Review For AP Biology Midterm Exam

I. Molecules and Cells

A. Chemistry of LifeA. Water - B. Organic Molecules C. Free Energy Changes D. Enzymes -

B. CellsA. Prokaryotic/Eukaryotic B. Membranes - Subcellular organization

C. Cellular EnergeticsA. Coupled Reactions - B. Fermentation and cellular respiration C. Photosynthesis -basics

II. Heredity and Evolution

Genetics Problems

D. Evolutionary BiologyA. Early evolution of life B. Evidence for evolution C. Mechanisms of evolution

III.Organisms and Populations

E. Diversity of OrganismsA. Evolutionary patterns -B. Survey of the diversity of life C. Phylogenetic relationships D. Evolutionary relationships

IV. Labs – use this website to refresh your memory: http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/

LAB 1-Osmosis and Diffusion LAB 2- Enzyme Catalysis LAB 3- Mitosis and Meiosis LAB 5- Cell Respiration LAB 6- Molecular Biology: pGlo transformation and purification LAB 7- Genetics of Organisms LAB 8- Population Genetics

Data interpretation- can you properly interpret a graph and data table?

AP BIOLOGY MIDTERM Review Questions?

CHAPTERS 1-9,11-25 24 Chapters total (I know you can do it!) Topics: Introduction: Themes in the Study of Life

The Chemical Context of Life Water and the Fitness of the Environment Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life The Structure and Function of Macromolecules An Introduction to Metabolism

Chapter 1 Outcomes: To be able to… Briefly describe unifying themes that pervade the science of biology. Diagram the hierarchy of structural levels in biology. Explain how the properties of life emerge from complex organization. Describe seven emergent properties associated with life. Distinguish between holism and reductionism. Explain how technological breakthroughs contributed to the formulation of the cell

theory and our current knowledge of the cell. Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Explain, in your own words, what is meant by "form fits function." List the five kingdoms of life and distinguish among them. Briefly describe how Charles Darwin's ideas contributed to the conceptual framework of

biology. Outline the scientific method. Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning. Explain how science and technology are interdependent

Chapter 2 Outcomes: To be able to… Define element and compound. State four elements essential to life that make up 96% of living matter. Describe the structure of an atom. Define and distinguish among atomic number, mass number, atomic weight, and

valence. Given the atomic number and mass number of an atom, determine the number of

neutrons. Explain why radioisotopes are important to biologists. Explain how electron configuration influences the chemical behavior of an atom. Explain the octet rule and predict how many bonds an atom might form. Explain why the noble gases are so unreactive. Define electronegativity and explain how it influences the formation of chemical bonds. Distinguish among nonpolar covalent, polar covalent and ionic bonds. Describe the formation of a hydrogen bond and explain how it differs from a covalent or

ionic bond. Explain why weak bonds are important to living organisms. Describe how the relative concentrations of reactants and products affect a chemical

reaction

Chapter 3 Outcomes: To be able to… Describe how water contributes to the fitness of the environment to support life. Describe the structure and geometry of a water molecule, and explain what properties

emerge as a result of this structure. Explain the relationship between the polar nature of water and its ability to form

hydrogen bonds.

List five characteristics of water that are emergent properties resulting from hydrogen bonding.

Describe the biological significance of the cohesiveness of water. Distinguish between heat and temperature. Explain how water's high specific heat, high heat of vaporization and expansion upon

freezing affect both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Explain how the polarity of the water molecule makes it a versatile solvent. Define molarity and list some advantages of measuring substances in moles. Write the equation for the dissociation of water, and explain what is actually transferred

from one molecule to another. Explain the basis for the pH scale. Explain how acids and bases directly or indirectly affect the hydrogen ion concentration

of a solution. Using the bicarbonate buffer system as an example, explain how buffers work. Describe the causes of acid precipitation, and explain how it adversely affects the

fitness of the environment.

Chapter 4 Outcomes: To be able to… Summarize the philosophies of vitalism and mechanism, and explain how they

influenced the development of organic chemistry, as well as mainstream biological thought.

Explain how carbon’s electron configuration determines the kinds and number of bonds carbon will form.

Describe how carbon skeletons may vary, and explain how this variation contributes to the diversity and complexity of organic molecules.

Distinguish among the three types of isomers: structural, geometric and enantiomers. Recognize the major functional groups, and describe the chemical properties of organic

molecules in which they occur.

