 degrees oflongitude represent one time zone so that 360 degrees/15 = 24 timezones, one for each hour of the day.

Unit II. PopulationBasic Vocabulary and Concepts

PopulationAge distributionCarrying capacityCohortAll individuals in a certain range.Demographic equation

Demographic momentumsyn. hidden momentum. Continuedpopulation growth long after replacement-level fertility rates havebeen reached. (ex: demographic momentum of India even though birthrates have declined)Demographic regionsDemographic Transition modelA model of population changefrom an equilibrium with high birth rates and high death rates (Stage1); to a stage of rapid population increase marked by high birth ratesand decreased death rates (Stage 2), to a stage of rapid populationdecrease marked by decreasing birth rates and low death rates (Stage3), to a new equilibrium with low birth rates and low death rates

(Stage 4)Dependency ratioDiffusion of fertility controlDisease diffusionDoubling timeEcumeneEpidemiological Transition modelGendered space

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Infant mortality rateNumber of deaths of children under one yearof age per 1,000 live births in a year.J-curveMaladaptationMalthus, ThomasEnglish economist, demographer, and cleric who

suggested that unless self-control, war, or natural disaster checkspopulation, it will inevitably increase faster than will the food suppliesneeded to sustain it. This view is known as Malthusianism.MortalityNatalityNeo-MalthusianOverpopulationPopulation densitiesPopulation distributionsPopulation explosionPopulation projection

Population pyramidA graph showing the number of males andfemales in discrete age cohorts (age categories).Rate of natural increaseS-curveSex ratioStandard of livingSustainabilityUnderpopulationZero population growthA state in which the crude birth rate minusthe crude death rate equals zero. The number of deaths exactlyoffsets the number of births.

MigrationActivity spaceChain migrationCyclic movementDistance decayThe declining intensity of an activity with increasingdistance from its point of origin.ForcedGravity modelA model to predict spatial interaction, where size(population) is directly related to interaction and distance is inverselyrelated to interaction.; A mathematical formula that describes the level

of interaction between two places, based on the size of theirpopulations and their distance from each other.Internal migrationIntervening opportunityThe idea that one place has a demand forsome good or service and two places have a supply of equal price andquality, then the closer of the two suppliers to the buyer will representan intervening opportunity, thereby blocking the third from being ableto share its supply of goods or services. Intervening opportunities are

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frequently utilized because transportation costs usually decrease withproximity.Migration patterns

1 Intercontinental2 Interregional

3 Rural-urbanMigratory movementPeriodic movementPersonal spacePlace utilityPush-pull factors Pull factors are reasons to move to a particularplace. Push factors are reasons to move from a particular place.RefugeeSpace-time prismStep migrationTranshumance

TransmigrationVoluntary

Unit III. Cultural Patterns and Processes, Part 1BasicVocabulary and Concepts

Concepts of CultureAcculturation1) The adoption of cultural traits, such as language,by one group under the influence of another. 2) Cultural modificationresulting from intercultural borrowing. In cultural geography and anthropology, the termis often used to designate the change that occurs in the culture of a less technologically

advanced people when contact is made with a society that is more technologicallyadvanced.Assimilation1) The process through which people lose originallydifferentiating traits, such as dress, speech particularities ormannerisms when they come into contact with another society orculture. Often used to describe immigrant adaptation to new places ofresidence. 2) The process through which people lose originally differentiating traits,such as dress, speech peculiarities or mannerisms, when they come into contact with

another society or culture. Often used to describe immigrant adaptation to new places of

residence.Cultural adaptation-- The complex strategies human groups employ

to live successfully as part of a natural system.Cultural core/periphery patternCultural ecologyThe study of the interactions between societiesand the natural environments they live in.Cultural identityCultural landscapesee Basic Concepts aboveCultural realmCultureThe sum total of the knowledge, attitudes, and habitual

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behavior patterns shared and transmitted by the members of asociety.Culture region--A region defined by similar culture traits and culturallandscape features. (ex: the state of Utah is considered to be aMormon culture region because the population of the state is

dominated by people who practice the Mormon religion andpresumably adhere to its beliefs and values.) Formalcore, periphery

1 Functionalnode2 Vernacular (perceptual)regional self-awareness

Diffusion types1 Expansiondiffusion3 types: hierarchical, contagious,

stimulus

Expansion diffusionthe spread of ideas, innovations,fashion or other phenomenon to surrounding areasthrough contact and exchange

2 Relocation diffusionThe diffusion of ideas, innovations,behaviors and the like from one place to another throughmigration.

Innovation adoptionMaladaptive diffusion (ex: ranch house in New England)Sequent occupance--1) Derwent Whittleseys term for a successionof stages in the human occupance of an area. 2) The notion that successivesocieties leave their cultural

Folk and Popular CultureAdaptive strategyThe unique way in which each culture uses itsparticular physical environment; those aspects of culture that serve toprovide the necessities of life: food, clothing, shelter, and defense.Anglo-American landscape characteristicsArchitectural form

Folk architectureStructures built by members of afolk society or culture in a traditional manner and style,without the assistance of professional architects orblueprints, using locally available raw materials.

Built environment--1) That part of the physical surroundings which

are people-made or people-organized, such as buildings and othermajor structures, roads, bridges, and the like, down to lesser objectssuch as traffic lights, telephone and pillar boxes. 2) That part of thephysical landscape that represents material culture; the buildingsroads, bridges, and similar structures large and small of the culturallandscape.Folk cultureA small, cohesive, stable, isolated, nearly self-sufficientgroup that is homogeneous in custom and race; characterized by a

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strong family or clan structure, order maintained through sanctionsbased in the religion or family, little division of labor other thanbetween sexes, frequent and strong interpersonal relationships, and amaterial culture consisting mainly of handmade goods. It includes bothmaterial and nonmaterial elements. It tends to be concentrated in rural

areas and has little variation over time. Folk cultures are still commonin poorer, underdeveloped countries. (ex: Amish)Folk foodFolk houseMany folk houses survive in the refuge regions ofAmerican and Canadian folk culture. New England folk houses are ofwooden frame construction and shingle siding often covers the exteriorwalls. There are a variety of floor plans, including the New Englandlargehouse, a huge two-and-a-half story house built around a centralchimney and two rooms deep. As Yankees moved westward, theydeveloped the upright-and-wing dwelling. The New England homes areoften massive because of the cold winters which require much of the

work to be done indoors. By contrast, Southern folk homes are smallerand built of notched logs. Many houses in this folk tradition consist oftwo log rooms, with either a double fireplace between, forming asaddlebag house, or an open, roofed breezeway separating the tworooms, called the dogtrothouse. An example of an African-Americanfolk dwelling is the shotgun house, a narrow structure only one room inwidth but two, three, or even four rooms in depth. Canada also offersa variety of traditional folk houses. NOT FINISHEDFolk songsFolk songs are usually composed anonymously andtransmitted orally. A song may be modified from one generation to thenext as conditions change, but the content is most often derived from

events in daily life that are familiar to the majority of the people.FolkloreNonmaterial folk culture; the teaching and wisdom of a folkgroup; the traditional tales, sayings, beliefs, and superstitions that aretransmitted orally.Material cultureAll physical, tangible objects made and used bymembers of a culture group, such as clothing, buildings tools andutensils, instruments, furniture, and artwork; the visible aspect ofculture. Compare:popular culture.Nonmaterial cultureThe wide range of tales, songs, lore, beliefs,superstitions, and customs that passes from generation to generationas part of an oral or written tradition.

