Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

AP BIOLOGY – PARADE THROUGH THE KINGDOMS-KEY

Complete the questions using the chapters of your textbook Campbell’s Biology (6th

Edition).

CHAPTER 27 – Prokaryotes & The Origin of Metabolic Diversity

PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.

1. How common are prokaryotes on earth?

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2. How do bacterial cell walls differ from plant cell walls?

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3. How does the cell wall aid in classifying the bacteria?

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4. List the methods bacteria use to locomote.

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5. Give an example if a stimulus and describe how bacteria react to that stimulus (taxis).

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6. How do bacteria typically reproduce?

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Their collective biological mass is at least 10 times that of all eukaryotes. They are the dominant species.

Differ in molecular composition and construction. Most have cell walls of peptidoglycan. This molecular fabric encloses the entire bacterium and anchors other molecules that extend from its surface. Archaean cell walls contain a variety of polysaccharides and proteins, but lack peptidoglycan.

Using the gram staining methed we can classify bacteria into 2 groups. Gram + are bacteria with simpler walls and with large amounts of peptidoglycan. Gram – are bacteria with less peptidoglycan and are structurally more complex, with outer membranes that contain lipopolysaccharides.

Flagella (most common); Chemostaxis (movement in response to stimulus)

Movement toward nutrients/oxygen (positive chemotaxis); away from a toxic substance (negative chemotaxis).

Binary fission. The prokaryote replicates its genetic material and then simply divides into 2 equal cells. These in turn do the same thing (4, 8, 16, and so on).

Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

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7. List three methods that can modify bacteria genetically.

a. _______________________________________________________________________

b. _______________________________________________________________________

c. _______________________________________________________________________

8. Identify and briefly define the four nutritional categories of bacteria.

d. _______________________________________________________________________

e. _______________________________________________________________________

f. _______________________________________________________________________

g. _______________________________________________________________________

9. How has molecular systematics lead to classifying prokaryotes into two domains?

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10. What is the ecological significance of prokaryotes?

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a. transformationb. conjugationc. transduction

d. Photoautotrophs – photosynthetic organisms that capture light energy and use it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from CO2.

e. Chemoautotrophs – need only CO2 as a carbon source. Instead of using light for energy, they oxidize inorganic substances, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), or ferrous ions (Fe2+).

f. Photoheterotrophs – use light for energy but must obtain their carbon in organic form.

g. Chemoheterotrophs – consume organic molecules for both energy and carbon.

Using small subunit ribosomal RNA as a marker for evolutionary relationships, Carol Woese and his colleagues concluded that many prokaryotes once classified as bacteria are actually more closely related to eukaryotes and belong in a domain of their own. The domain Archaea was developed for these special prokaryotes.

Decomposers – convert inorganic compounds into forms that can be taken up by other organisms. Nitrogen fixation, O2 production and symbiotic relationships with eukaryotes (mutualism intestines, etc.)

Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

PART 2. Directions: Using Table27.2 on page 512 and the informationin the text, outline the key characteristics that distinguish thethree domains. Include examples oforganisms in each domain.

DOMAIN CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

CHAPTER 28 – The Origins of Eukayotic DiversityDOMAIN CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

Bacteria

Nuclear envelope absentMembrane enclosed organelles absentPeptidoglycan in cell wallsUnbranched hydrocarbons in membrane lipids1 kind of RNA polymeraseFormylmethionine for intiator of amino acidsin protein synthesisIntrons rareAntibiotics inhibit growthCircular chromosome

AlphaBetaGammaDeltaEpsilonChlamydiasSpirochetesCyanobacteriaGram-positive bacteria

Archaea

Nuclear envelope absentMembrane enclosed organelles absentSome branched hydrocarbons in membrane lipidsSeveral kinds of RNA polymeraseMethionine initiator amino acid for protein synthesisIntrons present in some genesAntibiotics do not inhibit growthHave histones & circular chromosom

KorarchaeotesEuryarchaeotesCrenarchaeotesNanoarchaeotes

Eukarya

Nuclear envelope presentMembrane bound organellesUnbranched hydrocarbons in membrane lipidsSeveral kinds of RNA polymeraseMethionine intiator amino acid for protein synthesisAntibiotics do not inhibit growthHistones present

Eukaryotes (plants, animals, protists, fungi)

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Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.

11. Why are Protists said to be the most diverse of all eukaryotes?

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12. What process is thought to be involved in the genesis of eukaryotes from

prokaryotes?

