“The compelling story of a cross-cultural...

“Thecompellingstoryofacross-culturalcollaborationthatcontinuestoengagescholarsandlayreadersalike.”—Choice

“TheexperienceofBlackElk...comestoonegreatstatement,whichformeisakeystatementtotheunderstandingofmythandsymbols.”—JosephCampbellinaninterviewwithBillMoyers,ThePoweroffMyth

“[BlackElkSpeaks]isnowdeservedlyrecognizedasaclassicinliterature....ItissufficientthatBlackElkSpeaksisanextraordinarilyhumandocument—andbeyondthat,therecordofaprofoundlyspiritualjourney,thepilgrimageofapeopletowardstheirhistoricalfulfillmentandculmination,towardstheaccomplishmentofaworthydestiny.”—N.ScottMomaday

“AnAmericanclassic.”—WesternHistoricalQuarterly

“Visionary,action-filled,culturallyandhistoricallyrevealing.”—UtahHistoricalQuarterly

“Ifanygreatreligiousclassichasemergedin[thetwentieth]centuryoronthiscontinent,itmustcertainlybejudgedinthecompanyofBlackElkSpeaks.”—fromVineDeloriaJr.’sforeword

“Withoutquestion,BlackElkSpeakshasbeenthegatewayintothestudyofNativeAmericanreligionsandliteraturesforcountlessthousandsofpeopleinmanycountries.”—SuzanneLundquist,NativeAmericanLiteratures

“Areligiousclassic,bothtoIndiansandnon-Indians.”—SouthDakotaHistory

“Ifareligioustextofpowerfulimportoccurredinthetwentiethcentury,itwasBlackElkSpeaks.IfbothEastern(Buddhist/Taoist)andWestern(Judeo-Christian/Muslim)religiouscanonsaretobechallengedandgroundedinnewtheology,amajorsourcewillbeBlackElkSpeaks.”—WholeEarth

“Onceaclassic,alwaysaclassic.Butthisonegetsbetterwithage.”—Lincoln(Nebraska)JournalStar

Frontispiece

BlackElkSpeaks

TheCompleteEdition

JohnG.Neihardt

WithanewintroductionbyPhilipJ.Deloria

andannotationsbyRaymondJ.DeMallie

UniversityofNebraskaPressLincolnandLondon

©2014bytheBoardofRegentsoftheUniversityofNebraska.

CoverimageisfromtheNationalAnthropologicalArchives,SmithsonianInstitution.

Allrightsreserved.

Originalprintings:©1932,1959,1972byJohnG.Neihardt;©1961bytheJohnG.NeihardtTrust;Foreword©1979bytheUniversityofNebraskaPress;©2000bytheUniversityofNebraskaPress;“JohnG.NeihardtbeyondBlackElk”and“NeihardtandBlackElk”©2004bytheBoardofRegentsoftheUniversityofNebraska.Unlessotherwisementioned,thephotographsarereproducedbypermissionoftheJohnG.NeihardtTrust.TheymaynotbeusedinanymannerwithoutthewrittenpermissionoftheJohnG.NeihardtTrust.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

BlackElk,1863–1950.BlackElkspeaks/JohnG.Neihardt;introductionbyPhilipJ.Deloria;forewordbyVineDeloriaJr.—Thecompleteedition.pagescmIncludesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN978-0-8032-8391-6(paperback:alk.paper)ISBN978-0-8032-8393-0(epub)ISBN978-0-8032-8394-7(mobi)1.BlackElk,1863–1950.2.OglalaIndians—Biography.3.OglalaIndians—Religion.4.TetonIndians.I.Neihardt,JohnGneisenau,1881–1973.II.Title.E99.O3B48382014978.004'9752440092—dc23[B]2013049580

Thepublisherdoesnothaveanycontroloveranddoesnotassumeanyresponsibilityforauthororthird-partywebsitesortheircontent.

Whatisgoodinthisbookisgivenbacktothesixgrandfathersandtothegreatmenofmypeople.

BlackElk

Contents

ListofIllustrations

Foreword

Prefacetothe1932Edition



Introduction

NationalandInternationalHonorsReceivedbyJohnG.Neihardt

1.TheOfferingofthePipe2.EarlyBoyhood3.TheGreatVision4.TheBisonHunt5.AttheSoldiers’Town6.HighHorse’sCourting7.WasichusintheHills8.TheFightwithThreeStars9.TheRubbingOutofLongHair10.WalkingtheBlackRoad11.TheKillingofCrazyHorse12.Grandmother’sLand13.TheCompellingFear14.TheHorseDance15.TheDogVision16.HeyokaCeremony17.TheFirstCure18.ThePowersoftheBisonandtheElk19.AcrosstheBigWater

20.TheSpiritJourney21.TheMessiah22.VisionsoftheOtherWorld23.BadTroubleComing24.TheButcheringatWoundedKnee25.TheEndoftheDream26.Author’sPostscript

Appendix1:Photographs

Appendix2:TranscriptofLetterfromJohnG.NeihardttoJuliusHouse,August10,1930

Appendix3:TheDrawingsbyStandingBear,BlackElk’sFriend

Appendix4:TranscriptofLetterfromJohnG.NeihardttoNickBlackElk,November6,1930

Appendix5:AGreatIndianPoet

Appendix6:JohnG.NeihardtandNicholasBlackElk

Appendix7:JohnG.NeihardtbeyondBlackElk

Appendix8:NeihardtandBlackElk

Appendix9:ComparisonoftheTranscriptandDraftof“OriginofthePeacePipe”

Appendix10:LakotaWordsUsedintheText

Notes

Footnotes

References

Index

Illustrations

Frontispiece:BlackElkatopHarneyPeak

Maps1.TheLakotas’Worldca.1860–902.TheGreaterBlackHillsRegionca.1880–903.PineRidgeReservationca.1930

Figures1.BlackElkSpeaks,1972cover2.TheSixthGrandfather,1984cover3.BlackElkSpeaks,1988cover4.BlackElkSpeaks,1961cover

Photographs1.BlackElkandElkwhiletouringEurope2.EnidNeihardt,NickBlackElk,BenBlackElk,StandingBear,andJohnG.Neihardt3.JohnG.Neihardtinhishome4.BlackElkandStandingBear5.BlackElkatafeastgivenbyNeihardt6.StandingBearatNeihardt’sfeast7.HildaNeihardt,BlackElk,Chase-in-the-Morning,andJohnG.Neihardt8.BlackElkandNeihardtattheSiouxVictorycelebration9.JohnG.NeihardtwithBlackElk’sdrum10.SamplefromNeihardt’shandwrittendraft11.SamplefromNeihardt’shandwrittendraft

StandingBear’sDrawings1.TitlePageoftheFirstEdition2a.AnIndianWayofWritingaName:BlackElk’sNameSign

2b.AnIndianWayofWritingaName:StandingBear’sNameSign3.TheBattleoftheHundredSlain4.TheTwoSpiritsComingforBlackElk5.BlackElkLeavingtoVisittheSixGrandfathers6.BlackElkbeforetheSixGrandfathersintheFlamingRainbowTepee7.KillingtheDrought8.BlackElkundertheTreeofLife9.BlackElkattheCenteroftheEarth10.ABisonHunt11.Custer’sBattle:Reno’sRetreat12.Custer’sBattle:Custer’sDefeat13.Custer’sBattle:SiegeofReno’sTroops14.BlackElkLivinginFearoftheThunderBeings15.IntheHorseDance:TheFourMaidens16.HorseDance(Chief):West17.HorseDance—Chief:North18.HorseDance(Chief):East19.HorseDance(Chief):South20.TheDogVision:ButterfliesandDragonflies21.TheDogVision:KillingtheDog22.BlackElk’sSpiritJourneyHome23.ThePeopleinDespair24.GoingtotheOtherWorld25.BlackElkintheOtherWorld26.TheWanekiaundertheHolyTree27.TheBattleofWoundedKnee:DisarmingBigFoot’sPeople28.TheBattleofWoundedKnee:TheFirstShots29.WoundedKneeBattle:TheMassacre30.BlackElkProtectedbytheSacredBow

Foreword

VineDeloriaJr.

The twentieth century has produced a world of conflicting visions, intenseemotions, and unpredictable events, and the opportunities for grasping thesubstance of life have faded as the pace of activity has increased. Electronicmedia shuffle us through a myriad of experiences which would have baffledearliergenerationsandseemtoproduceinusastrangeisolationfromtherealityof human history. Our heroes fade into mere personality, are consumed andforgotten,andweavidlyseekmoreavenuestoexpressourhumanity.Reflectionis the most difficult of all our activities because we are no longer able toestablishrelativeprioritiesfromthemultitudeofsensationsthatengulfus.Timessuch as these seem to illuminate the classic expressions of eternal truths andgreatwisdomcomestostandoutinthecrowdofordinarymaxims.Howfortunate itwas that in the1930sas thenationwasroaring intoanew

formofindustrialismaNebraskapoetnamedNeihardttravelednorthwardtothereservationof theOglalaSiouxinsearchofmaterialsforhisclassicepicworkonthehistoryof theWest.That theirconversationsandcompanionshipshouldproduceareligiousclassic,perhapstheonlyreligiousclassicofthiscentury,isatestimonyindeedtothecontinuingstrengthofourspecies.BlackElkSpeakswasoriginally published in 1932,when people still believed that progress and theassembly line were identical and that the Depression was but a temporaryinterlude in an inevitablemarch toward themillennium. Its eloquentmessagewas lost in the confusion of the times. It was not rejected, but it was hardlyreceivedwiththevenerationitnowenjoys.Thereception,infact,reflectedoneof thoseoverly romanticbut simplistic viewswhich suggests that all religionshavesomevalidityif theypreventusfromactsofbestialityandeventhemostprimitiveexpressionsof religious truthareaneffort toconnectwith the largerrealityofWesterncivilization.Black Elk Speaks did not follow other contemporary works into oblivion.

Throughout the thirties, forties, and fifties it drew a steady and devotedreadershipandservedasareliableexpressionofthesubstancethatundergirdedPlainsIndianreligiousbeliefs.OutsidetheNorthernPlains,theSiouxtribe,andthewesternmindset,therewerefewpeoplewhoknewthebookorlistenedtoitsmessage.But crisesmounted and, asweunderstood the implicationsof futureshock,thesilentspring,andthegreeningofAmerica,peoplebegantosearchforauniversalexpressionofthelarger,morecosmictruthswhichindustrialismandprogresshadignoredandoverwhelmed.Inthe1960sinterestbegantofocusonIndiansandsomeofthespiritualrealitiestheyseemedtorepresent.Regardlessoftheotherliteratureinthefield,thescholarlydissertationswithinflectionsandnuances,BlackElkSpeaks clearlydominated the literaturedealingwith Indianreligions.Todaythebookisfamiliarreadingformillionsofpeople,someofwhomhave

noclearconceptionofBlackElk’stribe,theOglalaSioux,andothersofwhomdo not, as a rule, even like Indians. The spiritual framework of the pipeceremonies and the story of Black Elk’s life and vision are well known, andspeculationsonthenatureandsubstanceofPlainsIndianreligionusethebookasthecriterionbywhichotherbooksandinterpretiveessaysaretobejudged.Ifany great religious classic has emerged in this century or on this continent, itmustcertainlybejudgedinthecompanyofBlackElkSpeaksandwithstandthecriticismwhichsuchacomparisonwouldinevitablyinvite.Themostimportantaspectofthebook,however,isnotitseffectonthenon-

Indian populace who wished to learn something of the beliefs of the PlainsIndiansbutuponthecontemporarygenerationofyoungIndianswhohavebeenaggressivelysearchingforrootsoftheirowninthestructureofuniversalreality.TothemthebookhasbecomeaNorthAmericanbibleofalltribes.Theylooktoit for spiritual guidance, for sociological identity, for political insight, and foraffirmation of the continuing substance of Indian tribal life, now being badlyeroded by the same electronic media which are dissolving other Americancommunities.BlackElk shared his visionswith JohnNeihardt because hewished to pass

alongtofuturegenerationssomeoftherealityofOglalalifeand,onesuspects,tosharetheburdenofvisionsthatremainedunfulfilledwithacompatiblespirit.BlackElkmighthavebeengreatlysurprisedatthepopularityofthebooktoday.Hecouldnothelpbutbepleasedbyit.Iftheoldcampcircle,thesacredhoopoftheLakota, and theolddayshavebeen rudely shatteredby themachines of ascientificera,andiftheycanbenomoreinthetraditionalsense,theuniversality

oftheimagesanddreamsmusttestifytotheemergenceofanewsacredhoop,anewcircleof intensecommunityamongIndiansfaroutdistancingthegrandeurofformertimes.Soimportanthasthisbookbecomethatonecannottodayattenda meeting on Indian religion and hear a series of Indian speakers withoutrecalling the exact parts of the book that lie behind contemporary efforts toinspireandclarifythosebeliefsthatare“trulyIndian.”Assuccessfulasthebookis,thefutureappearsunlimitedincontrastwithits

presentachievements.Wehavenotyetseenthatgenerationoftheologianswhoalways attend the birth of great religious traditions. The present generation ofIndian college students may well be harbingers of this era. Christianity andBuddhismbothtookhalfamillenniumtoadequatelyexpressintheologicalandphilosophicalframeworksthevisionofuniversalsubstancewhichtheirfounderspromulgated and lived. Neihardt’s Black Elk Speaks and When the TreeFlowered,andTheSacredPipebyJosephEpesBrown, thebasicworksof theBlackElktheologicaltradition,nowbidfairtobecomethecanonoratleastthecentralcoreofaNorthAmericanIndiantheologicalcanonwhichwillsomedaychallenge theEasternandWestern traditionsasawayof lookingat theworld.CertainlyinBlackElk’svisionswehaveanaturalrelationshiptotherestofthecosmos devoid of the trial-court paradigm but incorporating the theme ofsacrificesoimportanttoallreligionsinaconsistentandcomprehensibleway.Present debates center on the question of Neihardt’s literary intrusions into

BlackElk’ssystemofbeliefsandsomescholarshavesaidthatthebookreflectsmoreofNeihardtthanitdoesofBlackElk.Itis,admittedly,difficulttodiscoverifweare talkingwithBlackElkor JohnNeihardt,whether thevision is tobeinterpreteddifferently,andwhetherornotthepositiveemphasiswhichthebookprojects is not the optimism of two poets lost in the modern world andtransformingdrabnessintoanidealizedworld.Canitmatter?Theverynatureofgreatreligiousteachingsisthattheyencompasseveryonewhounderstandsthemand personalities become indistinguishable from the transcendent truth that isexpressed.Solet itbewithBlackElkSpeaks.That it speaks touswithsimpleandcompelling languageaboutanaspectofhumanexperienceandencouragesustoemphasizethebestthatdwellswithinusissufficient.BlackElkandJohnNeihardtwouldprobablynodaffirmativelytothatstatementandcontinuetheirconversation.Itisgood.Itisenough.


Thefirst timeIwentouttotalktoBlackElkabouttheOgalalaSioux,IfoundhimsittingaloneunderashelterofpineboughsnearhislogcabinthatstandsonabarrenhillabouttwomileswestofMandersonPostOffice.Ihad learned thatBlackElkwasrelated to thegreatChiefCrazyHorseand

had known him intimately; so, in companywithmy son and an interpreter, Iwent to seehim, expectingnomore than the satisfactionof exchanging a fewwordswithonewhohad,notoncebutmanytimes,“seenShelleyplain.”NordidIfeelcertainofevensomuch;for,ontheway,myinterpretersaidthathehadtakenanotherwritertoBlackElkthatmorningwithoutsuccess.“Icanseethatyouareanice-lookingwoman,”theoldmanhadremarked,“andIcanfeelthatyouaregood;butIdonotwanttotalkaboutsuchthings.”BlackElkpaidmenocompliments,buthe talkedall thatAugustafternoon,

saveforfrequentbroodingsilenceswhenhesathunchedup,withfoldedelbowsonhisknees,staringuponthegroundwithhalfblindeyes.Itwasnotofworldlymattersthathespokemost,butofthingsthathedeemed

holyandof“thedarknessofmen’seyes.”Althoughmyacquaintancewith theIndian consciousness had been fairly intimate for more than thirty years, theinnerworld1ofBlackElk,imperfectlyrevealedasbyflashesthatday,wasbothstrangeandwonderfultome.Also, Iwas deeply impressed by the scope of theman’s life experience. In

additiontohavinglivedthecommonlifeofhispeopleinthegoodoldtimesaswellasinthetragicandheroicyearsoftheirfinaldefeatanddegradation,fromearlyyouthhehadlivedinandforaworldofhighervalues2thanthoseoffoodandshelter,andhisyearshadbeenonelong,passionatedevotiontothosevaluesasheconceivedthem.Ashunter,warrior,practicingholyman,andindubitableseer, he seemed even then to represent the consciousness of the Plains IndianmorefullythananyotherIhadeverknown;andwhenIbecamewellacquaintedwithhisinnerworld,Iknewthistobetrue.3

Thefollowingyear,incompanywithmydaughters,EnidandHilda,IreturnedtoBlackElk’shomeforanextendedvisit, thathemightrelatehis lifestorytomeinfulfillmentofadutythathefeltincumbentuponhim.4Thenatureofthatdutyasheconceiveditwillbeapparenttoreaderswhomayapproachthebookinnocondescendingmoodasofacivilizedpersonmoreorlesscuriousaboutthe“savage” mind, but with the humble desire of one groping human being tounderstandanotherandperhapstolearnalittlemoreinaworldwheresoverylittle can be known. Such a reader should find much in Black Elk’sconsciousness for earnest pondering, especially in viewof the present state ofaffairsthroughoutthewholescaleofhumanvaluesasourcivilizationhasdealtwiththem.Buteventhosewhoseekmerelytobeentertainedneednotfeartolistenwhen

BlackElkspeaks.Hehasbeenaparticipatingwitnesstovariousstirringevents,both in the physical and in the spiritual world, and he tells of these with athoroughlyunself-conscious simplicity thatmakes foreasy reading. If at timeshis insightsandpoeticreachesapproachsublimity, itwillbegranted thatuponoccasionhissenseofhumorissufficientlylivelytokeephiminclosetouchwithhisfellowmen.Inhis intimateeverydayfamily lifeBlackElkmayfairlybedescribedasa

saintinthedeepermeaningofthatterm,assignifyingarareformofgenius.Themembersofhis familyandhis friendsall feel this, and thedevotion shown tohimbythosewhoknowhimbest isstriking.Thoughaprofoundlymelancholyman, he is cheerful in all his human contacts and radiates an atmosphere ofkindlinessevenwhenhesitsbroodingwith that lookofheart-breakinhisfacethathasmadeat leastonewhitemanlovehim.Helongsforthetimewhenhecanenterthe“OuterWorld,”5andyetduringourextendedvisitwithhimandhisfriends,hewasneverslowtoenterintoanysportthatmightmakemydaughtershappier,andhecouldremembermanyafunnystoryandgoodjoketoliventhespiritsofourpartyinourdullermoments.Hecouldenterintoagameofhoop-and-spearwith thegustoofacare-freeboy,andhewoulddancehalf thenightaway with us under the stars to the booming of the drums and the strangelybeautifulsongsthatheknewinhisyouth.When I firstmetBlackElk hewas almost blind.6 Recently he has become

totallyso,afactofwhichheinformedmequitecasuallyandapparentlywithoutsenseofaffliction.Ishenotthusreleasedfrom“thedarknessoftheeyes,”andsoalittlenearertohisvisionedworldofreality?BlackElk is illiterate;7 but thoughtful readerswill allow thathe is none the

lessaneducatedmaninthefinesenseofatermthatsometimesseemstohavelostitsvitalmeaningforusinthisexcessivelyprogressiveage.Forhowmayaneducatedman be described correctly, save by saying that in his consciousnessracialexperiencehasbeenrecapitulatedtobuildarichpersonality?AndsurelyinBlackElkwefindthecultureofhispeopleinfullflower.Iwouldsuggest that thisnarrativeshouldnotonlyappeal toaveragehuman

beingswithanormalinterestinotherhumanbeings,butthatstudentsofsocialtheory,ofessentialreligion,andofpsychicalresearchespecially,shouldfindthebookworthyof consideration. Incidentally, thosewhoseek formeaning in thevisions,particularlytheGreatVision,arelikelytoberepaidfortheeffort.IwishtoexpressgratitudetomyfriendsamongtheOgalalaSiouxforhelping

me inmanyways, and for their human kindness, althoughmost of themwillnever learn that Ihavedoneso. Iamespecially indebted toBenjamin,8 sonofBlack Elk, for his painstaking and efficient service as my interpreter throughmanydays,andtomydaughter,Enid,forthevoluminousstenographicrecordoftheconversationsoutofwhich thisbookhasbeenwroughtasa laborof love.Governmentofficialsweregenerousinhelpingme,andIhavegoodreasontobegrateful to Secretary of the Interior, RayLymanWilbur;MalcolmMcDowell,Secretary of the Board of Indian Commissioners; Flora Warren Seymour, amemberoftheBoard;andtoB.G.[W.B.]Courtright,FieldAgentinChargeatPineRidge.

JohnG.NeihardtBranson,Missouri


ItwasduringAugust,1930, that I firstmetBlackElk. Iwas thenworkingonTheSongoftheMessiah,whichnowstandsasthefifthandfinalnarrativepoemin myCycle of theWest. This Song is concerned with what white men havecalled the “Messiah craze”—the great Messianic dream that came to thedesperate Indians in the middle 80’s of the 19th century and ended with themassacreatWoundedKnee,SouthDakota,onDecember29,1890.Withmyson,Sigurd,IhadgonetoPineRidgeReservationforthepurposeof

findingsomeoldmedicinemanwhohadbeenactiveintheMessiahMovementand whomight somehow be induced to talk tome about the deeper spiritualsignificance of the matter. I had known many of the Oglala Sioux for someyears,andhadgoodfriendsamongtheold“longhairs.”1Itwasnotinformationthatwaslackingformypurpose.Ihadthefacts,bothfromtherecordsandfromoldmenwhohadlivedthroughthattime,sharingthegreathopeandthetragicdisillusionment.WhatIneededformypurposewassomethingtobeexperiencedthroughintimatecontact,ratherthantobereceivedthroughtelling.(Thoseofmyreaderswhomaybe familiarwithmySong of theMessiahwill knowwhat ismeant.)Mr.W.B.Courtright,thenFieldAgent-in-ChargeatPineRidgeAgency,was

a “fan”ofmine, being especiallywell acquaintedwithmySongof the IndianWars,andthroughhimIlearnedofanoldSiouxbythenameofBlackElk,wholived among the barren hills some twenty miles east of the Agency near thecombinationstoreandpostofficecalledManderson.BlackElkwasa“kindofapreacher,” Iwas told—that is tosay,awichashawakon2 (holyman,priest)—andhehadbeenofsomeimportanceintheMessiahaffair.Also,hewassecondcousin toCrazyHorse, theprincipalheroofmySongof the IndianWars, andhadknownthegreatchieftainwell.SomysonandIdroveover toMandersontotryour luckwiththeoldman.

FlyingHawk,3 an interpreterwithwhom Iwas slightly acquainted,was living

there,andhewaswillingtogowithustoseeBlackElkathishomeabouttwomileswestofManderson.Onthewayover,FlyingHawkremarkedthathewasafraidtheoldmanwouldnottalktome.Iaskedwhy,addingthatIhadknownIndians for many years and they had always talked to me. “Well,” he said,“there’ssomethingpeculiaraboutthisoldman.LastweekaladycameupfromLincoln,Nebraska, toseehim.Shewanted towriteanarticleonCrazyHorse,whowastheoldman’ssecondcousin.Itookherover,buttheoldmanwouldn’ttalk.Heisalmostblind,and,afterhehadsquintedatherawhilehesaid,‘Icanseethatyouareanice-lookingwoman,andIcanfeelthatyouaregood;butIdonotcaretotalktoyouaboutthesethings.’Maybehewilltalktoyou,butIdoubtit.”Imyselfbegantodoubt,for,inthefirstplace,Iwasawarethattheknowledge

ofaholymanwasregardedassacred.NeverthelessIwaseagertomeettheoldman,iffornootherreasonthanthatheknewCrazyHorse;and,beingaman,Imighthavebetterluckthandidtheladymentioned.Itwasadead-endroadthatledthroughthetreeless,yellowhillstoBlackElk’s

home—aone-roomlogcabinwithweedsgrowingoutofthedirtroof.Twoold“long-hairs,”who lived in similar cabins in sight of the road,mounted poniesandfollowedus,curioustoknowwhatmightbegoingonyonder.Littleelsebutweathereverhappenedinthatcountry—otherthanthesunandmoonandstarsgoingover—andtherewaslittlefortheoldmentodobutwaitforyesterday.When we arrived, Black Elk was standing outside a shade made of pine

boughs. Itwasnoon.Whenweleft,aftersunset,FlyingHawksaid,“Thatwaskindoffunny,thewaytheoldmanseemedtoknowyouwerecoming!”Mysonremarkedthathehadthesameimpression;andwhenIhadknownthegreatoldman for some years I was quite prepared to believe that he did know, for hecertainlyhadsupernormalpowers.ShakinghandswithBlackElk,ItoldhimthatIwaswellacquaintedwiththe

OmahaIndiansandwithmanyoftheSioux; thatIhadcometogetacquaintedwithhimandhavealittletalkaboutoldtimes.“Ah-h-h!”hesaid,indicatingthatmysuggestionwassatisfactory.Iwaswell

stockedwith packages of cigarettes, and I passed these around, giving specialattention to our two uninvited guests,who had squatted near their ponies at arespectful distancewith their backs to us, notwishing to intrude but none theless eager to share in themeeting.Thenwe satdownon theground, smokingandwaitinginsilence.Black Elk, with his near-blind stare fixed on the ground, seemed to have

forgotten us. I was about to break the silence by way of getting somethingstarted,when theoldman lookedup toFlyingHawk, the interpreter, and said(speakingSioux,forheknewnoEnglish):“AsIsithere,Icanfeelinthismanbesidemeastrongdesire toknowthe thingsof theOtherWorld.HehasbeensenttolearnwhatIknow,andIwillteachhim.”Hewas silent again for someminutes; then he spoke to his little grandson,

who sat near us, and the boy ran up to the log cabin at the top of the hill.Presently he returned with a sacred ornament which, I learned later, hadbelongedtoBlackElk’sfather(whoalsowasaholyman)andhadbeenusedformanyyearsbybothfatherandsonin theirsacredceremonies.4 Itconsistsofaleatherstartingedwithblue,andfromthecenterofthestarhangsastripofhidefromthebreastofabuffalo,togetherwithafeatherfromthewingofaneagle.The ornament is suspended from a leather loop to be placed about the neck.Holdingthestarbeforeus,BlackElksaid:“HereyouseetheMorningStar.Whosees theMorning Star shall see more, for he shall be wise.” Then lifting theeaglefeather,hesaid:“ThismeansWakonTonka5(theGreatMysteriousOne);and it alsomeans that our thoughts should rise high as the eagles do.” Then,liftingthestripofbuffalohide,hesaid:“Thismeansallthegoodthingsofthisworld—foodandshelter.”Handing theornament tome,hesaid:“Myfriend, Iwishyouallthesethings.Putitaroundyourneck.”I thanked the oldman and did as he directed. Thereafterwe all smoked in

silenceforawhile,BlackElkwithbowedhead,staringattheground.Finally,theoldmanbegantalkingaboutavisionthathadcometohiminhis

youth.Itwashispower-vision,asIlearnedlater,andhisfragmentaryreferencestoitwereevidentlyintendedonlytoarousemycuriosity,forhecouldnotspeakfreelyaboutamattersosacredbefore theassembledcompany. Itwas likehalfseeing,half sensinga strangeandbeautiful landscapebybrief flashesof sheetlightning.OftenIbroke theoldman’sprolongedsilencesbyreferring to theold times

beforetheevildaysbeganandthewhitemenpossessedtheland.Irecalledgreatbattles,highmomentsinSiouxhistory,andhewouldrespondpolitely;butitwasincreasinglyclearthathisrealinterestwasin“thethingsoftheOtherWorld.”ThesunwasneartosettingwhenBlackElksaid:“Thereissomuchtoteach

you.WhatIknowwasgiventomeformenanditistrueanditisbeautiful.SoonIshallbeunderthegrassanditwillbelost.Youweresent tosaveit,andyoumustcomebacksothatIcanteachyou.”AndIsaid:“Iwillcomeback,BlackElk.Whendo youwantme?”He replied, “In the springwhen the grass is so

high”(indicatingthebreadthofahand).That winter I correspondedwith Black Elk through his son, Ben, who had

attendedCarlisle6 forayearor two,and thusarrangementsweremade foranextendedvisitthefollowingspring.DuringearlyMay,1931,incompanywithmyeldestdaughter,Enid,whohad

beenmysecretaryforseveralyears,andmyseconddaughter,Hilda,IreturnedtoBlackElk’shomethathemightrelatehislife-storytomeinfulfillmentofadutythathefeltincumbentuponhim.Hischiefpurposewasto“savehisGreatVisionformen.”Great preparations had been made for our coming.Many small pine trees,

brought fromaconsiderabledistance,were setuparound the logcabin, andasacredtepee,paintedwithspiritualsymbols,hadbeenerectedforourdwelling.Thetalksbeganeachdayshortlyafterbreakfastandoftencontinueduntillate

atnight.Therewereoccasionalbriefintervalsofrestwhentheoldman,withoutcommentorapology,would liedownwithhisheadonhisarmandfallasleepalmost immediately. In a few minutes he would waken, evidently greatlyrefreshed, andcontinuehisnarrativeas though therehadbeenno interruption.Mostofthetimeold“long-hair”friendsofBlackElk,somemucholderthanhe,werepresent,occasionallysupplementinghisnarrativewiththeirownmemories.Black Elk’s son, Ben, acted as interpreter throughout the visit, and my

daughter,Enid,askilledstenographer,keptafaithfulrecordofthenarrativeandthe conversations.7 Her voluminous stenographic notes, together with hertranscriptthereof,arepreservedamongmypapersintheWesternHistoricalMSSCollectionsoftheUniversityofMissouri.

JohnG.NeihardtColumbia,MissouriDecember1,1960


Itwasmyfunctiontotranslatetheoldman’sstory,notonlyinthefactualsense—foritwasnotthefactsthatmatteredmost—butrathertore-createinEnglishthemoodandmanneroftheoldman’snarrative.Thiswasoftenagruelinganddifficult task, requiring much patient effort and careful questioning of theinterpreter.Always I felt it a sacredobligation tobe true to theoldman’smeaningand

mannerofexpression.Iamconvincedthereweretimeswhenwehadmorethantheordinarymeansofcommunication.ForthelastfortyyearsithasbeenmypurposetobringBlackElk’smessageto

thewhiteworldashewishedmetodo.Thisbookhashad,andisstillhavingaremarkable career. First printed in 1932, it received an enthusiastic receptionfromliterarycriticswhoregardeditasastrangelybeautifulbook,althoughtheyhadlittleknowledgeofIndians.Thegeneralpublic,withpracticallynoknowledgeofIndians,gave itavery

modestreception.Inlessthantwoyearsthepublisher“remaindered”theeditionatforty-fivecentsacopyandthebookwasforgotten.Agenerationpassed,butthebookrefusedtodie.Somehowacopyfound itsway toZurich,Switzerland,andwasappreciated

by a group of German scholars, including the late Carl Jung, the famouspsychologistandphilosopher.ThenewsofthebookreachedAmericaandfoundsomefriendlyappreciators.

Copieswereobtainableonlyinrarebookstoresandsoldatpremiumprices.In1961,BlackElkSpeakswasreissuedinpaperbackandwasenthusiastically

received, particularly among young people. In the words of the ChristianHerald, it became “the current youth classic.” In 1971, as a result of DickCavett’stelevisioninterviewwiththeauthor,thebookexplodedintosurprisingpopularity.BlackElkSpeaks’fameisspreadingthroughouttheUnitedStatesandalsoin

Europe,havingbeentranslatedintoeightlanguages.

Theoldprophet’swishthatIbringhismessagetotheworldisactuallybeingfulfilled.ThosewhoareacquaintedwithBlackElkSpeakswillremembertheoldman’s

prayer on Harney Peak when he wept in the drizzling rain and cried out indesperationtotheGrandfathersoftheUniverse:“Apitifuloldmanyouseemehere,andIhavefallenawayandhavedonenothing.”Perhapswithhismessage,spreadingacrosstheworldhehasnotfailed.