Popular cultureA dynamic culture based in large, heterogeneoussocieties permitting considerable individualism, innovation, andchange; having a money-based economy, division of labor intoprofessions, secular institutions of control, and weak interpersonal ties;producing and consuming machine-made goods. It is concentratedmainly in urban areas and changes rapidly over time. Compare:material culture.Survey systems

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Traditional architecture--

LanguageCreoleDialect

Indo-European languagesIsoglossLanguageLanguage familyLanguage groupLanguage subfamilyLingua francaLinguistic diversityMonolingual/multilingualOfficial languagePidgin

ToponymyTrade language

ReligionAnimismBuddhismCargo cult pilgrimageChristianityConfucianismEthnic religionExclave/enclave

FundamentalismGeomancy (feng shui)HadjHinduismInterfaith boundariesIslamJainismJudaismLandscapes of the deadMonotheism/polytheismMormonism

Muslim pilgrimageMuslim populationProselytic religionReincarnationReligion (groups, places)Religious architectural stylesReligious conflictReligious culture hearth

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Religious toponymSacred spaceSecularismShamanismSharia law

ShintoismSikhismSunni/ShiaTaoismTheocracyUniversalizingZoroastrianism

EthnicityAcculturation1) The adoption of cultural traits, such as language,by one group under the influence of another. 2)Cultural modification

resulting from intercultural borrowing. In cultural geography and anthropology, the termis often used to designate the change that occurs in the culture of a less technologically

advanced people when contact is made with a society that is more technologically

advanced.Adaptive strategy-- The unique way in which each culture uses itsparticular physical environment; those aspects of culture that serve toprovide the necessities of life: food, clothing, shelter, and defense.Assimilation1) The process through which people lose originallydifferentiating traits, such as dress, speech particularities ormannerisms when they come into contact with another society orculture. Often used to describe immigrant adaptation to new places of

residence. 2) The process through which people lose originally differentiating traits,such as dress, speech peculiarities or mannerisms, when they come into contact withanother society or culture. Often used to describe immigrant adaptation to new places of

residence.

BarrioSpanish word for neighborhood. Barrioization was definedby geographer James Curtis as the dramatic increase in Hispanicpopulation in a given neighborhood.Chain migrationMigration of people to a specific location becauserelatives or members of the same nationality previously migratedthere. (ex: Finns in Lake Worth; Poles in Chicago) It results in theformation of ethnic neighborhoods.

Cultural adaptationThe complex strategies human groups employto live successfully as part of a natural system.Cultural shatterbeltsee shatterbeltin Political Organization below.Ethnic cleansingProcess in which more powerful ethnic groupforcibly removes a less powerful one in order to create an ethnicallyhomogenous region.Ethnic conflictEthnic enclave1) Enclave is a residential cluster that results from

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voluntary segregation. (Ex: ethnic neighborhoods such as Chinatown,Little Italy, etc.) 2) An ethnic area which persists over some time butwhich is primarily based on choice and a preservation function inparticular.Ethnic groupA term referring to vertical divisions in a society where

a group, which is part of a larger population, possesses a distinctculture of its own. The members of such a group feel a common origin,real or imaginary, and are frequently set apart by race, religion, ornational origin, or some combination of these.Ethnic homelandEthnic landscapeEthnic neighborhoodAn area within a city containing members ofthe same ethnic background. (Ex: Little Havana in Miami)2)Neighborhood, typically situated in a larger metropolitan city andconstructed by or comprised of a local culture, in which a local culturecan practice its customs.

Ethnicity1) A socially created system of rules about who belongsand who does not belong to a particular group based upon actual orperceived commonality. 2) Identity with a group of people that sharedistinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredityand cultural traditions.EthnocentrismThe attitude that ones own race and culture aresuperior to others.GhettoAn ethnic area which persists because it is based onconstraints and discriminatory action of the charter group. Compare:ghetto in Cities & Urban Land Use below.Plural societyA society in which two or more distinct cultures or

social groups (with different languages, religious beliefs, kinshipsystems) live side by side without mingling in one political unit. Thesegroups constitute different levels of social stratification.Race1) A problematic classification of human begins based on skincolor and other physical characteristics. 2) Identity with a group ofpeople descended from a common ancestor.Segregation-- Spatial separation of specific population subgroupswithin a wider population.Social distanceDistance perceived by individuals or small groupsfrom themselves to other individuals or social groups. In practice it is afunctional distance which involves the spatial separation of two or

more distinct social groups for most activities. This may come aboutby mutual choice or by imposition by the more powerful group.

GenderDowry deathEnfranchisementGendersee Development belowGender gap

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InfanticideLongevity gapMaternal mortality rate

Unit IV. Political Organization of SpaceBasic Vocabulary and

Concepts

AnnexationAntarcticaApartheidA system of forced segregation between races in SouthAfrica in effect until 1993.BalkanizationBorder landscapeBoundary, disputes (definitional, locational, operational, allocational)Boundary, origin (antecedent, subsequent, superimposed, relic)Boundary, process (definition, delimitation, demarcation)

Boundary, type (natural/physical, ethnographic/cultural, geometric)Buffer stateCapitalCentrifugalCentripetalCity-stateColonialismConfederationConference of Berlin (1884)Core/peripheryDecolonization

DevolutionDomino theoryEEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone)Electoral regionsEnclave/exclaveEnclave is also residential clusters that result fromvoluntary segregation. (Ex: ethnic neighborhoods such as Chinatown,Little Italy, etc.)Ethnic conflictEuropean UnionFederalForward capital

FrontierGeopoliticsGerrymanderGlobal commonsHeartland/rimlandImmigrant statesInternational organizationIron Curtain

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IrredentismA movement to reunite a nations homeland when partof it is contained within another state. The piece of homeland that isruled by the other state is known as an irredenta.Israel/PalestineLandlocked

Law of the SeaLebanonMackinder, Halford J.--Manifest destinyMedian-line principleMicrostateMinistateNationNational iconographyNation-stateA state that has the same boundaries as a nation.Nunavut

Raison dtreReapportionmentRegionalismReligious conflictReunificationSatellite stateSelf-determinationShatterbeltA region caught between powerful forces whoseboundaries are continually redefined.SovereigntyStateA political territory equivalent to a country. Necessary

components to qualify as a state include 1) defined boundaries, 2) aneffective government, 3) international recognition of its formalindependence, 4) full sovereignty, 5) organized economy andcirculation system, and 6) permanent resident population.Stateless ethnic groupsStateless nationSuffrageSupranationalismTerritorial disputesTerritorial morphology (compact, fragmented, elongated, prorupt,perforated)

TerritorialityTheocracyTreaty portsUNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea)UnitaryUSSR collapseWomens enfranchisement

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Unit V. Agricultural and Rural Land UseBasic Vocabulary andConcepts

Adaptive strategies--The unique ways in which each culture uses itsparticular physical environment; those aspects of culture that serve toprovide the necessities of life: food, clothing, shelter, and defense.Agrarian--Referring to the culture of agricultural communities and the type oftenure system that determines access to land and the kind of cultivation practicesemployed there.Agribusiness1) An industrialized, corporate form of agricultureorganized into integrated networks of agricultural inputs and outputscontrolled by a small number of large corporations. 2) Commercialagriculture characterized by integration of different steps in the food-processing industry,

usually through ownership by large corporations. 3) A general term for large-scale,mechanized industrial agriculture that is controlled by corporate interests. 4) A set of

economic and political relationships that organizes agro-food production from thedevelopment of seeds to the retailing and consumption of the agricultural product. 5)

Highly mechanized, large-scale farming usually under corporate ownership.Agricultural industrialization--Agricultural landscape--the cultural landscape of agricultural areas.Agricultural location modelsyn.--von Thunen model1) A model thatexplains the location of agricultural activities in a commercial, profit-making economy.