Chapter 5 Outcomes: To be able to… List the four major classes of biomolecules. Explain how organic polymers contribute to biological diversity. Describe how covalent linkages are formed and broken in organic polymers. Describe the distinguishing characteristics of carbohydrates, and explain how they are

classified. List four characteristics of a sugar. Identify a glycosidic linkage and describe how it is formed. Describe the important biological functions of polysaccharides. Distinguish between the glycosidic linkages found in starch and cellulose, and explain

why the difference is biologically important. Explain what distinguishes lipids from other major classes of macromolecules. Describe the unique properties, building block molecules and biological importance of

the three important groups of lipids: fats, phospholipids and steroids. Identify an ester linkage and describe how it is formed. Distinguish between a saturated and unsaturated fat, and list some unique emergent

properties that are a consequence of these structural differences. Describe the characteristics that distinguish proteins from the other major classes of

macromolecules, and explain the biologically important functions of this group. List and recognize four major components of an amino acid, and explain how amino

acids may be grouped according to the physical and chemical properties of the side chains.

Identify a peptide bond and explain how it is formed. Explain what determines protein conformation and why it is important.

Define primary structure and describe how it may be deduced in the laboratory. Describe the two types of secondary protein structure, and explain the role of hydrogen

bonds in maintaining the structure. Explain how weak interactions and disulfide bridges contribute to tertiary protein

structure. Using collagen and hemoglobin as examples, describe quaternary protein structure. Define denaturation and explain how proteins may be denatured. Describe the characteristics that distinguish nucleic acids from the other major groups

of macromolecules. Summarize the functions of nucleic acids. List the major components of a nucleotide, and describe how these monomers are

linked together to form a nucleic acid. Distinguish between a pyrimidine and a purine. List the functions of nucleotides. Briefly describe the three-dimensional structure of DNA.

Chapter 6 Outcomes: To be able to… Explain the role of catabolic and anabolic pathways in the energy exchanges of cellular

metabolism. Distinguish between kinetic and potential energy. Distinguish between open and closed systems. Explain, in their own words, the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics. Explain why highly ordered living organisms do not violate the Second Law of

Thermodynamics. Distinguish between entropy and enthalpy. Write the Gibbs equation for free energy change. Explain how changes in enthalpy, entropy and temperature influence the maximum

amount of usable energy that can be harvested from a reaction. Explain the usefulness of free energy. List two major factors capable of driving spontaneous processes. Distinguish between exergonic and endergonic reactions. Describe the relationship between equilibrium and free energy change for a reaction. Describe the function of ATP in the cell. List the three components of ATP and identify the major class of macromolecules to

which it belongs. Explain how ATP performs cellular work. Explain why chemical disequilibrium is essential for life. Describe the energy profile of a chemical reaction including activation energy (EA ), free

energy change (G) and transition state. Describe the function of enzymes in biological systems. Explain the relationship between enzyme structure and enzyme specificity. Explain the induced fit model of enzyme function and describe the catalytic cycle of an

enzyme. Describe several mechanisms by which enzymes lower activation energy. Explain how substrate concentration affects the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction. Explain how enzyme activity can be regulated or controlled by environmental

conditions, cofactors, enzyme inhibitors and allosteric regulators. Distinguish between allosteric activation and cooperativity. Explain how metabolic pathways are regulated.

Topic: A Tour of the CellMembrane Structure and FunctionCellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical EnergyCell CommunicationThe Cell Cycle

Chapter 7 Outcomes: To be able to… Describe techniques used to study cell structure and function. Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Describe the structure and function of the nucleus and briefly explain how the nucleus

controls protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. Describe the structure and function of a eukaryotic ribosome. Explain the role of peroxisomes in eukaryotic cells. Describe the structure of a mitochondrion and explain the importance of

compartmentalization in mitochondrial function. Identify the three functional compartments of a chloroplast and explain the importance

of compartmentalization in chloroplast function. Describe probable functions of the cytoskeleton. Explain how the ultrastructure of cilia and flagella relates to their functions. List some functions of glycocalyx in animal cells. Development of plant cell walls.

Chapter 8 Outcomes: To be able to… Describe the function of the plasma membrane. Describe the Davson-Danielli membrane model and explain how it contributed to our

current understanding of membrane structure. Describe the fluid properties of the cell membrane and explain how membrane fluidity is

influenced by membrane composition. Explain how hydrophobic interactions determine membrane structure and function. Describe how proteins are spatially arranged in the cell membrane and how they

contribute to membrane function. Describe factors that affect selective permeability of membranes. Define diffusion. Explain why a concentration gradient across a membrane represents potential energy. Define osmosis and its processes. Define osmotic pressure and explain how it can be measured. Explain how transport proteins are similar to enzymes. Explain how active transport differs from diffusion.