JohnG.NeihardtColumbia,MissouriNovember1971

Introduction

PhilipJ.Deloria

I first read Black Elk Speaks in the early 1970s. I still have the actual copy(publishedbyPocketBooksin1972)anditsitsbesidemenow,bindingcracked,coverworn, pages loose.Why did I pick up the book that first time? Familylegacy issues, to be sure, for my grandfather had known Black Elk, and myfather made sure I knew it. But just as important was the way Simon andSchuster (ofwhichPocketBookswasan imprint) framed thebookasa“mustread”forseekersandaspiringmystics.Thatcategoryeasilyexpandedtoincludeanxiousyoungpeoplesuchasmyselfwhowerecontemplatingseriouslyforthefirst time themeaningsof life.BlackElk’s great vision andhis other spiritualexperiences—so compellingly narrated “through” the Nebraska poet laureateJohnG.Neihardt—were to be taken as guideposts and exemplars of a richer,moreengagedtranscendentlife.Thebook’scoverfeaturedanoddcompositeimagebuiltaroundthesad,wise,

brown face of an old American Indian man. Disembodied and framed by abrowncircleonablackbackground,thefacefloatsabovetheshirtlessfigureofayoungerman,armsoutstretchedinprayer.Thisyoungmanexplodesoutofablue circle that overlaps the brown and is connected by two strips of “Indiandesign.”Hisarmsechothelinesofthebrowncircleandtheeffectispowerful:acomplicatedsenseofrelationshipbetweenayoungman’ssacredexperienceandanolderman’sspiritualwisdom.Forthoseintheknow,thecomplicatedimagehasanoddedgeofrealism.ForthemanisindeedBlackElk,withhisoldfaceand the “Indian design” drawn based on a photograph taken by Joseph EpesBrownin1947.

Figs.1and2

Thecoverofferedmeotherinterpretiveclues.Ratherthantheformalsubtitle(“Being theLifeStoryofaHolyManof theOglalaSioux”) thePocketBooksedition carries this description: “The Legendary ‘Book of Visions’ of anAmerican Indian.” Inside the jacket is this elaboration: “A book of legend, ofpersonalvisionthatmakesanLSDtrippalebycomparison.”AnLSDtrip!Wasn’tIlookingforsomethinglikethat?Indeed,likemanyothers,IfirstreadBlackElkSpeaksasmodelingaquestformeaninggainedthroughmysticalexperienceofthespiritualpowerofthenaturalworld.At the same time, however, the edition explicitly placed Black Elk’s own

possibilitiesinthepast.Onthebackcoverreaderswillfindfamiliarwordsandphrases thatdefine theveryessenceof thevanishing Indian:“sorrow,”“Imaynever call again,” “empty sky,” “death of his people,” “the great story of theSioux is ended,” “the sacred hoop of life is broken,” and more. The booknecessarily insists that ifBlackElk’s great visionwas no longer operative forAmericanIndianpeople,itcouldneverthelessliveon“forallmen.”Anditwas

betterthananLSD trip!Thecovercapturedkeytensionsthathaunt thebooktothis day: John Neihardt’s willingness to believe simultaneously in both thepowerofBlackElk’svisionandinthevision’send—andthusinthetragicendofIndianlivesandpeoples.ExperiencedreadersofBlackElkSpeakswillnotethatthereisnothingnewin

this littlebitofanalysis.Thebookhassoldmorecopies thananyotherNativeAmerican studies title, and it has generated a huge array of smart criticalcommentary.Whatmattersinmytellingisthewayinwhichthebookspoketome—hard and powerfully—about the possibilities for a mystical insight intospirituallife.In1979myfather,VineDeloriaJr.,authoredtheintroductiontoanewBison

Bookseditioninwhichheshiftedthefocus,famouslycallingBlackElkSpeaksa“bible of all tribes” and a North American religious classic that captured thespiritualpowerembeddedinthecontinent.Hespokeofa“BlackElktheologicaltradition” and placed it in the context of world-historical contributions toreligious thought.Where once a broad American “we” read the book for thepossibilities it offered for personal meaning, now a broad tribal “we” mightembrace it as a general signifier of Indian practice—even as the historicalspecificityofitsauthor(s)gavewaytoaclaimforitstranscendenttruth.IreadthateditionwhiletakingaNativeAmericanReligionsclassattheUniversityofColoradoandfoundthatmyfather’span-Indiananduniversalclaimsplayedwellwithmyclassmates.Mydadwasgoodatthatkindofthing—thebigprovocativestatement—and the linkageof “bible” and “all tribes” laid out thenew terrainquite nicely. There were quiet complaints, however: young people from non-Plainstribespreferringtherelativespeedofthevisionquestoverthelongerandslowerceremoniesoftheirowntribes;aworryaboutthetakingofoneparticularlifestoryaskeytosuchalargeclaimaboutmeaning;andtheuncertaintybuiltintothenarratingrelationshipbetweenBlackElkandJohnNeihardt.Duringthatreading I found myself more interested in the odd interstices of history: nolonger the captivating imagery of the great vision but now the time spent inEurope,aloneandwithBuffaloBill.Forme(andperhapsfor readers likeme)thebookhadchangeditscharacter.Itmademealittleuneasy.That uneasiness exploded in 1984 with the publication of Raymond

DeMallie’sTheSixthGrandfather:BlackElk’sTeachingsasGiven toJohnG.Neihardt,whichcollectedtheoriginalstenographicnotesandlaidbare,onceandfor all, the literary overlay introduced by John Neihardt. I read The SixthGrandfather on a train running from Colorado to California, and I was

alternatively disillusioned (in relation to my mystical first readings) andfascinated (in relation thehistorical focusofmysecond).FormanyBlackElkreaders, DeMallie’s book engendered both a crisis of confidence in the text(“youmean to tellme thatNeihardt—aquintessentiallyconfidentpoethimself—rewrote some of the things Black Elk said?”) and a new curiosity about adeeply uncertain terrain of translation among oral text, transcribed notes, andliteraryexpression. Indeed, thecoverof thebookcapturesandevencelebratesthat uncertainty, as it features an almost willfully blurry color photograph ofBlackElk.Wearingaheaddressandashirtand tie,he isboxed into the lowerleftcornerashegazesupandawayfromtheviewer.TheSixthGrandfather,asanumberofcriticshavepointedout,basicallysetthetableforapost-structuralistcrisisofmeaninginrelationtoabookthathadcometoserveasafoundationaltext.Nowithadmultiplereaderships:withorwithout,beforeorafterDeMallie.Andithadgottenprogressivelymoredifficulttopindown.

Figs.3and4

In 1989 and 1990 I taught the 1988BisonBooks edition,which featured a

FrankHowell painting,Elk Horn and Herbs, on the cover. Howell’s pasticheimage—beautiful but emblematic of the 1980s excesses of what was called“SantaFeStyle”—helpedreframethebookyetagainasakindofgatewaydrugfor New Age mystical seekers, an even larger, global audience of next-gendescendantsof thereadersof thePocketBooksedition.Forme,BlackElkhadcomefullcirclebutnowIcarriedotherkindsofreadingburdens.Ifnotwiser,Iwas at least more experienced than I had been that first time around, andcorrespondinglylesstakenwithit.Ifnotapostmoderncynic,Inonethelesshadastrongskepticismaboutboththeoriginsandthepoliticsof itandothersimilartexts. I was, frankly, tired of the book, which had by now acquired a hugesupplementarycriticalliteratureandanenormousandknowingaudience.BlackElk Speaks was the property of everyone, and the intimate and powerfulmeaningsIhadoncetakenfromitwere,Ithought,fatallycompromised.Sadly,thebookhadlostmanyofitssatisfactions.It’snot like therewasnothingelse to read.PlentyofgreatAmerican Indian

writingcameoutduring thoseyears: stunning fictionandpowerfulnonfiction,worknewandworkreclaimedfromthearchives.CaughtupbyLouiseErdrich,ShermanAlexie,LeslieMarmonSilko,andotherNativewriters,manyreadershadfewincentivestorevisitBlackElkSpeaks.AndsoIdidlittlemorethantakenoteas the2000BisonBookseditioncameout,and—thoughRayDeMallie isthe preeminent scholar of Black Elk—did more or less the same with hisannotated2008SUNYPressPremierEdition.Shortly after that, however, I found in ausedbookstore a copyof the1961

Bison Books edition. On awhim I bought it, and found thatmy reading hadchangedandmaturedyetagain.ItwascleartomethatBlackElkSpeakscouldneverbe thekindofbook Ihadonce taken it tobe: an innocent, curious, andpowerfulliteraryaccountofthereminiscencesofaLakotalife.Thosedayswereover. The 1961 cover, for example, has a primitivist pictographic feel thatconjures up a feeling of innocence with its white background peppered withwhat seem tobeminiaturevisual quotations from theStandingBeardrawingsthat accompanied theoriginal text.Anearlier versionofmemighthave takenthoseimagesatfacevalue.Butthatisnolongerthenatureofthisbook,foritscriticalhistorycreatesaburdenofknowingthatinsistsonthoughtfulscrutiny.IfoundmyselfcomparingthecoverdrawingsandtheStandingBearimagesanddecided that the bulk of the cover was either imagined or drawn from othersources!Thisparticularcritical insight isnot lifechanging,but itpoints to theways that this book—born and bred to be unstable in its meanings—always

demandscomplexinterrogation.Atthesametime,however,whenIcurledupwiththebookyetagain,Isaid

farewell toall that.ForthereissomethingaboutBlackElkSpeaks—itsstories,wordchoices, syntax—that isuniquelycompellingandcaptivating. Itdoesnotread like anyother “as told to”narrative inwhich Indians relatehistories to awhite recorder.Nor does it read likeNeihardt’s poetry,with its epic couplets,cleanrhymes,andnarrativedrive.WhatmakesBlackElkSpeaksgreat—anditisgreat—isexactlythethingthatwecannotknowwellandthatwethereforepickat constantly: the combined aesthetic and spiritual relationship betweenBlackElkandJohnNeihardtthatshowsupinthegapsofmeaningandtheinterlockedwordsandphrasesofnarrator,translators,andauthor.Isthespiritualcontentofthe book transcendent?Perhaps it is. I amnot the one to say.Clearly, readers(myself included) have, for a very long time, found real transcendence in thepowerofthewordsonthepage.I’velostcountofthenumberoftimesIhavereadBlackElkSpeaks,andthat

initselfistestamenttothepowerofthebook.ThistimearoundIfoundmyselflingeringonthesmallthingsthatpopupinthebreaksbetweenthegreatvision,the battle histories, the accounts of ceremonies, and theWildWest episodes.Thesearesweetremindersofthepresenceofalivedlifetobefoundamongthebook’sgrippingstoriesandliterarybeauty:theporcupinescryinginthecold,thefrankconfessionthatwailingandgrievingcouldbealotofwork,themomentswhenitwashardtostartfireswithwetwood,theboyspullingoldwomenacrossAll-Gone-TreeCreekwithrawhideropes,theboywho—forwhateverreason—climbed the flagpole at the fort and cut off the top, the kissing of fish, themystery ofWatanye’s chronically sore lips, the woman killed by a tree limbfallingonhertipi, theshakinessofayoungwarriortryingtobraidafeatherinhishairwhileholdinghispony,abrokenleg,andskinrippedawaywithagunthathadfrozentomittenlesshands.Black Elk Speaks has been introduced, prefaced, forwarded, annotated, and

explained many times over the years, and I have no illusions about theimportance ofmy own experienceswith the book.Yet it has always beenmyfeeling thatothershavebeen there, readingwithmeandperhaps experiencingthe book in similar ways, maybe even echoing my own cycle of fascination,exhaustion,andreturn.Forme,thelessonsofthebookcontinuetogainclaritywiththepassingoftimeandwitheachneweditionandeachnewreading:thereis real power built into it, whichmakes it fundamentallymysterious; there isdeep historical complexity built into it, which makes it a puzzle for

contemplation; and there is aestheticbeautybuilt into it,whichmakes readingBlackElkSpeaks a timeless act ofpleasure.All these things aregifts, andweshouldtakethemassuch.

NationalandInternationalHonorsReceivedbyJohnG.Neihardt.

1919:SongofThreeFriendsnamedBestVolumeofVersebythePoetrySocietyofAmerica.

1921: Named Poet Laureate of Nebraska by act of the Nebraska StateLegislature.

1925:AdmittedasthefirstcivilianmembertotheOrderoftheIndianWarsoftheUnitedStates,WashingtonDC.

1927:The Song of the IndianWars is chosen as one of the 500 Volumes ofWorld Literature for theWhite House Library,Washington DC. Neihardt isdesignatedForemostPoetof theNationby theNationalPoetryCenter,NewYork.

1943:Admittedasmember to theNational InstituteofArts andLetters,NewYork.

1947: Receives Doctor of Letters degree from the University of Missouri,Columbia.

1951:NamedChancelloroftheAcademyofAmericanPoets,NewYork(servesuntil1967).

1953:ACycleoftheWestchosenasoneoftheWorld’sBestBooksfromHomertoHemingway.

1959:NamedaFellowoftheInternationalInstituteofArtsandLetters,Lindau,Germany.

1967:NamedNebraska’sPoetoftheCentury.NamedoneofthetoptenpersonsmakingthemostsignificantcontributiontoNebraskainthefirst100yearsofstatehood (poll of historians and history teachers conducted by theWorld-HeraldNewspapers, Omaha). Named Prairie Poet Laureate of America byUnitedPoetsLaureateInternational.

1971: Receives the Mari Sandoz Award from the Nebraska State Library

Association.1972:Receives theNebraskaBuilderAwardfromtheUniversityofNebraska,Lincoln.ReceivesDoctorofLettersdegreefromMidlandLutheranCollege,FremontNE.

1974:January8:HonoredbytheNebraskaStateLegislatureforfifty-twoyearsof service as Poet Laureate of Nebraska. March 21: Inducted into theNebraskaHallofFame.

1982:NamedPoetLaureate inPerpetuityby theNebraskaCommittee for theHumanities.

2000:BlackElk Speaks chosen as one of theTopTenSpiritualBooks of theCentury.

Sinceitsinitialpublication,BlackElkSpeakshasbeentranslatedintomorethantwentylanguages,includingFrench,Italian,Finnish,andLatvian.

BlackElkSpeaks

1.

TheOfferingofthePipe

BlackElkSpeaks:

Myfriend,Iamgoingtotellyouthestoryofmylife,asyouwish;andifitwereonlythestoryofmylifeIthinkIwouldnottellit;forwhatisonemanthatheshouldmakemuchofhiswinters,evenwhentheybendhimlikeaheavysnow?Somanyothermenhavelivedandshalllivethatstory,tobegrassuponthehills.Itisthestoryofalllifethatisholyandisgoodtotell,andofustwo-leggeds

sharinginitwiththefour-leggedsandthewingsoftheairandallgreenthings;forthesearechildrenofonemotherandtheirfatherisoneSpirit.This,then,isnotthetaleofagreathunterorofagreatwarrior,orofagreat

traveler,althoughIhavemademuchmeatinmytimeandfoughtformypeoplebothasboyandman,andhavegonefarandseenstrangelandsandmen.Soalsohavemanyothersdone,andbetterthanI.ThesethingsIshallrememberbytheway, andoften theymay seem tobe thevery tale itself, aswhen Iwas livingthem in happiness and sorrow. But now that I can see it all as from a lonelyhilltop,Iknowitwasthestoryofamightyvisiongiventoamantooweaktouseit;ofaholytreethatshouldhaveflourishedinapeople’sheartwithflowersandsingingbirds,andnowiswithered;andofapeople’sdreamthatdiedinbloodysnow.Butifthevisionwastrueandmighty,asIknow,itistrueandmightyyet;for

suchthingsareofthespirit,anditisinthedarknessoftheireyesthatmengetlost.SoIknowthatitisagoodthingIamgoingtodo;andbecausenogoodthing

canbedonebyanymanalone,IwillfirstmakeanofferingandsendavoicetotheSpiritoftheWorld,1thatitmayhelpmetobetrue.See,Ifillthissacredpipewiththebarkoftheredwillow;butbeforewesmokeit,youmustseehowitismadeandwhat itmeans.These four ribbonshanginghereon thestemare thefourquartersof theuniverse.Theblackone is for thewestwhere the thunderbeings2livetosendusrain;thewhiteoneforthenorth,whencecomesthegreatwhite cleansing wind; the red one for the east, whence springs the light and

where the morning star lives to give men wisdom; the yellow for the south,whencecomethesummerandthepowertogrow.3ButthesefourspiritsareonlyoneSpiritafterall,andthiseaglefeatherhereis

for thatOne,which is likea father, andalso it is for the thoughtsofmen thatshouldrisehighaseaglesdo.Isnottheskyafatherandtheearthamother,andarenotalllivingthingswithfeetorwingsorrootstheirchildren?Andthishideupon themouthpiece here,which should be bison hide, is for the earth, fromwhencewecameandatwhosebreastwesuckasbabiesallourlives,alongwithall theanimalsandbirdsand treesandgrasses.Andbecause itmeansall this,andmorethananymancanunderstand,thepipeisholy.4Thereisastoryaboutthewaythepipefirstcametous.Averylongtimeago,

theysay,twoscoutswereoutlookingforbison;andwhentheycametothetopofahighhillandlookednorth,theysawsomethingcomingalongwayoff,andwhenitcameclosertheycriedout,“Itisawoman!,”anditwas.Thenoneofthescouts,beingfoolish,hadbadthoughtsandspokethem;buttheothersaid:“Thisisa sacredwoman; throwallbad thoughtsaway.”Whenshecamestill closer,theysawthatsheworeafinewhitebuckskindress,thatherhairwasverylongandthatshewasyoungandverybeautiful.Andsheknewtheirthoughtsandsaidinavoicethatwaslikesinging:“Youdonotknowme,butifyouwanttodoasyouthink,youmaycome.”Andthefoolishonewent;butjustashestoodbeforeher, there was a white cloud that came and covered them. And the beautifulyoungwomancameoutof the cloud, andwhen it blewaway the foolishmanwasaskeletoncoveredwithworms.Thenthewomanspoketotheonewhowasnotfoolish:“Youshallgohome

andtellyourpeoplethatIamcomingandthatabigtepeeshallbebuiltformeinthecenterofthenation.”Andtheman,whowasverymuchafraid,wentquicklyandtoldthepeople,whodidatonceastheyweretold;andtherearoundthebigtepee they waited for the sacred woman. And after a while she came, verybeautifulandsinging,andasshewentintothetepeethisiswhatshesang:

“WithvisiblebreathIamwalking.AvoiceIamsendingasIwalk.InasacredmannerIamwalking.WithvisibletracksIamwalking.InasacredmannerIwalk.”

Andasshesang,therecamefromhermouthawhitecloudthatwasgoodtosmell.Thenshegavesomethingtothechief,anditwasapipewithabisoncalf

carvedononeside tomean theearth thatbearsand feedsus, andwith twelveeaglefeathershangingfromthestemtomeantheskyandthetwelvemoons,andtheseweretiedwithagrassthatneverbreaks.“Behold!”shesaid.“Withthisyoushallmultiplyandbeagoodnation.Nothingbutgoodshallcomefromit.Onlythehandsofthegoodshalltakecareofitandthebadshallnotevenseeit.”Thenshesangagainandwentoutofthetepee;andasthepeoplewatchedhergoing,suddenly it was a white bison galloping away and snorting, and soon it wasgone.5This they tell, andwhether it happened soornot I donotknow;but if you

thinkaboutit,youcanseethatitistrue.Now I light the pipe, and after I have offered it to the powers that are one

Power,6 and sent forth a voice to them,we shall smoke together.Offering themouthpiecefirstofalltotheOneabove—so—Isendavoice:Heyhey!heyhey!heyhey!heyhey!Grandfather,GreatSpirit,youhavebeenalways,andbeforeyounoonehas

been.There isnootherone topray tobutyou.7Youyourself, everything thatyousee,everythinghasbeenmadebyyou.Thestarnationsallovertheuniverseyouhavefinished.8The fourquartersof theearthyouhave finished.Theday,and in that day, everything you have finished. Grandfather, Great Spirit, leanclosetotheearththatyoumayhearthevoiceIsend.Youtowardswherethesungoesdown,beholdme;ThunderBeings,beholdme!YouwheretheWhiteGiant9livesinpower,beholdme!Youwherethesunshinescontinually,whencecometheday-breakstarandtheday,beholdme!Youwherethesummerlives,beholdme! You in the depths of the heavens, an eagle of power, behold! And you,MotherEarth,theonlyMother,youwhohaveshownmercytoyourchildren!Hearme,fourquartersoftheworld—arelativeIam!Givemethestrengthto

walk the soft earth, a relative to all that is! Giveme the eyes to see and thestrengthtounderstand,thatImaybelikeyou.WithyourpoweronlycanIfacethewinds.GreatSpirit,GreatSpirit,myGrandfather,allovertheearththefacesofliving

thingsareallalike.Withtendernesshavethesecomeupoutoftheground.Lookuponthesefacesofchildrenwithoutnumberandwithchildrenintheirarms,thattheymayfacethewindsandwalkthegoodroadtothedayofquiet.This is my prayer; hear me! The voice I have sent is weak, yet with

earnestnessIhavesentit.Hearme!10Itisfinished.Hetchetualoh!11Now,myfriend,letussmoketogethersothattheremaybeonlygoodbetween

2.

EarlyBoyhood

IamaLakotaof theOgalalaband.1Myfather’snamewasBlackElk,andhisfatherbeforehimbore thename, and the fatherof his father, so that I am thefourth tobear it.Hewas amedicinemanand sowere severalofhisbrothers.Also, he and the great Crazy Horse’s father were cousins, having the samegrandfather. My mother’s name was White Cow Sees; her father was calledRefuse-to-Go, and her mother, Plenty Eagle Feathers. I can remember mymother’smotherandher father.Myfather’s fatherwaskilledby thePawnees2when I was too little to know, and hismother, Red EagleWoman, died soonafter.I was born in the Moon of the Popping Trees (December) 3 on the Little

PowderRiver in theWinterWhen theFourCrowsWereKilled (1863),4andIwas threeyearsoldwhenmyfather’s right legwasbroken in theBattleof theHundredSlain.1fFromthatwoundhe limpeduntil thedayhedied,whichwasaboutthetimewhenBigFoot’sbandwasbutcheredonWoundedKnee(1890).Heisburiedhereinthesehills.I can remember thatWinter of theHundred Slain as amanmay remember

somebaddreamhedreamedwhenhewaslittle,butIcannottelljusthowmuchIheardwhenIwasbiggerandhowmuchIunderstoodwhenIwaslittle.Itislikesomefearfulthinginafog,foritwasatimewheneverythingseemedtroubledandafraid.IhadneverseenaWasichu2fthen,anddidnotknowwhatonelookedlike;but

everyonewassayingthattheWasichuswerecomingandthattheyweregoingtotakeourcountryandrubusalloutandthatweshouldallhavetodiefighting.Itwas theWasichus who got rubbed out in that battle, and all the people weretalkingaboutitforalongwhile;butahundredWasichuswasnotmuchiftherewereothersandotherswithoutnumberwherethosecamefrom.I remember once that I askedmy grandfather about this. I said: “When the

scouts comeback from seeing theprairie full of bison somewhere, thepeoplesay theWasichusarecoming;andwhenstrangemenarecoming tokillusall,

theysaytheWasichusarecoming.Whatdoesitmean?”Andhesaid,“Thattheyaremany.”5WhenIwasolder, I learnedwhat thefightingwasabout thatwinterand the

next summer. Up on theMadison Fork theWasichus had foundmuch of theyellowmetal that theyworshipandthatmakesthemcrazy,andtheywantedtohavearoadupthroughourcountrytotheplacewheretheyellowmetalwas;butmypeopledidnotwant theroad.6 Itwouldscare thebisonandmake themgoaway,andalsoitwouldlettheotherWasichuscomeinlikeariver.Theytoldusthat they wanted only to use a little land, as much as a wagon would takebetweenthewheels;butourpeopleknewbetter.Andwhenyoulookaboutyounow,youcanseewhatitwastheywanted.Oncewewerehappyinourowncountryandwewereseldomhungry,forthen

thetwo-leggedsandthefour-leggedslivedtogetherlikerelatives,andtherewasplenty for themand forus.But theWasichus came, and theyhavemade littleislands for us and other little islands for the four-leggeds, and always theseislandsarebecomingsmaller, foraroundthemsurgesthegnawingfloodof theWasichu;anditisdirtywithliesandgreed.A long time agomy father toldmewhat his father toldhim, that therewas

once aLakota holyman, calledDrinksWater,7whodreamedwhatwas to be;andthiswaslongbeforethecomingoftheWasichus.Hedreamedthatthefour-leggedswere goingback into the earth 8 and that a strange race hadwoven aspider’sweballaroundtheLakotas.Andhesaid:“Whenthishappens,youshallliveinsquaregrayhouses,inabarrenland,andbesidethosesquaregrayhousesyoushallstarve.”TheysayhewentbacktoMotherEarthsoonafterhesawthisvision,anditwassorrowthatkilledhim.Youcanlookaboutyounowandseethathemeantthesedirt-roofedhouseswearelivingin,andthatalltherestwastrue.Sometimesdreamsarewiserthanwaking.Andsowhenthesoldierscameandbuiltthemselvesatownoflogsthereon

thePineyForkof thePowder,9mypeopleknewtheymeant tohave their roadandtakeourcountryandmaybekillusallwhentheywerestrongenough.CrazyHorsewasonlyabout19yearsoldthen,andRedCloudwasstillourgreatchief.10 In theMoon of theChangingSeason (October)11 he called together all thescatteredbandsoftheLakotaforabigcouncilonthePowderRiver,andwhenwewentonthewarpathagainstthesoldiers,ahorsebackcouldridethroughourvillages from sunrise until the day was above his head, so far did our campstretchalongthevalleyoftheriver;formanyofourfriends,theShyela3fandthe

BlueClouds,4fhadcometohelpusfight.And it was aboutwhen the bittenmoonwas delayed (last quarter)12 in the

TimeofthePoppingTreeswhenthehundredwererubbedout.Myfriend,FireThunderhere,whoisolder thanI,was in thatfightandhecantellyouhowitwas.

FireThunderSpeaks:

Iwas16yearsoldwhenthishappened,andafterthebigcouncilonthePowderwehadmovedovertotheTongueRiverwherewewerecampingatthemouthofPenoCreek.Thereweremanyofusthere.RedCloudwasoverallofus,butthechiefofourbandwasBigRoad.Westartedoutonhorsebackjustaboutsunrise,ridingupthecreektowardthesoldiers’townonthePiney,forweweregoingtoattackit.ThesunwasabouthalfwayupwhenwestoppedattheplacewheretheWasichu’sroadcamedownasteep,narrowridgeandcrossedthecreek.Itwasagoodplacetofight,sowesentsomemenaheadtocoaxthesoldiersout.Whiletheyweregone,wedividedintotwopartsandhidinthegulliesonbothsidesoftheridgeandwaited.Afteralongwhileweheardashotupoverthehill,andweknew the soldierswere coming. Sowe held the noses of our ponies that theymightnotwhinnyat the soldiers’horses.Soonwe sawourmencomingback,and some of themwerewalking and leading their horses, so that the soldierswouldthinktheywerewornout.Thenthemenwehadsentaheadcamerunningdown the road between us, and the soldiers on horseback followed, shooting.When they came to the flat at the bottomof the hill, the fighting began all atonce. I had a sorrel horse, and just as Iwas going to get onhim, the soldiersturnedaroundandbegantofighttheirwaybackupthehill.Ihadasix-shooterthatIhadtradedfor,andalsoabowandarrows.Whenthesoldiersstartedback,Iheldmysorrelwithonehandandbegankillingthemwiththesix-shooter,fortheycameclosetome.Thereweremanybullets,butthereweremorearrows—so many that it was like a cloud of grasshoppers all above and around thesoldiers; and our people, shooting across, hit each other. The soldiers werefalling all the while they were fighting back up the hill, and their horses gotloose.Manyofourpeoplechased thehorses,but Iwasnotafterhorses; IwasafterWasichus.Whenthesoldiersgotontop,therewerenotmanyofthemleftandtheyhadnoplacetohide.Theywerefightinghard.Weweretoldtocrawluponthem,andwedid.Whenwewereclose,someoneyelled:“Letusgo!Thisisagooddaytodie.Thinkofthehelplessonesathome!”Thenweallcried,“Hoka

hey!”13andrushedatthem.Iwasyoungthenandquickonmyfeet,andIwasoneofthefirst togetinamongthesoldiers.Theygotupandfoughtveryharduntilnotoneofthemwasalive.Theyhadadogwiththem,andhestartedbackuptheroadforthesoldiers’town,howlingasheran.Hewastheonlyoneleft.Ididnotshootathimbecausehelookedtoosweet;5fbutmanydidshoot,andhedied full of arrows. So there was nobody left of the soldiers. Dead men andhorses and wounded Indians were scattered all the way up the hill, and theirbloodwas frozen, for a storm had come up and it was very cold and gettingcolderallthetime.Weleftallthedeadlyingthere,forthegroundwassolid,andwepickedupourwoundedandstartedback;butwelostmostofthembeforewereachedourcampatthemouthofthePeno.Therewasabigblizzardthatnight;andsomeofthewoundedwhodidnotdieontheway,diedafterwegothome.ThiswasthetimewhenBlackElk’sfatherhadhislegbroken.

BlackElkContinues:

I am quite sure that I remember the timewhenmy father came homewith abroken leg thathegot fromkillingsomanyWasichus,and it seems that I canrememberallaboutthebattletoo,butIthinkIcouldnot.ItmustbethefearthatIremembermost.AllthistimeIwasnotallowedtoplayveryfarawayfromourtepee, andmymotherwould say, “If you are not good theWasichuswill getyou.”14WemusthavebrokencampatthemouthofthePenosoonafterthebattle,for

Icanremembermyfather lyingonaponydrag15withbisonrobesallaroundhim,likeababy,andmymotherridingthepony.Thesnowwasdeepanditwasvery cold, and I remember sitting in another pony drag besidemy father andmother, all wrapped up in fur.We were going away from where the soldierswere,andIdonotknowwherewewent,butitwaswest.Itwasahungrywinter,forthedeepsnowmadeithardtofindtheelk;andalso

manyofthepeoplewentsnowblind.Wewanderedalongtime,andsomeofthebands got lost from each other. Then at last we were camping in the woodsbesideacreeksomewhere,andthehunterscamebackwithmeat.I think it was this same winter when a medicine man, by the name of

Creeping,wentaroundamongthepeoplecuringsnowblinds.Hewouldputsnowupontheireyes,andafterhehadsungacertainsacredsongthathehadheardinadream,hewouldblowonthebacksoftheirheadsandtheywouldseeagain,soIhaveheard.Itwasaboutthedragonflythathesang,forthatwaswherehegot

hispower,theysay.16WhenitwassummeragainwewerecampingontheRosebud,andIdidnot

feel somuchafraid,because theWasichus seemed fartherawayand therewaspeacethereinthevalleyandtherewasplentyofmeat.Butalltheboysfromfiveorsixyearsupwereplayingwar.Thelittleboyswouldgathertogetherfromthedifferentbandsofthetribeandfighteachotherwithmudballsthattheythrewwithwillowsticks.And thebigboysplayed thegamecalledThrowing-Them-Off-Their-Horses,which is abattle all but thekilling; and sometimes theygothurt. The horsebacks from the different bandswould line up and charge uponeachother,yelling;andwhentheponiescametogetheron therun, theywouldrearandflounderandscreaminabigdust,andtheriderswouldseizeeachother,wrestlinguntilonesidehadlostallitsmen,forthosewhofelluponthegroundwerecounteddead.17WhenIwasolder,I,too,oftenplayedthisgame.Wewerealwaysnakedwhen

weplayed it, justaswarriorsarewhen theygo intobattle if it isnot toocold,becausetheyareswifterwithoutclothes.OnceIfelloffonmybackrightinthemiddleofabedofpricklypears,andittookmymotheralongwhiletopickallthe stickersoutofme. Iwas still too little toplaywar that summer,but I canrememberwatchingtheotherboys,andIthoughtthatwhenweallgrewupandwerebigtogether,maybewecouldkillalltheWasichusordrivethemfarawayfromourcountry.It was in the MoonWhen the Cherries Turn Black (August)18 that all the

peopleweretalkingagainaboutabattle,andourwarriorscamebackwithmanywounded.ItwasTheAttackingoftheWagons,6fanditmademeafraidagain,forwedidnotwinthatbattleaswedidtheotherone,andtherewasmuchmourningforthedead.FireThunderwasinthatfighttoo,andhecantellyouhowitwasthatday.