A process of spatial competition allocates various farming activities into rings around acentral market city, with profit-earning capability the determining force in how far a crop

locates from the market. The original (1826)Isolated State model now applies to thecontinental scale and beyond. 2) Model developed by Johann Heinrich von Thunen(1783-1850), German economist and landowner, to explain the forces that control the

prices of agricultural commodities and how those variable prices affect patterns of

agricultural land utilization. 3) Concentric-zone model which describes a situation in

which highly capital-intensive forms of commercial agriculture, such as marketgardening and feedlots, lie nearest to market. The increasingly distant, successive

concentric belts are occupied by progressively less intensive types of agriculture,

represented by dairying, livestock fattening, grain farming, and ranching.Agricultural origins--Agriculture1) The intentional cultivation of crops and raising of

livestock. 2) The deliberate effort to modify a portion of Earths surface through thecultivation of crops and the raising of livestock for sustenance or economic gain. 3) Ascience, an art, and a business directed at the cultivation of crops and the raising of

livestock for sustenance and for profit. 4) The purposeful tending of crops and livestock

in order to produce food and fiber. 5) The science and practice of farming, including thecultivation of the soil and the rearing of livestock.

Animal domestication--The transformation of a wild animal into a domesticatedanimal to gain control over food production. A necessary evolutionary step in the

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development of humankindthe invention of agriculture.

Aquaculture1) The cultivation of fish and shellfish under controlled conditions,usually in coastal lagoons. 2) Production and harvesting of fish and shellfish in land-based ponds.Biorevolution

Biotechnology1) Technique that uses living organisms (or parts of organisms) tomake or modify products, to improve plans and animals, or to develop microorganismsfor specific uses. 2) The use of genetically engineered crops in agriculture and DNA

manipulation in livestock in order to increase production. Increasingly applied to more

advanced states of food production in the form of radiation of meats and vegetables toprolong their freshness.

Collective farmCommercial agriculture (intensive, extensive)1) Agricultureprimarily for the purpose of selling the products for money. 2)Agriculture undertaken primarily to generate products for sale off the farm. 3) Farmingprimarily for sale, not direct consumption.

Intensive agriculture involves small-area farms andranches with high outputs of labor per acre and highoutput per acre. 2) Any agricultural system involving theapplication of large amounts of capital and/or labor per unit of

cultivated land; this may be part of either asubsistence or acommercial economy. 3) The expenditure of much labor and capital on

a piece of land to increase its productivity. In contrast, extensive

agriculture involves less labor and capital.

Extensive agriculture involves large-area farms orranches with low inputs of labor per acre and low outputper acre. 2) A crop or livestock system characterized by low inputs

of labor per unit area of land. It may be part of either asubsistence ora commercialeconomy.

Core/peripherysee Industrialization section below.Crop rotation1) The practice of rotating use of different fields from crop to cropeach year, to avoid exhausting the soil. 2) Method of maintaining soil fertility in which

the fields under cultivation remain the same, but the crop being planted is changed.Cultivation regionsDairying--An agricultural activity involving the raising of livestock, most commonlycows and goats, for dairying products such as mil, cheese, and butter.Debt-for-nature swapDiffusion

Double cropping-- Harvesting twice a year from the same field. (Rubenstein);Practice used in milder climates, where intensive subsistence fields are planted and

harvested more than once a year.Economic activity (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, quinary)

Primary The portion of the economy concerned with the direct extraction ofmaterials from Earths surface, generally through agriculture, althoughsometimes by mining, fishing, and forestry.

Secondary1) Economic activities involving the processing of raw

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materials and their transformation into finished industrial products; the

manufacturing sector. 2) Economic activities that process, transform, fabricated,

or assemble the raw materials derived from primary activities, or that reassemble,refinish, or package manufactured goods

Tertiary1)Economic activities associated with the provision of services

such as transportation, banking, retailing, education, and routine, office-basedjobs. 2) Economic activities involving the sale and exchange of goods andservices.

Quaternary--Economic activities that deal with the handling and processingof knowledge and information. The economic sector in which knowledge-based

jobs are among the fastest growing. Sometimes referred to as white collar jobs.

Quinary-- The economic sector reserved for the very top echelon of anyorganization: the CEO, FEO, research scientists, and the like. These people are

responsible for top-level corporate decisions and exist in an information-rich

environment. These are the gold collar jobs. Not all textbooks distinguish this

sector of the economy as separate from quarternary activities.

Environmental modification (pesticides, soil erosion, desertification) Pesticides

Soil erosion

desertificationExtensive subsistence agriculture (ex: shifting cultivation [slash-and- burn, milpa, swidden], nomadic herding/pastoralism)

Shifting cultivationsyn. Slash-and-burn, milpa, swidden 1)A form of subsistence agriculture in which people shift activity from one field to

another; each field is used for crops for a relatively few years and left fallow fora relatively long period. 2) Cultivation of crops in tropical forest clearings in

which the forest vegetation has been removed by cutting and burning. These

clearings are usually abandoned after a few years in favor of newly clearedforestland. Also known as slash-and-burn agriculture. 3) A system in which

farmers aim to maintain soil fertility by rotating the fields within which

cultivation occurs. 4) Crop production on tropical forest clearings kept incultivation until their quickly declining fertility is lost. Cleared plots are then

abandoned and new sites are prepared. 5) A type of agriculture characterized by

land rotation, in which temporary clearings are sued for several years and thenabandoned to be replaced by new clearings; also known as slash-and-burn

agriculture.

Nomadic herding Migratory but controlled movement of livestocksolely dependent on natural forage. 2) Continuous movement of people with their

livestock in search of forage for their animals.

Pastoralism1) A form of subsistence agriculture based on herdingdomesticated animals. 2) Subsistence activity that involves the breeding and

herding of animals to satisfy the human needs of food, shelter, and clothing.Extractive industryFarm crisis--The financial failure and eventual foreclosure of thousands of familyfarms across the U.S. Midwest.

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Farming--The growing of crops as well as all forms of livestock raising, including theuse of natural vegetation for feeding the animals and the gathering-in of crops, whether

for subsistence or exchange.Feedlot--A factorylike farm devoted to either livestock fattening or dairying; all feedis imported and no crops are grown on the farm.