Chapter 9 Outcomes: To be able to… Describe the overall summary equation for cellular respiration. Distinguish between the substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative

phosphorylation. Explain how exergonic oxidation of glucose is coupled to endergonic

synthesis of ATP. Define oxidation and reduction. Explain how redox reactions are involved in energy exchanges.

Chapter 11 Outcomes : To be able to…- Cell Communication

An Overview of Cell Signaling Describe the basic signal-transduction pathway used for mating in yeast. Explain why we believe these pathways evolved before the first multicellular

organisms appeared on Earth. Define paracrine signaling and give an example. Define local regulation and explain why hormones are not local

regulators. Explain how plant and animal hormones travel to target cells. List and briefly define the three stages of cell signaling.

Signal Reception and the Initiation of Transduction Describe the nature of a ligand-receptor interaction and state how such interactions initiate a signal-transduction system. State where signal receptors may be located in target cells. Compare and contrast G-protein-linked receptors, tyrosine-kinase receptors, and ligand-gated ion channels.

Signal-Transduction Pathways Describe two advantages of using a multistep pathway in the transduction stage of

cell signaling. Explain how the original signal molecule can produce a cellular response when it may

not even enter the target cell. Describe how phosphorylation propagates signal information. Explain why a single cell may require hundreds of different protein kinases. Explain how protein phosphatases turn off signal-transduction pathways. Define the term second messenger. Briefly describe the role of these molecules in

signaling pathways. Describe how cyclic AMP is formed and how it propagates signal information in target

cells. Explain how the cholera bacterium causes the symptoms of cholera by disrupting G-

protein-signaling pathways. Describe how the cytosolic concentration of Ca2+ can be altered and how the

increased pool of Ca2+ is involved with signal transduction.

Cellular Responses to Signals Describe how signal information is transduced into cellular responses in the cytoplasm

and in the nucleus. Describe how signal amplification is accomplished in target cells. Explain why different types of cells may respond differently to the same signal molecule. Explain how scaffolding proteins help to coordinate a cell’s response to incoming

signals.

Chapter 12 Outcomes – To be able to… The Cell Cycle

The Key Roles of Cell Division Explain how cell division functions in reproduction, growth, and repair. Describe the structural organization of a prokaryotic and a eukaryotic genome. Describe the major events of cell division that enable the genome of one cell to be

passed on to two daughter cells. Describe how chromosome number changes throughout the human life cycle.

The Mitotic Cell Cycle

List the phases of the cell cycle and describe the sequence of events that occurs during each phase.

List the phases of mitosis and describe the events characteristic of each phase. Recognize the phases of mitosis from diagrams and micrographs. Draw or describe the spindle apparatus, including centrosomes, kinetochore

microtubules, nonkinetochore microtubules, asters, and centrioles (in animal cells). Describe what characteristic changes occur in the spindle apparatus during each phase

of mitosis. Explain the current models for poleward chromosomal movement and elongation of the

cell’s polar axis. Compare cytokinesis in animals and in plants. Describe the process of binary fission in bacteria and explain how eukaryotic mitosis

may have evolved from binary fission. Regulation of the Cell Cycle

Describe the roles of checkpoints, cyclin, Cdk, and MPF in the cell cycle control system. Describe the internal and external factors that influence the cell cycle control system. Explain how the abnormal cell division of cancerous cells escapes normal cell cycle

controls. Distinguish among benign, malignant, and metastatic tumors.

Topic: Meiosis and Sexual Life CyclesMendel and the Gene IdeaThe Chromosomal Basis of InheritanceThe Molecular Basis of InheritanceFrom Gene to Protein

Chapter 13 Outcomes- To be able to… Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles

The Basis of Heredity Explain in general terms how traits are transmitted from parents to offspring. Distinguish between asexual and sexual reproduction.

The Role of Meiosis in Sexual Life Cycles Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:

a. somatic cell and gamete b. autosome and sex chromosome

Explain how haploid and diploid cells differ from each other. State which cells in the human body are diploid and which are haploid.

Explain why fertilization and meiosis must alternate in all sexual life cycles. Distinguish among the three life-cycle patterns characteristic of eukaryotes, and name

one organism that displays each pattern. List the phases of meiosis I and meiosis II and describe the events characteristic of each

phase. Recognize the phases of meiosis from diagrams or micrographs. Describe the process of synapsis during prophase I and explain how genetic

recombination occurs. Describe three events that occur during meiosis I but not during mitosis.