FireThunderSpeaks:

It was very bad. There is a wide flat prairie with hills around it, and in themiddleofthistheWasichushadputtheboxesoftheirwagonsinacircle,sothattheycouldkeeptheirmulesthereatnight.TherewerenotmanyWasichus,buttheywerelyingbehindtheboxesandtheyshotfasterthantheyevershotatusbefore.Wethoughtitwassomenewmedicineofgreatpowerthattheyhad,fortheyshot so fast that itwas like tearingablanket.Afterwards I learned that itwasbecausetheyhadnewgunsthattheyloadedfrombehind,andthiswasthe

first time theyused theseguns.7fWecameonafter sunrise.Thereweremany,many of us, andwemeant to ride right over them and rub themout.But ourponieswereafraidoftheringoffirethegunsoftheWasichusmade,andwouldnotgoover.Ourwomenwerewatchingusfromthehillsandwecouldhearthemsinging and mourning whenever the shooting stopped.We tried hard, but wecould not do it, and therewere deadwarriors and horses piled all around theboxes and scattered over the plain. Then we left our horses in a gulch andchargedonfoot,butitwaslikegreengrasswitheringinafire.Sowepickedupour wounded and went away. I do not know how many of our people werekilled,buttherewereverymany.Itwasbad.

BlackElkContinues:

Idonotrememberwherewecampedthatwinterbutitmusthavebeenatimeofpeaceandofplentytoeat.

StandingBearSpeaks:

IamfouryearsolderthanBlackElk,andheandIhavebeengoodfriendssinceboyhood.19IknowitwasonthePowderthatwecampedwherethereweremanycottonwood trees. Ponies like to eat the bark of these trees and it is good forthem.ThatwasthewinterwhenHighShirt’smotherwaskilledbyabigtreethatfellonhertepee.Itwasaverywindynightandtherewerenoisesthat‘wokeme,and then I heard that an oldwoman had been killed, and it wasHigh Shirt’smother.20

BlackElkContinues:

Iwasfouryearsoldthen,andIthinkitmusthavebeenthenextsummerthatIfirstheardthevoices.Itwasahappysummerandnothingwasafraid,becauseintheMoonWhen the Ponies Shed (May)21word came from theWasichus thattherewouldbepeaceandthattheywouldnotusetheroadanymoreandthatallthesoldierswouldgoaway.Thesoldiersdidgoawayandtheirtownsweretorndown;andintheMoonofFallingLeaves(November),22theymadeatreatywithRedCloudthatsaidourcountrywouldbeoursaslongasgrassshouldgrowandwater flow. You can see that it is not the grass and the water that haveforgotten.23MaybeitwasnotthissummerwhenIfirstheardthevoices,butIthinkitwas,

becauseIknowitwasbeforeIplayedwithbowsandarrowsorrodeahorse,and

IwasoutplayingalonewhenIheardthem.Itwaslikesomebodycallingme,andI thought itwasmymother, but therewas nobody there.This happenedmorethanonce,andalwaysmademeafraid,sothatIranhome.Itwaswhen Iwas five years old thatmyGrandfathermademe a bow and

somearrows.ThegrasswasyoungandIwashorseback.A thunderstormwascomingfromwherethesungoesdown,andjustasIwasridingintothewoodsalongacreek,therewasakingbirdsittingonalimb.24Thiswasnotadream,ithappened. And I was going to shoot at the kingbird with the bow myGrandfathermade,whenthebirdspokeandsaid:“Thecloudsalloverareone-sided.”25Perhaps itmeant thatall thecloudswere lookingatme.And then itsaid:“Listen!Avoiceiscallingyou!”ThenIlookedupattheclouds,andtwomenwerecomingthere,headfirstlikearrowsslantingdown;andastheycame,they sang a sacred song and the thunderwas likedrumming. Iwill sing it foryou.Thesongandthedrummingwerelikethis:

“Behold,asacredvoiceiscallingyou;Allovertheskyasacredvoiceiscalling.”

I sat there gazing at them, and theywere coming from the placewhere thegiant lives (north).Butwhen theywere very close tome, theywheeled abouttowardwherethesungoesdown,andsuddenlytheyweregeese.26Thentheyweregone,andtheraincamewithabigwindandaroaring.Ididnottellthisvisiontoanyone.Ilikedtothinkaboutit,butIwasafraidto

tellit.

3.

TheGreatVision

Whathappenedafter thatuntil thesummer Iwasnineyearsold isnotastory.There were winters and summers, and they were good; for theWasichus hadmadetheirironroad8falongthePlatteandtraveledthere.Thishadcutthebisonherdintwo,butthosethatstayedinourcountrywithusweremorethancouldbecounted,andwewanderedwithouttroubleinourland.Now and then the voices would come back when I was out alone, like

someonecallingme,butwhattheywantedmetodoIdidnotknow.Thisdidnothappen very often, and when it did not happen, I forgot about it; for I wasgrowingtallerandwasridinghorsesnowandcouldshootprairiechickensandrabbitswithmybow.Theboysofmypeoplebeganveryyoungtolearnthewaysofmen, andnoone taughtus;we just learnedbydoingwhatwe saw,andwewerewarriorsatatimewhenboysnowarelikegirls.Itwas thesummerwhen Iwasnineyearsold,andourpeopleweremoving

slowlytowardstheRockyMountains.WecampedoneeveninginavalleybesidealittlecreekjustbeforeitranintotheGreasyGrass,9fandtherewasamanbythenameofManHipwholikedmeandaskedmetoeatwithhiminhistepee.While Iwaseating,avoicecameandsaid:“It is time;nowtheyarecalling

you.”ThevoicewassoloudandclearthatIbelievedit,andIthoughtIwouldjustgowhereitwantedmetogo.SoIgotrightupandstarted.AsIcameoutofthe tepee, bothmy thighs began to hurtme, and suddenly itwas likewakingfromadream,andtherewasn’tanyvoice.SoIwentbackintothetepee,butIdidn’twanttoeat.ManHiplookedatmeinastrangewayandaskedmewhatwaswrong.Itoldhimthatmylegswerehurtingme.Thenextmorning thecampmovedagain,andIwasridingwithsomeboys.

Westoppedtogetadrinkfromacreek,andwhenIgotoffmyhorse,mylegscrumpledundermeandIcouldnotwalk.Sotheboyshelpedmeupandputmeonmyhorse;andwhenwecampedagainthatevening,Iwassick.Thenextdaythe campmoved on to where the different bands of our people were comingtogether,andIrodeinaponydrag,forIwasverysick.Bothmylegsandboth

myarmswereswollenbadlyandmyfacewasallpuffedup.Whenwe had camped again, I was lying in our tepee andmymother and

fatherweresittingbesideme.Icouldseeoutthroughtheopening,andtheretwomenwere coming from the clouds, headfirst like arrows slanting down, and IknewtheywerethesamethatIhadseenbefore.1Eachnowcarriedalongspear,andfromthepointsoftheseajaggedlightningflashed.Theycamecleardowntothe ground this time and stood a little way off and looked at me and said:“Hurry!Come!YourGrandfathersarecallingyou!”2Thentheyturnedandleftthegroundlikearrowsslantingupwardfromthebow.WhenIgotuptofollow,mylegsdidnothurtmeanymoreandIwasverylight.Iwentoutsidethetepee,and yonderwhere themenwith flaming spearswere going, a little cloudwascomingveryfast.Itcameandstoopedandtookmeandturnedbacktowhereitcamefrom,flyingfast.AndwhenIlookeddownIcouldseemymotherandmyfatheryonder,andIfeltsorrytobeleavingthem.Then therewasnothingbut the air and the swiftness of the little cloud that

boremeandthosetwomenstillleadinguptowherewhitecloudswerepiledlikemountainsonawideblueplain,andinthemthunderbeingslivedandleapedandflashed.Now suddenly there was nothing but a world of cloud, and we three were

therealoneinthemiddleofagreatwhiteplainwithsnowyhillsandmountainsstaringatus;anditwasverystill;buttherewerewhispers.Thenthetwomenspoketogetherandtheysaid:“Beholdhim,thebeingwith

fourlegs!”Ilookedandsawabayhorsestandingthere,andhebegantospeak:“Behold

me!”hesaid,“Mylife-historyyoushallsee.”Thenhewheeledabouttowherethesungoesdown,andsaid:“Beholdthem!Theirhistoryyoushallknow.”Ilooked,andthereweretwelveblackhorsesyonderallabreastwithnecklaces

of bison hoofs, and they were beautiful, but I was frightened, because theirmaneswerelightningandtherewasthunderintheirnostrils.Then thebayhorsewheeled towhere thegreatwhitegiant lives (thenorth)

and said: “Behold!” And yonder there were twelve white horses all abreast.Their manes were flowing like a blizzard wind and from their noses came aroaring,andallaboutthemwhitegeesesoaredandcircled.Thenthebaywheeledroundtowherethesunshinescontinually(theeast)and

bademelook;andtheretwelvesorrelhorses,withnecklacesofelk’steeth,stoodabreastwitheyesthatglimmeredliketheday-breakstarandmanesofmorninglight.

Thenthebaywheeledonceagaintolookupontheplacewhereyouarealwaysfacing (the south), and yonder stood twelve buckskins all abreast with hornsupontheirheadsandmanesthatlivedandgrewliketreesandgrasses.Andwhen I had seen all these, the bay horse said: “YourGrandfathers are

havingacouncil.Theseshalltakeyou;sohavecourage.”3

Thenallthehorseswentintoformation,fourabreast4—theblacks,thewhites,thesorrels,andthebuckskins—andstoodbehindthebay,whoturnednowtothewest and neighed; and yonder suddenly the sky was terrible with a storm ofplunginghorsesinallcolorsthatshooktheworldwiththunder,neighingback.Now turning to the north the bay horse whinnied, and yonder all the sky

roaredwithamightywindofrunninghorsesinallcolors,neighingback.Andwhenhewhinniedtotheeast,theretootheskywasfilledwithglowing

cloudsofmanesandtailsofhorsesinallcolorssingingback.Thentothesouthhecalled,anditwascrowdedwithmanycolored,happyhorses,nickering.Then the bay horse spoke tome again and said: “See how your horses all

comedancing!” I looked, and therewerehorses, horses everywhere—awholeskyfulofhorsesdancingroundme.“Makehaste!”thebayhorsesaid;andwewalkedtogethersidebyside,while

theblacks,thewhites,thesorrels,andthebuckskinsfollowed,marchingfourbyfour.I looked about me once again, and suddenly the dancing horses without

numberchangedintoanimalsofeverykindandintoall thefowlsthatare,andthesefledbacktothefourquartersoftheworldfromwhencethehorsescame,andvanished.Thenaswewalked, therewasaheapedupcloudahead that changed intoa

tepee,andarainbowwastheopendoorofit;5andthroughthedoorIsawsixoldmensittinginarow.The twomenwith thespearsnowstoodbesideme,oneoneitherhand,and

thehorsestooktheirplacesintheirquarters,lookinginward,fourbyfour.AndtheoldestoftheGrandfathersspokewithakindvoiceandsaid:“Comerightinanddonotfear.”Andashespoke,allthehorsesofthefourquartersneighedtocheerme.SoIwentinandstoodbeforethesix,andtheylookedolderthanmencaneverbe—oldlikehills,likestars.6Theoldest spoke again: “YourGrandfathers all over theworld arehaving a

council,andtheyhavecalledyouheretoteachyou.”Hisvoicewasverykind,butIshookalloverwithfearnow,forIknewthatthesewerenotoldmen,butthePowersoftheWorld.AndthefirstwasthePoweroftheWest;thesecond,of

theNorth;thethird,oftheEast;thefourth,oftheSouth;thefifth,oftheSky;thesixth,oftheEarth.Iknewthis,andwasafraid,untilthefirstGrandfatherspokeagain:“Beholdthemyonderwherethesungoesdown,thethunderbeings!Youshallsee,andhavefromthemmypower;andtheyshalltakeyoutothehighandlonely center of the earth that youmay see; even to the place where the suncontinuallyshines,theyshalltakeyoutheretounderstand.”Andashespokeofunderstanding,Ilookedupandsawtherainbowleapwith

flamesofmanycolorsoverme.Nowtherewasawoodencupinhishandanditwasfullofwaterandinthe

waterwasthesky.“Takethis,”hesaid.“Itisthepowertomakelive,anditisyours.”Now he had a bow in his hands. “Take this,” he said. “It is the power to

destroy,anditisyours.”Thenhepointed tohimself and said: “Lookclose at himwho is your spirit

now,foryouarehisbodyandhisnameisEagleWingStretches.”Andsayingthis,hegotupverytallandstartedrunningtowardwherethesun

goes down; and suddenly he was a black horse that stopped and turned andlookedatme,andthehorsewasverypoorandsick;hisribsstoodout.ThenthesecondGrandfather,heoftheNorth,arosewithaherbofpowerin

his hand, and said: “Take this and hurry.” I took and held it toward the blackhorseyonder.HefattenedandwashappyandcameprancingtohisplaceagainandwasthefirstGrandfathersittingthere.The second Grandfather, he of the North, spoke again: “Take courage,

youngerbrother,”hesaid;“onearthanationyoushallmakelive,foryoursshallbethepowerofthewhitegiant’swing,thecleansingwind.”Thenhegotupverytallandstartedrunningtowardthenorth;andwhenheturnedtowardme,itwasawhitegoosewheeling.Ilookedaboutmenow,andthehorsesinthewestwerethunders and the horses of the northwere geese.And the secondGrandfathersangtwosongsthatwerelikethis:7

“Theyareappearing,mayyoubehold!Theyareappearing,mayyoubehold!Thethundernationisappearing,behold!

Theyareappearing,mayyoubehold!Theyareappearing,mayyoubehold!Thewhitegeesenationisappearing,behold!”

AndnowitwasthethirdGrandfatherwhospoke,heofwherethesunshines

continually.“Takecourage,youngerbrother,”hesaid,“foracrosstheearththeyshall takeyou!”Thenhe pointed towhere the daybreak starwas shining, andbeneath the star twomenwere flying. “From themyou shall havepower,” hesaid,“fromthemwhohaveawakenedallthebeingsoftheearthwithrootsandlegsandwings.”Andashesaidthis,heheldinhishandapeacepipewhichhada spotted eagleoutstretchedupon the stem; and this eagle seemedalive, for itwaspoised there, fluttering,and itseyeswere lookingatme.“With thispipe,”theGrandfathersaid,“youshallwalkupontheearth,andwhateversickensthereyoushallmakewell.”Thenhepointedtoamanwhowasbrightredallover,thecolorofgoodandofplenty,andashepointed,theredmanlaydownandrolledandchangedintoabisonthatgotupandgallopedtowardthesorrelhorsesoftheeast,andtheytooturnedtobison,fatandmany.AndnowthefourthGrandfatherspoke,heoftheplacewhereyouarealways

facing (the south),8 whence comes the power to grow. “Younger brother,” hesaid,“withthepowersofthefourquartersyoushallwalk,arelative.Behold,thelivingcenterofanationIshallgiveyou,andwithitmanyyoushallsave.”AndIsawthathewasholdinginhishandabrightredstick9 thatwasalive,andasIlookeditsproutedatthetopandsentforthbranches,andonthebranchesmanyleavescameoutandmurmuredand in the leaves thebirdsbegan tosing.Andthen for just a little while I thought I saw beneath it in the shade the circledvillagesofpeopleandeverylivingthingwithrootsorlegsorwings,andallwerehappy.“Itshallstandinthecenterofthenation’scircle,”saidtheGrandfather,“acanetowalkwithandapeople’sheart;andbyyourpowersyoushallmakeitblossom.”Thenwhen he had been still a little while to hear the birds sing, he spoke

again:“Beholdtheearth!”SoIlookeddownandsawitlyingyonderlikeahoopofpeoples,andinthecenterbloomedtheholystickthatwasatree,andwhereitstood therecrossed tworoads,a redoneandablack.10“Fromwhere thegiantlives(thenorth)towhereyoualwaysface(thesouth)theredroadgoes,theroadofgood,”theGrandfathersaid,“andonitshallyournationwalk.Theblackroadgoesfromwherethethunderbeingslive(thewest)towherethesuncontinuallyshines(theeast),afearfulroad,aroadoftroublesandofwar.Onthisalsoyoushallwalk,andfromityoushallhave thepower todestroyapeople’sfoes. Infourascentsyoushallwalktheearthwithpower.”I thinkhemeant that I shouldsee fourgenerations,countingme,andnowI

amseeingthethird.Thenheroseverytallandstartedrunningtowardthesouth,andwasanelk;

andashestoodamongthebuckskinsyonder,theytoowereelks.NowthefifthGrandfatherspoke,theoldestofthemall,theSpiritoftheSky.

“Myboy,”hesaid,“Ihavesentforyouandyouhavecome.Mypoweryoushallsee!”Hestretchedhisarmsandturnedintoaspottedeaglehovering.“Behold,”hesaid,“allthewingsoftheairshallcometoyou,andtheyandthewindsandthestars shallbe like relatives.Youshallgoacross theearthwithmypower.”Thentheeaglesoaredabovemyheadandflutteredthere;andsuddenlytheskywasfulloffriendlywingsallcomingtowardme.NowIknewthesixthGrandfatherwasabouttospeak,hewhowastheSpirit

oftheEarth,andIsawthathewasveryold,butmoreasmenareold.Hishairwaslongandwhite,hisfacewasallinwrinklesandhiseyesweredeepanddim.Istaredathim,for itseemedIknewhimsomehow;andasIstared,heslowlychanged,forhewasgrowingbackwardsintoyouth,andwhenhehadbecomeaboy, I knew that hewasmyselfwith all the years thatwould bemine at last.Whenhewasoldagain,hesaid:“Myboy,havecourage,formypowershallbeyours,andyoushallneedit,foryournationontheearthwillhavegreattroubles.Come.”He rose and totteredout through the rainbowdoor, andas I followed Iwas

ridingonthebayhorsewhohadtalkedtomeatfirstandledmetothatplace.Thenthebayhorsestoppedandfacedtheblackhorsesofthewest,andavoice

said:“Theyhavegivenyouthecupofwatertomakelivethegreeningday,andalso the bow and arrow to destroy.” The bay neighed, and the twelve blackhorsescameandstoodbehindme,fourabreast.Thebay faced thesorrelsof theeast,and I saw that theyhadmorningstars

upontheirforeheadsandtheywereverybright.Andthevoicesaid:“Theyhavegivenyou the sacredpipeand thepower that ispeace,and thegood redday.”Thebayneighed,andthetwelvesorrelsstoodbehindme,fourabreast.Myhorsenowfacedthebuckskinsofthesouth,andavoicesaid:“Theyhave

givenyouthesacredstickandyournation’shoop,andtheyellowday;andinthecenterofthehoopyoushallsetthestickandmakeitgrowintoashieldingtree,andbloom.”Thebayneighed,andthetwelvebuckskinscameandstoodbehindme,fourabreast.Then Iknew that therewere ridersonall thehorses therebehindme,anda

voicesaid:“Nowyoushallwalktheblackroadwiththese;andasyouwalk,allthenationsthathaverootsorlegsorwingsshallfearyou.”11SoIstarted,ridingtowardtheeastdownthefearfulroad,andbehindmecame

the horsebacks four abreast—the blacks, the whites, the sorrels, and the

buckskins—and far away above the fearful road the daybreak star was risingverydim.Ilookedbelowmewheretheearthwassilentinasickgreenlight,andsawthe

hills look up afraid and the grasses on the hills and all the animals; andeverywhere aboutmewere the cries of frightenedbirds and sounds of fleeingwings.Iwasthechiefofalltheheavensridingthere,andwhenIlookedbehindme, all the twelve black horses reared and plunged and thundered and theirmanesandtailswerewhirlinghailandtheirnostrilssnortedlightning.AndwhenI lookedbelowagain, I saw theslanthail fallingand the long, sharp rain,andwherewepassed,thetreesbowedlowandallthehillsweredim.Nowtheearthwasbrightagainaswerode.Icouldsee thehillsandvalleys

and the creeks and rivers passing under.We came above a placewhere threestreamsmadeabigone—asourceofmightywaters10f—andsomethingterriblewas there. Flames were rising from the waters and in the flames a bluemanlived.12Thedustwas floatingallabouthim in theair, thegrasswasshortandwithered, the trees were wilting, two-legged and four-legged beings lay therethinandpanting,andwingstooweaktofly.Thentheblackhorseridersshouted“Hokahey!”andchargeddownuponthe

blueman,butweredrivenback.Andthewhitetroopshouted,charging,andwasbeaten;thentheredtroopandtheyellow.And when each had failed, they all cried together: “EagleWing Stretches,

hurry!”Andalltheworldwasfilledwithvoicesofallkindsthatcheeredme,soIcharged.Ihadthecupofwaterinonehandandintheotherwasthebowthatturned into a spear as thebay and I swoopeddown, and the spear’s headwassharplightning.Itstabbedtheblueman’sheart,andasitstruckIcouldhearthethunder rolling andmanyvoices that cried “Un-hee!,”13meaning I had killed.The flames died. The trees and grasses were not withered any more andmurmured happily together, and every living being cried in gladness withwhatever voice it had. Then the four troops of horsemen charged down andstruckthedeadbodyoftheblueman,countingcoup;andsuddenlyitwasonlyaharmlessturtle.You see, Ihadbeen ridingwith the stormclouds, andhadcome toearth as

rain,anditwasdrouththatIhadkilledwiththepowerthattheSixGrandfathersgaveme.Sowewereridingontheearthnowdownalongtheriverflowingfullfromthesourceofwaters,andsoonIsawaheadthecircledvillageofapeopleinthevalley.AndaVoice said: “Behold anation; it is yours.Makehaste,EagleWingStretches!”

Ienteredthevillage,riding,withthefourhorsetroopsbehindme—theblacks,thewhites,thesorrels,andthebuckskins;andtheplacewasfilledwithmoaningand with mourning for the dead. The wind was blowing from the south likefever,andwhenIlookedaroundIsawthatinnearlyeverytepeethewomenandthechildrenandthemenlaydyingwiththedead.SoIrodearoundthecircleofthevillage,lookinginuponthesickanddead,

andIfeltlikecryingasIrode.ButwhenIlookedbehindme,allthewomenandthechildrenandthemenweregettingupandcomingforthwithhappyfaces.And a Voice said: “Behold, they have given you the center of the nation’s

hooptomakeitlive.”So I rode to thecenterof thevillage,with thehorse troops in theirquarters

roundaboutme,andtherethepeoplegathered.AndtheVoicesaid:“Givethemnowthefloweringstickthattheymayflourish,andthesacredpipethattheymayknowthepowerthatispeace,andthewingofthewhitegiantthattheymayhaveenduranceandfaceallwindswithcourage.”SoItookthebrightredstickandatthecenterofthenation’shoopIthrustitin

theearth.Asittouchedtheearthitleapedmightilyinmyhandandwasawagachun, the rustling tree,11f very tall and full of leafy branches and of all birdssinging. And beneath it all the animals were mingling with the people likerelativesandmakinghappycries.Thewomenraisedtheirtremoloofjoy,andthemen shouted all together: “Here we shall raise our children and be as littlechickensunderthemothersheo’s12fwing.”Then I heard the white wind blowing gently through the tree and singing

there, and from the east the sacred pipe came flying on its eagle wings, andstoppedbeforemetherebeneaththetree,spreadingdeeppeacearoundit.Thenthedaybreakstar14wasrising,andaVoicesaid:“Itshallbearelativeto

them;andwhoshallseeit,shallseemuchmore,forthencecomeswisdom;andthosewhodonotseeitshallbedark.”Andallthepeopleraisedtheirfacestotheeast,andthestar’slightfelluponthem,andallthedogsbarkedloudlyandthehorseswhinnied.Thenwhen themany little voices ceased, the greatVoice said: “Behold the

circleofthenation’shoop,foritisholy,beingendless,andthusallpowersshallbeonepowerinthepeoplewithoutend.Nowtheyshallbreakcampandgoforthupontheredroad,andyourGrandfathersshallwalkwiththem.”Sothepeoplebrokecampandtookthegoodroadwiththewhitewing15ontheirfaces,andtheorderoftheirgoingwaslikethis:First,theblackhorseriderswiththecupofwater;andthewhitehorseriders

withthewhitewingandthesacredherb;andthesorrelriderswiththeholypipe;andthebuckskinswiththefloweringstick.Andafterthesethelittlechildrenandtheyouthsandmaidensfollowedinaband.Second,camethetribe’sfourchieftains16and theirbandwasallyoungmen

andwomen.Third,thenation’sfouradvisers17leadingmenandwomenneitheryoungnor

old.Fourth,theoldmenhobblingwiththeircanesandlookingtotheearth.Fifth,oldwomenhobblingwiththeircanesandlookingtotheearth.Sixth,myself all aloneupon thebaywith thebowandarrows that theFirst

Grandfathergaveme.ButIwasnotthelast;forwhenIlookedbehindmetherewereghostsofpeople likea trailingfogas faras Icouldsee—grandfathersofgrandfathersandgrandmothersofgrandmotherswithoutnumber.AndovertheseagreatVoice—theVoicethatwastheSouth—lived,andIcouldfeelitsilent.AndaswewenttheVoicebehindmesaid:“Beholdagoodnationwalkingina

sacredmannerinagoodland!”ThenIlookedupandsawthattherewerefourascentsahead,andthesewere

generationsIshouldknow.Nowwewereonthefirstascent,andallthelandwasgreen.And as the long line climbed, all the oldmen andwomen raised theirhands,palmsforward,tothefarskyyonderandbegantocroonasongtogether,andtheskyaheadwasfilledwithcloudsofbabyfaces.Whenwecametotheendofthefirstascentwecampedinthesacredcircleas

before,andinthecenterstoodtheholytree,andstill thelandaboutuswasallgreen.Thenwestartedon thesecondascent,marchingasbefore,andstill the land

wasgreen,butitwasgettingsteeper.AndasIlookedahead,thepeoplechangedintoelksandbisonandallfour-footedbeingsandevenintofowls,allwalkinginasacredmanneronthegoodredroadtogether.AndImyselfwasaspottedeaglesoaringoverthem.Butjustbeforewestoppedtocampattheendofthatascent,all themarchinganimalsgrewrestlessandafraid that theywerenotwhat theyhadbeen,andbegansendingforthvoicesoftrouble,callingtotheirchiefs.Andwhentheycampedattheendofthatascent,Ilookeddownandsawthatleaveswerefallingfromtheholytree.And the Voice said: “Behold your nation, and remember what your Six

Grandfathersgaveyou,forthenceforthyourpeoplewalkindifficulties.”Then the people broke camp again, and saw the black road before them

towardswherethesungoesdown,andblackcloudscomingyonder;andtheydid

notwant togobutcouldnotstay.Andas theywalked the thirdascent,all theanimalsandfowlsthatwerethepeopleranhereandthere,foreachoneseemedtohavehisownlittlevisionthathefollowedandhisownrules;andallovertheuniverseIcouldhearthewindsatwarlikewildbeastsfighting.13fAndwhenwereachedthesummitofthethirdascentandcamped,thenation’s

hoopwasbrokenlikearingofsmokethatspreadsandscattersandtheholytreeseemeddyingandallitsbirdsweregone.AndwhenIlookedaheadIsawthatthefourthascentwouldbeterrible.Thenwhenthepeopleweregettingreadytobeginthefourthascent,theVoice

spokelikesomeoneweeping,anditsaid:“Lookthereuponyournation.”AndwhenIlookeddown,thepeoplewereallchangedbacktohuman,andtheywerethin, theirfacessharp,for theywerestarving.Theirponieswereonlyhideandbones,andtheholytreewasgone.And as I looked and wept, I saw that there stood on the north side of the

starvingcampasacredmanwhowaspaintedredalloverhisbody,andheheldaspear as he walked into the center of the people, and there he lay down androlled.Andwhen he got up, it was a fat bison standing there, andwhere thebisonstoodasacredherbspranguprightwherethetreehadbeeninthecenterofthenation’shoop.TheherbgrewandborefourblossomsonasinglestemwhileIwaslooking—ablue,14fawhite,ascarlet,andayellow—andthebrightraysoftheseflashedtotheheavens.Iknownowwhatthismeant,thatthebisonwerethegiftofagoodspiritand

wereourstrength,butweshould lose them,andfromthesamegoodspiritwemustfindanotherstrength.Forthepeopleallseemedbetterwhentheherbhadgrownandbloomed, and thehorses raised their tails andneighedandprancedaround, and I could see a lightbreezegoing from thenorth among thepeoplelikeaghost;andsuddenlythefloweringtreewasthereagainatthecenterofthenation’shoopwherethefour-rayedherbhadblossomed.Iwasstillthespottedeaglefloating,andIcouldseethatIwasalreadyinthe

fourthascent and thepeoplewerecampingyonderat the topof the third longrise. It was dark and terrible about me, for all the winds of the world werefighting.Itwaslikerapidgun-fireandlikewhirlingsmoke,andlikewomenandchildrenwailingandlikehorsesscreamingallovertheworld.Icouldseemypeopleyonderrunningabout,settingthesmoke-flappolesand

fasteningdowntheirtepeesagainstthewind,forthestormcloudwascomingonthemvery fast andblack, and therewere frightened swallowswithout numberfleeingbeforethecloud.18

Then a song of power came tome and I sang it there in themidst of thatterribleplacewhereIwas.Itwentlikethis:

AgoodnationIwillmakelive.Thisthenationabovehassaid.Theyhavegivenmethepowertomakeover.19

AndwhenIhadsungthis,aVoicesaid:“Tothefourquartersyoushallrunforhelp,andnothingshallbestrongbeforeyou.Beholdhim!”NowIwasonmybayhorseagain,becausethehorseisoftheearth,anditwas

theremypowerwouldbeused.20AndasIobeyedtheVoiceandlooked, therewasahorseallskinandbonesyonderinthewest,afadedbrownishblack.AndaVoicetheresaid:“Takethisandmakehimover;anditwasthefour-rayedherbthatIwasholdinginmyhand.SoIrodeabovethepoorhorseinacircle,andasIdidthisIcouldhearthepeopleyondercallingforspiritpower,“A-hey!a-hey!a-hey!a-hey!”21Thenthepoorhorseneighedandrolledandgotup,andhewasabig,shiny,blackstallionwithdapplesalloverhimandhismaneabouthimlikeacloud.Hewasthechiefofallthehorses;andwhenhesnorted,itwasaflashoflightning and his eyes were like the sunset star. He dashed to the west andneighed, and the west was filled with a dust of hoofs, and horses withoutnumber,shinyblack,cameplungingfromthedust.Thenhedashedtowardthenorth and neighed, and to the east and to the south, and the dust cloudsanswered, giving forth their plunging horses without number—whites andsorrelsandbuckskins,fat,shiny,rejoicingintheirfleetnessandtheirstrength.Itwasbeautiful,butitwasalsoterrible.Thentheyallstoppedshort,rearing,andwerestandinginagreathoopabout

their black chief at the center, andwere still.And as they stood, four virgins,morebeautifulthanwomenoftheearthcanbe,camethroughthecircle,dressedin scarlet, one fromeachof the fourquarters, and stoodabout thegreat blackstallionintheirplaces;andoneheldthewoodencupofwater,andonethewhitewing,andonethepipe,andonethenation’shoop.All theuniversewassilent,listening;andthenthegreatblackstallionraisedhisvoiceandsang.Thesonghesangwasthis:

“Myhorses,prancingtheyarecoming.Myhorses,neighingtheyarecoming;Prancing,theyarecoming.Allovertheuniversetheycome.