First agricultural revolution1) The original invention of farmingand domestication of livestock 8,000-14,000 years ago and thesubsequent dispersal of these methods from the source regions. 2) Thefirst period of agricultural advancement and innovation which occurred between 12,000and 14,000 years ago consisting of the practice of cultivating plants in place rather than

migrating to find edible plants in the wild. Cultivation of roots and seeds in place

allowed for the subsequent development of a sedentary form of life and permanentsettlements. In time, the first significant moves toward urbanization and new

governmental forms began to evolve. With the amount of food increasing, the first

recognizable population explosion occurred.Fishing

Food chain--Five central and connected sectors (inputs, production, productprocessing, distribution, and consumption) with four contextual elements acting asexternal mediating forces (the State, international trade, the physical environment, andcredit and finance).ForestryGlobalized agriculture-- A system of food production increasingly dependentupon an economy and set of regulatory practices that are global in scope and

organization.Green Revolutionsyn. the Third Agricultural Revolution. 1) Theapplication of biological science to the development of better strains ofplants and animals for increasing agricultural yields. 2) Rapid diffusion of

new agricultural technology, especially new high-yield seeds and fertilizers. 3) Thesuccessful recent development of higher-yield, fast-growing varieties of rice and othercereals in certain developing countries, which led to increased production per unit area

and a dramatic narrowing of the gap between population growth and food needs. 4) The

export of a technological package of fertilizers and high-yielding seeds, from the core tothe periphery, to increase global agricultural productivity. 5) The recent introduction of

high yield hybrid crops and chemical fertilizers and pesticides into traditional Asian

agricultural systems, most notably paddy rice farming, with attendant increases inproduction and ecological damage.

Growing seasonHunting and gathering1) The collecting of roots, seeds, fruit, and

fiber from wild plants and the hunting and fishing of wild animals. 2)The killing of wild animals and fish as well as the gathering of fruits, roots, nuts, andother plants for sustenance. 3) Activities whereby people feed themselves throughkilling wild animals and fish and gathering fruits, roots, nuts, and other edible plants to

sustain themselves. 4) The killing of wild game and the harvesting of wild plants to

provide food in traditional cultures.Intensive subsistence agriculture1) A form of subsistence agriculture inwhich farmers must expend a relatively large amount of effort to produce the maximum

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feasible yield from a parcel of land. 2) Practice that involves the effective and efficient

useusually through a considerable expenditure of human labor and application of

fertilizerof a small parcel of land in order to maximize crop yield.Intertillage1) Practice of mixing different seeds and seedlings in the sameswidden. 2) The raising of different crops mixed together in the same field, particularly

common inshifting cultivation.Livestock ranching1) The raising of cattle for meat and of sheep for meat andwool.Market gardeningsyn.truck farming; horticultural farming. 1) Farmingdevoted to specialized fruit, vegetable, or vine crops for sale rather than consumption. 2)

Commercial gardening and fruit farming, so named because truckwas a Middle English

word meaning barteringor the exchange of commodities. 3) The intensive production offruits and vegetables for market rather than for canning or processing.

Mediterranean agriculture--Specialized farming of grapes, olives, citrus, figs,and certain vegetables which occurs only in areas where the dry-summer Mediterranean

climate prevails.

Mineral fuelsMiningPlanned economy-- A system of production of goods and services, usuallyconsumed or distributed by a governmental agency, in quantities, at prices, and

in locations determined by the governmental program.Plant domestication--The transformation of a wild plant into a cultivated crop togain control over food production. A necessary evolutionary step in the development of

humankindthe invention of agriculture.

Plantation agriculture--The growing of cash crops on large estates. A plantationis a large farm in tropical and subtropical climates that specializes in the production ofone or two crops for sale, usually to a more developed country (MDC).

Renewable/nonrenewable resources Renewable resources can be used and restored after use or

have an unlimited supply. A natural resource that is potentiallyinexhaustible either because it is constantly (as solar radiation) or periodically (asbiomass) replenished as long as its use does not exceed its maximum sustainable

yield.

Nonrenewable resourcesRural settlement (dispersed, nucleated, building material, villageform)see settlement patterns in Unit VII: Cities below.Sauer, Carl O.Geographer from the University of California atBerkeley who defined the concept of cultural landscape as the

fundamental unit of geographical analysis. The landscape results frominteraction between humans and the physical environment. Sauerargued that virtually no landscape has escaped alteration by humanactivities.Second agricultural revolution1) A period of technological changefrom the 1600s to mid-1990s that started in Western Europe,beginning with preindustrial improvements such as crop rotation andbetter horse collars, and concluding with industrial innovations to

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replace human labor with machines and to supplement naturalfertilizers and pesticides with chemical ones. 2) Most frequently associatedwith changes and improvements in agriculture in England before an during the Industrial

Revolution of the late 18th c., this revolution began as early as the end of the Middle Ages

and extended into the 19th c. The Second Agricultural Revolution both acted as a

stimulus to the Industrial Revolution and benefited from a number of its inventions,including advanced agricultural machinery to replace human and animal labor. New

approaches to crop rotation; the elimination of the open-field system; the awarding ofland to private owners through the Enclosure Acts; the use of fences, walls, and other

boundary identifiers; and the expansion of arable land were key factors in this important

era. Resulted in a population explosion (see J-Curve).SpecializationStaple grainsSuitcase farm--In American commercial grain agriculture, a farm on which noone lives; planting and harvesting is done by hired migratory crews.Survey patterns (long lots, metes and bounds, township-and-range)

Long lots Metes and bounds

Township-and-rangeSustainable yield--The maximum rate at which a renewable resource can beexploited without impairing its ability to be renewed or replenishedThird agricultural revolution (characteristics: mechanization,chemical farming, food manufacturing)-- Began in the 1950s with continuedimprovements in seed and chemical additives combined with advanced agricultural

machinery and computer-based farm management practices which brought higher cropyields with less human labor. Traditional family farms gave way to agribusinesses.

Advances in agriculture have been most pronounced in the developed countries, but an

important exception is the Green Revolution, which brought great increases in grainproduction to the countries of South Asia.

Mechanization-- The replacement of human farm labor with machines.

Chemical farming--Application of synthetic fertilizers to the soiland

herbicides, fungicides, and pesticides to cropsin order to enhance yields.

Food manufacturing-- The observation that in the absence of collective

control over the use of a resource available to all, it is to the advantage of all

users to maximize their separate shares even though their collective pressuresmay diminish total yield or destroy the resource altogether.

Tragedy of the commons-- The observation that in the absence of collectivecontrol over the use of a resource available to all, it is to the advantage of all users to

maximize their separate shares even though their collective pressures may diminish totalyield or destroy the resource altogether.Transhumance--Truck farm--Von Thnen, Johann Heinrich German economist and landownerwho explained the forces that control the prices of agriculturalcommodities and how those prices affected patterns of agriculturalland utilization. (von Thunen model)

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Unit VI. Industrialization and DevelopmentBasic Vocabularyand Concepts

Development

Agricultural labor forcea large number of subsistence farmersindicates a lower level of development whereas the presence ofcommercial agriculture indicates a higher level of development. InLDCs, more than 75% of the people are engaged in primary economicactivities such as agriculture. In MDCs, less than 5% are engaged inprimary activities.Calorie consumption--Daily available calories per capita reflects acountrys food supply. Daily available calories per capita is thedomestic agricultural production plus imports, minus exports andnonfood uses. To maintain a moderate level of physical activity, anaverage individual requires 2360 calories a day, according to the UN

Food and Agricultural Organization. The figure must be adjusted forage, sex, and region of the world. In MDCs, the average personconsumes one-third or more over the required average minimum,while in LDCs, the average person gets only the minimum requirementor less.Core-periphery model-- A model of the economic development process overtime and space that focuses on the evolving relationships between a rich, productive,

innovative core region and a poor, dependent periphery.Cultural convergence--The tendency for cultures to become more alike as theyincreasingly share technology and organizational structure in a modern world united byimproved transportation and communication.