Origins of Genetic Variation Explain how independent assortment, crossing over, and random fertilization contribute

to genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms. Explain why heritable variation is crucial to Darwin ’s theory of evolution by natural

selection.

Chapter 14 Outcomes - To be able to… Mendel and the Gene Idea

Gregor Mendel’s Discoveries Explain how Mendel’s particulate mechanism differed from the blending theory of

inheritance. Define the following terms: true-breeding, hybridization, monohybrid cross, P

generation, F1 generation, and F2 generation. List and explain the four components of Mendel’s hypothesis that led him to deduce the

law of segregation. Use a Punnett square to predict the results of a monohybrid cross, stating the

phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms: dominant and recessive; heterozygous

and homozygous; genotype and phenotype. Explain how a testcross can be used to determine if an individual with the dominant

phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous. Use a Punnett square to predict the results of a dihybrid cross and state the phenotypic

and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation. State Mendel’s law of independent assortment and describe how this law can be

explained by the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis. Use the rule of multiplication to calculate the probability that a particular F2 individual

will be homozygous recessive or dominant. Given a Mendelian cross, use the rule of addition to calculate the probability that a

particular F2 individual will be heterozygous. Use the laws of probability to predict, from a trihybrid cross between two individuals

that are heterozygous for all three traits, what expected proportion of the offspring would be:

a. homozygous dominant for the three traitsb. heterozygous for all three traitsc. homozygous recessive for two specific traits and heterozygous for the third

Explain why it is important that Mendel used large sample sizes in his studies. Give an example of incomplete dominance and explain why it does not support the

blending theory of inheritance. Explain how phenotypic expression of the heterozygote differs with complete

dominance, incomplete dominance, and codominance. Explain why Tay-Sachs disease is considered recessive at the organismal level but

codominant at the molecular level. Explain why genetic dominance does not mean that a dominant allele subdues a

recessive allele. Illustrate your explanation with the use of round versus wrinkled pea seed shape.

Explain why dominant alleles are not necessarily more common in a population. Illustrate your explanation with an example.

Describe the inheritance of the ABO blood system and explain why the IA and IB alleles are said to be codominant.

Define and give examples of pleiotropy and epistasis.

Describe a simple model for polygenic inheritance and explain why most polygenic characters are described in quantitative terms.

Describe how environmental conditions can influence the phenotypic expression of a character.

Explain what is meant by “a norm of reaction.” Distinguish between the specific and broad interpretations of the terms phenotype and

genotype.

Mendelian Inheritance in Humans Explain why studies of human inheritance are not as easily conducted as Mendel’s work

with his peas. Given a simple family pedigree, deduce the genotypes for some of the family members. Explain how a lethal recessive allele can be maintained in a population. Describe the inheritance and expression of cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease, and sickle-

cell disease. Explain why lethal dominant genes are much rarer than lethal recessive genes. Give an example of a late-acting lethal dominant gene in humans and explain how it can

escape elimination by natural selection. Define and give examples of multifactorial disorders in humans. Explain how carrier recognition, fetal testing, and newborn screening can be used in

genetic screening and counseling.

Chapter 15 Outcomes- To be able to…The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance

Relating Mendelian Inheritance to the Behavior of Chromosomes Explain how the observations of cytologists and geneticists provided the basis for the

chromosome theory of inheritance. Explain why Drosophila melanogaster is a good experimental organism for genetic

studies. Explain why linked genes do not assort independently. Distinguish between parental and recombinant phenotypes. Explain how crossing over can unlink genes. Explain how Sturtevant created linkage maps. Define a map unit. Explain why Mendel did not find linkage between seed color and flower color, despite

the fact that these genes are on the same chromosome. Explain how genetic maps are constructed for genes located far apart on a

chromosome. Explain the effect of multiple crossovers between loci. Explain what additional information cytogenetic maps provide.

Sex Chromosomes Describe how sex is genetically determined in humans and explain the significance of

the SRY gene. Distinguish between linked genes and sex-linked genes. Explain why sex-linked diseases are more common in human males. Describe the inheritance patterns and symptoms of color blindness, Duchenne muscular

dystrophy, and hemophilia. Describe the process of X inactivation in female mammals. Explain how this

phenomenon produces the tortoiseshell coloration in cats.