Theywilldance;mayyoubeholdthem.(4times)

Ahorsenation,theywilldance.Mayyoubeholdthem.”(4times)

Hisvoicewasnotloud,butitwentallovertheuniverseandfilledit.22Therewasnothingthatdidnothear,anditwasmorebeautifulthananythingcanbe.Itwas so beautiful that nothing anywhere could keep fromdancing.The virginsdanced,andallthecircledhorses.Theleavesonthetrees,thegrassesonthehillsand in thevalleys, thewaters in thecreeksand in the riversand the lakes, thefour-leggedandthetwo-leggedandthewingsoftheair—alldancedtogethertothemusicofthestallion’ssong.And when I looked down upon my people yonder, the cloud passed over,

blessing themwith friendly rain, andstood in theeastwitha flaming rainbowoverit.Thenallthehorseswentsingingbacktotheirplacesbeyondthesummitofthe

fourthascent,andallthingssangalongwiththemastheywalked.And a Voice said: “All over the universe they have finished a day of

happiness.”AndlookingdownIsawthatthewholewidecircleofthedaywasbeautifulandgreen,withallfruitsgrowingandallthingskindandhappy.ThenaVoicesaid:“Behold thisday, for it isyours tomake.Nowyoushall

standuponthecenteroftheearthtosee,fortheretheyaretakingyou.”Iwasstillonmybayhorse,andoncemore I felt the ridersof thewest, the

north,theeast,thesouth,behindmeinformation,asbefore,andweweregoingeast.Ilookedaheadandsawthemountainstherewithrocksandforestsonthem,and from themountains flashed all colors upward to the heavens.Then Iwasstandingonthehighestmountainofthemall,androundaboutbeneathmewasthewholehoopoftheworld.15fAndwhileIstoodthereIsawmorethanIcantellandIunderstoodmorethanIsaw;forIwasseeinginasacredmannertheshapesofall things in the spirit, and the shapeofall shapesas theymust livetogetherlikeonebeing.AndIsawthatthesacredhoopofmypeoplewasoneofmanyhoops thatmadeonecircle,wideasdaylightandas starlight,and in thecentergrewonemightyfloweringtreetoshelterall thechildrenofonemotherandonefather.AndIsawthatitwasholy.23Then as I stood there, twomenwere coming from the east, head first like

arrowsflying,andbetweenthemrosetheday-breakstar.Theycameandgaveaherbtomeandsaid:“Withthisonearthyoushallundertakeanythinganddoit.”

Itwas theday-break-star herb, theherbof understanding, and they toldme todropitontheearth.Isawitfallingfar,andwhenitstrucktheearthitrootedandgrewandflowered,fourblossomsononestem,ablue,awhite,ascarlet,andayellow; and the rays from these streamed upward to the heavens so that allcreaturessawitandinnoplacewastheredarkness.Then the Voice said: “Your Six Grandfathers—now you shall go back to

them.”IhadnotnoticedhowIwasdresseduntilnow,andIsawthatIwaspainted

redall over, andmy jointswerepaintedblack,withwhite stripesbetween thejoints.24Mybayhadlightningstripesalloverhim,andhismanewascloud.AndwhenIbreathed,mybreathwaslightning.Nowtwomenwere leadingme,headfirst likearrowsslantingupward—the

twothatbroughtmefromtheearth.AndasIfollowedonthebay, theyturnedinto four flocks of geese that flew in circles, one above each quarter, sendingforthasacredvoiceastheyflew:Br-r-r-p,br-r-r-p,br-r-r-p,br-r-r-p!Then I saw ahead the rainbow flaming above the tepee of the Six

Grandfathers,built and roofedwithcloudand sewedwith thongsof lightning;andunderneathitwereallthewingsoftheairandunderthemtheanimalsandmen.Allthesewererejoicing,andthunderwaslikehappylaughter.As I rode in through the rainbowdoor, therewere cheering voices from all

overtheuniverse,andIsawtheSixGrandfatherssittinginarow,withtheirarmsheldtowardmeandtheirhands,palmsout;andbehindtheminthecloudwerefacesthronging,withoutnumber,ofthepeopleyettobe.“Hehastriumphed!”criedthesixtogether,makingthunder.AndasIpassed

beforethemthere,eachgaveagainthegiftthathehadgivenmebefore—thecupofwater and the bow and arrows, the power tomake live and to destroy; thewhite wing of cleansing and the healing herb; the sacred pipe; the floweringstick.Andeachonespokeinturnfromwesttosouth,explainingwhathegaveashehaddonebefore,andaseachonespokehemelteddown into theearthandroseagain;andaseachdidthis,Ifeltnearertotheearth.Then theoldestof themall said: “Grandson, allover theuniverseyouhave

seen.Nowyoushallgobackwithpower to theplace fromwhenceyoucame,and it shall happen yonder that hundreds shall be sacred, hundreds shall beflames!Behold!”25Ilookedbelowandsawmypeoplethere,andallwerewellandhappyexcept

one,andhewaslyinglikethedead—andthatonewasmyself.ThentheoldestGrandfathersang,andhissongwaslikethis:

“Thereissomeonelyingonearthinasacredmanner.Thereissomeone—onearthhelies.InasacredmannerIhavemadehimtowalk.”26

Nowthetepee,builtandroofedwithcloud,begantoswaybackandforthasin a wind, and the flaming rainbow door was growing dimmer. I could hearvoicesofallkindscryingfromoutside:“EagleWingStretchesiscomingforth!Beholdhim!”WhenIwentthroughthedoor,thefaceofthedayofearthwasappearingwith

theday-breakstaruponitsforehead;andthesunleapedupandlookeduponme,andIwasgoingforthalone.AndasIwalkedalone,Iheardthesunsingingasitarose,anditsanglikethis:

“WithvisiblefaceIamappearing.InasacredmannerIappear.ForthegreeningearthapleasantnessImake.Thecenterofthenation’shoopIhavemadepleasant.Withvisibleface,beholdme!Thefour-leggedsandtwo-leggeds,Ihavemadethemtowalk;Thewingsoftheair,Ihavemadethemtofly.WithvisiblefaceIappear.Myday,Ihavemadeitholy.”27

When the singing stopped, Iwas feeling lost andvery lonely.ThenaVoiceabovemesaid:“Lookback!”Itwasaspottedeaglethatwashoveringovermeandspoke.Ilooked,andwheretheflamingrainbowtepee,builtandroofedwithcloud,hadbeen,Isawonlythetallrockmountainatthecenteroftheworld.Iwasallaloneonabroadplainnowwithmyfeetupontheearth,alonebutfor

thespottedeagleguardingme.Icouldseemypeople’svillagefarahead,andIwalkedveryfast,forIwashomesicknow.ThenIsawmyowntepee,andinsideIsawmymotherandmyfatherbendingoverasickboythatwasmyself.AndasIenteredthetepee,someonewassaying:“Theboyiscomingto;youhadbettergivehimsomewater.”ThenIwassittingup;andIwassadbecausemymotherandmyfatherdidn’t

seemtoknowIhadbeensofaraway.

4.

TheBisonHunt

WhenIgotbacktomyfatherandmotherandwassittingupthereinourtepee,myfacewasstillallpuffedandmylegsandarmswerebadlyswollen;butIfeltgoodalloverandwantedtogetrightupandrunaround.Myparentswouldnotletme.TheytoldmeIhadbeensicktwelvedays,lyinglikedeadallthewhile,andthatWhirlwindChaser,whowasStandingBear’suncleandamedicineman,had broughtme back to life.1 I knew it was the Grandfathers in the FlamingRainbowTepeewhohadcuredme;but I felt afraid to say so.My fathergaveWhirlwindChaserthebesthorsehehadformakingmewell,andmanypeoplecametolookatme,andtherewasmuchtalkaboutthegreatpowerofWhirlwindChaserwhohadmademewellallatoncewhenIwasalmostthesameasdead.Everybodywas glad that Iwas living; but as I lay there thinking about the

wonderfulplacewhereIhadbeenandallthatIhadseen,Iwasverysad;foritseemed tome that everybodyought to knowabout it, but Iwas afraid to tell,becauseIknewthatnobodywouldbelieveme,littleasIwas,forIwasonlynineyearsold.Also,asIlaytherethinkingofmyvision,Icouldseeitallagainandfeelthemeaningwithapartofmelikeastrangepowerglowinginmybody;butwhen the part of me that talks would try to make words for the meaning, itwouldbelikefogandgetawayfromme.IamsurenowthatIwasthentooyoungtounderstanditall,andthatIonly

feltit.2ItwasthepicturesIrememberedandthewordsthatwentwiththem;fornothingIhaveeverseenwithmyeyeswassoclearandbrightaswhatmyvisionshowedme; and nowords that I have ever heardwithmy earswere like thewordsIheard.Ididnothavetorememberthesethings;theyhaverememberedthemselvesalltheseyears.ItwasasIgrewolderthatthemeaningscameclearerandcleareroutof thepicturesand thewords;andevennowIknowthatmorewasshowntomethanIcantell.ThateveningofthedaywhenIcameback,WhirlwindChaser,whohadgota

greatnameandagoodhorseforcuringme,cameovertoourtepee.Hesatdownand lookedatmea long time inastrangeway,and thenhesaid tomyfather:

“Yourboythereissittinginasacredmanner.Idonotknowwhatitis,butthereissomethingspecialforhimtodo,forjustasIcameinIcouldseeapowerlikealightallthroughhisbody.”Whilehewaslookinghardatme,Iwantedtogetupandrunaway,forIwas

afraidhemightlookrightintomeandseemyvisionthereandtellitwrong,andthenmaybeall thepeoplewould think that Iwascrazy.Fora longwhileafterthat,wheneverIsawWhirlwindChasercoming,Iwouldrunawayandhideforfearhemightseeintomeandtell.Thenextmorningalltheswellinghadleftmyfaceandlegsandarms,andI

feltwellasever;buteverythingaroundmeseemedstrangeandasthoughitwerefaraway.IrememberthatfortwelvedaysafterthatIwantedtobealone,anditseemedIdidnotbelongtomypeople.Theywerealmostlikestrangers.Iwouldbeoutaloneawayfromthevillageandtheotherboys,andIwouldlookaroundto the fourquarters, thinkingofmyvision andwishing I couldget back thereagain.Iwouldgohometoeat,butIcouldnotmakemyselfeatmuch;andmyfatherandmotherthoughtthatIwassickyet;butIwasnot.IwasonlyhomesickfortheplacewhereIhadbeen.IcouldnottellwhatIhadseenandheardeventomymother’sfather,Refuse-

To-Go,3althoughbeforethatIusedtothinkthatIcouldtellhimanything,forhelikedeverythingaboycouldlike,andtherewasnoendtothewonderfulthingshewouldtell.ItwashewhomadethefirstbowIeverhad,andhealwayshadmorearrowsreadyformewhenIhadlostallthosethathehadgivenme.Ilovedmy father, butRefuse-To-Gowas different, and I used to bewith him a greatdeal.ThiswasthefirstthingIcouldnottellhim.OnedayduringthistimeIwasoutwiththebowandarrowsmyGrandfather

hadmadeforme,andasIwalkedalongthinkingofmyvision,suddenlyIfeltqueer,andforalittlewhileitseemedthatthebowandarrowswerethosethattheFirstGrandfatherintheFlamingRainbowTepeehadgivenme.Thentheywereonly those that Refuse-To-Go hadmade, and I felt foolish and tried to makemyselfthinkitwasallonlyadreamanyway.SoIthoughtIwouldforgetaboutitandshootsomething.Therewasabushandalittlebirdsittinginit;butjustasIwasgoing toshoot, I feltqueeragain,andremembered that Iwas tobe likearelativewiththebirds.SoIdidnotshoot.ThenIwentondowntowardacreek,feelingfoolishbecauseIhadletthelittlebirdgo,andwhenIsawagreenfrogsittingthere,Ijustshothimrightaway.ButwhenIpickedhimupbythelegs,Ithought:“NowIhavekilledhim,”anditmademewanttocry.

StandingBearSpeaks:

Irememberthetimewhenmyfriendherewassick.Iwasfouryearsolderthanhewas. IamMinneconjou,butourmotherswerecousinsandweused toplaytogetherwhenourbandswerecampinginoneplace.ItwasattheheadwatersoftheGreasyGrass(LittleBighorn).Everybodyinthevillagewaswell,andsowasBlackElk.The next thing I heardwas that hewas dying and just breathing alittle.Everybodywasexcitedoverit,andtheysentformedicinetootherbands,butnobodyknewwhatthesicknesswas.Isawhimduringthistime.Helookeddead,andeverybodywastalkingabouthim.Thenhewaswellallatonce,andeverybodywonderedandtalkedaboutit.Iremembertoohowitwasafterhegotup.Rightafterthatwemovedcampto

themouth ofWillowCreek, south about two days, andwhile the villagewasmoving,Irodebacktowherethesmallerboyswereintherear,forIwantedtoseemyyoungfriend.Isaidtohim:“How,youngerbrother!Yougotwellafterall!”Andhesaid:“How!Yes,Iamnotsickatallnow!”Butaswerodealongtogetherandtalked,hewasnotlikeaboy.Hewasmorelikeanoldman.AndIcanrememberhisfathertalkingtomyfatherinourtepeewhilewewereeatingoneevening.Hesaidsomethinglikethis:“Sincemyboywassick,heisnotthesameboy.Hehasqueerwaysandhedoesnot like tobeathome. I feel sorryaboutthewayheis,poorboy!”Thenwewentonabighuntandthepeopledidnottalkaboutitanymore.

BlackElkContinues:

Yes,wewentonabighunt afterwehadbeenatWillowCreekawhile, and ithelpedmetoquitthinkingaboutmyvisionallthetime.Onemorningthecrier4camearoundthecircleof thevillagecallingout that

weweregoing tobreak camp.The adviserswere in the council tepee, andhecried to them: “The advisers, come forth to the center and bring your firesalong.”Itwastheirdutytosavefireforthepeople,becausewehadnomatchesthen.“Nowtakeitdown,down!”thecriershouted.Andallthepeoplebegantaking

downtheirtepees,andpackingthemonponydrags.Then the crier said: “Many bison, I have heard;many bison, I have heard!

Yourchildren,youmusttakecareofthem!”Hemeanttokeepthechildrenclosewhiletraveling,sothattheywouldnotscarethebison.Thenwebrokecampandstartedinformation, thefouradvisersfirst,acrier

behindthem,thechiefsnext,andthenthepeoplewiththeloadedponydragsinalongline,andtheherdofponiesfollowing.Iwasridingneartherearwithsomeof the smaller boys, andwhen the peoplewere going up a long hill, I lookedaheadanditmademefeelqueeragainforalittlewhile,becauseIrememberedthenationwalkinginasacredmannerontheredroadinmyvision.Butthiswasdifferent,andIforgotaboutitsoon,forsomethingexcitingwasgoingtohappen,andeventheponiesseemedtoknow.After we had been traveling awhile, we came to a place where there were

many turnips5 growing, and the crier said: “Take off your loads and let yourhorses rest. Take your sticks and dig turnips for yourselves.” And while thepeopleweredoingthis, theadviserssatonahillnearbyandsmoked.Thenthecriershouted:“Putonyourloads!”andsoonthevillagewasmovingagain.Whenthesunwashigh,theadvisersfoundaplacetocampwheretherewas

woodandalsowater;andwhilethewomenwerecookingallaroundthecircleIheardpeoplesaying that thescoutswerereturning,andover the topofahill Isawthreehorsebackscoming.Theyrodetothecounciltepeeinthemiddleofthevillageandallthepeopleweregoingtheretohear.IwenttheretooandgotupclosesothatIcouldlookinbetweenthelegsofthemen.Thecriercameoutofthe council tepee and said, speaking to the people for the scouts: “I haveprotectedyou;inreturnyoushallgivememanygifts.”Thescoutsthensatdownbeforethedoorof thetepeeandoneof theadvisersfilledthesacredpipewithchacunshasha,thebarkoftheredwillow,6andsetitonabisonchipinfrontofhim,becausethebisonwassacredandgaveusbothfoodandshelter.Thenhelitthepipe,offeredittothefourquarters,totheSpiritaboveandtoMotherEarth,and passing it to the scouts he said: “The nation has depended upon you.Whateveryouhaveseen,maybeitisforthegoodofthepeopleyouhaveseen.”The scouts smoked, meaning that they would tell the truth. Then the advisersaid:“Atwhatplacehaveyoustoodandseen thegood?Report it tomeandIwillbeglad.”Oneofthescoutsanswered:“Youknowwherewestartedfrom.Wewentand

reachedthetopofahillandtherewesawasmallherdofbison.”Hepointedashespoke.Theadviser said: “Maybeon theother sideof thatyouhave seen thegood.

Reportit.”Thescoutanswered:“Ontheothersideofthatwesawasecondandlargerherdofbison.”Then theadvisersaid:“Ishallbe thankful toyou.Tellmeall thatyouhave

seenoutthere.”

Thescoutreplied:“Ontheothersideof that therewasnothingbutbisonalloverthecountry.”Andtheadvisersaid:“Hetchetualoh!”16fThen the crier shouted like singing: “Your knives shall be sharpened, your

arrowsshallbesharpened.Makeready,makehaste;yourhorsesmakeready!Weshallgoforthwitharrows.Plentyofmeatweshallmake!”Everybody began sharpening knives and arrows and getting the best horses

readyforthegreatmakingofmeat.Thenwestartedforwherethebisonwere.Thesoldierband7wentfirst,riding

twentyabreast,andanybodywhodaredgoaheadofthemwouldgetknockedoffhis horse. They kept order, and everybody had to obey. After them came thehunters,ridingfiveabreast.Thepeoplecameupintherear.Thentheheadmanoftheadviserswentaroundpickingoutthebesthunterswiththefastesthorses,andtothesehesaid:“Goodyoungwarriors,myrelatives,yourworkIknowisgood. What you do is good always; so to-day you shall feed the helpless.Perhaps therearesomeoldandfeeblepeoplewithoutsons,orsomewhohavelittlechildrenandnoman.Youshallhelpthese,andwhateveryoukillshallbetheirs.”Thiswasagreathonorforyoungmen.Thenwhenwe had come near towhere the bisonwere, the hunters circled

around them,and thecrywentup,as inabattle,“Hokahey!”whichmeant tocharge.Thentherewasagreatdustandeverybodyshoutedandall thehunterswent in tokill—everymanforhimself.Theywereallnearlynaked,with theirquiversfullofarrowshangingontheirleftsides,andtheywouldriderightuptoabisonandshoothimbehindtheleftshoulder.Someofthearrowswouldgoinuptothefeathersandsometimesthosethatstrucknoboneswentrightstraightthrough.Everybodywasveryhappy.

StandingBearSpeaks:

Irememberthathunt,forbeforethattimeIhadonlykilledacalf.Iwasthirteenyearsoldandsupposedtobeaman,soImadeupmymindI’dgetayearling.OneofthemwentdownadrawandIracedafterhimonmypony.Myfirstshotdidnotseemtohurthimatall;butmyponykeptrightafterhim,andthesecondarrowwentinhalfway.IthinkIhithisheart,forhebegantowobbleasheranandbloodcameoutofhisnose.Hunterscried“Yuhoo!”8oncewhentheykilled,butthiswasmyfirstbigbison,andIjustkeptonyelling“Yuhoo!”PeoplemusthavethoughtIwaskillingawholeherd,thewayIyelled.Whenhewentdown,I

gotoffmyhorseandbeganbutcheringhimmyself,andIwasveryhappy.Allovertheflat,asfarasIcouldsee,thereweremenbutcheringbisonnow,andthewomenandtheoldmenwhocouldnothuntwerecominguptohelp.Andallthewomenweremakingthetremoloofjoy9forwhatthewarriorshadgiventhem.ThatwasintheMoonofRedCherries(July).10Itwasagreatkilling.

BlackElkContinues:

Iwaswellenoughtogoalongonmypony,butIwasnotoldenoughtohunt.Sowelittleboysscoutedaroundandwatchedthehunters;andwhenwewouldseeabunch of bison coming, we would yell “Yuhoo” like the others, but nobodynoticedus.Whenthebutcheringwasallover,theyhungthemeatacrossthehorses’backs

andfasteneditwithstripsoffreshbisonhide.Onthewaybacktothevillageallthehuntinghorseswere loaded, andwe littleboyswhocouldnotwait for thefeasthelpedourselvestoalltherawliverwewanted.Nobodygotcrosswhenwedidthis.During this time,women back at campwere cutting long poles and forked

stickstomakedryingracksforthemeat.Whenthehuntersgothometheythrewtheirmeatinpilesontheleavesoftrees.Thentheadvisersallwentbackintothecounciltepee,andfromalldirections

thepeoplecamebringinggiftsofmeattothem,andtheadvisersallcried“Hya-a-a-a!,”11afterwhichtheysangforthosewhohadbroughtthemthegoodgifts.Andwhen theyhad eaten all they could, the crier shouted to the people: “Allcomehome!ItismorethanIcaneat!”Andpeoplefromalloverthecampcametogetalittleofthemeatthatwasleftover.Thewomenwereallbusycutting themeat into stripsandhanging iton the

rackstodry.Youcouldseeredmeathangingeverywhere.Thepeoplefeastedallnightlonganddancedandsang.Thosewerehappytimes.Therewasawargamethatwelittleboysplayedafterabighunt.Wewentout

a little way from the village and built some grass tepees, playing we wereenemiesand thiswasourvillage.Wehadanadviser, andwhen it gotdarkhewouldorderustogoandstealsomedriedmeatfromthebigpeople.Hewouldholdastickuptousandwehadtobiteoffapieceofit.Ifwebitabigpiecewehadtogetabigpieceofmeat,andifwebitalittlepiece,wedidnothavetogetsomuch.Thenwestarted for thebigpeople’svillage,crawlingonourbellies,andwhenwegotbackwithoutgettingcaught,wewouldhaveabigfeastanda

dance andmake kill talks,12 telling of our brave deeds like warriors. Once, Iremember, Ihadnobravedeed to tell. I crawledup toa leaning treebesideatepeeandtherewasmeathangingonthelimbs.IwantedatongueIsawupthereinthemoonlight,soIclimbedup.ButjustasIwasabouttoreachit,themaninthe tepee yelled “Ye-a-a!”13 Hewas saying this to his dog, whowas stealingsomemeattoo,butIthoughtthemanhadseenme,andIwassoscaredIfelloutofthetreeandranawaycrying.Thenwe used to havewhatwe called a chapped breast dance.Our adviser

would look us over to see whose breast was burnedmost from not having itcoveredwiththerobewewore;andtheboychosenwouldleadthedancewhileweallsanglikethis:

“Ihaveachappedbreast.Mybreastisred.Mybreastisyellow.”

Andwepracticedendurance14too.Ouradviserwouldputdrysunflowerseedsonourwrists.Therewerelitatthetop,andwehadtoletthemburncleardowntotheskin.Theyhurtandmadesores,butifweknockedthemofforcriedOwh!,wewouldbecalledwomen.

5.

AttheSoldiers’Town

After all the meat was dried, the six bands17f of our nation that had cometogether about the timewhen the great vision came tome, broke camp at themouthofWillowCreekandscatteredinalldirections.Asmallpartofourband,theOgalalas,startedsouthfortheSoldiers’Town18fonSmokyEarthRiver(theWhite),forsomeofourrelativeswerethereandwewantedtoseethemandhaveafeastofaguiapiandpaezhutasapawithchahumpiska in it.19fAll therestoftheOgalalasstayedinthecountrywithCrazyHorse,whowouldhavenothingtodowith theWasichus.Thiswas late in theMoonWhen theCherries areRipe(July)1andweboyshadagoodtimeplaying.Therewerenotmanyboysinoursmallband,andweallplayedtogether.Ihadquitthinkingaboutmyvision.Thequeer feeling had left me and I was not bashful any more; but whenever athunder stormwas coming I felt happy, as though somebodywere coming tovisitme.WecampedfirstonPowderRiver,thenontheheadwatersofthenorthforkof

GoodRiver(theCheyenne)wherethereisabigbuttethatwecalledSits-With-Young-One, because it has a little butte beside it.2 Then we camped onDriftwood Creek, then on the Plain of Pine Trees, and next on Plum Creek.Whenwegotthere,theplumswereturningred,buttheywerenotquiteripeyet.Mygrandfatherwentoutandgotsomebigredonesandtheytastedgood.WhenwegottoWarBonnetCreek,whichisnotveryfarfromtheSoldiers’Town,myauntandotherrelativesweretherewaitingforuswithbreadandcoffee,andwehadabigfeast.Iwassickallthatnight,andthenextdaymyparentsmademerideonaponydrag,becausetheywereafraidIwouldsurelydiethistime.ButIthinkitwasonlytoomuchbreadandcoffee,andmaybetheplums.WecampedagainatHipsHill,andbythistimemostofourpeoplefromtheSoldiers’Townwereamongus.Thenextdayabout twenty tepeesofuswenton, and the reststayedback.Wecampedwithour relativesbyWhiteButte3 near theSoldiers’Townandstayedthereallwinter,andwehadagoodtimeslidingdownhillwithsledsmadeoutofbisonjawsandribstiedtogetherwithrawhide.

I was ten years old that winter, and that was the first time I ever saw aWasichu.AtfirstIthoughttheyalllookedsick,andIwasafraidtheymightjustbegintofightusanytime,butIgotusedtothem.Thatwinteroneofourboysclimbedtheflagpoleandchoppeditoffnearthe

top. This almost made bad trouble, for the soldiers surrounded us with theirguns;butRedCloud,whowaslivingthere,stoodrightinthemiddlewithoutaweaponandmadespeechestotheWasichusandtous.Hesaidtheboywhodiditmustbepunished, andhe told theWasichus itwas foolish formen towant toshootgrownpeoplebecause their littleboysdid foolish things inplay;andheasked them if they ever did foolish things for fun when they were boys. Sonothinghappenedafterall.4RedCloudwasagreatchief,andhewasanOgalala.Butatthistimehewas

through with fighting. After the treaty hemade with theWasichus five yearsbefore(1868)heneverfoughtagain,andhewas livingwithhisband, theBadFaces, at theSoldiers’Town.CrazyHorsewas anOgalala too, and I think hewasthegreatestchiefofall.5In theMoon of the Red Grass Appearing (April) about thirty tepees of us

broke camp and started for the Black Hills to cut tepee poles.6We followeddownHorse-Head-CuttingCreektoitsmouth,andwhilewewerecampedthereonedayIwasawayfromthevillagealone,whenIheardaspottedeaglewhistle.I lookedupand therehewas,hoveringoverme.Thequeer feelingcamebackverystrong,andforalittlewhileitseemedthatIwasintheworldofmyvisionagain.FromtherewemovedontoBuffaloGapatthefootoftheHills,andmyfather

andIwentoutalonetolookfordeer.Weclimbedupthroughthetimbertothetopofabighill,anditwashardformyfather,whowaslamefromthewoundhegotintheBattleoftheHundredSlain.Whenwewereontop,myfatherlookeddown and said: “There are some yonder.You stay here, and Iwill go aroundthem.”Thenthequeerfeelingcameback,andIsaidwithoutknowingwhyIsaidit: “No, father, stay here; for they are bringing them to us.”He looked atmehard, and said: “Who is bringing them?” I couldnot answer; and after hehadlookedhardatmeagain,hesaid:“Allright,son.”Sowelaydownthereinthegrassandwaited.Theydidcometous,andmyfathergottwoofthem.WhilewewerebutcheringandIwaseatingsomeliver,Ifeltsorrythatwehad

killed theseanimalsand thought thatweought todosomething inreturn.SoIsaid:“Father, shouldwenotofferoneof these to thewild things?”He lookedhardatmeagainforawhile.Thenheplacedoneofthedeerwithitsheadtothe

east, and, facing thewest, he raisedhis hand and cried, “Hey-hey” four timesandprayedlikethis:“Grandfather, theGreatSpirit,beholdme!Toall thewildthingsthateatflesh,thisIhaveofferedthatmypeoplemayliveandthechildrengrowupwithplenty.”Thatwasanotherhappysummer,forthebigtroublehadnotcomeyet.Wecut

plenty of tepeepoles up along the creeks that camedown the east side of theBlackHills,andtherewasallwewantedtoeat,fortheHillswerelikeabigfoodpackforourpeople.IronBull,alittleboymyage,andIhadgreatfunfishing.Wealwaysmadeanofferingofbait to thefish,saying:“Youwhoaredowninthewaterwithwingsofred,Iofferthistoyou;socomehither.”Thenwhenwecaughtthefirstfish,wewouldputitonaforkedstickandkissit.Ifwedidnotdothis,weweresuretheotherswouldknowandstayaway.Ifwecaughtalittlefish,wewouldkissitandthrowitback,sothatitwouldnotgoandfrightenthebiggerfish.Idon’tknowwhetherallthishelpedornot,butwealwaysgotplentyoffish,andourparentswereproudofus.Wetriedtocatchasmanyaswecouldsothatpeoplewouldthinkmuchofus.TherewasamanbythenameofWatanye7whowasgoodatspearingfish,and

he had very sore lips so that he did not dare to laugh. Theywere cracked allaroundhismouth.Peoplewouldtrytomakehimlaugh,buthewouldjustwalkawayfromthem.Onedayhesaidtome:“Youngerbrother,Iwillshowyouhowtospear fish.”Sowewentup thecreek,and therewasa fish this long (tohiselbow)lyinginapool.“Takethespear,”Watanyesaid,“andstrikedeep,fortheyarealways fartherdown than they look.” I took thespearand thrustwith itashardas Icould;but theclearwaterwasmuchdeeper than it seemed. Imissedandwentoverhead-firstintothecoldpool.WhenIscrambledout,Watanyewasall doubled up, hugging his belly, and going “hunh, hunh, hunh!” Bloodwasrunningdownhis chin.He ranawayas fast ashe could, and for a longwhileafterthat,wheneverhesawmecoming,hewouldturnandrun,sothathewouldnothavetolaughagain.OnceIhidinabushuntilhecamealong,justtoseehimrunwhenIjumpedout.I thinkWatanyelikedmeagooddeal,becauseheoftenusedtotakemeout

alonetofishorhunt,andhewasalwaysteachingmethings.Also,helikedtotellmestories,mostlyfunnyoneswhenhedidnothavesorelips.IstillrememberonestoryhetoldmeaboutayoungLakotacalledHighHorse,andwhatahardtimehehadgettingthegirlhewanted.Watanyesaidthestoryhappenedjustashetoldit,andmaybeitdid.Ifitdidnot,itcouldhave,justaswellasnot.Iwilltellthatstorynow.

6.