Dependency theory--A school of thought that explains low development levels asbeing a result of the LDCs economic dependency on MDCs. It also stressed that

development be measured in terms of human welfare indicators rather than economicindicators. A school of thought that explains low development levels as being a result of

the LDCs economic dependency on MDCs. It also stressed that development be

measured in terms of human welfare indicators rather than economic indicators.DevelopmentThe process of economic growth, expansion, orrealization of regional resource potential.; The extent to which a society ismaking effective use of resources, both human and natural; the process of growth,

expansion, or realization of potential; bringing regional resources into full productive use.Energy consumption--

Foreign direct investment-- The total of overseas business investments madeby private companies; When an economic entity such as a large transnational

organization decides not simply to market its products in a foreign country but to actually

build a facility there (e.g. factory, distribution center). Ex: Japans Nissan Corporationdecided to build an auto assembly plant in Smyrna, TN.Gender--Social differences between men and women, rather than the anatomical,biological differences between the sexes. Notions of gender differencesthat is, what is

considered feminine or masculinevary greatly over time and space.

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Gross domestic product (GDP)-- The total dollar value of all final goods andservices sold in monetary transactions in a country in a given year, excluding overseas

transactions.Gross national product (GNP)-- The total dollar value of all final goods andservices sold in monetary transactions in a country in a given year, including international

transactions.Human Development Index-- Indicator of level of development for eachcountry, constructed by the United Nations, combining income, literacy, education, and

life expectancy.Levels of developmentMeasures of developmentEconomic measures of developmentinclude the gross domestic product per capita, types of jobs held bypeople, access to raw materials, and ability to purchase consumergoods; social indicators of development include literacy rate andamount of education; and demographic measures of developmentinclude the health and welfare of people in a society, life expectancy,

infant mortality rate, natural increase rate and crude birth rate.Neocolonialism-- When a previously colonized country has become politicallyindependent but remains economically dependent on exporting the same commodities

(raw materials and foodstuffs) as it did during colonization.Physical Quality of Life IndexPurchasing power parity--a method for comparing living standardsbased on the price for equivalent products in different local currencies;A monetary measurement which takes account of what money actually buys in eachcountry.

Rostow, W. W.Stages of Growth modelsyn. Stages of Development modelA

model of economic development that describes a countrysprogression which occurs in five stages transforming them from least-developed to most-developed countries.Technology gap-- The contrast between the technology available in developed coreregions and that present in peripheral areas ofunderdevelopment.Technology transfer-- The diffusion or transfer of technology, usually from amore-developed country to a less-developed country.Third World--World Systems Theory--Theory originated by Immanuel Wallerstein, whoproposed that social change in the developing world is inextricably linked to theeconomic activities of the developed world. In this analysis, the world functions as a

single entity, organized around a new international division of labor in which those livingin poorer countries have little autonomy.

IndustrializationAcid rain-- A growing environmental peril whereby acidified rainwater severelydamages plant and animal life. Caused by the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen that are

released into the atmosphere when coal, oil, and natural gas are burned, especially inmajor manufacturing zones.

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AgglomerationThe grouping together of many firms in the same industry in asingle area for collective or cooperative use of infrastructure and sharing of labor

resources.; A process involving the clustering or concentrating of people or activities.The term often refers to manufacturing plants and businesses that benefit from close

proximity because they share skilled-labor pools and technological and financial

amenities. (Ex: Hollywood movie industryactors, movie studies, and other industrysupport services all located in Hollywood)Agglomeration economies-- The positive economic effects of urbanization andthe local concentration of industry. Cost savings resulting from location near other firms.

Agglomeration diseconomiesmeans the negative economic effects of urbanization andthe local concentration of industry.Air pollutionAluminum industry (factors of production, location)Assembly line production/Fordism-- A highly organized and specializedsystem for organizing industrial production and labor. Named after automobile producer

Henry ford, Fordist production features assembly-line production of standardized

components for mass consumption.; Forms of mass production in which each worker isassigned one specific task to perform repeatedly.

Bid rent theoryBid rent theory indicates how much a person(farmer, householder, retailer, etc.) is prepared to pay for a unit of landat varying distances from the market/city center. It describes thetrade off of cheaper land rents with increased transport costs due toincreased distance from the market/city center . In an urban setting,the highest land values will be found near the city center, or centralbusiness district. Land values away from the city center will decline.Within a city, the city center will have the highest values; a commercialand office zone is found next, then an industrial zone, and finally a

broad residential zone. Population density will be highest toward thecenter because of the high cost of land. Conversely, residential zones,with their lower land costs, will allow a homeowner to purchase arelatively large plot of land for a homesite. The advantages of locatinga business closer to the city center are lower transportation costs andincreased accessibility to activities at the center. These advantagescost the business owner more for the land. For a residential location,the requirement for optimal accessibility to the city center will usuallybe lower than it is for a business.Break-of-bulk point-- A location along a transport route where goods must betransferred from one carrier to another. In a port, the cargoes of oceangoing ships are

unloaded and put on trains, trucks, or perhaps smaller riverboats for inland distribution;The stage of transportation when a bulk shipment is broken into smaller lots and/or

different modes of transportation.Canadian industrial heartlandCarrier efficiencyComparative advantageAposition of global dominance as compared to othercountries.; When one region is relatively more efficient at producing a particular product

compared with other regions.

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Cumulative causation-- Self-sustaining economic growth that builds on itself ascapital, skilled labor, innovation, and services attract and create more of the same.; A

spiral buildup of advantages that occurs in specific geographic settings as a result of thedevelopment of external economies, agglomeration effects, and localization economiesDeglomerationthe opposite of agglomeration; The dispersal of an

industry that formerly existed in an established agglomeration. Itoccurs when firms leave an agglomerated region to start up in adistant, new place. (Ex: after the dot-com bust, some high tech firmsleft San Francisco because the costs of living were so high)DeindustrializationLoss of industrial activity in a region.; A relativedecline in industrial employment in core regions.Economic sectorsEconomies of scaleLower production costs as a result of a largevolume of production.Ecotourism--Responsible travel that does not harm ecosystems or the well-being oflocal people.

Energy resources-- Another factor in the location of industry is the availability ofan energy supply. This factor used to be much more important than it is today. The earlyBritish textile mills, because they depended on water rushing down hillsides to drive the

looms, had few choices in deciding where to locate. The same can be said of early mills

in the northeastern U.S. Today, however, power comes from different sources and can betransmitted via high-voltage electrical lines over long distances. Manufacturers are

therefore able to base location decisions on considerations other than power. Exceptions

occur when an industry needs very large amounts of energyfor example, certain

metallurgical (aluminum and copper processing), chemical industries (fertilizerproduction, phosphate industry in Florida), and hydroelectric plants.