Errors and Exceptions in Chromosomal Inheritance Explain how nondisjunction can lead to aneuploidy. Define trisomy, triploidy, and polyploidy. Explain how these major chromosomal changes

occur and describe possible consequences. Distinguish among deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. Describe the type of chromosomal alterations responsible for the following human

disorders: Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, extra Y, triple-X syndrome, Turner syndrome, cri du chat syndrome, and chronic myelogenous leukemia.

Define genomic imprinting. Describe the evidence that suggests that the Igf2 gene is maternally imprinted.

Explain why extranuclear genes are not inherited in a Mendelian fashion.

Chapter 16 Outcomes- To be able to…The Molecular Basis of Inheritance

DNA as the Genetic Material Explain why researchers originally thought protein was the genetic material. Summarize the experiments performed by the following scientists that provided

evidence that DNA is the genetic material:a. Frederick Griffithb. Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarty, and Colin MacLeodc. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chased. Erwin Chargaff

Explain how Watson and Crick deduced the structure of DNA and describe the evidence they used.

Explain the significance of the research of Rosalind Franklin. Describe the structure of DNA. Explain the base-pairing rule and describe its

significance.

DNA Replication and Repair Describe the semiconservative model of replication and the significance of the

experiments of Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl. Describe the process of DNA replication, including the role of the origins of replication

and replication forks. Explain the role of DNA polymerases in replication. Explain what energy source drives the polymerization of DNA. Define antiparallel and explain why continuous synthesis of both DNA strands is not

possible. Distinguish between the leading strand and the lagging strand. Explain how the lagging strand is synthesized even though DNA polymerase can add

nucleotides only to the 3 prime end. Describe the significance of Okazaki fragments. Explain the roles of DNA ligase, primer, primase, helicase, topoisomerase, and single-

strand binding proteins. Explain why an analogy can be made comparing DNA replication to a locomotive made

of DNA polymerase moving along a railroad track of DNA. Explain the roles of DNA polymerase, mismatch repair enzymes, and nuclease in DNA

proofreading and repair. Describe the structure and function of telomeres. Explain the possible significance of telomerase in germ cells and cancerous cell.

Chapter 17 Outcomes- To be able to…

From Gene to ProteinThe Connection Between Genes and Proteins

Explain why dwarf peas have shorter stems than tall varieties. Explain the reasoning that led Archibald Garrod to first suggest that genes dictate

phenotypes through enzymes. Describe Beadle and Tatum’s experiments with Neurospora and explain the contribution

they made to our understanding of how genes control metabolism. Distinguish between the “one gene-one enzyme” hypothesis and the “one gene-one

polypeptide” hypothesis and explain why the original hypothesis was changed. Explain how RNA differs from DNA. Briefly explain how information flows from gene to protein. Distinguish between transcription and translation. Compare where transcription and translation occur in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes. Define codon and explain the relationship between the linear sequence of codons on

mRNA and the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide. Explain the early techniques used to identify what amino acids are specified by the

triplets UUU, AAA, GGG, and CCC. Explain why polypeptides begin with methionine when they are synthesized. Explain what it means to say that the genetic code is redundant and unambiguous. Explain the significance of the reading frame during translation. Explain the evolutionary significance of a nearly universal genetic code.

The Synthesis and Processing of RNA Explain how RNA polymerase recognizes where transcription should begin. Describe the

promoter, the terminator, and the transcription unit. Explain the general process of transcription, including the three major steps of initiation,

elongation, and termination. Explain how RNA is modified after transcription in eukaryotic cells. Define and explain the role of ribozyme. Describe the functional and evolutionary significance of introns.

The Synthesis of Protein Describe the structure and functions of tRNA. Explain the significance of wobble. Explain how tRNA is joined to the appropriate amino acid. Describe the structure and functions of ribosomes. Describe the process of translation (including initiation, elongation, and termination) and

explain which enzymes, protein factors, and energy sources are needed for each stage. Describe the significance of polyribosomes. Explain what determines the primary structure of a protein and describe how a

polypeptide must be modified before it becomes fully functional. Describe what determines whether a ribosome will be free in the cytosol or attached to

the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Describe two properties of RNA that allow it to perform so many different functions. Compare protein synthesis in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes. Define point mutations. Distinguish between base-pair substitutions and base-pair

insertions. Give examples of each and note the significance of such changes. Describe several examples of mutagens and explain how they cause mutations. Describe the historical evolution of the concept of a gene.