HighHorse’sCourting

Youknow,intheolddays,itwasnotsoveryeasytogetagirlwhenyouwantedtobemarried.Sometimesitwashardworkforayoungmanandhehadtostandagreatdeal.SayIamayoungmanandIhaveseenayounggirlwholookssobeautifultomethatIfeelallsickwhenIthinkabouther.Icannotjustgoandtellheraboutitandthengetmarriedifsheiswilling.Ihavetobeaverysneakyfellowtotalktoheratall,andafterIhavemanagedtotalktoher,thatisonlythebeginning.1ProbablyforalongtimeIhavebeenfeelingsickaboutacertaingirlbecauseI

lovehersomuch,butshewillnotevenlookatme,andherparentskeepagoodwatch over her. But I keep feelingworse andworse all the time; somaybe Isneakuptohertepeeinthedarkandwaituntilshecomesout.MaybeIjustwaitthereallnightanddon’tgetanysleepatallandshedoesnotcomeout.ThenIfeelsickerthaneverabouther.MaybeIhideinthebrushbyaspringwhereshesometimesgoestogetwater,

andwhenshecomesby,ifnobodyislooking,thenIjumpoutandholdherandjustmakeherlistentome.Ifshelikesmetoo,Icantellthatfromthewaysheacts,forsheisverybashfulandmaybewillnotsayawordorevenlookatmethefirsttime.SoIlethergo,andthenmaybeIsneakarounduntilIcanseeherfatheralone,andItellhimhowmanyhorsesIcangivehimforhisbeautifulgirl,andbynowIamfeelingsosickthatmaybeIwouldgivehimallthehorsesintheworldifIhadthem.Well,thisyoungmanIamtellingaboutwascalledHighHorse,andtherewas

agirlinthevillagewholookedsobeautifultohimthathewasjustsickalloverfromthinkingabouthersomuchandhewasgettingsickerallthetime.Thegirlwasveryshy,andherparentsthoughtagreatdealofherbecausetheywerenotyounganymoreand thiswas theonlychild theyhad.So theywatchedheralldaylong,andtheyfixeditsothatshewouldbesafeatnighttoowhentheywereasleep.Theythoughtsomuchofherthattheyhadmadearawhidebedforhertosleep in, and after they knew thatHighHorsewas sneaking around after her,theytookrawhidethongsandtiedthegirlinbedatnightsothatnobodycould

stealherwhentheywereasleep,fortheywerenotsurebutthattheirgirlmightreallywanttobestolen.Well,afterHighHorsehadbeensneakingaroundagoodwhileandhidingand

waitingforthegirlandgettingsickerallthetime,hefinallycaughtheraloneandmadeher talk tohim.Thenhe foundout that she likedhimmaybea little.Ofcoursethisdidnotmakehimfeelwell.Itmadehimsickerthanever,butnowhefeltasbraveasabisonbull,andsohewentrighttoherfatherandsaidhelovedthegirlsomuchthathewouldgivetwogoodhorsesforher—oneofthemyoungandtheotheronenotsoveryold.Buttheoldmanjustwavedhishand,meaningforHighHorsetogoawayand

quittalkingfoolishnesslikethat.HighHorsewasfeelingsickerthaneveraboutit;buttherewasanotheryoung

fellowwhosaidhewould loanHighHorse twoponiesandwhenhegot somemorehorses,why,hecouldjustgivethembackfortheoneshehadborrowed.ThenHighHorsewentbacktotheoldmanandsaidhewouldgivefourhorses

forthegirl—twoofthemyoungandtheothertwonothardlyoldatall.Buttheoldmanjustwavedhishandandwouldnotsayanything.SoHighHorse sneaked around until he could talk to the girl again, and he

askedhertorunawaywithhim.Hetoldherhethoughthewouldjustfalloverand die if she did not. But she said shewould not do that; shewanted to beboughtlikeafinewoman.2Youseeshethoughtagreatdealofherselftoo.ThatmadeHighHorse feelsoverysick thathecouldnoteatabite,andhe

wentaroundwithhisheadhangingdownasthoughhemightjustfalldownanddieanytime.Red Deer was another young fellow, and he and High Horse were great

comrades, always doing things together. Red Deer saw how High Horse wasacting,andhesaid:“Cousin,whatisthematter?Areyousickinthebelly?Youlookasthoughyouweregoingtodie.”ThenHighHorsetoldRedDeerhowitwas,andsaidhethoughthecouldnot

stayalivemuchlongerifhecouldnotmarrythegirlprettyquick.RedDeer thoughtawhileabout it, and thenhesaid:“Cousin, Ihaveaplan,

andifyouaremanenoughtodoasItellyou,theneverythingwillbeallright.Shewillnotrunawaywithyou;heroldmanwillnottakefourhorses;andfourhorses are all you can get. You must steal her and run away with her. Thenafterwhileyoucancomebackandtheoldmancannotdoanythingbecauseshewillbeyourwoman.Probablyshewantsyoutostealheranyway.”SotheyplannedwhatHighHorsehadtodo,andhesaidhelovedthegirlso

muchthathewasmanenoughtodoanythingRedDeeroranybodyelsecouldthinkup.Sothisiswhattheydid.Thatnightlatetheysneakeduptothegirl’stepeeandwaiteduntilitsounded

insideasthoughtheoldmanandtheoldwomanandthegirlweresoundasleep.Then High Horse crawled under the tepee with a knife. He had to cut therawhidethongsfirst,andthenRedDeer,whowaspullingupthestakesaroundthatsideofthetepee,wasgoingtohelpdragthegirloutsideandgagher.Afterthat,HighHorsecouldputheracrosshisponyinfrontofhimandhurryoutofthereandbehappyalltherestofhislife.WhenHighHorsehadcrawledinside,hefeltsonervousthathecouldhearhis

heart drumming, and it seemed so loud he felt sure it would ’waken the oldfolks.Butitdidnot,andafterwhilehebegancuttingthethongs.Everytimehecutoneitmadeapopandnearlyscaredhimtodeath.Buthewasgettingalongall right and all the thongswere cut downas far as thegirl’s thighs,whenhebecamesonervousthathisknifeslippedandstuckthegirl.Shegaveabig,loudyell.Bythis timeHighHorsewasoutside,andheandRedDeerwererunningawaylikeantelope.Theoldmanandsomeotherpeoplechasedtheyoungmenbuttheygotawayinthedarkandnobodyknewwhoitwas.Well,ifyoueverwantedabeautifulgirlyouwillknowhowsickHighHorse

was now. It was very bad theway he felt, and it looked as though hewouldstarveevenifhedidnotdropoverdeadsometime.RedDeerkeptthinkingaboutthis,andafterafewdayshewenttoHighHorse

andsaid:“Cousin,takecourage!Ihaveanotherplan,andIamsure,ifyouareman enough, we can steal her this time.” And High Horse said: “I am manenoughtodoanythinganybodycanthinkup,ifIcanonlygetthatgirl.”Sothisiswhattheydid.Theywentawayfromthevillagealone,andRedDeermadeHighHorsestrip

naked.ThenhepaintedHighHorsesolidwhiteallover,andafterthathepaintedblack stripesallover thewhite andputblack ringsaroundHighHorse’s eyes.High Horse looked terrible. He looked so terrible that when Red Deer wasthrough painting and took a good look atwhat he had done, he said it scaredevenhimalittle.“Now,”RedDeersaid,“ifyougetcaughtagain,everybodywillbesoscared

theywillthinkyouareabadspiritandwillbeafraidtochaseyou.”So when the night was getting old and everybody was sound asleep, they

sneakedbacktothegirl’stepee.HighHorsecrawledinwithhisknife,asbefore,

andRedDeerwaitedoutside,readytodragthegirloutandgagherwhenHighHorsehadallthethongscut.HighHorsecreptupbythegirl’sbedandbegancuttingatthethongs.Buthe

keptthinking,“IftheyseemetheywillshootmebecauseIlooksoterrible.”Thegirlwasrestlessandkeptsquirmingaroundinbed,andwhenathongwascut,itpopped.SoHighHorseworkedveryslowlyandcarefully.Buthemusthavemadesomenoise,forsuddenlytheoldwomanawokeand

saidtoheroldman:“OldMan,wakeup!Thereissomebodyinthistepee!”Buttheoldmanwassleepyanddidn’twanttobebothered.Hesaid:“Ofcoursethereis somebody in this tepee.Go to sleep and don’t botherme.”Then he snoredsomemore.ButHighHorsewassoscaredbynowthathelayverystillandasflattothe

groundashecould.Now,yousee,hehadnotbeensleepingverywellforalongtimebecausehewassosickaboutthegirl.Andwhilehewaslyingtherewaitingfortheoldwomantosnore,hejustforgoteverything,evenhowbeautifulthegirlwas. Red Deer who was lying outside ready to do his part, wondered andwondered what had happened in there, but he did not dare call out to HighHorse.Afterwhile thedaybegan to break andRedDeer had to leavewith the two

ponieshehadstakedthereforhiscomradeandgirl,orsomebodywouldseehim.Soheleft.Nowwhenitwasgettinglightinthetepee,thegirlawokeandthefirstthing

she sawwas a terrible animal, all whitewith black stripes on it, lying asleepbesideherbed.Soshescreamed,andthentheoldwomanscreamedandtheoldman yelled. High Horse jumped up, scared almost to death, and he nearlyknockedthetepeedowngettingoutofthere.Peoplewerecomingrunningfromalloverthevillagewithgunsandbowsand

axes,andeverybodywasyelling.BynowHighHorsewasrunningsofastthathehardlytouchedthegroundat

all,andhelookedsoterriblethatthepeoplefledfromhimandlethimrun.Somebraveswantedtoshootathim,buttheotherssaidhemightbesomesacredbeinganditwouldbringbadtroubletokillhim.HighHorsemadefortheriverthatwasnear,andinamongthebrushhefound

ahollowtreeanddivedintoit.Afterwhilesomebravescamethereandhecouldhearthemsayingthatitwassomebadspiritthathadcomeoutofthewaterandgonebackinagain.Thatmorning thepeoplewereordered to break campandmove away from

there.Sotheydid,whileHighHorsewashidinginhishollowtree.NowRedDeerhadbeenwatchingall this fromhisown tepeeand trying to

lookasthoughhewereasmuchsurprisedandscaredasalltheothers.Sowhenthecampmoved,hesneakedbacktowherehehadseenhiscomradedisappear.When he was down there in the brush, he called, and High Horse answered,becauseheknewhisfriend’svoice.TheywashedoffthepaintfromHighHorseandsatdownontheriverbanktotalkabouttheirtroubles.HighHorsesaidheneverwouldgobacktothevillageaslongashelivedand

hedidnotcarewhathappenedtohimnow.Hesaidhewasgoingtogoonthewar-pathallbyhimself.RedDeersaid:“No,cousin,youarenotgoingon thewar-pathalone,becauseIamgoingwithyou.”SoRedDeergoteverything ready,andatnight theystartedouton thewar-

pathallalone.AfterseveraldaystheycametoaCrowcampjustaboutsundown,andwhenitwasdarktheysneakeduptowheretheCrowhorsesweregrazing,killedthehorseguard,whowasnotthinkingaboutenemiesbecausehethoughtalltheLakotaswerefaraway,anddroveoffaboutahundredhorses.They got a big start because all the Crow horses stampeded and it was

probablymorningbeforetheCrowwarriorscouldcatchanyhorsestoride.RedDeer and High Horse fled with their herd three days and nights before theyreachedthevillageoftheirpeople.Thentheydrovethewholeherdrightintothevillage and up in front of the girl’s tepee. The old man was there, and HighHorse calledout tohimandasked if he thoughtmaybe thatwouldbe enoughhorsesforhisgirl.Theoldmandidnotwavehimawaythattime.Itwasnotthehorsesthathewanted.Whathewantedwasasonwhowasarealmanandgoodforsomething.SoHighHorsegothisgirlafterall,andIthinkhedeservedher.

7.

WasichusintheHills

Itwasthenextsummer,whenIwas11yearsold(1874),thatthefirstsignofanewtroublecametous.OurbandhadbeencampingonSplit-ToeCreekintheBlackHills, and from there wemoved to Spring Creek, then to Rapid Creekwhereitcomesoutintotheprairie.Thateveningjustbeforesunset,abigthundercloudcameupfromthewest,andjustbeforethewindstruck,therewerecloudsofsplit-tailswallows1flyingallaroundaboveus.Itwaslikeapartofmyvision,anditmademefeelqueer.Theboystriedtohittheswallowswithstonesandithurtmetoseethemdoingthis,butIcouldnottellthem.Igotastoneandactedas though I were going to throw, but I did not. The swallows seemed holy.Nobodyhitone,andwhenIthoughtaboutthisIknewthatofcoursetheycouldnot.Thenextdaysomeofthepeoplewerebuildingasweattepeeforamedicine

manbythenameofChips,2whowasgoingtoperformaceremonyandhadtobepurifiedfirst.Theysayhewasthefirstmanwhomadeasacredornamentforourgreatchief,CrazyHorse.Whiletheywereheatingthestonesforthesweattepee,someboysaskedmetogowiththemtoshootsquirrels.Wewentout,andwhenIwasabouttoshootatone,Ifeltveryuneasyallatonce.SoIsatdown,feelingqueer,andwonderedaboutit.WhileIsatthereIheardavoicethatsaid:“Goatonce!Gohome!”Itoldtheboyswemustgohomeatonce,andweallhurried.Whenwegotback,everybodywasexcited,breakingcamp,catchingtheponiesand loading the drags; and I heard thatwhileChipswas in the sweat tepee avoicehadtoldhimthatthebandmustfleeatoncebecausesomethingwasgoingtohappenthere.Itwasnearlysundownwhenwestarted,andwefledallthatnightontheback

trail towardSpringCreek, thendown that creek to the south forkof theGoodRiver.IrodemostofthenightinaponydragbecauseIgottoosleepytostayona horse.We camped at Good River in the morning, but we stayed only longenoughtoeat.Thenwefledagain,upstream,alldaylonguntilwereachedthemouthofHorseCreek.3Weweregoingtostaythere,butscoutscametousand

saidthatmanysoldiershadcomeintotheBlackHills;andthatwaswhatChipssawwhile hewas in the sweat tepee.4 Sowe hurried on in the night towardsSmokyEarthRiver (theWhite),andwhenwegot there, Iwokeupand itwasdaybreak.Wecampedawhile to eat, and thenwentup theSmokyEarth, twocamps,toRobinson,forwewereafraidofthesoldiersupthere.Afterward I learned that itwasPahuska20fwhohad ledhis soldiers into the

BlackHills that summer to seewhat he could find.He had no right to go inthere,becauseall that countrywasours.Also theWasichushadmadea treatywithRedCloud(1868)thatsaiditwouldbeoursaslongasgrassshouldgrowandwater flow.Later I learned too thatPahuskahad found theremuchof theyellowmetal thatmakes theWasichus crazy;5 and that is whatmade the badtrouble,justasitdidbefore,whenthehundredwererubbedout.Ourpeopleknewtherewasyellowmetalinlittlechunksupthere;buttheydid

notbotherwithit,becauseitwasnotgoodforanything.Westayedallwinterat theSoldiers’Town,andall thewhilethebadtrouble

wascomingfast;forinthefallweheardthatsomeWasichushadcomefromtheMissouriRivertodigintheBlackHillsfortheyellowmetal,becausePahuskahadtoldaboutitwithavoicethatwenteverywhere.Laterhegotrubbedoutfordoingthat.6Thepeopletalkedaboutthisallwinter.CrazyHorsewasinthePowderRiver

countryandSittingBull7wassomewherenorthof theHills.Ourpeopleat theSoldiers’Townthoughtweoughttogettogetheranddosomething.RedCloud’speoplesaid that thesoldiershadgonein there tokeepthediggersout,butwe,who were only visiting, did not believe it. We called Red Cloud’s people“Hangs-Around-The-Fort,”8 andourpeople said theywere standingup for theWasichus,andifwedidnotdosomethingweshouldlosetheBlackHills.In the springwhen Iwas twelveyearsold (1875),more soldierswithmany

wagonscameupfromtheSoldiers’TownatthemouthoftheLaramieRiver21fandwentintotheHills.Therewasmuchtalkallsummer,andintheMoonofMakingFat(June)9there

wasasundancethereattheSoldiers’Town10togivethepeoplestrength,butnotmany took part; maybe because everybody was so excited talking about theBlackHills.Iremembertwomenwhodancedtogether.OnehadlostalegintheBattle of the Hundred Slain and one had lost an eye in the Attacking of theWagons,sotheyhadonlythreeeyesandthreelegsbetweenthemtodancewith.Weboyswentdowntothecreekwhiletheyweresundancingandgotsomeelm

leavesthatwechewedupandthrewonthedancerswhiletheywerealldressedupand trying to look theirbest.Weevendid this tosomeof theolderpeople,andnobodygotangry,becauseeverybodywassupposedtobeinagoodhumorandtoshowtheirenduranceineverykindofway;sotheyhadtostandteasingtoo.11Iwilltellaboutabigsundancelaterwhenwecometoit.In the Moon When the Calves Grow Hair (September)12 there was a big

councilwiththeWasichusontheSmokyEarthRiveratthemouthofWhiteClayCreek.13 Icanrememberthecouncil,butIdidnotunderstandmuchofit then.Many of the Lakotas were there, also Shyelas and Blue Clouds22f; but CrazyHorseandSittingBullstayedaway.Inthemiddleofthecircletherewasashademadeofcanvas.Under this thecouncilors sat and talked,andall around themtherewasacrowdofpeopleonfootandhorseback.Theytalkedandtalkedfordays,butitwasjustlikewindblowingintheend.Iaskedmyfatherwhattheyweretalkingaboutinthere,andhetoldmethattheGrandfatheratWashington14wantedtoleasetheBlackHillssothattheWasichuscoulddigyellowmetal,andthatthechiefofthesoldiershadsaidifwedidnotdothis,theBlackHillswouldbe just likemeltingsnowheld inourhands,because theWasichuswould takethatcountryanyway.Itmademesadtohearthis.Itwassuchagoodplacetoplayandthepeople

werealwayshappyinthatcountry.AlsoIthoughtofmyvision,andofhowthespiritstookmetheretothecenteroftheworld.AfterthecouncilweheardthatcreeksofWasichuswereflowingintotheHills

and becoming rivers, and that they were already making towns up there. Itlookedlikebadtroublecoming,soourbandbrokecampandstartedouttojoinCrazyHorseonPowderRiver.WecampedonHorseheadCreek,thenontheWarBonnetafterwecrossedtheoldWasichu’sroad23fthatmadethetroublethattimewhenthehundredwererubbedout.Grasswasgrowingonit.ThenwecampedatSageCreek,thenontheBeaver,thenonDriftwoodCreek,andcameagaintothePlainofPineTreesattheedgeoftheHills.Thenightswere sharpnow,but thedayswere clear and still; andwhilewe

werecampingthereIwentupintotheHillsaloneandsatalongwhileunderatree.IthoughtmaybemyvisionwouldcomebackandtellmehowIcouldsavethatcountryformypeople,butIcouldnotseeanythingclear.15Thismademesad,butsomethinghappenedafewdayslaterthatmademefeel

good.We had gone over to Taking-The-Crow-Horses Creek, where we foundmanybisonandmadeplentyofmeatandtannedmanyhidesforwinter.Inour

band therewasamanby thenameofFat,whowasalways talkingabouthowfast his horse could run.Onedaywhilewewere camping there I toldFatmyponycould run faster thanhis could, andhe laughedatmeand said thatonlycrowsandcoyoteswouldthinkmyponywasanygood.16 Iaskedhimwhathewouldgivemeifmyponycouldbeathis,andhesaidhewouldgivemesomeblackmedicine(coffee).Soweran,andIgottheblackmedicine.Allthewhilewewere running I thought about thewhitewing of thewind that the SecondGrandfatherofmyvisiongaveme;andmaybethatpowerwentintomypony’slegs.OnKills-HimselfCreekwemademoremeatandhidesandwerereadytojoin

CrazyHorse’s camp on the Powder. Therewere someHang-Around-The-Fortpeoplewithus,andwhentheysawthatweweregoingtojoinCrazyHorse,theyleftusandstartedbacktotheSoldiers’Town.Theywereafraidtheremightbetrouble,andtheyknewCrazyHorsewouldfight,sotheywantedtobesafewiththeWasichus.Wedidnotlikethemverymuch.17Wehadno advisers, becausewewere just a little band, andwhenwewere

moving, the boys could ride anywhere. One day while we were heading forPowderRiver IwasridingaheadwithStealsHorses,anotherboymyage,andwe saw some footprints of somebody going somewhere. We followed thefootprintsandtherewasaknollbesideacreekwhereaLakotawaslying.Wegotoffandlookedathim,andhewasdead.HisnamewasRoot-of-the-Tail,andhewasgoingovertoTongueRivertoseehisrelativeswhenhedied.Hewasveryoldandreadytodie,sohejustlaydownanddiedrighttherebeforehesawhisrelativesagain.AfterwhilewecametothevillageonPowderRiverandwentintocampatthe

downstreamend.Iwasanxioustoseemycousin,CrazyHorse,again,fornowthatitbegantolooklikebadtroublecoming,everybodytalkedabouthimmorethaneverandheseemedgreaterthanbefore.AlsoIwasgettingolder.OfcourseIhadseenhimnowandtheneversinceIcouldremember,andhad

heardstoriesofthebravethingshedid.Irememberthestoryofhowheandhisbrotherwereoutaloneonhorseback,andabigbandofCrowsattackedthem,sothattheyhadtorun.Andwhiletheywereridinghard,withallthoseCrowsafterthem, Crazy Horse heard his brother call out; and when he looked back, hisbrother’shorsewasdownandtheCrowswerealmostonhim.AndtheytoldhowCrazyHorsechargedbackrightintotheCrowsandfoughtthembackwithonlyabowandarrows, thentookhisbrotherupbehindhimandgotaway.18 ItwashissacredpowerthatmadetheCrowsafraidofhimwhenhecharged.Andthe

peopletoldstoriesofwhenhewasaboyandusedtobearoundwiththeolderHump19allthetime.Humpwasnotyounganymoreatthetime,andhewasaverygreatwarrior,maybethegreatestweeverhaduntil then.Theysaypeopleused towonder at theboyand theoldmanalwaysbeing together; but I thinkHump knew Crazy Horse would be a great man and wanted to teach himeverything.CrazyHorse’sfatherwasmyfather’scousin,andtherewerenochiefsinour

family before Crazy Horse; but there were holymen; and he became a chiefbecauseofthepowerhegotinavisionwhenhewasaboy.WhenIwasaman,myfathertoldmesomethingaboutthatvision.Ofcoursehedidnotknowallofit;buthesaidthatCrazyHorsedreamedandwentintotheworldwherethereisnothingbutthespiritsofallthings.Thatistherealworldthatisbehindthisone,andeverythingweseehereissomethinglikeashadowfromthatworld.Hewasonhishorseinthatworld,andthehorseandhimselfonitandthetreesandthegrassandthestonesandeverythingweremadeofspirit,andnothingwashard,and everything seemed to float. His horse was standing still there, and yet itdanced around like a horsemade only of shadow, and that is how he got hisname, which does not mean that his horse was crazy or wild, but that in hisvisionitdancedaroundinthatqueerway.20Itwasthisvisionthatgavehimhisgreatpower,forwhenhewentintoafight,

hehadonlytothinkofthatworldtobeinitagain,sothathecouldgothroughanythingandnotbehurt.UntilhewasmurderedbytheWasichusattheSoldiers’TownonWhiteRiver,hewaswoundedonly twice,oncebyaccidentandbothtimesby someoneof his ownpeoplewhenhewasnot expecting trouble andwas not thinking; never by an enemy.Hewas fifteen years oldwhen hewaswounded by accident; and the other timewaswhen hewas a youngman andanothermanwasjealousofhimbecausetheman’swifelikedCrazyHorse.21Theyusedtosaytoothathecarriedasacredstonewithhim,likeonehehad

seeninsomevision,andthatwhenhewasindanger,thestonealwaysgotveryheavy and protected him somehow.That, they used to say,was the reason nohorseheeverrodelastedverylong.Idonotknowaboutthis;maybepeopleonlythought it;but it is a fact thatheneverkeptonehorse long.Theyworeout. Ithinkitwasonlythepowerofhisgreatvisionthatmadehimgreat.Nowandthenhewouldnoticemeandspeaktomebeforethis;andsometimes

hewouldhavethecriercallmeintohistepeetoeatwithhim.Thenhewouldsaythings to teaseme,but Iwouldnotsayanythingback,becauseI thinkIwasalittle afraid of him. Iwas not afraid that hewould hurtme; Iwas just afraid.

Everybodyfeltthatwayabouthim,forhewasaqueermanandwouldgoaboutthe village without noticing people or saying anything. In his own tepee hewouldjoke,andwhenhewasonthewarpathwithasmallparty,hewouldjoketomake hiswarriors feel good.But around the village he hardly ever noticedanybody, except little children.All theLakotas like to dance and sing; but heneverjoinedadance,andtheysaynobodyeverheardhimsing.Buteverybodylikedhim,and theywoulddoanythinghewantedorgoanywherehesaid.HewasasmallmanamongtheLakotasandhewasslenderandhadathinfaceandhiseyeslookedthroughthingsandhealwaysseemedtobethinkinghardaboutsomething.Heneverwantedtohavemanythingsforhimself,anddidnothavemanyponies likeachief.Theysay thatwhengamewasscarceand thepeoplewerehungry,hewouldnoteatatall.Hewasaqueerman.Maybehewasalwayspartwayintothatworldofhisvision.Hewasaverygreatman,andIthinkiftheWasichus had not murdered him down there, maybe we should still have theBlackHillsandbehappy.Theycouldnothavekilledhiminbattle.Theyhadtolie to him andmurder him. And hewas only about thirty years old when hedied.22OnedayafterwehadcampedthereonPowderRiver,Iwentupstreamtosee

himagain,buthistepeewasemptyandhewasgonesomewhere,maybewithawar-partyagainsttheCrows,forwewereclosetothemnowandhadtolookoutforthemallthetime.LaterIdidseehim.Heputhisarmacrossmyshoulderandtookme into his tepee andwe sat down together. I do not rememberwhat hesaid,butIknowhedidnotsaymuch,andhedidnot teaseme.Maybehewasthinkingaboutthetroublecoming.We did not stay together there very long, but scattered out and camped in

differentplacesso that thepeopleand theponieswouldallhaveplenty.CrazyHorse kept his village onPowderRiverwith about a hundred tepees, and ourbandmadecampontheTongue.Webuiltacorralofpolesforthehorsesatnightandherdedthemallday,becausetheCrowsweregreathorse-thievesandwehadtobecareful.Thewomenchoppedandstrippedcottonwoodtreesduringthedayandgave thebark to thehorsesatnight.Thehorses liked it and itmade themsleekandfat.Besidethemouthofthecorraltherewasatepeeforthehorseguard,andone

nightCrowNosewasstayingthereandhiswifewaswithhim.Hehadaholeinthe tepee so that he could look through.Afterwhile he got very sleepy, so hewokehiswifeandtoldhertogetupandwatchwhilehehadalittlerest.Byandbyshesawsomethingdarkmovingslowlyonthesnowoutthere,soshewoke

her husband and whispered, “Old man, you’d better get up, for I think I seesomething.” So Crow Nose got up and peeped out and saw a man movingaroundthecorralinthestarlightlookingforthebesthorse.CrowNosetoldhiswifetokeephereyeattheholeandlethimknowwhenthemanwascomingoutwithahorse,andhelaydownattheopeningofthetepeewiththemuzzleofhisgunstickingoutoftheflap.Byandbytheycouldhearthebarliftedatthemouthofthecorral.Whenhiswifetouchedhim,CrowNosethrusthisheadoutsideandsawthemanjustgettingonahorsetorideaway.Hewasblackagainstthesky,soCrowNoseshothim,andtheshotwokethewholecampsothatmanycamerunningwithgunsandcoupsticks.YellowShirtwasthefirsttocountcoup24fonthedeadCrow,butmany followed.Amanwhohaskilledanenemymustnottouchhim,forhehasalreadyhadthehonorofkilling.Hemustletanothercountcoup.WhenIgottheretosee,apileofcoupstickswaslyingbesidetheCrowand the women had cut him up with axes and scattered him around. It washorrible.Thenthepeoplebuiltafireright therebesidetheCrowandwehadakilldance.23Men,women,andchildrendancedrightinthemiddleofthenight,andtheysangsongsaboutCrowNosewhohadkilledandYellowShirtwhohadcountedthefirstcoup.Thenitwasdaylight,andthecriertolduswewouldmovecamptotheplace

where Root-of-the-Tail died. CrowNose dressed up for war, painted his faceblack24androdethehorsetheenemyhadtriedtosteal.Whenthemenpainttheirfacesblack,thewomenallrejoiceandmakethetremolo,becauseitmeanstheirmenaregoingtokillenemies.Whenwecampedagain,oneofRedCloud’sloaferswhohadstartedbackfor

theSoldiers’Townbecausetheywereafraidtheremightbetrouble,cameinandsaidtheCrowshadkilledallhispartybuthimself,whiletheyweresleeping,andhehadescapedbecausehewasoutscouting.Duringthewinter,runnerscamefromtheWasichusandtolduswemustcome

into the Soldiers’ Town right away or therewould be bad trouble. But it wasfoolishtosaythat,becauseitwasverycoldandmanyofourpeopleandponieswouldhavediedinthesnow.Also,wewereinourowncountryandweredoingnoharm.25

LateintheMoonoftheDarkRedCalves(February)26therewasabigthaw,and our little band started for the Soldiers’ Town, but it was very cold againbeforewegotthere.CrazyHorsestayedwithaboutahundredtepeesonPowder,and in the middle of the Moon of the Snowblind (March)27 something bad

happenedthere.Itwasjustdaybreak.Therewasablizzardanditwasverycold.Thepeopleweresleeping.Suddenlythereweremanyshotsandhorsesgallopingthrough thevillage. Itwas the cavalryof theWasichus, and theywereyellingandshootingandridingtheirhorsesagainstthetepees.Allthepeoplerushedoutandran,becausetheywerenotawakeyetandtheywerefrightened.Thesoldierskilledasmanywomenandchildrenandmenastheycouldwhilethepeoplewererunningtowardabluff.Thentheysetfiretosomeofthetepeesandknockedtheothers down.Butwhen the peoplewere on the side of the bluff,CrazyHorsesaidsomething,andallthewarriorsbegansingingthedeathsong28andchargedbackuponthesoldiers;andthesoldiersran,drivingmanyofthepeople’sponiesaheadofthem.CrazyHorsefollowedthemallthatdaywithabandofwarriors,andthatnighthetookallthestolenponiesawayfromthem,andsomeoftheirownhorses, andbrought themallback to thevillage.25fThesepeoplewere intheirowncountryandweredoingnoharm.Theyonlywantedtobeletalone.Wedidnothearof thisuntil quite awhile afterward;but at theSoldiers’Townweheardenoughtomakeuspaintourfacesblack.29

8.