Entrept-- A place, usually a port city, where goods are imported, stored, and

transshipped; a break-of-bulk point.Export processing zone-- Small areas within which especially favorableinvestment and trading conditions are created by governments in order to attract export-oriented industries.Fixed costsFootloose industryManufacturing activities in which cost oftransporting both raw materials and finished product is not importantfor determining the location of the firm.Four Tigers-- The newly industrializing countries of Asia are called the little tigersor Four Tigers. They are Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan. These four

tigers challenge Japans economic dominance of Asia. The forces behind the rise of the

four tigers are tied to the shift of labor-intensive industries to areas with lower laborcosts. They are also the product of government efforts to protect developing industry and

to invest in education and training.Greenhouse effect-- A process in which the increased release of carbon dioxideand other gases into the atmosphere, caused by industrial activity and deforestation,

permits solar short-wave heat radiation to reach the Earths surface but blocks long-wave

outgoing radiation, causing a thermal imbalance and global heating.Growth poles-- Urban centers with attributes that, if augmented by a measure of

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investment support, will stimulate regional economic development in its hinterland.;

Economic activities that are deliberately organized around one or more high-growth

industries.Heartland/RimlandIndustrial location theory

Industrial regions (place, fuel source, characteristics)Industrial RevolutionThe rapid economic and social changes inmanufacturing that resulted after the introduction of the factorysystem to the textile industry in England at the end of the 18 th

century.; Period characterized by the rapid social and economicchanges in manufacturing and agriculture that occurred in Englandduring the late 18th c. and rapidly diffused to other parts of thedeveloping world.Industry (receding, growing)Infrastructure-- The underlying framework of services and amenities needed tofacilitate productive activity.; The foundations of a society: urban centers, transport

networks, communications, energy distribution systems, farms, factories, mines, and suchfacilities as schools, hospitals, postal services, and police and armed forces.International division of labor-- The specialization, by countries, in particularproducts for exports.

Labor-intensive-- An industry for which labor costs represent a large proportion oftotal production costs.Least-cost locationA concept developed by Alfred Weber todescribe the optimal location of a manufacturing establishment inrelation to the costs of transport and labor, and the relativeadvantages of agglomeration or deglomeration.Major manufacturing regionsA region in which manufacturing

activities have clustered together. The major U.S. industrial region hashistorically been in the Great Lakes, which includes the states ofMichigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania.Industrial regions also exist in southeastern Brazil, central England,around Tokyo, Japan, and elsewhere.Manufacturing exportsManufacturing/warehouse location (industrial parks,agglomeration, shared services, zoning, transportation, taxes,environmental considerations)MaquiladorasThose U.S. firms that have factories just outside theU.S./Mexican border in areas that have been specially designated by

the Mexican government. In such areas, factories cheaply assemblegoods for export back to the U.S.Market orientationThe tendency for an industry to locate nearpopulation centers in order to save on transport costs, which usuallyoccurs when the final product is more expensive to transport than theraw materials.Multiplier effect-- syn.multiplier leakage. The process by which industrialprofits flow back to major industrial districts from factories established in outlying

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provinces or countries.; Expansion of economic activity caused by the growth or

expansion of another economic activity. For example, a new basic industry will create

jobs, directly or indirectly, in the non-basic sector.NAFTAOutsourcing--The practice of locating branch plants in foreign countries in order to

take advantage of the cheaper labor there.Ozone depletionPlant location (supplies, just in time delivery)Postindustrial economyThe emerging mode of production andconsumption of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, featuring hugetransnational corporations and localized agglomerations that produceand/or utilize information technology and telecommunications, withgreater employment in tertiary and quaternary services.RefrigerationResource crisisResource orientationsyn. raw material orientation. The tendency

for an industry to locate near the source of raw materials in order tosave on transport costs, which usually occurs when raw materials loseweight in the production process.Special economic zones-- Specific area within a country in which tax incentivesand less stringent environmental regulations are implemented to attract foreign business

and investment (ex: China)Specialized economic zonesSubstitution principle-- In industry, the tendency to substitute one factor ofproduction for another in order to achieve optimum plant location.Threshold/rangesee Cities & Urban Land Use belowTime-space compression-- The reduction in time needed to move information,

people, and goods across earth space.TopocideTrade (complementarity)The actual or potential trade between twoplaces.Transnational corporationA firm that conducts business in at leasttwo separate countries; also known as multinational corporation.Ubiquitous good-- A widely available good that might be added in the process ofmanufacturing at the market since the weight of the finished product would, in this case,

be greater than that of the localized (i.e. nonobiquitous) raw materials of which it iscomposed.Variable costs-- Costs which vary such as energy supply, transport expenses, labor

costs, and other needs which must be considered when locating a secondary industry.Weber, AlfredWeight-gaining industrysyn. bulk-gaining industry. An industry inwhich the final product weighs more or comprises a greater volume than the inputs.Weight-losing industrysyn. bulk-reducing industry. An industry inwhich the final product weighs less or comprises a lower volume than the inputs.

World cities-- Cities in which a disproportionate part of the worlds most importantbusiness is conducted.; A group of cities that form an interconnected, internationally

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dominant system of global control of finance and commerce.

Unit VII. Cities and Urban Land UseBasic Vocabulary andConcepts

AgglomerationIn urban geography, the spatial grouping of peopleor activities for mutual benefit. (see also Industrialization sectionabove)Barriadas1) Illegal housing settlements, usually made up oftemporary shelters, that surround large cities; often referred to assquatter settlements.; 2) Shantytowns in Latin America; Latin Americanrural people build dwellings in settlements on the cities' fringes without permission from

the authorities.Bid-rent theorysee Industrialization section aboveBlockbusting1) A process by which real estate agents convincewhite property owners to sell their houses at low prices because of fear

that black families will soon move into the neighborhood.; 2) An overttactic used by realtors to direct and control growth of black residentialareas in North American cities. It involves the use of scare tactics toincrease the rate of white turnover.CBD (central business district)1) The downtown heart of a centralcity, the CBD is marked by high land values, a concentration ofbusiness and commerce, and the clustering of the tallest buildings. 2)The downtown or nucleus of an urban area. It has the peak valueintersection, the densest land use, the tallest buildings, andtraditionally was the urban areas major concentration of retail, office,and cultural activity.; 3) The downtown or nucleus of a city where

retail stores, offices, and cultural activities are concentrated; buildingdensities are usually quite high and transportation systems converge.;4) The area of the city where retail and office activities are clustered.;The central nucleus of commercial land uses in a city. 5) The centralportion of a city characterized by high-density land uses.Census tract1) An areal unit defined and used by the CensusBureau for the presentation of data. Census tracts incorporate roughly4,000 people, but considerable variation occurs.; 2) An areadelineated by the U.S. Bureau of the Census for which statistics arepublished; in urbanized areas, census tracts correspond roughly toneighborhoods.; 3) Small district used by the U.S. Census Bureau to

survey the population.Centrality1) As a concept applied to location in general, it meansenjoying a state of high accessibility, (i.e. the quality of being at thecenter of a transport system). 2) As applied to urban centers it is arelative measure of the importance of settlements in terms of theration between services provided and the local needs of its inhabitants.CentralizationThe spatial trend whereby people and activitiesconcentrate into a few centers or locations.