Topic: Microbial Models: genetics of Viruses and BacteriaThe Organization and Control of Eukaryotic Genomes

DNA Technology and GenomicsThe Genetic Basis of Development

Chapter 18 Outcomes- To be able to…Microbial Models: Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria

The Genetics of Viruses Recount the history leading up to the discovery of viruses. Include the contributions of

Adolf Mayer, Dimitri Ivanowsky, Martinus Beijerinck, and Wendell Stanley. List and describe the structural components of viruses. Explain why viruses are obligate intracellular parasites. Explain how a virus identifies its host cell. Describe bacterial defenses against phages. Distinguish between the lytic and lysogenic reproductive cycles, using phage lambda as

an example. Describe the reproductive cycle of an enveloped virus. Explain the reproductive cycle of

the herpesvirus. Describe the reproductive cycle of retroviruses. List some characteristics that viruses share with living organisms and explain why

viruses do not fit our usual definition of life. Describe the evidence that viruses probably evolved from fragments of cellular nucleic

acids. Explain how viral infections in animals cause disease. Describe the best current medical defenses against viruses. Explain how AZT helps to

fight HIV infections. Describe the mechanisms by which new viral diseases emerge. Distinguish between the horizontal and vertical routes of viral transmission in plants. Describe viroids and prions. Explain how a non-replicating protein can act as a transmissible pathogen.

The Genetics of Bacteria

Describe the structure of a bacterial chromosome. Compare the sources of genetic variation in bacteria and humans. Compare the processes of transformation, transduction, and conjugation. Distinguish between generalized and specialized transduction. Define an episome. Explain why a plasmid can be an episome. Explain how the F plasmid controls conjugation in bacteria. Describe the significance of R plasmids. Explain how the widespread use of antibiotics

contributes to R plasmid-related disease. Explain how transposable elements may cause recombination of bacterial DNA. Distinguish between an insertion sequence and a transposon. Describe the role of transposase in the process of transposition. Briefly describe two main strategies that cells use to control metabolism. Explain the adaptive advantage of genes grouped into an operon. Using the trp operon as an example, explain the concept of an operon and the function

of the operator, repressor, and corepressor. Distinguish between structural and regulatory genes. Describe how the lac operon functions and explain the role of the inducer, allolactose. Explain how repressible and inducible enzymes differ and how those differences reflect

differences in the pathways they control. Distinguish between positive and negative control and give examples of each from the

lac operon.

Explain how cyclic AMP and catabolite activator protein are affected by glucose concentration.

Chapter 19 Outcomes - To be able to… The Organization and Control of Eukaryotic Genomes

The Structure of Eukaryotic Chromatin Compare the structure and organization of prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes. Describe the current model for progressive levels of DNA packing in eukaryotes. Explain how histones influence folding in eukaryotic DNA. Distinguish between heterochromatin and euchromatin.

The Control of Gene Expression Explain the relationship between differentiation and differential gene expression. Describe at what level gene expression is generally controlled. Explain how DNA methylation and histone acetylation affect chromatin structure and the

regulation of transcription. Define epigenetic inheritance. Describe the processing of pre-mRNA in eukaryotes. Define control elements and explain how they influence transcription. Distinguish between general and specific transcription factors. Explain the role that promoters, enhancers, activators, and repressors may play in

transcriptional control. Explain how eukaryotic genes can be coordinately expressed and give some examples

of coordinate gene expression in eukaryotes. Describe the process and significance of alternative RNA splicing. Describe factors that influence the life span of mRNA in the cytoplasm. Compare the

longevity of mRNA in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes. Explain how gene expression may be controlled at the translational and post-

translational level. The Molecular Biology of Cancer Distinguish between proto-oncogenes and oncogenes. Describe three genetic changes

that can convert proto-oncogenes into oncogenes. Explain how mutations in tumor-suppressor genes can contribute to cancer. Explain how excessive cell division can result from mutations in the ras proto-

oncogenes. Explain why a mutation knocking out the p53 gene can lead to excessive cell growth

and cancer. Describe three ways that p53 prevents a cell from passing on mutations caused by DNA

damage. Describe the set of genetic factors typically associated with the development of cancer. Explain how viruses can cause cancer. Describe several examples. Explain how inherited cancer alleles can lead to a predisposition to certain cancers. Genome Organization at the DNA Level Describe the structure and functions of the portions of eukaryotic DNA that do not

encode protein or RNA. Distinguish between transposons and retrotransposons. Describe the structure and location of Alu elements in primate genomes. Describe the structure and possible function of simple sequence DNA. Using the genes for rRNA as an example, explain how multigene families of identical

genes can be advantageous for a cell. Using a-globin and b-globin genes as examples, describe how multigene families of

nonidentical genes may have evolved. Define pseudogenes. Explain how such genes may have evolved.