TheFightwithThreeStars

WestayedattheSoldiers’TownthistimeuntilthegrasswasgoodintheMoonWhen thePoniesShed(May).Thenmyfather toldmeweweregoingback toCrazyHorseandthatweweregoingtohavetofightfromthenon,becausetherewasnootherwaytokeepourcountry.HesaidthatRedCloudwasacheapmanandwantedtoselltheBlackHillstotheWasichus;thatSpottedTail1andotherchiefswerecheapmentoo,andthattheHang-Around-the-Fortpeoplewereallcheap andwould stand up for theWasichus.My aunt, whowas living at theSoldiers’Town,musthavefeltthewaywedid,becausewhenwewerebreakingcampshegavemeasix-shooterlikethesoldiershad,andtoldmeIwasamannow.2Iwasthirteenyearsoldandnotverybigformyage,butIthoughtIshouldhave tobe amananyway.Weboyshadpracticed endurance, andwewere allgoodriders,andIcouldshootstraightwitheitheraboworagun.Wewereasmallband,andwestartedinthenightandtraveledfast.Beforewe

got toWarBonnetCreek, some Shyelas (Cheyennes) joined us, because theirheartswerebadlikeoursandtheyweregoingtothesameplace.LaterIlearnedthat many small bands were doing the same thing and coming together fromeverywhere.JustafterwecampedontheWarBonnet,ourscoutssawawagontrainofthe

Wasichus coming up the old road that caused the trouble before.26f They hadoxenhitched to theirwagons and theywerepart of the riverofWasichus thatwas running into theBlackHills.They shot atour scouts, andwedecidedwewouldattackthem.Whenthewarpartywasgettingready,Imadeupmymindthat,smallasIwas,Imightaswelldiethere,andifIdid,maybeI’dbeknown.ItoldJumpingHorse,aboyaboutmyage,thatIwasgoingalongtodie,andhesaidhewouldtoo.Sowewent,andsodidCrabandsomeotherboys.WhentheWasichussawuscoming,theyputtheirwagonsinacircleandgot

insidewith their oxen.We rode around and around them in awide circle thatkept getting narrower. That is the best way to fight, because it is hard to hitponiesrunningfast inacircle.Andsometimestherewouldbetwocircles,one

insidetheother,goingfastinoppositedirections,whichmadeusstillhardertohit.ThecavalryoftheWasichusdidnotknowhowtofight.Theykepttogether,andwhentheycameon,youcouldhardlymissthem.Wekeptapartinthecircle.Whilewewereridingaroundthewagons,wewerehanginglowontheoutsideoftheponiesandshootingundertheirnecks.Thiswasnoteasytodo,evenwhenyourlegswerelong,andminewerenotyetverylong.ButIstucktightandshotwiththesix-shootermyauntgaveme.BeforewestartedtheattackIwasafraid,butBigMan3tolduswewerebraveboys,andIsoongotoverbeingfrightened.TheWasichusshotfastatusfrombehindthewagons,andIcouldhearbulletswhizzing,buttheydidnothitanyofus.Ikeptthinkingofmyvision,andmaybethat helped. I do not knowwhether we killed anyWasichus or not.We rodearoundseveraltimes,andoncewegotclose,buttherewerenotmanyofusandwecouldnotgetat theWasichusbehind theirwagons;sowewentaway.Thiswasmy first fight.Whenwewere goingback to camp, someShyelawarriorstold us we were very brave boys, and that we were going to have plenty offighting.Wewere traveling very fast now, forwewere in danger andwanted to get

back toCrazyHorse.Hehadmovedoverwest to theRosebudRiver, and thepeopleweregatheringthere.Aswetraveled,wemetotherlittlebandsallgoingtothesameplace,untiltherewasagoodmanyofusallmixedupbeforewegotthere. Red Cloud’s son4 was with us, but Red Cloud stayed at the Soldiers’Town.WhenwecametotheridgeonthissideoftheRosebudRiver,wecouldsee

the valley full of tepees, and the ponies could not be counted. Many, manypeoplewerethere—Ogalalas,Hunkpapas,Minneconjous,SansArcs,BlackFeet,Brules,Santees,andYanktonais;alsomanyShyelasandBlueCloudshadcometofightwithus.Thevillagewaslong,andyoucouldnotseeallthecampswithone look. The scouts came out to meet us and bring us in, and everybodyrejoicedthatwehadcome.Greatmenwerethere:CrazyHorseandBigRoadofthe Ogalalas; Sitting Bull and Gall and Black Moon and Crow King of theHunkpapas;SpottedEagleoftheSansArcs;theyoungerHumpandFastBulloftheMinneconjous;DullKnifeandIceBearof theShyelas; Inkpadutawith theSanteesandYanktonais.Greatmenweretherewithallthosepeopleandhorses.Hetchetualoh!27fAboutthemiddleoftheMoonofMakingFat(June)thewholevillagemoved

alittlewayuptheRivertoagoodplaceforasundance.Thevalleywaswideandflatthere,andwecampedinagreatovalwiththeriverflowingthroughit,

andinthecentertheybuiltthebowerofbranchesinacircleforthedancers,withtheopeningofittotheeastwhencecomesthelight.Scoutsweresentoutinalldirectionstoguardthesacredplace.SittingBull,whowasthegreatestmedicinemanofthenationatthattime,hadchargeofthisdancetopurifythepeopleandtogivethempowerandendurance.ItwasheldintheMoonofFatnessbecausethat is thetimewhenthesunishighestandthegrowingpowerof theworldisstrongest.Iwilltellyouhowitwasdone.5

Firstaholymanwassentoutallalonetofindthewagachun,28ftheholytreethatshouldstandinthemiddleofthedancingcircle.Nobodydaredfollowtoseewhat he did or hear the sacred words he would say there. And when he hadfound the right tree, he would tell the people, and they would come theresinging,withflowersalloverthem.Thenwhentheyhadgatheredabouttheholytree, somewomenwhowere bearing childrenwould dance around it, becausetheSpirit of theSun loves all fruitfulness.After that awarrior,whohaddonesomeverybravedeedthatsummer,struckthetree,countingcoupuponit;andwhenhehaddonethis,hehadtogivegiftstothosewhohadleastofeverything,andthebraverhewas,themorehegaveaway.After this, a band of youngmaidens came singing,with sharp axes in their

hands;andtheyhadtobesogoodthatnobodytherecouldsayanythingagainstthem,orthatanymanhadeverknownthem;anditwasthedutyofanyonewhoknewanythingbadaboutanyofthemtotellitrightbeforeallthepeoplethereandproveit.Butifanybodylied,itwasverybadforhim.The maidens chopped the tree down and trimmed its branches off. Then

chiefs,whowerethesonsofchiefs,carriedthesacredtreehome,stoppingfourtimesontheway,onceforeachseason,givingthanksforeach.Nowwhentheholytreehadbeenbroughthomebutwasnotyetsetupinthe

centerofthedancingplace,mountedwarriorsgatheredaroundthecircleofthevillage,andat a signal theyall charged inwardupon thecenterwhere the treewouldstand,eachtryingtobe thefirst to touchthesacredplace;andwhoeverwasthefirstcouldnotbekilledinwarthatyear.Whentheyallcametogetherinthemiddle, itwas likeabattle,with theponiesrearingandscreaming inabigdustandthemenshoutingandwrestlingandtryingtothroweachotheroffthehorses.After that therewas a big feast and plenty for everybody to eat, and a big

dancejustasthoughwehadwonavictory.Thenextdaythetreewasplantedinthecenterbyholymenwhosangsacred

songs and made sacred vows to the Spirit. And the next morning nursing

mothersbrought theirholy littleones to lay themat thebottomof the tree, sothatthesonswouldbebravemenandthedaughtersthemothersofbravemen.Theholymenpiercedtheearsofthelittleones,andforeachpiercingtheparentsgaveawayaponytosomeonewhowasinneed.6Thenextdaythedancingbegan,andthosewhoweregoingtotakepartwere

ready, for theyhadbeen fastingandpurifying themselves in the sweat lodges,andpraying.First,theirbodieswerepaintedbytheholymen.Theneachwouldliedownbeneaththetreeasthoughheweredead,andtheholymenwouldcutaplace inhisbackorchest,so thatastripofrawhide,fastenedto the topof thetree,couldbepushedthroughthefleshandtied.7Thenthemenwouldgetupanddance to thedrums, leaningon the rawhidestripas longashecouldstand thepainoruntilthefleshtoreloose.Wesmallerboyshadagoodtimeduringthetwodaysofdancing,forwewere

allowedtodoalmostanythingtoteasethepeople,andtheyhadtostandit.Wewouldgathersharpspeargrass,andwhenamancamealongwithoutashirt,wewould stick him to see if we could make him cry out, for everybody wassupposed to endure everything. Also we made pop-guns out of young ashboughsandshotatthemenandwomentoseeifwecouldmakethemjump;andiftheydid,everybodylaughedatthem.Themotherscarriedwatertotheirholylittleones8 inbladderbags,andwemade littlebowsandarrowsthatwecouldhideunderourrobessothatwecouldstealuptothewomenandshootholesinthebags.Theyweresupposedtostandanythingandnotscolduswhenthewaterspurtedout.Wehadagoodtimethere.9Right after the sun dance was over, some of our scouts came in from the

south,andthecrierwentaroundthecircleandsaid:“Thescoutshavereturnedand they have reported that soldiers are camping up the river. So, youngwarriors,takecourageandgetreadytomeetthem.”While they were all getting ready, I was getting ready too, because Crazy

Horsewas going to lead thewarriors10 and Iwanted to gowith him; butmyuncle,whothoughtagreatdealofme,said:“Youngnephew,11youmustnotgo.Lookatthehelplessones.Stayhome,andmaybetherewillbeplentyoffightingrighthere.”Sothewarpartieswentonwithoutme.MaybemyunclethoughtIwastoolittletodomuchandmightgetkilled.Then the crier toldus tobreak camp, andwemovedoverwest towards the

GreasyGrass29fandcampedat theheadofSpringCreekwhile thewarpartieswere gone. We learned later that it was Three Stars30f who fought with our

people on theRosebud that time.31f He hadmanywalking soldiers and somecavalry, and thereweremanyCrows and Shoshoneswith him. Theywere allcomingtoattackuswherewehadthesundance,butCrazyHorsewhippedthemand they went back to Goose Creek where they had all their wagons.12 Myfriend,IronHawk,wastherethatday,andhecantellyouhowitwas.

IronHawkSpeaks:

I amaHunkpapa. Iwas fourteenyearsold that summer, and Iwasabigboy.Twowarpartieswentout,averylargeonefromthesouthendofthecamp,andasmall one from thenorth end. Iwentwith the small one, and therewereonlyabout forty of us.The big party got there early in themorning, andwhenwecame, theyhadbeen fightinga longwhile.There is awidevalley thereat thebendof the riverwithsomebluffsandhillsaround it,and it lookedas thoughpeoplewerefightingalloverthatplace.TherewereCrowswiththesoldiers,andwebeganfightingwithsomeofthem.It lookedasthoughweweregettingthebestofthem.Thenthesoldiersbegantoadvanceontheothersideofus,andwehad to retreat.Wewere heading forwhere the big partywas, but the soldierswere after us, and the Crows got braver and fought harder because of thesoldiers.Whenwegottothebend,theCrowswererightamongus,anditwasallmixed up fighting there. I don’t knowwhether I killed anybody or not, but IguessIdid,forIwasscaredandfoughthard,andthewayitwasyoucouldn’tkeepfromkillingsomebodyifyoudidn’tgetkilled,andIamstillalive.TherewasaLakotawithmebythenameofWithout-a-Tepee,andabigCrowpulledhim right off his horse and he disappeared.Of course,me—I ran formy life,because we could not fight all those Crows and the soldiers too, and I wasscared.ButIwasnotrunningalone.Wewereallrunning,withtheCrowsafterus.Thenallatoncewesawabandofcavalrycomingrightaheadofus—aboutthirty of them. I do not knowhow they got there.Maybe theywere returningfrom a scouting trip. It looked bad for us. Then I heard voices crying in ourlanguage:“Takecourage!This isagoodday todie!Thinkof thechildrenandthe helpless at home!” So we all yelled “Hoka hey!” and charged on thecavalrymenandbeganshooting themoff theirhorses, for they turnedand ran.Theywere running toward their big party, and I could seemany peoplewerefightingoverthere,buteverythingwasallmixedup,andyoucouldnottellwhatwashappening. Itwas apitiful, long-stretched-out battle.They fought all day.Then the Crowswere on us from behind, andwe turned around and chargedbackon them.Butmanysoldierswerebehind them,coming.Soweallhad to

run,crying“yea-hey”13becausetherewerenotenoughofus.BynowIwasveryscared, and I ran formy life. I came to a rocky place, andmy pony steppedbetweentwostonesandnearlytorehishoofoff.TherewasaverybraveShyelabythenameofSittingEagle.Hewasafriend

ofmineandhehadbeenwithmeinthefight.WhenIgotoffmyponytolookathishoof,asingleCrowwascomingafterme.ThenIsawmyfriend,theShyela,goingtomeettheCrow.Theyfoughthand-to-hand,andtheCrowwentdown.IwishIhadstayedwithSittingEagle,becausethenIcouldhavebeenthefirsttocoupthatCrow.Butanothermandidit.Iranonfoot,leadingmyhorse,whowashoppingonthreelegs.ThenIsaw

smokecomingoutofadeepgullywheretherewasacreek.Iwentover to thesmoke,andtherewerethreeLakotaswhohadkilledabisonandwerehavingafeast right therewhileall thefightingwasgoingonover thehill.They invitedme,soIsatthereandate,forIwasaboutfourteenyearsoldandIwasalwayshungry.Wehad towatchoutwhileweate.Oneof themen tooksomeclottedbloodfromthebisonandput it insomerawbisonhideandfastened itaroundmypony’shoofsothatIcouldride.Afterwehadbeeneatingtherealongtime,aLakotacameuponhishorsewith

bloodanddirtalloverhisface,andhewasangry.Hesaid:“Whatareyoudoinghere?We’refighting!Allyouthinkofistoeat!Whydon’tyouthinkaboutthehelplessonesathome?Come,makehaste!Wehavegottostandourground!”Ifeltashamed,soIgotonmyhorseandwestarted.Myhorsecouldgobetter

withhishooftiedupthatway.Wecametoaridge,andIcouldseealloverthevalleyoftheRosebudwherethefightingwasgoingon.Youcouldnottellwhowasgettingwhipped.Itlookedallmixedup.SomeCrowsattackedusthereandInevergottothebigpartythatwasdoingthehardfighting,butitwasbadenoughwhereIwas,exceptwhenIwaseating.Imusthaveeatenagreatdeal,foritwaseveningnow.Ofcoursewhenwegotthere,theyhadbeenfightingagoodwhilealready.Weallcameawaywhenitwasdark,toguardthewomenandchildren,andthe

enemydidnotfollowus.OfcourseIthoughttheWasichushadwhippedus;butIlearneditwasnotso.Itwasnotafinishedbattlebecausethenightstoppedit,buttheWasichus gotwhipped anyway, and did not attack our village. TheywentbacktotheirwagonsonGooseCreekandstayedthere.

StandingBearSpeaks:

Iwasnotinthatfight.Thereweremanywhowerenot.Thewarriorscameback

inthedark,andeverybodywassoexcitedthatnobodysleptallnight.Thenextmorning,abouttwentyofusyoungfellowsstartedouttoseewhere

thefighthadbeen.Firstwesawadeadhorsewithoutshoes.Thenwesawadeadhorsewithshoes,andnearthisonewasasoldierfullofarrows.Wegottowherethesoldiershadcampedafterthefight,andtherewasaplacewherethegroundwasfreshandabigfirehadbeenbuiltonit.Westartedtodigtheretoseewhatwashidden.Wegotdownonourhandsandkneesandduginthelooseground.Afterawhilewecametoablanketandtherewasadeadsoldierinit,anditwastiedaroundhislegsandwaistandneck.Wepulledhimout,andoneofthemensaid:“Thisismyblanket.Ihavebeenlookingforthisblanket.Iwillhavethisblanket.”Sohetookit.Underthatwasanotherdeadsoldiertiedupinablanket,andthenanotherand

another under that.The fourthonewas a blackWasichu (Negro).14Each timesomebodysaid,“Thisismyblanket,”andtookit.Igotthefifthone,andthemaninsidewasyoung,andhehada ringonhis fingerwithawhitestone in it thatsparkled.IcutoffthefingerandIhadtheringforalongtime.Oneofourmenscalpedasoldierandstartedhomewiththescalponastick.15WhenwegotontopoftheridgewecouldseethesoldiersofThreeStarsretreatingtowardGooseCreekalongwayoff.Abigdustwasrisingthere.Thenwewenthome.ThevillagestayedattheheadofSpringCreekseveraldays.Thenweallbroke

campandmovedovertotheGreasyGrass.

9.

TheRubbingOutofLongHair

BlackElkContinues:

CrazyHorsewhippedThreeStarsontheRosebudthatday,andIthinkhecouldhave rubbed the soldiers out there.He could have calledmanymorewarriorsfromthevillagesandhecouldhaverubbedthesoldiersoutatdaybreak,fortheycampedthereinthedarkafterthefight.HewhippedthecavalryofThreeStarswhentheyattackedhisvillageonthe

Powder that cold morning in the Moon of the Snowblind (March). Then hemovedfartherwesttotheRosebud;andwhenthesoldierscametokillusthere,hewhipped themandmade themgoback.Thenhemoved fartherwest to thevalleyoftheGreasyGrass.Wewereinourowncountryallthetimeandweonlywantedtobeletalone.Thesoldierscametheretokillus,andmanygotrubbedout.Itwasourcountryandwedidnotwanttohavetrouble.1WecampedthereinthevalleyalongthesouthsideoftheGreasyGrassbefore

thesunwasstraightabove;andthiswas,I think, twodaysbefore thebattle. Itwas a very big village and you could hardly count the tepees. Farthest up thestreamtowardthesouthweretheHunkpapas,andtheOgalalaswerenext.ThencametheMinneconjous, theSanArcs, theBlackfeet, theShyelas;andlast, thefarthest toward the north, were the Santees and Yanktonais.2 Along the sidetowards the eastwas theGreasyGrass,with some timber along it, and itwasrunning full from the melting of the snow in the BighornMountains. If youstoodonahillyoucould see themountainsoff to the southandwest.On theother side of the river, therewere bluffs and hills beyond. Some gullies camedownthroughthebluffs.Onthewestwardsideofuswerelowerhills,andtherewegrazedourponiesandguardedthem.Thereweresomanytheycouldnotbecounted.TherewasamanbythenameofRattlingHawkwhowasshotthroughthehip

inthefightontheRosebud,andpeoplethoughthecouldnotgetwell.ButtherewasamedicinemanbythenameofHairyChinwhocuredhim.Thedaybefore thebattle Ihadgreasedmyselfandwasgoing toswimwith

someboys,whenHairyChincalledmeovertoRattlingHawk’stepee,andtoldmehewantedmetohelphim.Therewerefiveotherboysthere,andheneededusforbearsinthecuringceremony,becausehehadhispowerfromadreamofthebear.3Hepaintedmybodyyellow,andmyfacetoo,andputablackstripeoneithersideofmynosefromtheeyesdown.Thenhetiedmyhairuptolooklikebear’sears,andputsomeeaglefeathers4onmyhead.Whilehewasdoingthis,Ithoughtofmyvision,andsuddenlyIseemedtobe

liftedclearofftheground;andwhileIwasthatway,IknewmorethingsthanIcouldtell,andIfeltsuresomethingterriblewasgoingtohappeninashorttime.Iwasfrightened.Theotherboyswerepaintedallredandhadrealbear’searsontheirheads.HairyChin,whowore a real bear skinwith theheadon it, began to sing a

songthatwentlikethis:

“Atthedoorwaythesacredherbsarerejoicing.”

And while he sang, two girls came in and stood one on either side of thewoundedman;onehadacupofwaterandonesomekindofaherb.Itriedtoseeifthecuphadalltheskyinit,asitwasinmyvision,butIcouldnotseeit.TheygavethecupandtheherbtoRattlingHawkwhileHairyChinwassinging.Thenthey gave him a red cane, and right away he stood upwith it. The girls thenstartedoutofthetepee,andthewoundedmanfollowed,learningonthesacredredstick;andweboys,whowere the littlebears,hadto jumparoundhimandmake growling noises toward theman.Andwhenwe did this, you could seesomethinglikefeathersofallcolorscomingoutofourmouths.ThenHairyChincameoutonallfours,andhelookedjustlikeabeartome.ThenRattlingHawkbegantowalkbetter.Hewasnotabletofightnextday,buthegotwellinalittlewhile.Aftertheceremony,weboyswentswimmingtowashthepaintoff,andwhen

wegotbackthepeopleweredancingandhavingkill talksallover thevillage,rememberingbravedeedsdoneinthefightwithThreeStarsontheRosebud.When itwas about sundownwe boys had to bring the ponies in close, and

whenthiswasdoneitwasdarkandthepeoplewerestilldancingaroundfiresalloverthevillage.Weboyswentaroundfromonedancetoanother,untilwegottoosleepytostayupanymore.Myfather‘wokemeatdaybreakandtoldmetogowithhimtotakeourhorses

outtograze,andwhenwewereouttherehesaid:“Wemusthavealongropeonone of them, so that it will be easy to catch; then we can get the others. If

anythinghappens,youmustbringthehorsesbackasfastasyoucan,andkeepyoureyesonthecamp.”Several of us boys watched our horses together until the sun was straight

aboveanditwasgettingveryhot.Thenwethoughtwewouldgoswimming,andmy cousin said he would stay with our horses till we got back.When I wasgreasingmyself,Ididnotfeelwell;Ifeltqueer.Itseemedthatsomethingterriblewasgoingtohappen.ButIwentwiththeboysanyway.Manypeoplewereinthewaternowandmanyofthewomenwereoutwestofthevillagediggingturnips.Wehadbeeninthewaterquiteawhilewhenmycousincamedowntherewiththehorsestogivethemadrink,foritwasveryhotnow.Just thenweheard thecriershouting in theHunkpapacamp,whichwasnot

veryfarfromus“Thechargersarecoming!Theyarecharging!Thechargersarecoming!”ThenthecrieroftheOgalalasshoutedthesamewords;andwecouldhear the cry going from camp to camp northward clear to the Santees andYanktonais.Everybodywasrunningnowtocatchthehorses.Wewereluckytohaveours

righttherejustatthattime.Myolderbrotherhadasorrel,andherodeawayfasttoward the Hunkpapas. I had a buckskin. My father came running and said:“YourbrotherhasgonetotheHunkpapaswithouthisgun.Catchhimandgiveittohim.Thencomerightbacktome.”Hehadmysix-shootertoo—theonemyaunt5 gaveme. I took theguns, jumpedonmyponyandcaughtmybrother. Icould see a big dust rising just beyond the Hunkpapa camp and all theHunkpapaswererunningaroundandyelling,andmanywererunningwetfromtheriver.Thenoutofthedustcamethesoldiersontheirbighorses.Theylookedbigandstrongand talland theywereall shooting.32fMybrother tookhisgunandyelledformetogoback.TherewasbrushytimberjustontheothersideoftheHunkpapas,andsomewarriorsweregatheringthere.Hemadeforthatplace,and I followed him. By now women and children were running in a crowddownstream.Ilookedbackandsawthemallrunningandscatteringupahillsidedownyonder.Whenwegotintothetimber,agoodmanyHunkpapasweretherealreadyand

the soldierswere shooting above us so that leaveswere falling from the treeswhere the bullets struck. By now I could not see what was happening in thevillagebelow.Itwasalldustandcriesandthunder;forthewomenandchildrenwererunningthere,andthewarriorswerecomingontheirponies.Amongus there in thebrushandout in theHunkpapacampacrywentup:

“Takecourage!Don’tbeawoman!Thehelplessareoutofbreath!”Ithinkthis

waswhenGall6stoppedtheHunkpapas,whohadbeenrunningaway,andturnedthemback.Istayedthereinthewoodsalittlewhileandthoughtofmyvision.Itmademe

feelstronger,anditseemedthatmypeoplewereallthunder-beingsandthatthesoldierswouldberubbedout.Then another great cry went up out in the dust: “Crazy Horse is coming!

CrazyHorseiscoming!”Offtowardthewestandnorththeywereyelling“Hokahey!”likeabigwindroaring,andmakingthetremolo;andyoucouldheareaglebone whistles screaming.7 The valley went darker with dust and smoke, andtherewereonlyshadowsandabignoiseofmanycriesandhoofsandguns.OntheleftofwhereIwasIcouldheartheshodhoofsofthesoldiers’horsesgoingbackintothebrushandtherewasshootingeverywhere.Thenthehoofscameoutofthebrush,andIcameoutandwasinamongmenandhorsesweavinginandout and going up-stream, and everybody was yelling, “Hurry! Hurry!” Thesoldierswererunningupstreamandwewereallmixedthereinthetwilightandthegreatnoise.Ididnotseemuch;butonceIsawaLakotachargeatasoldierwhostayedbehindandfoughtandwasaverybraveman.33fTheLakotatookthesoldier’shorsebythebridle,butthesoldierkilledhimwithasix-shooter.Iwassmall and could not crowd in to where the soldiers were, so I did not killanybody.Thereweresomanyaheadofme,anditwasalldarkandmixedup.Soonthesoldierswereallcrowdedintotheriver,andmanyLakotastoo;andI

wasinthewaterawhile.Menandhorseswereallmixedupandfightinginthewater,anditwaslikehailfallingintheriver.Thenwewereoutoftheriver,andpeoplewerestrippingdeadsoldiersandputtingtheclothesonthemselves.Therewasasoldieronthegroundandhewasstillkicking.ALakotarodeupandsaidtome:“Boy,getoffandscalphim.”Igotoffandstartedtodoit.Hehadshorthairandmyknifewasnotverysharp.Hegroundhisteeth.ThenIshothimintheforeheadandgothisscalp.Manyofourwarriorswerefollowingthesoldiersupahillontheothersideof

the river. Everybody else was turning back down stream, and on a hill awaydown yonder above the Santee camp there was a big dust, and our warriorswhirlingaroundinandoutof it just likeswallows,andmanygunsweregoingoff.34fI thought Iwouldshowmymothermyscalp, so I rodeover toward thehill

wheretherewasacrowdofwomenandchildren.OnthewaydownthereIsawaveryprettyyoungwomanamongabandofwarriorsabouttogouptothebattleonthehill,andshewassinginglikethis:

“Brothers,8nowyourfriendshavecome!Bebrave!Bebrave!Wouldyouseemetakencaptive?”

WhenIrodethroughtheOgalalacampIsawRattlingHawksittingupinhistepeewithaguninhishands,andhewasallalonetheresingingasongofregretthatwentlikethis:

“Brothers,whatareyoudoingthatIcannotdo?”9

When I got to thewomenon the hill theywere all singing andmaking thetremolo to cheer themen fighting across the river in the dust on the hill.Mymothergaveabigtremolojustformewhenshesawmyfirstscalp.Istayedthereawhilewithmymotherandwatchedthebigdustwhirlingonthe

hillacrosstheriver,andhorseswerecomingoutofitwithemptysaddles.

StandingBearSpeaks:

IamaMinneconjou,andourcampwasthirdfromthesouth.Wegotuplatethemorningofthefight.Thewomenwentouttodigturnipsandtwoofmyuncleswere hunting.My grandmother,whowas very old and feeble, and one ofmyunclesandIstayedinatepee.Whenthesunwasoverhead,Iwentbackdowntothe river to swim, and when I came back all I had on was a shirt. Mygrandmothercookedsomemeatintheashesandfedus.Whilewewereeating,my uncle said: “When you have eaten, youmust go to the horses right away.Something might happen.” An older brother of mine and another man wereherding the horses in two bunches onMuskrat Creek down stream below theSanteecamp.Before I finished eating, therewas an excitement outside.Then I heard our

criersayingthatthechargerswerecoming.Whenweheardthis,myunclesaid:“Itoldyoubeforethatsomethingmighthappen.You’dbettergorightawayandhelpbringinthehorses.”Icrossed theGreasyGrass,whichwasbreastdeep,andgoton topofBlack

Butte to look. On the other side of the Hunkpapas toward the south, I sawsoldiersonhorsebackspreadingoutastheycamedownaslopetotheriver.Theycrossedandcameonatatrot.35fIstarteddownthebutte,butIwasbarefootandtherewasabigbedofcactus there. Ihad togoslow,pickingmyway.Adustcloud was rising up yonder; and then I could see that the Hunkpapas wererunning,andwhenIlookedoverontothehillstowardthesouthandeastIsaw

other soldierscoming thereonhorseback.36f Ididnotgo to thehorses. IwentdownthroughthecactusasfastasIcouldandintothevillage.Therewerevoicesall over, and everybody was shouting something and running around. Afterawhilemyolderbrothercamedrivingourhorses,andmyunclesaid:“Hurryup!Weshallgo forth!” Icaughtmygrayhorseand tookmysix-shooterandhungmybowandarrowsovermyshoulder.Ihadkilledaredbird10afewdaysbeforeandIfastenedthisinmyhair.IhadmadeavowthatIwouldmakeanofferingifthiswouldkeepmefromgettinghurtinthenextfight;anditdid.WestartedandwentdownstreamtothemouthofMuskratCreekbeyondthe

Santeecamp.Weweregoingtomeetthesecondbandofsoldiers.37fBythetimewegot there, theymust have been fighting on the hill already, because aswerode up east from the mouth ofMuskrat Creek we met a Lakota with bloodrunningout of hismouth anddownover his horse’s shoulders.His namewasLongElk.Therewerewarriorsaheadofus,the“fronters,”whoarethebravestandhavehadmostpracticeinwar.IwassixteenyearsoldandIwasintherearwiththelessbrave,andwehadwaitedforourhorsesquiteawhile.PartwayupwemetanotherLakota.Hewasonfootandhewasbleedingand

dizzy.Hewouldgetupandthenhewouldfalldownagain.Whenwegotfartherupthehill,Icouldseethesoldiers.Theywereofftheirhorses,holdingthembythe bridles. They were ready for us and were shooting. Our people were allaround thehill on every sideby this time. I heard someofourmen shouting:“Theyaregone!”AndIsawthatmanyofthesoldiers’horseshadbrokenlooseand were running away. Everywhere our warriors began yelling: “Hoka hey!Hurry!Hurry!” Thenwe all went up, and it got darkwith dust and smoke. Icouldseewarriorsflyingallaroundmelikeshadows,andthenoiseofallthosehoofs and guns and crieswas so loud it seemed quiet in there and the voicesseemedtobeontopof thecloud.Itwaslikeabaddream.AllatonceIsawasoldierrightbesideme,andIleanedoverandknockedhimdownwiththebuttof the six-shooter. I think I had already shot it empty, but I don’t rememberwhen.Thesoldier felloffandwasunder thehoofs.ThereweresomanyofusthatIthinkwedidnotneedguns.Justthehoofswouldhavebeenenough.After thiswe started down the hillside in formation toward the village, and

thereweredeadmenandhorsesscatteredalongtheretoo.Theywereallrubbedout.Wewereallcrazy,andIwilltellyousomethingtoshowhowcrazywewere.

TherewasadeadIndianlyingthereonhisface,andsomeonesaid:“ScalpthatRee!”38fAman got off and scalped him; andwhen they turned the deadman

over,itwasaShyela—oneofourfriends.Wewereallcrazy.We could see the women coming over now in a swarm and they were all

making the tremolo.Wewaitedaround thereawhile,and thenwesawsoldierscoming on a hill toward the south and east.39f Everybody began yelling:“Hurry!”Andwestartedforthesoldiers.Theyranbacktowardwheretheycamefrom.Onegotkilled,andmanyofusgotoffandcoupedhim.Thenwechasedallthesoldiersbacktothehillwheretheywerebefore.Theyhadtheirpackmulesandhorsesontheinsideandtheyhadsaddlesand

otherthingsinfrontofthemtohidethemselvesfrombullets,butwesurroundedthem,andthehillwewereonwashigherandwecouldseethemplain.Weputourhorsesdownunderthehillssothattheyweresafe.Weallkeptshootingatthesoldiersandtheirhorses.Itwasveryhot,andthereweresomesoldierswhostarteddownthehillwithkettlestogetwaterfromtheriver.Theydidnotgetfar,and what was left of them went running back up the hill. I heard that somesoldiersdidgetsomewaterlater,butIdidnotseethem.OnceaLakotaontheothersidechargedalonerightuptothesoldierstoshowhowbravehewas,buttheykilledhim,andwecouldnotgethisbody.11Bynowitwasnearlysundown.Ihadnotbeenfeelinghungrybecausethere

wasthesmellofbloodeverywhere;butnowIbegantofeelhungryanyway.Thebravestofthebravesgottogetherandtalkedoverwhatweshoulddothatnight.Theydecidedthatsomeofusshouldgohomeandeatandbringbacksomethingforthosewhostayedtowatchthesoldiers.Wecouldnotgetatthesoldiers,soweweregoingtostarveanddrythemout.Iwentbackhomewiththeothers,anditwassundownthen.AtfirstIthought

theyhadbrokencamp,buttheyhadnot.Theyhadonlygatheredallthecampstogetherinonesolidvillage.Ididnotgobacktothehillwiththeothersthatnight.Webuiltfiresallover

thecamp,andeverybodywasexcited.Icouldn’tsleepbecausewhenIshutmyeyesIcouldseeallthosehorriblesightsagain.Ithinknobodyslept.Nextmorning early the crier went around and said: “The remainder of the

soldiers shalldie to-day!”Soafterwehadeaten,weallgot ready.This time Iwasdressedandhadmymoccasinsandleggingson.ThedaybeforeIhadonlyashirt.ThistimeIhadmysaddletoo.Iwaspreparedtofight.Weall rodeover there,and theparty thathadwatchedallnightwenthome.

Wewerescatteredallaroundthesoldiers,withourhorsesunderthehill;butitwashardertohit thesoldiersnow,becausetheyhadbeendigginginthenight.The daywas very hot, and now and then some soldiers would start crawling

down toward the river for a drink. We killed some of these, then the otherswould runback.Maybesomegotwater. Idonotknow.12Wekeptshootingateachother.OnceIheardsomeonecry“Hey-hey!”Icrawledover there,andaLakotahadbeenshotabovetheeyebrowandhewasdead.13

After a long while we heard that more soldiers were coming.40f Theneverybodystartedbackhome,andtherethepeopleweresaying:“Wewillleavethisandletitgo!”ThenweallbrokecampandstartedfortheBighornMountains.Ifthosesoldiershadnotcome,wewouldhaverubbedthemalloutonthehill.