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Central place1) A market center for the exchange of services bypeople attracted from the surrounding area.; 2) A settlement in whichcertain products and services are available to consumers.; 3) An urbanor other settlement node whose primary function is to provide goodsand services to the consuming population of its hinterland,

complementary region, or trade area.; 4) Any point or place in theurban hierarchy, such as a town or city, having a certain economicreach or hinterland.; 5) A town or city engaged primarily in the servicestages of production; a regional center.Central-place theory1) A geographic model of the sizes andlocation patterns of settlements that serve as central locations forselling goods and services to hexagonal-shaped market areas.; 2) Atheory formulated by Walter Christaller in the early 1900s that explainsthe size and distribution of cities in terms of a competitive supply ofgoods and services to dispersed populations.; 3) A theory that seeksto explain the relative size and spacing of towns and cities as a

function of peoples shopping behavior.; 4) Theory proposed by WalterChristaller that explains how and where central places in the urbanhierarchy would be functionally and spatially distributed with respectto one another.; 5) A set of models designed to explain the spatialdistribution of urban service centers.Christaller, WalterGerman geographer credited with developingcentral place theory.CityA multifunctional nucleated settlement with a central businessdistrict and both residential and nonresidential land uses.Cityscape1) The landscape of an urban area; the combinedimpression of a citys built and nonbuilt environments.; 2) An urban

landscape.Colonial city1) A city that was deliberately established or developedas an administrative or commercial center by colonial or imperialpowers.; 2) A city founded by colonialism, or an indigenous citywhosestructure is deeply influenced by Western colonialism.CommercializationCommuter zonesyn. commuter belt. The zone from which a citydaily draws workers or commuters from residences outside the city towork in the city.Concentric zone modelsyn. concentric ring model. 1) Model thatdescribes urban environments as a series of rings of distinct land uses

radiating out from a central core, or central business district; 2) Modelthat explains urban land use in a pattern of concentric zones aroundthe city center.; 3) A model of the internal structure of cities in whichsocial groups are spatially arranged in a series of rings.; 4) A modeldescribing urban land uses as a series of circular belts or rings arounda core central business district, each ring housing a distinct type ofland use.; 5) A structural model of the American central city thatsuggests the existence of five concentric land-use rings arranged

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around a common center. 6) A social model that depicts a city as fiveareas bounded by concentric rings.Counterurbanization1) Net migration from urban to rural areas inmore developed countries.; 2) The net loss of population from cities tosmaller towns and rural areas.

Decentralization1)The movement of people, jobs, and activitiesfrom the center or core of a major metropolitan area to suburban andoutlying locations within their daily urban system.; 2) The tendency ofpeople or businesses and industry to locate outside the central city.Deindustrializationsee Industrialization section aboveEarly cities-- As hunters and gatherers became increasingly efficient in gatheringresources, their campsites became semipermanent. As the quantities of domesticatedplants and animals increased, settlements became even more permanent. The first cities

developed in the Middle East. They were farming villages that developed about 10,000

years ago. Two elements were crucial to the formation of cities: the creation of an

agricultural surplus and the development of a stratified social system. NOT FINISHED

Economic base (basic/nonbasic)1) A communitys collection ofbasic industries. 2) The manufacturing and service activities performedby the basic sector of a citys labor force; functions of a city performedto satisfy demands external to the city itself and, in that performance,earning income to support the urban population. The local economy issubdivided into two mutually exclusive sectors:

Basic sectorsyn.-basic activities. 1) Those productsor services of an urban economy that are exportedoutside the city itself, earning income for thecommunity.; 2) Economic activities whose products areexported beyond a regions limits.

Nonbasic sectorsyn.--nonbasic activities. 1) Thoseeconomic activities of an urban unit that supply theresident population with goods and services that haveno export implication. 2) Nonbasic, or service,activities involve production and consumption within theregion.

Edge cities1) Suburban nodes of employment and economicactivity featuring high-rise office space, corporate headquarters,shopping, entertainment, and hotels. Their physical layout is designedfor automobile, not pedestrian, travel.; 2) Cities that are located onthe outskirts of larger cities and serve many of the same functions of

urban areas, but in a sprawling, decentralized suburban environment.;3) Large nodes of office and retail activities on the edge of an urbanarea.; 4) Nodal concentrations of shopping and office space situatedon the outer fringes of metropolitan areas, typically near majorhighway intersections.; 5) A term introduced by American journalistJoel Garreau in order to describe the shifting focus of urbanization inthe U.S. away from the central business district(CBD) toward a newloci of economic activity at the urban fringe. These cities are

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characterized by extensive amounts of office and retail space, fewresidential areas, and modern buildings (less than 30 years old). 6)New urban clusters of economic activity that surrounds our 19th c.downtowns.Emerging citiesCities of a currently developing or emerging

country.Employment structureEntreptsee Industrialization section above.Ethnic neighborhood1) A voluntary community where people oflike origin reside by choice. 2) A small area occupied by a distinctiveminority culture.FavelaShantytown on the outskirts or even well within an urban areain Brazil.Female-headed householdFestival landscape-- syn.--festival settings. In many cities, gentrification effortsfocus on a multiuse redevelopment scheme that is built around a particular setting, often

one with a historical association. Waterfronts are commonly chosen as focal points forthese large scale projects. These complexes integrate retailing, office, and entertainment

activities and incorporate trendy shops, restaurants, bars and nightclubs. They serve assites for concerts, ethnic festivals, and street performances; they also serve as focal points

for the more informal human interactions that we usually associate with urban life. (ex:

Bayside in Miami, Riverwalk in San Antonio, Faneuil Hall in Boston)Gateway city1) Cities that, because of their geographic location,act as ports of entry and distribution centers for large geographicareas.; 2) A city that serves as a link between one country or regionand others because of its physical situation.Gendersee Development section above.

Gentrification1) The upgrading of inner-city neighborhoods andtheir resettlement by upwardly mobile professionals. (ex: City Placewas a gentrification of an area previously characterized by urbandecay.); 2) The trend of middle- and upper-income Americans movinginto city centers and rehabilitating much of the architecture but alsoreplacing low-income populations, and changing the social character ofcertain neighborhoods.; 3) A process of converting an urbanneighborhood from a predominantly low-income renter-occupied areato a predominantly middle-class owner-occupied area.; 4) The invasionof older, centrally located working-class neighborhoods by higher-income households seeking the character and convenience of less

expensive and well-located residences.Ghetto1) During the Middle Ages, a neighborhood in a city set upby law to be inhabited only by Jews; now used to denote a section of acity in which members of any minority group live because of social,legal, or economic pressure.; 2) A forced or voluntary segregatedresidential area housing a racial, ethnic, or religious minority. 3) Anurban region marked by particular ethnic, racial, religious, andeconomic properties, usually (but not always) a low income area. 4) A

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segregated ethnic area within a city forced on the residents bydiscrimination; an involuntary community.Ghettoizationa process occurring in many inner cities in which theybecome dilapidated centers of poverty, as affluent whites move out tothe suburbs and immigrants and people of color vie for scarce jobs and

resources.Globalization1) Actions or processes that involve the entire worldand result in making something worldwide in scope.; 2) The increasinginterconnectedness of different parts of the world through commonprocesses of economic, environmental, political, and cultural change.;3) The expansion of economic, political and cultural activities to thepoint that they become global in scale and impact. This process hasbeen aided by technological advances in transportation, informationmanagement, and telecommunications.Great citiesHigh-tech corridorssee Industrialization section above

Hinterland1) The market area surrounding an urban center, whichthat urban center serves.; 2) The sphere of economic influence of atown or city.; 3) The market area of region served by an urban center.;4) Literally, country behind, a term that applies to a surroundingarea served by an urban center. That center is the focus of goods andservices produced for its hinterland and is its dominant urban influenceas well. In the case of a port city, the hinterland also includes theinland area whose trade flows through that port.; 5) The areasurrounding a city and influence by it. 6) The area surrounding a central place,from which people are attracted to use the places goods and services.Hydraulic civilizationA civilization based on large-scale irrigation.