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13. Define serial endosymbiosis?

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14. Why do most systematists currently working on eukaryotic relationships consider Kingdom Protista and the five kingdom system obsolete?_____________________________________________________________________________

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4

They inhibit more structural & functional diversity than any other group of organisms. They are the most nutritionally diverse. Their habitats are diverse.

Endosymbiosis

A process in which certain unicellular organisms engulfed other cells, which become endosymbionts & ultimately organelles in the host cell.

The Kingdom Protista is polyphyletic including members derived from 2 or more ancestral forms not common to all members & thus do not reflect phylogeny. Among several alternate classifications, a popular 8-kingdom system recognizes 3 protist kingdoms (Archaezoa, Protista & Chromista) in place of the single kingdom Protista. However, the less inclusive version of the Kingdom Protista is still polyphyletic. Using nucleic acid sequencing, systematics has begun sorting out monophyletic groups.

Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

PART 2. Directions: Using Figure 28.8 on page 554 and the information in the text, outline thekey characteristics that distinguish the major branches of the Domain Eukarya identified onthe diagram.

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1

2

3

4

5

6

Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

BRANCH POINT CHARACTERISTICS

1. Autotroph / Heterotroph & Decomposers

Heterotrophs are organisms that obtain organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products. Saprobes/bacteria absorb nutrients from non-living organic material (decomposers). Autotrophs can make their own food using light or chemical energy.

2. Flagella / No Flagella

Flagella are long cellular appendage specialized for locomotion.

3. Crystal rods in flagella / No rods

Euglenozoa have the presence of a spiral or cystal rod of unknown function inside their flagella. Other protest members do not have these rod structures.

4. Symbiosis with fungi

Organisms such as lichens developed symbiotic relationships with fungi in order to survive. Other developed specialized adaptations for independent survival.

5. Live in shallow water / live on land

Some organisms require water for growth and reproduction, especially those lacking vascular tissue. Other developed vascular tissue in order to survive on land.

6. Decomposer / Heterotrophic consumer

Heterotrophs are organisms that obtain organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products. Saprobes/fungi absorb nutrients from non-living organic material (decomposers).

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Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

CHAPTER 31 - FUNGI

PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.

15. How do fungi acquire nutrients?

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16. Because of this mode of nutrition, fungi have evolved what structure to provide for both extensive surface area and rapid growth?

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17. How do the cell walls of fungi differ from the cell walls of plants?

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18. How do fungi contribute to an ecosystem?

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19. Give some examples of how fungi are important to humans.

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They are heterotrophs; they digest their food while it’s still in the environment by secreting powerful hydrolytic enzymes, (exoenzymes) into their surroundings. They absorb their nutrients.

Hyphae that form an interwoven mass called mycelium.

Made of chitin, a strong but flexible nitrogen-containing polysaccharide that is also found in external skeletons of insects/arthropods.

Decomposers are responsible for keeping ecosystems stocked with the inorganic nutrients essential for plant growth. Some form symbiotic relationships with photosynthesizers.

Mycorrhizae = agriculture provides essential nutrients to plants.

Digestion = helps breakdown plant material in rumenants (eg. cattle).

Food Source = mushrooms and beverages such as beer and wine (yeast).

Medical value = used for reducing high blood pressure, stop maternal bleeding, production of antibiotics (penicillium), used in molecular and biotechnology research.

Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

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PART 2. Directions: Using Figure 31.4 on page619 and the information in the text, outline thekey characteristics of each branch of theKingdom Fungi identified on the diagram.Include several examples of organisms in eachdivision.

DIVISION CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

Chytrids

Saprobes & Parasites; cell walls of chitin, share key enzymes and metabolic pathways with other fungal groups; form colonies w/hyphae or exists as spherical cells. Have flagellated spores (zoospores)

Chytridium (fruiting spores)

Zygomycetes

Live as parasites or symbionts with animals. Mostly terrestrial & live in soil on decaying plant/animal material. Form mycorrhizae

Fast growing molds, Rhizopus stolonifer (black bread mold), pilobolus.

Ascomycetes

Sac fungi. Range in size & variety. Saprobes, plant parasites, have symbiotic relationships with algae (lichens). Produce sexual spores (asci). Have more extensive dikaryotic stage.

Morals, carbon fungus, truffles.

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Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

Basidiomycetes

Club fungus. Decomposers of wood and other plant material. Mutualists & plant parasites.