IronHawkSpeaks:

IamaHunkpapa,and,as I toldyoubefore, Iwasfourteenyearsold.Thesunwasoverheadandmore,butIwaseatingmyfirstmealthatday,becauseIhadbeen sleeping.While Iwas eating I heard the crier saying: “The chargers arecoming.”Ijumpedupandrushedouttoourhorses.Theyweregrazingclosetocamp.I ropedone,and theothersstampeded,butmyolderbrotherhadcaughthishorsealreadyandheaded theothersoff.When Igotonmyhorsewith therope hitched around his nose, the soldiers were shooting up there and peoplewere running and men and boys were catching their horses that were scaredbecause of the shooting and yelling. I saw little children running up from theriver where they had been swimming; and all the women and children wererunningdownthevalley.OurhorsesstampededdowntowardtheMinneconjous,butweroundedthem

up again and brought them back. By now warriors were running toward thesoldiers,andgettingontheponies,andmanyoftheHunkpapasweregatheringinthebrushandtimberneartheplacewherethesoldiershadstoppedandgotofftheirhorses.Irodepastaveryoldmanwhowasshouting:“Boys,takecourage!Wouldyouseetheselittlechildrentakenawayfrommelikedogs?”Iwent intoour tepeeandgotdressed forwaras fastas Icould;but Icould

hearbulletswhizzingoutside,andIwassoshakythatittookmealongtimetobraidaneagle feather intomyhair.Also, Ihad toholdmypony’s ropeall thetime, and he kept jerkingme and trying to get away.While Iwas doing this,crowdsofwarriorsonhorseswere roaringbyupstream,yelling:“Hokahey!”ThenIrubbedredpaintallovermyfaceandtookmybowandarrowsandgotonmyhorse.Ididnothaveagun,onlyabowandarrows.When I was onmy horse, the fight up stream seemed to be over, because

everybodywasstartingbackdownstreamandyelling:“It’sagooddaytodie!”Soldiers were coming at the other end of the village, and nobody knew howmanythereweredownthere.AmanbythenameofLittleBearrodeuptomeonapintohorse,andhehada

very pretty saddle blanket. He said: “Take courage, boy! The earth is all thatlasts!” So I rode fast with him and the others downstream, and many of usHunkpapasgatheredontheeastsideof theriverat thefootofagulchthat ledbackupthehillwhere thesecondsoldierband41fwas.TherewasaverybraveShyelawithus,andIheardsomeonesay:“Heisgoing!”Ilooked,anditwasthisShyela. He had on a spotted war bonnet and a spotted robe made of someanimal’sskinandthiswasfastenedwithaspottedbelt.14Hewasgoingup thehillaloneandweallfollowedpartway.Thereweresoldiersalongtheridgeupthereandtheywereonfootholdingtheirhorses.TheShyelaroderightclosetotheminacircleseveraltimesandallthesoldiersshotathim.Thenherodebacktowherewe had stopped at the head of the gulch.Hewas saying: “Ah, ah!”Someone said: “Shyela friend, what is the matter?” He began undoing hisspottedbelt,andwhenheshookit,bulletsdroppedout.Hewasverysacredandthesoldierscouldnothurthim.Hewasafinelookingman.We stayed there awhile waiting for something and there was shooting

everywhere.ThenIheardavoicecrying:“Nowtheyaregoing,theyaregoing!”We looked up and saw the cavalry horses stampeding. These were all grayhorses.15I sawLittleBear’shorse rearand raceuphill toward thesoldiers.Whenhe

gotclose,hishorsewasshotoutfromunderhim,andhegotuplimpingbecausethe bullet went through his leg; and he started hobbling back to us with thesoldiers shooting at him.His brother-friend, ElkNation,went up there on hishorseandtookLittleBearbehindhimandrodebacksafewithbulletsstrikingallaroundhim.Itwashisdutytogotohisbrother-friendevenifheknewhewouldbekilled.16By now a big cry was going up all around the soldiers up there and the

warriorswere coming from everywhere and itwas getting darkwith dust andsmoke.Wesawsoldiersstartrunningdownhillright towardsus.Nearlyallof them

wereafoot,andIthinktheyweresoscaredthattheydidn’tknowwhattheyweredoing.Theyweremakingtheirarmsgoasthoughtheywererunningveryfast,but they were only walking. Some of them shot their guns in the air.We allyelled “Hoka hey!” and charged toward them, riding all around them in the

twilightthathadfallenonus.Imetasoldieronhorseback,andI lethimhave it.Thearrowwent through

fromsidetosideunderhisribsanditstuckoutonbothsides.Hescreamedandtook hold of his saddle horn and hung on, wobbling, with his head hangingdown.Ikeptalongbesidehim,andItookmyheavybowandstruckhimacrossthebackoftheneck.Hefellfromhissaddle,andIgotoffandbeathimtodeathwithmybow.Ikeptonbeatinghimawhileafterhewasdead,andeverytimeIhithimIsaid“Hownh!”17Iwasmad,becauseIwasthinkingofthewomenandlittlechildrenrunningdownthere,allscaredandoutofbreath.TheseWasichuswantedit,and theycame toget it,andwegave it to them.Ididnotseemuchmore.IsawBringsPlentykillasoldierwithawarclub.IsawRedHornBuffalofall.TherewasaLakotaridingalongtheedgeofthegulch,andhewasyellingtolookout,thattherewasasoldierhidinginthere.Isawhimchargeinandkillthesoldierandbeginslashinghimwithaknife.Thenwe began to go towards the river, and the dustwas lifting so thatwe

couldseethewomenandchildrencomingovertousfromacrosstheriver.Thesoldierswereallrubbedoutthereandscatteredaround.Thewomenswarmedupthehillandbeganstrippingthesoldiers.Theywere

yelling and laughing and singing now. I saw something funny. Two fat oldwomenwerestrippingasoldier,whowaswoundedandplayingdead.Whentheyhadhimnaked,theybegantocutsomethingoffthathehad,andhejumpedupand began fighting with the two fat women. He was swinging one of themaround, while the other was trying to stab him with her knife. After awhile,another woman rushed up and shoved her knife into him and he died reallydead.18ItwasfunnytoseethenakedWasichufightingwiththefatwomen.Bynowwesawthatourwarriorswereallchargingonsomesoldiersthathad

comefromthehillupriver19 tohelp the secondband thatwehad rubbedout.Theyranbackandwefollowed,chasingthemupontheirhillagainwheretheyhadtheirpackmules.Wecouldnothurtthemmuchthere,becausetheyhadbeendiggingtohidethemselvesandtheywerelyingbehindsaddlesandotherthings.IwasdownbytheriverandIsawsomesoldierscomedowntherewithbuckets.Theyhadnoguns,justbuckets.Someboysweredownthere,andtheycameoutofthebrushandthrewmudandrocksinthesoldiers’facesandchasedthemintotheriver.Iguesstheygotenoughtodrink,fortheyaredrinkingyet.Wekilledtheminthewater.Afterwhileitwasnearlysundown,andIwenthomewithmanyotherstoeat,

whilesomeothersstayedtowatchthesoldiersonthehill.Ihadn’teatenallday,

becausethetroublestartedjustwhenIwasbeginningtoeatmyfirstmeal.

BlackElkContinues:

AfterIshowedmymothermyfirstscalp,Istayedwiththewomenawhileandtheywere all singing andmaking the tremolo.We could not seemuch of thebattleforthebigdust,butweknewtherewouldbenosoldiersleft.Thereweremany other boys about my age and younger up there with their mothers andsisters,andtheyaskedmetogoovertothebattlewiththem.Sowegotonourponiesandstarted.Whilewewereridingdownhilltowardtheriverwesawgrayhorseswithemptysaddlesstampedingtowardthewater.WerodeoveracrosstheGreasyGrasstothemouthofagulchthatledupthroughthebufftowherethefightingwas.Before we got there, theWasichus were all down, andmost of themwere

dead,butsomeofthemwerestillaliveandkicking.Manyotherlittleboyshadcomeupby this time,andwe rodearoundshootingarrows into theWasichus.Therewas onewhowas squirming aroundwith arrows sticking in him, and Istartedtotakehiscoat,butamanpushedmeawayandtookthecoatforhimself.ThenIsawsomethingbrighthangingonthissoldier’sbelt,andIpulleditout.Itwas round and bright and yellow and very beautiful and I put it onme for anecklace.Atfirstittickedinside,andthenitdidnotanymore.IworeitaroundmyneckforalongtimebeforeIfoundoutwhatitwasandhowtomakeittickagain.Thenthewomenallcameoverandwewenttothetopofthehill.Grayhorses

werelyingdeadthere,andsomeofthemwereontopofdeadWasichusanddeadWasichuswere on top of them. Therewere notmany of our own dead there,becausetheyhadbeenpickedupalready;butmanyofourmenwerekilledandwounded.20 They shot each other in the dust. I did not see Pahuska,42f and Ithinknobodyknewwhichonehewas.Therewasasoldierwhowasraisinghisarms and groaning. I shot an arrow into his forehead, and his arms and legsquivered.IsawsomeLakotasholdinganotherLakotaup.Iwentoverthere,anditwasChase-in-the-Morning’sbrother,whowascalledBlackWasichu.Hehadbeenshotthroughtherightshoulderdownward,andthebulletstoppedinhislefthip,becausehewashangingonthesideofhishorsewhenhewashit.Theyweretrying to give him somemedicine.Hewasmy cousin, and his father andmyfatherweresoangryoverthis,thattheywentandbutcheredaWasichuandcuthimopen.TheWasichuwasfat,andhismeatlookedgoodtoeat,butwedidnoteatany.

Therewasalittleboy,youngerthanIwas,whoaskedmetoscalpasoldierforhim.Idid,andherantoshowthescalptohismother.Whilewewerethere,mostof thewarriors chased the other soldiers back to the hillwhere they had theirpackmules.Afterawhile Igot tired lookingaround. Icouldsmellnothingbutblood, and I got sick of it. So Iwent back homewith someothers. Iwas notsorryatall.Iwasahappyboy.ThoseWasichushadcometokillourmothersandfathersandus,anditwasourcountry.WhenIwasinthebrushuptherebytheHunkpapas, and the first soldierswere shooting, I knew thiswould happen. Ithought thatmypeoplewere relatives to the thunderbeingsofmyvision, andthatthesoldierswereveryfoolishtodothis.Everybodywas up all night in the village.Nextmorning anotherwar party

went up to the hillwhere the other soldierswere, and themenwho had beenwatching thereallnightcamehome.Mymotherand Iwentalong.She rodeamarewithalittlecolttiedbesideherandittrottedalongwithitsmother.Wecouldseethehorsesandpackmulesupthere,butthesoldiersweredugin.

Beneaththehill,rightonthewestsideoftheGreasyGrass,weresomebullberrybushes,and therewasabigboyby thenameofRoundFoolwhowasrunningaroundthebushes.Weboysaskedhimwhathewasdoingthatfor,andhesaid:“ThereisaWasichuinthatbush.”Andtherewas.Hehadhiddentherewhentheothersoldiersrantothehill-topandhehadbeenthereallnight.Weboysbeganshootingathimwitharrows,and itwas likechasinga rabbit.Hewouldcrawlfromoneside to theotherwhilewewere runningaround thebushshootingathimwithourbows.Onceheyelled“Ow.”Afterawhilewesetfiretothegrassaroundthebushes,andhecameoutrunning.Someofourwarriorskilledhim.Once we went up the back of the hill, where some of our men were, and

lookedover.WecouldnotseetheWasichus,whowerelyingintheirdugins,butwesawthehorsesandpackmules,andmanyofthemweredead.Whenwecamedown and crossed the river again, some soldiers shot at us and hit thewater.MotherandIgallopedbacktothecamp,anditwasaboutsundown.Bythenourscoutshadreportedthatmoresoldierswerecomingupstream;21soweallbrokecamp.BeforedarkwewerereadyandwestarteduptheGreasyGrass,headingforWoodLouseCreek in theBighornMountains.Wefledallnight, followingtheGreasyGrass.MytwoyoungerbrothersandIrodeinapony-drag,andmymotherputsomeyoungpupsinwithus.TheywerealwaystryingtocrawloutandIwasalwaysputtingthembackin,soIdidn’tsleepmuch.Bymorningwereachedalittledrycreekandmadecampandhadabigfeast.

Themeathadspotsoffatinit,andIwishIhadsomeofitrightnow.

Whenitwasfullday,westartedagainandcametoWoodLouseCreekatthefootofthemountains,andcampedthere.AbadlywoundedmanbythenameofThreeBearshadfitsthere,andhewouldkeepsaying:“Jeneny,jeneny.”Idonotknowwhathemeant.Hedied, andweused tocall thatplace thecampwhereJenenydied.That evening everybody got excited and began shouting: “The soldiers are

coming!” I looked, and there theywere, riding abreast right toward us.But itwassomeofourownmendressedinthesoldiers’clothes.Theyweredoingthisforfun.Thescoutsreportedthatthesoldiershadnotfollowedusandthateverything

wassafenow.Allover thecamp therewerebig firesandkilldancesallnightlong.Iwillsingyousomeofthekill-songsthatourpeoplemadeupandsangthat

night.Someofthemwentlikethis:

“LongHairhasneverreturned,Sohiswomaniscrying,crying.Lookingoverhere,shecries.”.....“LongHair,gunsIhadnone.Youbroughtmemany.Ithankyou!Youmakemelaugh!”.....“LongHair,horsesIhadnone.Youbroughtmemany.Ithankyou!Youmakemelaugh!”.....“LongHair,whereheliesnobodyknows.Crying,theyseekhim.Heliesoverhere.”.....“Letgoyourholyirons(guns).22Youarenotmenenoughtodoanyharm.Letgoyourholyirons!”

After awhile I got so tireddancing that Iwent to sleepon the ground rightwhereIwas.Mycousin,BlackWasichu,diedthatnight.

10.

WalkingtheBlackRoad

WestayedinthatcountryneartheBighornMountainsforaboutamoon,maybealittlemore.Myfathertoldmeallthefightinghadnotdoneanygood,becausetheHang-Around-the-Fort peopleweregetting ready to sell theBlackHills totheWasichu anyway, and thatmore soldierswere coming to fight us.He saidthatThreeStarswasonGooseCreekand thatmanyothersoldierswereuponthe Yellowstone, and that these would come together and have us betweenthem.1Someofourpeoplehadbeenleavingus,afewatatime,andgoingintolive

attheagenciestheWasichushadmade.2Butthereweremanyofusleft,andsowestartedwithallourponiestogetawayfromthesoldiers.3WetraveledinaverylonglinedowntheRosebudandcampedwheretheriver

flowsthroughbetweenhighbluffs.Thenwemovedondownstreamtowherewehad the big sun dance before the rubbing out of LongHair. The soldiers hadcomethroughthatway,and theholyplacewasallcutupwithshodhoofsandmadedirtywithhorsedroppings.Thenwemovedondownstream toa sacredplacewherethereisabigrockbluffrightbesidethewater,andhighuponthisbluffpicturesusedtoappear,foretellingsomethingimportantthatwasgoingtohappensoon.4 Therewas a picture on it then, ofmany soldiers hanging headdownward;andthepeoplesaiditwastherebeforetherubbingoutofLongHair.Idonotknow;butitwastherethen,anditdidnotseemthatanybodycouldgetupthathightomakeapicture.5WemovedovertotheTongueRiverandcampedalittlewhile.Whenwewere

there, scouts came in and said that a big fire-boat43f had come up theYellowstonewithaloadofcornforthesoldiers’horses,andthatitwaspiledontheothersideoftheriver.Someofouryoungmenwenttosee,andoneofthem,Yellow Shirt, got killed by the fireboat’s soldiers over there.6 But the othersbroughtcornhomeandtheygaveussome.Weparchedit,anditwasgood.Aboutthistime,intheMoonofBlackCherries(August),thescatteringofthe

peoplebegan,becausebynowwelearnedthatthesoldierswerecomingagain.

Dull Knife and the Shyelas went over to Willow Creek in the BighornMountains.ManyoftheLakotasstoleawayinsmallpartiesandstartedfortheagencies.Therestofus,stillagreatmany,startedeast,andthesoldiersofThreeStarsfollowedus.Ourpeoplesetfiretothegrassbehindusaswewent,andthesmokebacktherewaswideasthedayandthelightofthefirewaswideasthenight.Thiswastomakethesoldiers’horsesstarve.Thenitbegantorain,anditkeptonrainingfordayswhilewetraveledeast.

Ourponieshadtoworkhardinthedeepmud,anditmusthavebeenbadforthesoldiers’horsesbacktherewithnothingtoeat.7SittingBullandGallwithsomepeopleleftusandstartedforGrandmother’s

Land (Canada),8 and other peoplewere going away from us all the time, butCrazyHorsewouldnotleavethecountrythatwasours.IntheMoonoftheBlackCalf(September)9wewerecampingnearthehead

oftheGrandRiverwhenAmericanHorsewithmanytepeeshadafightwiththesoldiersofThreeStarsbytheSlimButtesonRabbitCreek.44fTheyfoughthardthereintherain,andthesoldierskilledAmericanHorseandchasedthewomenandchildrenoutof theirhomesandtookall thepapa(driedbisonmeat)10 thattheyhadmadetofeedthemselvesthatwinter.ThenCrazyHorsewentovertherewithabandofourwarriorsandchasedthesoldiersthroughtherain.Theyfledsouthward toward the BlackHills, andmany of their horses died in the deepmud.Hefollowedthemalongwayandmadethemfightastheyfled.Wherever we went, the soldiers came to kill us, and it was all our own

country.ItwasoursalreadywhentheWasichusmadethetreatywithRedCloud,thatsaiditwouldbeoursaslongasgrassshouldgrowandwaterflow.Thatwasonly eight winters before, and they were chasing us now because werememberedandtheyforgot.11Afterthatwestartedwestagain,andwewerenothappyanymore,becauseso

many of our people had untied their horses’ tails45f and gone over to theWasichus.Wewentbackdeepintoourcountry,andmostofthelandwasblackfrom the fire, and the bison had gone away.We campedon theTongueRiverwhere therewas some cottonwood for the ponies; and a hardwinter came onearly.Itsnowedmuch;gamewashardtofind,anditwasahungrytimeforus.Poniesdied,andweatethem.Theydiedbecausethesnowfrozehardandtheycouldnot find the grass thatwas left in the valleys and therewas not enoughcottonwood to feed them all. There had been thousands of us together thatsummer,buttherewerenottwothousandnow.

NewscametousthereintheMoonoftheFallingLeaves(November)thattheBlackHillshadbeensold to theWasichusandalsoall thecountrywestof theHills—thecountrywewereinthen.46fIlearnedwhenIwasolderthatourpeopledidnotwanttodothis.TheWasichuswenttosomeofthechiefsaloneandgotthemtoput theirmarksonthe treaty.Maybesomeof themdid thiswhentheywerecrazyfromdrinkingtheminnewakan(holywater,whiskey)12theWasichusgavethem.Ihaveheardthis;Idonotknow.ButonlycrazyorveryfoolishmenwouldselltheirMotherEarth.SometimesIthinkitmighthavebeenbetterifwehadstayedtogetherandmadethemkillusall.Dull Knifewas campingwith his band of Shyelas onWillowCreek in the

edgeoftheBighornMountains,andonemorningveryearlyneartheendoftheMoonofFallingLeavesthesoldierscametheretokillthem.47fThepeoplewereallsleeping.Thesnowwasdeepanditwasverycold.Whenthesoldiersbeganshootingintothetepees,thepeopleranoutintothesnow,andmostofthemwerenakedfromtheirsleepingrobes.Menfoughtinthesnowandcoldwithnothingon thembut theircartridgebelts, and itwasahard fight,because thewarriorsthoughtofthewomenandchildrenfreezing.Theycouldnotwhipthesoldiers,butthosewhowerenotkilledanddidnotdiefromthecold,gotawayandcametoourcampontheTongue.IcanrememberwhenDullKnifecamewithwhatwasleftofhisstarvingand

freezing people. They had almost nothing, and some of themhad died on theway.Manylittlebabiesdied.Wecouldgivethemclothing,butoffoodwecouldnotgivethemmuch,forwewereeatingponies13whentheydied.AndafterwhiletheyleftusandstartedfortheSoldiers’TownonWhiteRivertosurrendertotheWasichus;andsowewereallalonethereinthatcountrythatwasoursandhadbeenstolenfromus.14After that the people noticed that Crazy Horse was queerer than ever. He

hardlyeverstayedinthecamp.Peoplewouldfindhimoutaloneinthecold,andthey would ask him to come home with them. He would not come, butsometimes he would tell the people what to do. People wondered if he ateanythingatall.Oncemyfatherfoundhimoutalonelikethat,andhesaidtomyfather:“Uncle,youhavenoticedmethewayIact.Butdonotworry;therearecaves and holes forme to live in, and out here the spiritsmayhelpme. I ammakingplansforthegoodofmypeople.”Hewasalwaysaqueerman,butthatwinterhewasqueererthanever.Maybe

hehadseenthathewouldsoonbedeadandwasthinkinghowtohelpuswhen

hewouldnotbewithusanymore.15It was a very badwinter for us andwewere all sad. Then another trouble

came.Wehad sentout scouts to learnwhere the soldierswere, and theywerecampingatthemouthoftheTongue.16EarlyintheMoonofFrostintheTepee(January),17someofourscoutscameinandsaidthatthesoldierswerecominguptheTonguetofightus,andthattheyhadtwowagonguns(cannon)withthem.Therewas no better place to go, sowe got ready to fight them; and Iwas

afraid,becausemyfathertoldmewehadnotmuchammunitionleft.Wemovedthevillagealittlewayoffupstream,andourwarriorswerereadyonahighbluffwhenthewalkingsoldiersandtheirwagonscameinthemorning.48fThesoldiersbuilt fires andate their breakfast there in thevalleywhileourpeoplewatchedthemandwerehungry.Thentheybeganshootingwiththewagongunsthatshottwice,because the ironballswentoffafter theyfell.Someof themdidnotgooff,andweboysranafteroneoftheseandgotit.18Thenthewalkingsoldiersstartedupthebluff,anditbegantosnowhardand

theyfought in theblizzard.Wecouldnotstopthesoldierscomingup,becausewehadnotmuchammunition.Thesoldiershadeverything.Butourmenusedspearsandgunsforclubswhenthesoldiersgot there,and theyfoughthand tohandawhile,holding thesoldiersbackuntil thewomencouldbreakcampandgetawaywiththechildrenandponies.WefledintheblizzardsouthwarduptheTongue and over to theLittle PowderRiver.The soldiers followed us awhile,and therewas fighting in our rear.We got away, butwe lostmany thingsweneeded,andwhenwecampedontheLittlePowder,wewerealmostaspoorasDullKnife’speoplewere theday theycame tous. Itwas socold that the sunmadehimselffires,19andwewereeatingourstarvingponies.20LateintheMoonoftheDarkRedCalf(February)orearlyintheMoonofthe

Snowblind(March),SpottedTail,21theBrule,withsomeothers,cametous.HissisterwasCrazyHorse’smother.HewasagreatchiefandagreatwarriorbeforehewentovertotheWasichus.IsawhimandIdidnotlikehim.HewasfatwithWasichufoodandwewereleanwithfamine.Myfathertoldmethathecametomakehisnephewsurrendertothesoldiers,becauseourownpeoplehadturnedagainst us, and in the springwhen the grasswas high enough for the horses,many soldierswould come and fight us, andmanyShoshones andCrows andevenLakotasandouroldfriends, theShyelas,wouldcomeagainstuswiththeWasichus.Icouldnotunderstandthis,andIthoughtmuchaboutit.Howcouldmengetfatbybeingbad,andstarvebybeinggood?Ithoughtandthoughtabout

myvision,anditmademeverysad;forIwonderedifmaybeitwasonlyaqueerdreamafterall.22AndthenIheardthatwewouldallgointotheSoldiers’Townwhenthegrass

should appear, and thatCrazyHorse had untied his pony’s tail andwould notfightagain.In theMoon of the Grass Appearing (April) our little band started for the

Soldiers’Town ahead of the others,23 and itwas early in theMoonWhen thePoniesShed(May)thatCrazyHorsecameinwiththerestofourpeopleandtheponiesthatwereonlyskinandbones.ThereweresoldiersandLakotapolicemeninlinesallaroundhimwhenhesurrenderedthereat theSoldiers’Town.Isawhimtakeoffhiswarbonnet.Iwasnotnearenoughtohearwhathesaid.Hedidnottalkloudandhesaidonlyafewwords,andthenhesatdown.24Iwasfourteenyearsold.Wehadenoughtoeatnowandweboyscouldplay

withoutbeingafraidofanything.Soldierswatchedus,andsometimesmyfatherandmothertalkedaboutourpeoplewhohadgonetoGrandmother’sLandwithSittingBullandGall,and theywanted tobe there.WewerecampednearRedCloud’s Agency, whichwas close to the Soldiers’ Town.What happened thatsummerisnotastory.25

11.

TheKillingofCrazyHorse

OnenightearlyintheMoonWhentheCalfGrowsHair(September)webrokecamp there at RedCloudAgencywithoutmaking any noise, and started.MyfathertoldmeweweregoingtoSpottedTail’scamp,buthedidnottellmewhyuntillater.Wetraveledmostofthenightandthenwecamped.1But when we were moving again next day, a band of Red Cloud’s people

overtookusandsaidtherewouldbebadtroubleifwedidnotcomebackrightaway.Someofusturnedaroundthenandwentback,andsoldierssenttheothersbackalittlelater;butCrazyHorsewentontohisuncle’scamp.Afterwhathappenedmyfather toldmewhyCrazyHorsehaddonethis.He

wasafraidsomebodymightstarttroubledowntherewhereallthesoldierswere,andtheWasichushadtakenourgunsawayfromus,sothatwecoulddonothingiftherewasbadtrouble.2TheWasichushadmadeSpottedTailheadchiefofalltheLakotasbecausehewoulddowhattheywanted,3andCrazyHorsethoughtwemightbe safer therewithhisuncle.Afterwards, theHang-Around-the-Fortpeople said thathewasgetting ready to tieuphishorse’s tail againandmakewarontheWasichus.Howcouldhedothatwhenwehadnogunsandcouldnotgetany?ItwasastorytheWasichustold,andtheir tongueswereforkedwhenthey told it.Ourpeoplebelieve theydidwhat theydidbecausehewasagreatmanandtheycouldnotkillhiminbattleandhewouldnotmakehimselfoverintoaWasichu,asSpottedTailandtheothersdid.Thatsummer,myfathertoldme,theWasichuswantedhimtogotoWashingtonwithRedCloudandSpottedTailandotherstoseetheGreatFatherthere;buthewouldnotgo.HetoldthemthathedidnotneedtogolookingforhisGreatFather.Hesaid:“MyFatheriswithme,andthereisnoGreatFatherbetweenmeandtheGreatSpirit.”4IntheeveningofthenextdayafterwegotbacktoRedCloud’sAgency,some

soldiers came there bringingCrazyHorsewith them.Hewas riding his horsealonea littlewayahead.Theydidnot stay there long,but rodeonover to theSoldiers’Town,andmyfatherand Iwentalongwithmanyothers toseewhattheyweregoingtodo.

Whenwegotover therewecouldnot seeCrazyHorse,because thereweresoldiers and Lakota policemen all aroundwhere hewas and people crowdingoutside.In just a littlewhile I could feel that somethingverybadwashappening in

there,andeverybodywasexcitedallatonce,andyoucouldhearvoicesbuzzingall around. Then I heard a loud cry in our own language, and it said: “Don’ttouchme! I amCrazyHorse!”And suddenly somethingwent through all thepeople there like a bigwind that strikesmany trees all at once. Somebody inthere yelled something else, but everybody around me was asking or tellingeverybodywhathadhappened,andIheardthatCrazyHorsewaskilled,thathewassick,thathewashurt;andIwasfrightened,becauseeverythingfeltthewayitdidthatdaywhenweweregoinguptokillontheGreasyGrass,anditseemedwemightallbeginfightingrightaway.Then everything got quiet, and everybody seemed to be waiting for

something.Thenthepeoplebegantobreakupandmovearound,andIheardthatCrazyHorsehadjusttakensickandmaybehewouldbeallrightsoon.But itwas not longuntilwe all knewwhat had happened in there, because

someofthepeoplesawithappen,andIwilltellyouhowitwas.They told Crazy Horse they would not harm him if he would go to the

Soldiers’TownandhaveatalkwiththeWasichuchiefthere.Buttheylied.Theydidnot takehimto thechieffora talk.Theytookhimto the littleprisonwithironbarsonthewindows,fortheyhadplannedtogetridofhim.Andwhenhesawwhattheyweredoing,heturnedaroundandtookaknifeoutofhisrobeandstarted out against all those soldiers. Then Little BigMan, who had been hisfriendandwastheonewhotoldusboysthatwewerebravebeforemyfirstfightwhenweattackedthewagonsonWarBonnetCreek,tookholdofCrazyHorsefrombehindandtriedtogettheknifeaway.Andwhiletheywerestruggling,asolderranabayonetintoCrazyHorsefromonesideatthebackandhefelldownand began to die. Then they picked him up and carried him into the soldierchief’soffice.Thesoldiersstoodallaroundthereandwouldnotletanybodyinandmade thepeoplegoaway.Myfatherand Iwentback toourcampatRedCloudAgency.ThatnightIheardmourningsomewhere,andthentherewasmoreandmore

mourning,untilitwasalloverthecamp.CrazyHorsewasdead.Hewasbrave andgood andwise.Heneverwanted

anything but to save his people, and he fought theWasichus only when theycametokillusinourowncountry.Hewasonlythirtyyearsold.Theycouldnot

killhiminbattle.Theyhadtolietohimandkillhimthatway.Icriedallnight,andsodidmyfather.When itwasday,CrazyHorse’s father andmotherbroughthimover toour

campinawagon.Thentheyputhiminabox,andIheardthattheyhadtocuthim in twobecause theboxwasnot longenough.They fastened theboxonapony drag andwent away alone toward the east and north. I saw the two oldpeople going away alonewith their son’s body.Nobody followed them. Theywentallalone,andIcanseethemgoingyet.Thehorsethatpulledtheponydragwas a buckskin. Crazy Horse’s father had a white-faced bay with white hindlegs.Hismotherhadabrownmarewithabaycolt.5The old people never would tell where they took the body of their son.

Nobodyknowsto-daywherehelies,fortheoldpeoplearedeadtoo.Manyhavetalkedabout theplace,andsomehavesaid theyknewwhere itwasandwouldnottell,andmanythinkitissomewhereonBearCreekintheBadlands.Iknowonething,andthisisit.TheoldpeoplecamewiththebodyrightdownPepperCreekwhichisjustalittlewaysouthacrossthehillfromwhereweare.49fThereweretwohunterswhowerehuntingalongthecreekthereandtheysawtwooldpeoplecomingwithaponydrag,andwhentheytoldmyfatheraboutthis,theysaidabuckskinwaspullingthedragthathadaboxonit;thattheoldmanrodeawhite-facedbaywithwhitehindlegsandtheoldwomanrodeabrownmarewithabaycolt.Thesehunters saw theoldpeoplecomingdownPepperCreek,andlaterontheysawtheoldpeopleagainonWhiteHorseCreekwhichisjustalittlewaydownPepperCreekfromwheretheywerebefore.Andthehunterssaidtheboxwas not on the drag anymore. So I think thatmaybe they hid the bodysomewhereonPepperCreekovertherebecausethehuntershadseenthem,andmaybetheywentbackagainatnightandtooktheboxawayintotheBadlands.ButCrazyHorsemightbelyingovertherejustalittlewayfromusrightnowonPepperCreekacrossthathillyonder.Idonotknow.Itdoesnotmatterwherehisbodylies,foritisgrass;butwherehisspiritis,it

willbegoodtobe.6

12.