The hydraulic civilization model, developed by Karl Wittfogel, sees thedevelopment of large-scale irrigation systems as the prime moverbehind urbanization and a class of technical specialists as the firsturban dwellers. Although the hydraulic model fits several areas wherecities first aroseChina, Egypt, and Mesopotamiait cannot be appliedto all urban hearths. In parts of Mesoamerica, for example, an urbancivilization blossomed without widespread irrigated agriculture, andtherefore without a class of technical experts.Indigenous cityA city formed by local forces. Indigenous citiesdeveloped without contact with Western colonial influences. In fact,most evolved long before there were cities in northern Europe.

Precolonial indigenous cities in the New World are restricted to Mexico,Central America, and the Andean highlands. In Africa, there are citiesin the west associated with the Yoruba civilization (Nigeria), along theNile River, cities in a band of Islamic empires in the north, and somesmall cities in the eastern highlands, again associated with Islamicempires. Many were originally laid out according to religious principleswith a sacred precinct in the center.In-fillingsyn. infill development. 1) Higher-density development in

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smaller patches of undeveloped or redevelopable land inside the urbanboundaries.; 2) New building on empty parcels of land within acheckerboard pattern of development.Informal sector1) Economic activities that take place beyondofficial record, not subject to formalized systems of regulation or

remuneration.; 2) That part of a national economy that involvesproductive labor not subject to formal systems of control or payment;economic activity or individual enterprise operating without officialrecognition or measured by official statistics.Infrastructuresee Industrialization section aboveInner cityA loosely defined area close to the city center; an area ofobsolescent and dilapidated housing in multiple occupation, oftenperforming a reception function for new immigrants to the city.Invasion and successionA process of neighborhood changewhereby one social or ethnic group succeeds another.Lateral commuting1) Traveling from one suburb to another in

going from home to work. 2) Pattern of commuting which hasdeveloped along with the evolution of outlying clusters of employmentopportunities. (ex: commuting from suburb to suburb, instead ofsuburb to central business district of larger city)Medieval citiesCities that developed in Europe during the MedievalPeriod and that contain such unique features as extreme density ofdevelopment with narrow buildings and winding streets, an ornatechurch that prominently marks the city center, and high wallssurrounding the city center that provided defense against attack.Megacities1) Cities, mostly characteristic of the developing world,where high population growth and migration have caused them to

explode in population since WWII. All megacities are plagued bychaotic and unplanned growth, terrible pollution, and widespreadpoverty.; 2) Very large cities characterized by both primacy and highcentrality within its national economy.; 3) A large urban region formedas several urban areas spread and merge, such as Boswash, the regionincluding Boston, New York, and Washington, D.C.Megalopolis/conurbation1) Several metropolitan areas that wereoriginally separate but that have joined together to form a large,sprawling urban complex.; 2) A large, sprawled urban complex withcontained open, nonurban land, created through the spread andjoining of separate metropolitan areas. (conurbation: 1) a continuous,

extended urban area formed by the growing together of severalformerly separate, expanding cities.; 2) General term used to identifylarge, multimetropolitan complexes formed by the coalescence of twoor more major urban areas. The Boston-Washington megalopolis alongthe U.S. northeastern seaboard is an outstanding example.)Metropolitan areasyn.-- urban area. 1) Within the U.S., an urbanarea consisting of one or more whole county units, usually containingseveral urbanized areas, or suburbs, that all act together as a coherent

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economic whole.; 2) The entire built-up, nonrural area and itspopulation, including the most recently constructed suburbanappendages. Provides a better picture of the dimensions andpopulation of such an area than the delimited municipality (centralcity) that forms its heart.

Multiple nuclei model1) A model that explains urban land use asorganized around several separate nuclei.; 2) Type of urban formwherein cities have numerous centers of business and cultural activityinstead of only one central place.; 3) Model which suggests that largecities develop by peripheral spread not from one central businessdistrict but from several nodes of growth, each of specialized use. Theseparately expanding use districts eventually coalesce at theirmargins.; 4) The Harris-Ullman model that showed the mid-20th c.American central city consisting of several land-use zones arrangedaround nuclear growth points. 5) A model that depicts a city growingfrom several separate focal points.

Multiplier effectIn urban geography, the expected addition ofnonbasic workers and dependents to a citys total employment andpopulation that accompanies new basic sector employment. (compareto Industrialization section above)Neighborhood1) A district, normally in a city, identified as a socialunit by the face-to-face relationships between its residents. Itrepresents a spatially bounded community and while its boundariesare imprecise, outsiders are more aware of its existence than theresidents. 2) A small social area within a city where residents sharevalues and concerns and interact with one another on a daily basis.New UrbanismA movement to make cities more livable and foster a

greater sense of community by designing compact, pedestrian-friendlyneighborhoods with sidewalks, front porches, and a larger variety ofhousing types and land uses. (Ex: Abacoa)Office parkA cluster of office buildings usually located along aninterstate, often forming the nucleus of an edge city.Peak land value intersectionThe most accessible and costlyparcel of land in the central business district and, therefore, in theentire urbanized area.Planned communitiessyn.master planned communities. Large-scale residential developments that include, in addition toarchitecturally compatible housing units, planned recreational facilities,

schools, and security measures. Many newer residential developmentson the suburban fringe are planned and built as completeneighborhoods by private developers. Most of these communitiesexploit various land-use restrictions and zoning regulations to maintaincontrol over land values, and that homes in these communitiesmaintain their value better than homes elsewhere. (ex: Weston, FL)Preindustrial city--A Western city before the Industrial Revolution;dominant aspect of the city was its imposing religious and

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governmental structures. Preindustrial cities were similar in form,function, and atmosphere. Preindustrial cities did have industries butthey were not manufacturing industries. The industries were small, butthey were often quite numerous.Postindustrial city

Postmodern urban landscape1) Urban landscape which usesolder, historical styles and a sense of lightheartedness and eclecticism.Buildings combine pleasant-looking forms and playful colors to conveynew ideas and to create spaces that are more people-friendly thantheir modernist predecessors. It is a reaction in architectural design tothe feeling of sterile alienation that many people get from modernarchitecture.; 2) Urban landscape which uses a postmodern style ofarch

AP Human Geo Vocab

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