Describe the hypothesis for the evolution of a-lactalbumin from an ancestral lysozyme gene.

Explain how exon shuffling could lead to the formation of new proteins with novel functions.

Describe how transposition of an Alu element may allow the formation of new genetic combinations while retaining gene function.

Chapter 20 Outcome - To be able to… DNA Technology and Genomics

DNA Cloning Explain how advances in recombinant DNA technology have helped scientists study the

eukaryotic genome. Describe the natural function of restriction enzymes and explain how they are used in

recombinant DNA technology. Explain how the creation of sticky ends by restriction enzymes is useful in producing a

recombinant DNA molecule. Outline the procedures for cloning a eukaryotic gene in a bacterial plasmid. Describe techniques that allow identification of recombinant cells that have taken up a

gene of interest. Define and distinguish between genomic libraries using plasmids, phages, and cDNA. Describe the role of an expression vector. Describe two advantages of using yeast cells instead of bacteria as hosts for cloning or

expressing eukaryotic genes. Describe two techniques to introduce recombinant DNA into eukaryotic cells. Describe the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and explain the advantages and

limitations of this procedure. Explain how gel electrophoresis is used to analyze nucleic acids and to distinguish

between two alleles of a gene. Describe the process of nucleic acid hybridization. Describe the Southern blotting procedure and explain how it can be used to detect and

analyze instances of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Explain how RFLP analysis facilitated the process of genomic mapping. DNA Analysis and

Genomics Explain the goals of the Human Genome Project. Explain how linkage mapping, physical mapping, and DNA sequencing each contributed

to the genome mapping project. Describe the alternate approach to whole-genome sequencing pursued by J. Craig

Venter and the Celera Genomics company. Explain how researchers recognize protein-coding genes within DNA sequences. Describe the surprising results of the Human Genome Project. Explain how the vertebrate genome, including that of humans, generates greater

diversity than the genomes of invertebrate organisms. Explain how in vitro mutagenesis and RNA interference help researchers to discover the

functions of some genes. Explain the purposes of gene expression studies. Describe the use of DNA microarray

assays and explain how they facilitate such studies. Define and compare the fields of proteomics and genomics. Explain the significance of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the study of the human

evolution. Practical Applications of DNA Technology

Describe how DNA technology can have medical applications in such areas as the diagnosis of genetic disease, the development of gene therapy, vaccine production, and the development of pharmaceutical products.

Explain how DNA technology is used in the forensic sciences. Describe how gene manipulation has practical applications for environmental and

agricultural work. Describe how plant genes can be manipulated using the Ti plasmid carried by

Agrobacterium as a vector. Explain how DNA technology can be used to improve the nutritional value of crops and

to develop plants that can produce pharmaceutical products. Discuss the safety and ethical questions related to recombinant DNA studies and the

biotechnology industry.

Chapter 21 Outcomes- To be able to…The Genetic Basis of DevelopmentFrom Single Cell to Multicellular Organism

List the animals used as models for developmental biology research and provide a rationale for their choice.

Distinguish between the patterns of morphogenesis in plants and in animals. Differential Gene Expression

Describe how genomic equivalence was determined for plants and animals. Describe what kinds of changes occur to the genome during differentiation. Describe the general process by which the ewe Dolly and the first mice were cloned. Describe the characteristics of stem cells. Explain their significance to medicine. Distinguish between determination and differentiation. Explain why determination

precedes differentiation. Describe the molecular basis of determination. Describe the two sources of information that instruct a cell to express genes at the

appropriate time. Genetic and Cellular Mechanisms of Pattern Formation

Describe how Drosophila was used to investigate the basic aspects of pattern formation (axis formation and segmentation).

Explain how maternal genes affect polarity and development in Drosophila embryos. Describe how gradients of morphogens may specify the axes of developing Drosophila

embryos. Describe how homeotic genes define the anatomical identity of the segments of a

developing organism. Describe how the study of nematodes contributed to an understanding of the role of

induction in development. Describe how apoptosis functions in normal and abnormal development. Describe how the study of tomatoes has contributed to the understanding of flower

development. Describe how the study of Arabidopsis has contributed to the understanding of organ

identity in plants. Provide evidence of the conservation of homeobox patterns.