Mushrooms, shelf fungi, puffballs, rusts & smuts.

CHAPTER 32 – INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL EVOLUTION

PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.

20. Outline the major characteristics Campbell uses to define an animal.

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21. List an hypothesis for the origin of animals.

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22. Describe the two forms of symmetry of the Eumetazoa.

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23. What is the significance of cephalization as an evolutionary trend?

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24. How do the germ layers of Radiata and the other Eumetazoa differ?

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Nutritional mode, cell structure & specialization, reproduction & development.

Most systematics now agree that all animal lineages are monophyletic; that is, we can trace all lineages back to a single common ancestor. The ancestor was probably a flagellated protest; which was probably related to choanoflagellates.

Bilateral which characterizes a body form with a central longitudinal plane that divides the body into two equal but opposite halves.

Radial characterizes a body shape like a pie, with many equal parts radiating outward like the spokes of a wheel.

A trend toward the concentration of sensory equipment on the anterior region. The end of a traveling animal that is usually first to encounter food, danger, and other stimuli. Also development of the central nervous system. Adaptation for movement on land.

They are diploblastic (having 2 germ layers). All other eumetazoa; the bilateria, are triploblastic having 3 germs layers.

Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

25. Define the following terms and describe their significance in classifying animals.

a. Acoelomates ____________________________________________________________

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b. Pseudocoelomates _______________________________________________________

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c. Coelomates ____________________________________________________________

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d. Protostomes ____________________________________________________________

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e. Deuterostomes __________________________________________________________

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f. spiral, determinate cleavage _______________________________________________

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g. radial, indeterminate cleavage ______________________________________________

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h. blastopore ______________________________________________________________

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26. List a number of the major differences between the Protostomes and Deuterostomes.

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27. Label the stages of early embryonic development of animal.

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a. Acoelomates lack a coelom.

b. Pseudocoelomates have a fully functional body cavity formed from the blastocoel, rather than from the mesoderm.

c. Coelomates possess a true coelom, a body cavity completely lined with tissue derived from mesoderm.

d. Protostomes development begins with spiral, determinate cleavage. The coelom forms from splits in the mesoderm. The mouth forms in the blastopore.

e. Deuterostomes development is characterized by radial, indeterminate cleavage. The coelom forms from mesodermal outpockets of the archenteron. The mouth forms from a secondary opening. The anus develops from the blastopore.

f. Spiral, determinant cleavage – the planes of cell division are diagonal to the vertical axis of the embryo. Determines developmental fate of embryonic cells early on.

g. Radial, indeterminate cleavage – cleavage planes are either parallel or perpendicular to the vertical axis of the egg. Each cell contains the capacity to develop into a complete embryo.

h. Blastopore – the indentation that during gastrulation leads to the formation of the archenteron.

Protostomes - development begins with spiral, determinate cleavage. The coelom forms from splits in the mesoderm. The mouth forms from the blastopore.

Deuterostomes – development is characterized by radial, indeterminate cleavage. The ceolom forms from mesodermal outpocketings of the archenteron. The anus forms from the blastopore.

cleavage cleavage

blastula Cross section of blastula

blastocoel

8 cell stagezygote

gastrulationgastrula

blastopore

blastocoel endoderm

ectoderm

Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

PART 2. Directions: Using Figure 32.4 on page 636 and the information in the text, outline thekey characteristics of each branch of the Kingdom Animalia identified on the diagram. Usedefinitions from Question 25 to supply the details in your chart. Include examples of organismsin each division.

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Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

DIVISION CHARACTERISITICS EXAMPLE

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Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

1. PoriferaSimple; sessile animals that lack true tissues. They live as suspension feeders; trapping particles that pass through the internal channels of their bodies.

sponges

2. CnidariaShare a distinctive body pattern that includes a gastrovascular cavity with a single opening that serves as both mouth and anus.

Corals, jellyfish & hydras

3. CtenophoraDiploblastic. Possess eight “combs” of cilia that propel the animals through the water. They also have a unique method for catching prey.

Comb jellies

4. PlatyhelminthesBilateral symmetry & central nervous systemthat process information from eyes and other sensory structures. They have no body cavity or organs for circulation.

Flatworms (tapeworms, planarians & flukes)

5. RotifersSpecialized organ systems, including an alimentary canal (digestive tract). They feed on microorganisms suspended in water.

Rotifers

6. Nematoda

Enormously abundant & diverse in the soil and aquatic habitats; many species parasitize plants & animals. They have a tough cuticle that coats their body and protects them from their host.

Roundworms

7. NemerteaSwim through water and burrow through sand, extending a unique proboscis to capture prey. They lack a true coelom, but have an alimentary canal.

Proboscis worms, ribbon worms

DIVISION CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

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Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

8. MolluscaSoft bodied; often posses a hard, calcified shell secreted by the mantle; muscular foot; digestive system with two openings and coelomates.

Snails, slugs, clams, squid, octopus, chambered nautilus, cuttlefish

9. AnnelidaBody composed of segments separated by internal partitions; digestive system has two openings; coelomate; closed circulatory system.

Segmented worms, earthworms, sandworms, leeches

10. Arthropoda

Exoskeleton of chitin; jointed appendages; segmented bodies; many undergo metamorphosis during development; open circulatory system; largest animal phylum.

Ticks, spiders, scorpions, centipedes, millipedes, insects, crab, shrimp, pill bug, barnacle, lobster

11. BryozoanCoelom from cell masses (protostomes). Body cavity enclosed by mesoderm (coelomate). Bilateral symmetry and triploblastic. Eumetazoa.

Hydrozoans

12. PhoronidaLive in tunnels in the sea floor, extending tentacles out of the tunnel opening to trap food particles.

Marine worms

13. Brachiopoda

Superficially resemble clams and other hinge-shelled mollusks, but the two halves of the brachiopod shell are dorsal and ventral rather than lateral. Live attached to the seafloor by stalk.

Lamp shells

14. Echinodermata

Live in salt water; larvae have bilateral symmetry; adults typically have radial symmetry; endoskeleton; tube feet; water vascular system used in respiration, excretion, feeding and locomotion; deuterostomes

Sand dollars, sea stars, feather stars, brittle stars, sea cucumbers and sea urchins

15. ChordataDorsal hollow nerve cord, notochord, pharyngeal pouches, and a muscular tail during at least part of development.

Tunicates, lancelets, hagfish, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, & mammals

CHAPTER 33 - INVERTEBRATES

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Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.

28. How does the structure of a sponge relate to its method of nutrition?

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29. What is a unique characteristic common to the Cnidarians?

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30. What are the two forms of shape within the Cnidarians?

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31. What are some evolutionary advancements we see in the Platyhelminthes?

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32. In what way are Platyhelminthes significant to humans?

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33. Define parthenogenesis.

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34. What is unique in the structure and function of the Pseudocoelomates?

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35. List ways in which Nematodes impact humans.

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They capture food particles suspended in the water that pass through their bodies, which typically resembles a sac perforated with pores. Water is drawn through the pores into a central cavity, the spongocoel, and then flows out the sponge through a large opening called the osculum,

They exhibit a relatively simple, diploblastic, radial body plan. Their body plan is sac like with a central digestive compartment, with a gastrovascular cavity and it has a single opening.

Polyp & Medusa

Structurally more complex. The 3rd embryonic layer, the mesoderm, contributes to the development of more complex organs & organs systems, including true muscle tissues.

Structure & function of ecosystems; parasites to humans.

Some species consist only of females that produce more females from unfertilized eggs.

They have a gastrovascular cavity with an alimentary canal, a digestive tube with a separate mouth and anus. Internal organs lie within the pseudocoelom.

They play an important role in the decomposition and recycling of nutrients. Research specimens (aging in humans). Also include agricultureal pests that attack roots of plants. Parasites to humans (hookworms & pinworms)

Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

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36. List common examples that could be classified as Coelomate Protostomes.

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37. What are the three major body regions of a Mollusk?

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38. Why do zoologists debate the relationship of Mollusks and Annelids?

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39. What is the evolutionary significance of the coelom as seen in the Annelids?

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40. What is the importance of segmentation?

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41. Why are the Arthropoda regarded as the most successful of all animal phyla?

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42. Identify a characteristic that was most significant to Arthropod success.

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Mollusks, Annelids, & Arthropods

Muscular foot, a visceral mass, & a mantle

The life cycle of many marine mollusks includes a ciliated larvae called the trochophore, also characteristic of marine annelids and other protostomes. But mollusks lack the one trait that most defines an annelid heritage – true segmentation.

The muscles work against the noncompressible coelomic fluid, a hydrostatic skeleton. The muscles can alter the shape of each segment individually because the coelom is divided into separate compartments.