Topic: Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of LifeThe Evolution of PopulationsThe Origin of Species

Phylogeny and SystematicsIntroduction to Animal EvolutionInvertebratesVertebrate Evolution and Diversity

Chapter 22 Outcomes: To be able to…hap Describe Carolus Linnaeus’ contributions to Darwin’s

theory of evolution.

Explain how Cuvier and his followers used the concept of catastrophism to oppose evolution

Explain how the principle of gradualism of Charles Lyell’s theory of uniformitarianism influenced Darwin’s ideas about evolution.

Describe Jean Lamarck’s model of how adaptations evolve.

Describe how Darwin used his observations from the voyage HMS Beagle to formulate his theory of evolution.

Explain what Darwin meant by the principle of common descent and "descent with modification."

Explain why variation was so important to Darwin’s theory. Distinguish between artificial selection and natural selection Explain why populations is the smallest unit that can evolve. Describe the lines of evidence that Darwin used to support the principle of common

descent

Chapter 23 Outcome- To be able to… The Evolution of PopulationsPopulation Genetics

Explain the statement “It is the population, not the individual, that evolves.” Explain how Mendel’s particulate hypothesis of inheritance provided much-needed

support for Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. Distinguish between discrete and quantitative traits. Explain how Mendel’s laws of

inheritance apply to quantitative traits. Explain what is meant by “the modern synthesis.” Define the terms population, species, and gene pool. Explain why meiosis and random fertilization alone will not alter the frequency of alleles

or genotypes in a population. List the five conditions that must be met for a population to remain in Hardy-Weinberg

equilibrium. Write the Hardy-Weinberg equation. Use the equation to calculate allele frequencies

when the frequency of homozygous recessive individuals in a population is 25%. Mutation and Sexual Recombination Explain why the majority of point mutations are harmless. Explain why mutation has little quantitative effect on allele frequencies in a large

population. Describe the significance of transposons in the generation of genetic variability. Explain how sexual recombination generates genetic variability.

Natural Selection, Genetic Drift, and Gene Flow

Explain the following statement: “Only natural selection leads to the adaptation of organisms to their environment.”

Explain the role of population size in genetic drift. Distinguish between the bottleneck effect and the founder effect. Describe how gene flow can act to reduce genetic differences between adjacent

populations. Genetic Variation, the Substrate for Natural Selection

Explain how quantitative and discrete characters contribute to variation within a population.

Distinguish between average heterozygosity and nucleotide variability. Explain why average heterozygosity tends to be greater than nucleotide variability.

Define a cline. Define relative fitness.

a. Explain why relative fitness is zero for a healthy, long-lived, sterile organism.b. Explain why relative fitness could be high for a short-lived organism.

Distinguish among directional, disruptive, and stabilizing selection. Give an example of each mode of selection.

Explain how diploidy can protect a rare recessive allele from elimination by natural selection.

Describe how heterozygote advantage and frequency-dependent selection promote balanced polymorphism.

Define neutral variations. Explain why natural selection does not act on these alleles. Distinguish between intrasexual selection and intersexual selection. Explain how female preferences for showy male traits may benefit the female. Describe the disadvantages of sexual reproduction. Explain how the genetic variation promoted by sex may be advantageous to individuals

on a generational time scale. List four reasons why natural selection cannot produce perfect organisms.

Chapter 24 Outcomes: To be able to…hap Distinguish between anagenesis and cladogenesis Explain how gene flow between closely related species can be prevented Distinguish between prezygotic and postzygotic isolating mechanisms Describe eight intrinsic isolating mechanisms and give an example of each Explain how hybrid breakdown maintains separate species even if gene flow occurs Distinguish among allopatric and sympatric and parapatric distributions Explain the allopatric speciation model and describe the role of intraspecific

variation and geographical isolation Distinguish between autopolyploidy and allopolyploidy List some points of agreements and disagreements between the two schools of though

about the tempo of speciation (gradualism vs. punctuated equilibrium)

Chapter 25 Outcomes: To be able to… Tracing Phylogeny: Macroevolution, Fossil Record, Systematics

Distinguish between relative dating and absolute dating Explain how preadaptation can result in macroevolutionary

change Explain how modification of regulatory genes can result in

macroevolutionary change Describe importance of evolutionary trends to macroevolution Describe the contributions of Carolus Linneaus made to biology List major taxonomic categories from most to least inclusive

Alfred Wallace

Distinguish between homologous and analogous structures Distinguish between monophyletic and polyphyletic group, and

explain what it is meant by a natural taxonomy.

And that’s all folks…

MAKE SURE YOU DO NOT LEAVE STUDYING TO THE LAST MINUTE!