Each segment of a polychaete has a pair of paddle-like or ridge-like structures called parapodia (setae) that function in locomotion. Each segment has its own set of nephridia, which are kidney-like structures.

On the criteria of species diversity, distribution, and sheer numbers, arthropods must be regarded as the most successful of all animal phyla.

Segmentation, hard exoskeleton and jointed appendages.

Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

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43. List common examples that could be classified as Coelomate Deuterostomes.

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44. What traits are particularly unique to the Echinoderms?

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PART 2. Directions: Using Table 32.4 on page 636 and Table 33.7 on page 675 and the

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Echindermata & Chordates

Water vascular system & tube feet.

Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

information in the text, label the phylogenetic diagram of animals with significant characteristicsthat distinguish major branches.

CHAPTER 34 – VERTEBRATE EVOLUTION & DIVERSITY

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Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.

45. What are the four characteristics of the Chordates?

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46. List and describe an example of an invertebrate chordate.

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47. Define paedogenesis.

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48. What characterizes the subphylum Vertebrata?

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49. In the evolution of vertebrates, identify the significance of being tetrapod?

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50. Identify the significance of the amniotic egg and the amniote?

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19

Notochord, hollow dorsal nerve chord, pharyngeal gill slits and a muscular, post anal tail.

Tunicates favor chordates as larvae. As adults the tail and notochord are reabsorbed. Lancelets as larvae develop a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits and a post anal tail. As adults they retain all four characteristics of chordates.

The precocious development of sexual maturity in a larva. Common among groups of salamanders. An example is the mudpuppy which retains gills and other larval features when sexually mature.

They are craniates (having a more complex nervous sytem) with a backbone (more complex skeletal system).

In place of pectoral & pelvic fins, they have limbs that can support their weight on land & feet with digits that allow them to transfer muscle-genreated forces to the ground when they walk.

Amniotic egg contains specialized membranes that protect the embryo. The shell around the egg slows dehydration. Amniotes also have skin that’s less permeable and the ability to use the rib cage to ventilate the lungs.

Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

PART 2. Directions: Using Table 34.7 on page 684 and the information in the text, outline thekey characteristics that distinguish the major branches of the subphylum Vertebrataidentified on the diagram. Include examples of organisms in each class.

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7

6

5

4

1 2

3

8

Name __________________________________ Period _________ Date___________

CLASS CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

1. CephalaspidomorphiLarvae filter feeders; adults parasites whose circular mouth is lined with rasping toothlike structures; many live in both salt water and fresh water during the course of their lives.

Lampreys

2. Chondrichthyes

Have jaws, fins and endoskeleton of cartilage; most live in salt water; typically several gill slits; tough small scales with spines; ectothermic; two-chambered heart; male possess structures for internal fertilization.

Sharks, skates, rays, chimaera, sawfish

3. Osteichthyes

Bony endoskeleton; aquatic; ectothermic; well-developed respiratory system, usually involving gills; possess swim bladder; paired fins; divided into two groups – ray-finned fishes, which include most living species, and lobe-finned fishes, which include the lungfish and coeloacanth.

Salmon, perch, bass, sturgeon, tuna, goldfish, eel, marlin, catfish

4. Mammalia

Endothermic; subcutaneous fat; hair; most viviparous; suckle young with milk produced from mammary glands; four-chambered heart; most have four legs; use lungs for respiration.

Monotremes, marsupials, and eutherians

5. Amniotes

Have amniotic egg (shelled and water retaining egg). Functions as a “self-contained pond” that enables vertebrates to complete their life cycles on land. Mammals also retain key features.

Birds, reptiles, & mammals

6. Reptilia

Adapted to fully terrestrial life, some live in water; dry, scale-covered skin; ectothermic; most have three-chambered hearts; internal fertilization; amniotic eggs typically laid on land; extinct forms include dinosaurs and flying reptiles.

Lizards, snakes, tuataras, turtles, tortoises, & crocodilians

7. DiapsidsCladistic analysis provides strong evidence that birds are the closest living relatives of extinct dinosaurs. Class reptilian does not have feathers that distinguish birds.

Lizards, snakes, tuataras, turtles, tortoises, crocodilians & dinosaurs that took to the air

8. Aves

Endothermic, feathered over much of body surface; scales o legs and feet; bones hollow and light-weight in flying species; four-chambered heart; well-developed lungs and air sacs for efficient air exchange.

Owl, eagle, duck, chicken, pigeon, penguin, sparrow, stork, ostrich

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