Grandmother’sLand

AttheendoftheMoonofFallingLeaves(October),aftertheyhadkilledCrazyHorse, theWasichus told us wemustmove fromwhere wewere over to theMissouriRiverandlivethereatdifferentagenciestheyhadmadeforus.Onebigband started with Red Cloud, and we started with another big band underSpottedTail.Thesetwobandswereaboutaday’stravelapart.OurpeoplewereallsadbecauseCrazyHorsewasdead,andnowtheywere

goingtopenusupinlittleislandsandmakeusbelikeWasichus.Sobeforewehadgoneveryfar,someofusbrokeawayandstartedforthecountrywhereweusedtobehappy.Wetraveledfast,andthesoldiersdidnotfollowus.Butwhenour littlebandcameto thePowderRivercountry, itwasnot like itusedtobe,andwewere not ready for thewinter. Sowe kept on traveling north, andwewent fast,1 becausewewanted to bewith our relatives under SittingBull andGallinGrandmother’sLand.50f

ItwasverycoldbeforewereachedClayCreek2whereourrelativeswere;buttheyweregladtoseeusandtookcareofus.Theyhadmadeplentyofmeat,forthereweremanybison in that country; and itwas agoodwinter.The soldierscouldnotcometokillusthere.I was fifteen years old that winter, and I thought much of my vision and

wonderedwhenmydutywastocome;fortheGrandfathershadshownmemypeoplewalkingon theblack roadandhow thenation’shoopwouldbebrokenandthefloweringtreebewithered,beforeIshouldbringthehooptogetherwiththepowerthatwasgivenme,andmaketheholytreetoflowerinthecenterandfindtheredroadagain.Partofthishadhappenedalready,andIwonderedwhenmypowerwouldgrow,sothattherestmightbeasIhadseenitinmyvision.ButIcouldsaynothingaboutthistoanyone,becauseIwasonlyaboyandpeoplewouldthinkIwasfoolishandsay:“WhatcanyoudoifevenSittingBullcandonothing?”When the grasses appeared again we went bison hunting, and I was big

enough now to huntwith themen.My uncle,RunningHorse, and Iwere out

togetheraloneoneday.Iwasridingabayandleadingmyroan,whichwasveryfast.Myunclewasridingaroanandleadingabrownhorse.WecametoLittleRiver Creek and crossed it, and just then I began feeling queer and I knewsomethingwasgoingtohappen.SoIsaidtomyuncle:“Ihaveaqueerfeelingand I think something is going to happen soon. Iwillwatchwhile you kill abisonandwewillmakequickworkofitandgo.”Helookedatmeinastrangewayawhile.Thenhesaid“How”andstartedafterabison.Therewereseveralgrazing in thevalley. Iheldmyhorsesandwatched.Whenhehadkilleda fatcow,Iwenttohelphimbutcher,butIheldmyhorseswhileIwasdoingthis,forI still had the queer feeling. Then I heard a voice that said: “Go at once andlook!”ItoldRunningHorseIwouldgotothetopofthehillandseewhatwasthere.SoIrodeupandIsawtwoLakotahuntersgallopingafterabisonacrossavalley towardsomebluffs.Justafter theywentoutofsightbehindabluff,myhorsebegantoprickuphisearsandlookaroundandsnifftheair.ThenIheardsome fast shootingover there, thenmanyhorses’hoofs.Then I sawabandofaboutfiftyhorsebackscomingoutfrombehindthebluffwherethetwohuntershad disappeared. They were Crows, and afterwards we learned that they hadkilledthetwohunters.SomyuncleandItookasmuchmeataswecouldandrodefastbacktoour

villageandtoldtheothers.Thisshowedthatmypowerwasgrowing,andIwasglad.In theMoonofMakingFat (June),SittingBullandGallhadasundanceat

ForestButte,3andafterwardswewenthuntingagain.AmanbythenameofIronTailwaswithmethistime,andwewereoutalone.Ikilledabigfatbisoncowandwewerebutchering,whenathunderstormwascomingup.Thenitbegantopourrain,andIheardavoice in theclouds thatsaid:“Makehaste!Before thedayisoutsomethingwillhappen!”Of coursewhen I heard this Iwas excited and told IronTail I had heard a

voiceinthecloudsandthatwemusthurryupandgo.Welefteverythingbutthefatof thecow,andfled.Whenwegot to thecampofour littleband,wewereexcitedand told thepeoplewemust flee.So theybrokecampandstarted.WecametoMuddyCreek.Itwasstillraininghardandwehadtroublegettingacrossbecausethehorsessankinthemud.Apartofusgotacross,buttherewasanoldmanwithanoldwomanandabeautifuldaughterwhoseponydraggotstuckinthemiddleofthecreek.JustthenabigbandofCrowscamecharging,andtherewere so many of them that we could not hold them off and we had to flee,shootingbackatthemastheycameafterus.

TherewasamancalledBraveWolfwhodidaverygreatdeed thereby theford that day. He was close to the pony-drag of the two old people and thebeautifulgirlwhen itgot stuck in themud, sohe jumpedoffhishorse,whichwasaveryfastbison-runner,andmadethebeautifulgirlgeton.Thenhestoodthereby the twooldpeopleandfoughtuntilall threewerekilled.Thegirlgotawayonhisfasthorse.Mycousin,Hard-to-Hit,didabravedeedtoo,anddied.HechargedbackaloneataCrowwhowasshootingataLakotainabush,andhewaskilled.Thevoiceinthecloudshadtoldthetruth,anditseemedthatmypowerwas

growingstrongerallthetime.Whenmycousin,Hard-to-Hit,waskilled,itwasmydutytoprotecthiswife,

soIdid;4andwegotlostfromourlittlepartyinthedark.Itrainedallnight,andmycousin’swifecriedsohardthatIhadtomakeherquitforfearsomeenemymighthearherandfindus.Whenwereachedthebigcampinthemorningmyrelativesbeganmourning

for my cousin, Hard-to-Hit. They would put their arm across each other’sshoulders andwail. They did this all day long, and I had to do it too. Iwentaround crying, “hownh, hownh,” and saying over and over: “My cousin—hethought so much of me and I thought so much of him, and now he is dead.Hownh,hownh.”Ilikedmycousinwellenough,butIdidnotfeellikecryingallday.ThiswaswhatIhadtodo,anditwashardwork.5WestayedonClayCreekinGrandmother’sLandallthatsummerandthenext

winterwhen Iwas sixteenyearsold.Thatwasaverycoldwinter.Thereweremanyblizzards,gamewashardtofind,andafterwhilethepapa(driedmeat)thatwehadmadeinthesummerwasalleaten.Itlookedasthoughwemightstarvetodeath ifwedidnot findsomegamesoon,andeverybodywasdownhearted.Little hunting partieswent out in different directions, but it is bad hunting inblizzardweather.MyfatherandIstartedoutaloneleadingourhorsesinthedeepsnow.WhenwegottoLittleRiverCreekwemadeashelterwithourbisonrobesagainstabankofthestreamandstartedafire.ThateveningIsawarabbitinahollowtree,andwhenIchoppedthetreedowntherewerefourrabbitsinthere.Ikilled them all, because the snow was so deep they could not get away.MyfatherandIroastedthemandweateallfourof thembeforewewent tosleep,becauseitwashardwalkinginthesnowandwehadbeenemptyagoodwhile.Thewindwent down that night and itwas still andvery cold.While Iwas

lying there inabisonrobe,acoyotebegan tohowlnot faroff,andsuddenlyIknewitwassayingsomething.Itwasnotmakingwords,but itsaidsomething

plainer thanwords,and thiswas it:“Two-leggedone,on thebigridgewestofyoutherearebison;butfirstyoushallseetwomoretwo-leggedsoverthere.”Myfatherhaddozedoff,soIwakenedhimandsaid:“Father,Ihavehearda

coyotesaythattherearebisononthebigridgewestofus,andthatweshallfirstseetwopeopleoverthere.Letusgetupearly.”BythistimemyfatherhadnoticedthatIhadsomekindofqueerpower,and

hebelievedme.Thewind cameup againwith thedaylight, andwecould seeonlyalittlewayaheadwhenwestartedwestinthemorning.Beforewecametothe ridge, we saw two horses, dim in the blowing snow beside some bushes.Theywerehuddledupwiththeirtailstothewindandtheirheadshanginglow.Whenwecamecloser,therewasabisonrobeshelterinthebrush,andinitwereanoldmanandaboy,verycoldandhungryanddiscouraged.TheywereLakotasandweregladtoseeus,buttheywerefeelingweak,becausetheyhadbeenouttwo days and had seen nothing but snow.We camped therewith them in thebrush,andthenwewentupontheridgeafoot.Therewasmuchtimberupthere.Wegotbehindthehillinashelteredplaceandwaited,butwecouldseenothing.Whilewewerewaiting,we talked about the people starving at home, andwewereallsad.Nowandthenthesnowhazewouldopenupforalittlebitandyoucould see quite a distance, then it would close again.While we were talkingaboutourhungrypeople,suddenlythesnowhazeopenedalittle,andwesawashaggybull’sheadcomingoutoftheblowingsnowupthedrawthatledpastusbelow.Thensevenmoreappeared,andthesnowhazecamebackandshutusinthere.Theycouldnotseeus,andtheyweredriftingwiththewindsothattheycouldnotsmellus.We four stoodup andmadevows to the fourquartersof theworld, saying:

“Haho!haho!”6Thenwegotourhorsesfromthebrushontheothersideoftheridgeandcamearoundtothemouthofthedrawwherethebisonwouldpassastheydriftedwiththewind.Thetwooldmenweretoshootfirstandthenwetwoboyswouldfollowthe

othershorseback.Soonwesawthebisoncoming.Theoldpeoplecreptupandshot, but theywere so cold, andmaybe excited, that they got only one bison.Theycried“Hoka!”andweboyschargedafter theotherbison.Thesnowwasblowinghard in thewind thatsuckeddownthedraw,andwhenwecamenearthemthebisonweresoexcitedthattheyback-trackedandchargedrightpastusbellowing.Thisbroke thedeep snow forourhorses and itwas easier to catchthem.SuddenlyIsawthebisonIwaschasinggooutinabigflurryofsnow,andIknewtheyhadplungedintoasnow-filledgulch,butitwastoolatetostop,and

myhorseplungedright inafter them.Therewewereall together—fourbison,myhorseandIall flounderingandkicking,butImanagedtocrawlouta littleway.Ihadarepeatingriflethattheygavemebackatthecamp,andIkilledthefourbisonrightthere,butIhadthrownmymittensawayandthegunfrozetomyhandswhileIwasshooting,sothatIhadtoteartheskintogetitloose.WhenIwentbacktotheothers,theotherboyhadkilledthree,sowehadeight

bison scattered around there in the snow. It was stillmorning, but it took tillnearlydarkformyfatherandtheotheroldmantodothebutchering.Icouldnothelp,becausemyhandswerefrozen.Wefinallygotthemeatallpiledupinoneplace,andthenwemadeacampinafineshelterbehindabigrockwithbrushallarounditandplentyofwood.Wehadabigfire,andwetiedourtannedrobesonour horses and fed them plenty of cottonwood bark from the woods by thestream.Therawrobesweusedfortheshelter.Thenwehadabigfeastandwesangandwereveryhappy.Thewindwentdownanditgrewverycold,sowehadtokeepthefiregoing

allnight.DuringthenightIheardawhimperingoutsidetheshelter,andwhenIlooked,therewasapartyofporcupineshuddledupascloseastheythoughttheydaredtobe,andtheywerecryingbecausetheyweresocold.Wedidnotchasethemaway,becausewefeltsorryforthem.Westartedafootforcampnextdaywithasmuchmeatloadedonthehorsesas

theycouldcarry.Therestofitwecachedbyabigtreewhereitwouldbeeasytofind.Wetraveledallthatdayveryslowlybecausethesnowwasdeep,andallthewhileitseemedtobegrowingcolder.Ataboutsundownoftheseconddaywereachedcamp,andthepeopleweregladtoseeuswithallthemeat.Someothermenwentbacklatertobringinthemeatwehadcached.Themorning afterwe reached home Iwent out to look for our horses that

were in a drawwhere there was cottonwood, and five of them had frozen todeath.Thecoldwasverybadafterthewindstoppedblowing.Webegantofeelhomesickforourowncountrywhereweusedtobehappy.

Theoldpeopletalkedmuchaboutitandthegooddaysbeforethetroublecame.SometimesIfeltlikecryingwhentheydidthat.7

13.

TheCompellingFear

When the grasses were showing their tender faces again, two families of usstartedforourowncountrywhereweusedtobehappy.Wehadonlyfivehorsesamongus,becausealltheothershaddiedinthecold,andwetraveledonfoot.Itwasaveryrainytime.AfterawhilewecametoAll-Gone-TreeCreek.Wecamethereintheafternoonandcamped,andIthoughtIwouldtakethehorsesouttoeatwhere thegrasswasgood.Butwhen I hadgoneonly a littleway, all of asuddenthequeerfeelingcameagain,andIheardavoicethatsaid:“Becarefuland watch! Something you shall see!” The voice was so clear that I lookedaroundtoseewhowasthere,andnobodywasthere.SoIstakedthehorsesrighttherenotfarfromthecamp,andsatdowntothinkaboutit.Therewasatallbluffalittlewayfromthecamp,andithadtwopointsonit.SoIwentoverthereandclimbedtooneofthetopswherethereweresomebigrocksscatteredaround.Ilaydown in those rocks and looked all around, but I could seenothing, and IbegantowonderifIwasonlyqueerinthinkingIhadheardavoice.ThenIlookedovertotheotherpointofthebluffnotfaraway,andtherewere

twomencrawlinguptowardthetopontheirbellies.Iknewtheywereenemies,andI thought theywereCrows;but laterI learnedthat theywereBlackfeet.1 Ilayas flat as I couldandpeepedarounda rockat the twomen.Theywere sonearthatIcouldhavethrownarockoverthere,andIthoughtifIonlyhadmygunIcouldkill themboth.Theystoppednear thetop,andonecrawledalittlefartherandpeepedoveratourtepeesinthevalleywherethewomenwerehavingahardtimetogetthefiresstartedwithwetwood.Thenthefirstonemotionedtothe second, and they both looked over. I could hear them talking now, and Iknew they were planning how to attack us. After a little while they crawleddown backwards a short way, then got up and ran downhill and disappeared.When theyweregone, Icrawled to theothersideof thebluffandwentdown.WhenIreachedthebottom,Isatdownandthoughtofmyvisionandbegantopraytothespirits.Isaid:“Grandfathers,somethingmayhappentome.ButIwilldependonthepoweryouhavegivenme.Hearmeandhelpme!”ThenIranoverto our tepees and told the people we must flee at once, because I had seen

enemiesplanningtoattack.Weweresosmallapartythatwedidnotdarewaittotakeourtepeesdown,so

we started right away and traveled very fast.We had to cross All-Gone-TreeCreek and itwas bank-full and roaringwith the big rains. So two of us boysswam acrosswith rawhide ropes,which the oldwomen fastened around themundertheirarms,andwepulledthemacrossthroughthedeepwater.Theynearlydrowned before we could drag them out, because the water was swift. Ourhorsesswamacross,andwewentfast,withtheoldpeopleonthehorses.Aswefledeast,athundercloudcamefromthewestbehindus,andIknewit

wascomingtoprotectus.Icouldhearthethunderbeingscrying“Heyhey!”tome.Thecloudstoodoverusanddidnotrainmuch,butitwasfulloflightningandofvoices.We had not gone so very far, and it was growing dark, when we heard

shooting behind us in the direction of our deserted camp, andwe thought theenemieswereshootingintothetepees,thinkingthatwemightbeinthereyet.Itgrewverydark,forthethundercloudwiththemanyvoiceshungoverus,

and we traveled fast all night. Then after awhile the cloud broke, and it wasdaybreak.Wecampedtoeatandsleep.IknewbetterthanevernowthatIreallyhadpower,forIhadprayedforhelp

fromtheGrandfathersandtheyhadheardmeandsentthethunderbeingstohideusandwatchoveruswhilewefled.When we had eaten and slept, we started again and came to a camp of

Minneconjous. After that we traveled with our relatives to the mouth of thePoplarRiverandcrossedovertheMissourionafire-boat thatwasthere.Thenafter we had hunted awhile, we went to the Soldiers’ Town at the mouth ofTongueRiver and camped therewith others of our peoplewho hadwanderedawayfromthereservationsintoouroldcountry.2Thesoldierstookourgunsawayfromusandmostofourhorses, leavingus

onlytwohorsesforeverytepee.ThereintheMoonofMakingFatwehadasundance,andafterthisitseemed

Icouldthinkofnothingbutmyvision.Iwassixteenyearsoldandmore,andIhadnotyetdoneanythingtheGrandfatherswantedmetodo,buttheyhadbeenhelpingme.Ididnotknowhowtodowhattheywantedmetodo.Aterribletimebeganformethen,andIcouldnottellanybody,notevenmy

fatherandmother.Iwasafraidtoseeacloudcomingup;andwheneveronedid,Icouldhearthethunderbeingscallingtome:“BeholdyourGrandfathers!Makehaste!” I could understand the birds when they sang, and they were always

saying:“Itistime!Itistime!”Thecrowsinthedayandthecoyotesatnightallcalledandcalledtome:“Itistime!Itistime!Itistime!”3Time to dowhat? I did not know.Whenever I awoke before daybreak and

wentoutof the tepeebecause Iwasafraidof the stillnesswheneveryonewassleeping, there were many low voices talking together in the east, and thedaybreakstarwouldsingthissonginthesilence:

“Inasacredmanneryoushallwalk!Yournationshallbeholdyou!”4

Icouldnotgetalongwithpeoplenow,andIwouldtakemyhorseandgofarout fromcampaloneandcompareeverythingon theearthand in theskywithmyvision.Crowswould seeme and shout to each other as though theyweremakingfunofme:“Beholdhim!Beholdhim!”When the frosts began I was glad, because there would not be any more

thunderstormsforalongwhile,andIwasmoreandmoreafraidofthemallthetime,foralwaystherewouldbethevoicescrying:“Oooohey!5 It is time!It istime!”Thefearwasnotsogreatallthewhileinthewinter,butsometimesitwasbad.

SometimesthecryingofcoyotesoutinthecoldmademesoafraidthatIwouldrunoutofonetepeeintoanother,andIwoulddothisuntilIwaswornoutandfell asleep. Iwondered ifmaybe Iwas only crazy; andmy father andmotherworriedagreatdealaboutme.Theysaid:“ItisthestrangesicknesshehadthattimewhenwegavethehorsetoWhirlwindChaserforcuringhim;andheisnotcured.”Icouldnottellthemwhatwasthematter,forthentheywouldonlythinkIwasqueererthanever.Iwasseventeenyearsoldthatwinter.Whenthegrasseswerebeginningtoshowtheirtenderfacesagain,myfather

andmotheraskedanoldmedicinemanbythenameofBlackRoadtocomeoverandseewhathecoulddoforme.BlackRoadwasinatepeeallalonewithme,andheaskedmetotellhimifIhadseensomethingthattroubledme.BynowIwassoafraidofbeingafraidofeverythingthatItoldhimaboutmyvision,andwhenIwasthroughhelookedlongatmeandsaid:“Ah-h-h-h!,”meaningthathewasmuchsurprised.Thenhesaidtome:“Nephew,Iknownowwhatthetroubleis!Youmustdowhatthebayhorseinyourvisionwantedyoutodo.Youmustdoyourdutyandperformthisvisionforyourpeopleuponearth.Youmusthavethehorsedance first for thepeople tosee.Then the fearwill leaveyou;but ifyoudonotdothis,somethingverybadwillhappentoyou.”

Sowebegantogetreadyforthehorsedance.

14.

TheHorseDance

TherewasamanbythenameofBearSings,andhewasveryoldandwise.SoBlackRoadaskedhimtohelp,andhedid.Firsttheysentacrieraroundinthemorningwhotoldthepeopletocampina

circleatacertainplacealittlewayuptheTonguefromwherethesoldierswere.Theydidthis,andinthemiddleofthecircleBearSingsandBlackRoadsetupasacred tepeeofbisonhide,andon it theypaintedpictures frommyvision.Onthewestsidetheypaintedabowandacupofwater;onthenorth,whitegeeseand the herb; on the east, the daybreak star and the pipe; on the south, thefloweringstickandthenation’shoop.Also,theypaintedhorses,elk,andbison.Thenoverthedoorofthesacredtepee,theypaintedtheflamingrainbow.Ittookthemalldaytodothis,anditwasbeautiful.TheytoldmeImustnoteatanythinguntilthehorsedancewasover,andIhad

to purify himself in a sweat lodge with sage spread on the floor of it, andafterwardsIhadtowipemyselfdrywithsage.1That evening Black Road and Bear Sings told me to come to the painted

tepee.Wewere in therealone,andnobodydaredcomenearus to listen.Theyaskedme if Ihadheardanysongs inmyvision,and if Ihad Imust teach thesongstothem.SoIsangtothemallthesongsthatIhadheardinmyvision,andit tookmostof thenight to teachthesesongs to them.Whilewewere in theresinging,wecouldhearlowthunderrumblingalloverthevillageoutside,andweknewthethunderbeingsweregladandhadcometohelpus.Myfatherandmotherhadbeenhelpingtoobyhuntingupallthatweshould

needinthedance.Thenextmorningtheyhadeverythingready.Therewerefourblackhorses torepresent thewest;fourwhitehorsesfor thenorth;foursorrelsfortheeast;fourbuckskinsforthesouth.Forallofthese,youngridershadbeenchosen.Alsotherewasabayhorseformetoride,asinmyvision.Fourofthemost beautifulmaidens in the villagewere ready to take their part, and thereweresixveryoldmenfortheGrandfathers.Nowitwas timetopaintanddressfor thedance.Thefourmaidensand the

sixteenhorsesallfacedthesacredtepee.BlackRoadandBearSingsthensanga

song,andalltheotherssangalongwiththem,likethis:

“Father,painttheearthonme.Father,painttheearthonme.Father,painttheearthonme.AnationIwillmakeover.Atwo-leggednationIwillmakeholy.2Father,painttheearthonme.”

Afterthatthepaintingwasdone.Thefourblack-horseriderswerepaintedallblackwithbluelightningstripes

downtheirlegsandarmsandwhitehailspotsontheirhips,andtherewerebluestreaksoflightningonthehorses’legs.Thewhite-horseriderswerepaintedallwhitewithredstreaksoflightningon

their arms and legs, and on the legs of the horses there were streaks of redlightning,andallthewhiteridersworeplumesofwhitehorsehairontheirheadstolooklikegeese.The riders of the sorrels of the eastwere painted all redwith straight back

linesoflightningontheirlimbsandacrosstheirbreasts,andtherewasstraightblacklightningonthelimbsandbreastsofthehorsestoo.Theridersofthebuckskinsofthesouthwerepaintedallyellowandstreaked

with black lightning. The horses were black from the knees down, and blacklightningstreakswereontheirupperlegsandbreasts.Mybayhorsehadbrightredsteaksoflightningonhislimbs,andonhisback

aspottedeagle,outstretching,waspaintedwhereIsat.Iwaspaintedredalloverwithblacklightningonmylimbs.3Iworeablackmask,andacrossmyforeheadasingleeaglefeatherhung.When the horses and themenwere painted they looked beautiful; but they

lookedfearfultoo.Themenwere naked, except for a breech-clout; but the fourmaidenswore

buckskindresses dyed scarlet, and their faceswere scarlet too.Their hairwasbraided,andtheyhadwreathsofthesweetandcleansingsage,thesacredsage,around theirheads,andfromthewreathofeach in frontasingleeagle featherhung.Theywereverybeautifultosee.4AllthistimeIwasinthesacredtepeewiththeSixGrandfathers,andthefour

sacredvirginswere in there too.Nooneoutsidewastoseemeuntil thedancebegan.RightinthemiddleofthetepeetheGrandfathersmadeacircleintheground

withalittletrench,andacrossthistheypaintedtworoads—theredonerunningnorth and south, the black one, east and west. On the west side of this theyplacedacupofwaterwithalittlebowandarrowlaidacrossit;andontheeastthey painted the day-break star. Then to themaidenwhowould represent thenorththeygavethehealingherbtocarryandawhitegoosewing,thecleansingwind.Toheroftheeasttheygavetheholypipe.Toherofthesouththeygavethe flowering stick, and to her who would represent the west they gave thenation’shoop.Thusthefourmaidens,goodandbeautiful,heldintheirhandsthelifeofthenation.All I carriedwasa redstick to represent the sacredarrow, thepowerof the

thunderbeingsofthewest.Wewerenowreadytobeginthedance.TheSixGrandfathersbegantosing,

announcingtheridersofthedifferentquarters.Firsttheysangoftheblackhorseriders,likethis:

“Theywillappear—mayyoubeholdthem!Theywillappear—mayyoubeholdthem!Ahorsenationwillappear.Athunder-beingnationwillappear.Theywillappear,behold!Theywillappear,behold!”

Thentheblackridersmountedtheirhorsesandstoodfourabreastfacingtheplacewherethesungoesdown.NexttheSixGrandfatherssang:

“Theywillappear,mayyoubeholdthem!Ahorsenationwillappear,behold!Ageesenationwillappear,mayyoubehold!”

Then the four white horsemen mounted and stood four abreast, facing theplacewheretheWhiteGiantlives.NexttheSixGrandfatherssang:

“Wherethesunshinescontinually,theywillappear!Abuffalonation,theywillappear,behold!Ahorsenation,theywillappear,mayyoubehold!”

Thentheredhorsemenmountedandstoodfourabreastfacingtheeast.NexttheGrandfatherssang:

“Whereyouarealwaysfacing,anelknationwillappear!Mayyoubehold!Ahorsenationwillappear,Behold!”

Thefouryellowridersmountedtheirbuckskinsandstoodfourabreastfacingthesouth.Nowitwastimeformetogoforthfromthesacredtepee,butbeforeIwent

forthIsangthissongtothedrumsoftheGrandfathers:

“Hewillappear,mayyoubeholdhim!Aneaglefortheeaglenationwillappear.Mayyoubehold!”

While Iwassinging thus in thesacred tepeeIcouldhearmyhorsesnortingandprancingoutside.ThevirginswentforthfourabreastandIfollowedthem,mountingmyhorseandstandingbehindthemfacingthewest.Next theSixGrandfatherscameforthandstoodabreastbehindmybay,and

theybegantosingarapid,livelysongtothedrums,likethis:

“Theyaredancing.Theyarecomingtobeholdyou.Thehorsenationofthewest5isdancing.Theyarecomingtobehold!”

Thentheysangthesameofthehorsesofthenorthandoftheeastandofthesouth.Andastheysangofeachtroopinturn,itwheeledandcameandtookitsplace behind the Grandfathers—the blacks, the whites, the sorrels and thebuckskins,standingfourabreastandfacingthewest.TheycameprancingtothelivelyairoftheGrandfathers’song,andtheyprancedastheystoodinline.Andall thewhilemybaywas rearing too and prancing to themusic of the sacredsong.Nowwhenwewereallinline,facingthewest,Ilookedupintoadarkcloud

that was coming there and the people all became quiet and the horses quitprancing.Andwhentherewassilencebutforlowthunderyonder,Isentavoicetothespiritsofthecloud,holdingforthmyrighthand,thus,palmoutward,asIcriedfourtimes:“Hey-a-a-hey!hey-a-a-hey!hey-a-a-hey!hey-a-a-hey!”Then theGrandfathersbehindmesanganothersacredsongfrommyvision,

theonethatgoeslikethis:

“Atthecenteroftheearth,beholdafour-legged.6Theyhavesaidthistome!”

Andastheysang,astrangethinghappened.Mybayprickeduphisearsandraisedhistailandpawedtheearth,neighinglongandloudtowherethesungoesdown.Andthefourblackhorsesraisedtheirvoices,neighinglongandloud,andthe whites and the sorrels and the buckskins did the same; and all the otherhorsesinthevillageneighed,andeventhoseoutgrazinginthevalleyandonthehillslopesraisedtheirheadsandneighedtogether.Thensuddenly,asIsattherelooking at the cloud, I saw my vision yonder once again—the tepee built ofcloudandsewedwithlightning,theflamingrainbowdoorand,underneath,theSixGrandfatherssitting,andallthehorsesthrongingintheirquarters;andalsotherewasImyselfuponmybaybeforethetepee.Ilookedaboutmeandcouldsee thatwhatwe thenweredoingwas likea shadowcastupon theearth fromyonder vision in the heavens, so bright itwas and clear. It knew the realwasyonderandthedarkeneddreamofitwashere.AndasIlooked,theSixGrandfathersyonderinthecloudandalltheridersof

thehorses,andevenImyselfuponthebayupthere,allheldtheirhandspalmsoutwardtowardme,andwhentheydidthis,Ihadtopray,andsoIcried:

“Grandfathers,youbeholdme!SpiritsoftheWorld,youbehold!Whatyouhavesaidtome,Iamnowperforming!Hearmeandhelpme!”7

Thenthevisionwentout,andthethundercloudwascomingonwithlightningonitsfrontandmanyvoicesinit,andthesplit-tailswallowsswoopedaboveusinaswarm.8The people of the village ran to fasten down their tepees, while the black

horseriderssangtothedrumsthatrolledlikethunder,andthisiswhattheysang:

“Imyselfmadethemfear.Myself,Iworeaneaglerelic.9Imyselfmadethemfear.Myself,alightningpowerIwore.Imyselfmadethemfear,Madethemfear.ThepowerofthehailIwore,Imyselfmadethemfear,

Madethemfear!Beholdme!”

Andastheysang,thehailandrainwerefallingyonderjustalittlewayfromus,andwecouldseeit,butthecloudstoodthereandflashedandthundered,andonlyalittlesprinklefellonus.Thethunderbeingsweregladandhadcomeinagreatcrowdtoseethedance.Nowthefourvirginsheldhighthesacredrelicsthattheycarried,theherband

thewhitewing,thesacredpipe,thefloweringstick,thenation’shoop,offeringthese to thespiritsof thewest.Thenpeoplewhoweresickorsadcame to thevirgins,makingscarletofferings10tothem,andaftertheyhaddonethis,theyallfeltbetterandsomewerecuredofsicknessandbegantodanceforjoy.NowtheGrandfathersbeat theirdrumsagainandthedancebegan.Thefour

black horsemen, who had stood behind the Grandfathers, went ahead of thevirgins, riding toward the west side of the circled village, and all the othersfollowedintheirorderwhilethehorsesprancedandreared.Whentheblackhorsetroophadreachedthewesternside,itwheeledaround

andfelltotherearbehindthebuckskins,andthewhitehorsebandcameupandleduntilitreachedthenorthsideofthevillage.Thenthesefellbackandtooktherearbehindtheblacks,andthesorrelsleduntiltheyreachedtheeast.Thenthesefellbackbehindthewhites,andthebuckskinsleduntiltheyreachedthesouth.Thentheyfellbackandtooktherear,sothattheblackswereleadingasbeforetoward thewestern quarter thatwas theirs. Each time the leading horse troopreacheditsquarter,theSixGrandfatherssangofthepowersofthatquarter,andthere my bay faced, pricking up his ears and neighing loud, till all the otherhorsesraisedtheirvoicesneighing.WhenIthusfacedthenorth,Isentavoiceagainandsaid:“Grandfather,beholdme!WhatyougavemeIhavegiventothepeople—thepowerofthehealingherbandthecleansingwind.Thusmynationismadeover.Hearandhelpme!”Andwhenwereachedtheeast,andaftertheGrandfathershadsung,Isenta

voice: “Grandfather, behold me! My people, with difficulty they walk. Givethemwisdomandguidethem.Hearandhelpme!”Betweeneachquarter,aswemarchedanddanced,weallsangtogether:

“Ahorsenationallovertheuniverse,Neighing,theycome!Prancing,theycome!Mayyoubeholdthem.”

WhenwehadreachedthesouthandtheGrandfathershadsungofthepowerofgrowing,myhorsefacedyonderandneighedagain,andallthehorsesraisedtheirvoicesasbefore.AndthenIprayedwithhandupraised:“Grandfather,theflowering stickyougaveme and thenation’s sacredhoop I havegiven to thepeople.Hearme,youwhohavethepowertomakegrow!Guidethepeoplethattheymaybeasblossomsonyourholytree,andmakeitflourishdeepinMotherEarthandmakeitfullofleavesandsingingbirds.”Then oncemore the blackswere leading, and aswemarched and sang and

dancedtowardthequarterofthewest,theblackhailcloud,stillstandingyonderwatching, filledwith voices crying: “Hey-hey! hey-hey!” Theywere cheeringandrejoicingthatmyworkwasbeingdone.Andallthepeoplenowwerehappyand rejoicing, sending voices back, “hey-hey, hey-hey”; and all the horsesneighed, rejoicingwith the spirits and thepeople.Four timeswemarchedanddancedaroundthecircleofthevillage,singingaswewent,theleaderschangingatthequarters,theSixGrandfatherssingingtothepowerofeachquarter,andtoeachIsentavoice.Andateachquarter,aswestood,somebodywhowassickorsadwouldcomewithofferings to thevirgins—littlescarletbagsof thechacunshasha,theredwillowbark.Andwhentheofferingwasmade,thegiverwouldfeelbetterandbegintodancewithjoy.Andonthesecondtimearound,manyofthepeoplewhohadhorsesjoinedthe

dancewiththem,millingroundandroundtheSixGrandfathersandthevirginsaswedancedahead.Andmoreandmoregotontheirhorses,millingroundusaswewent,untiltherewasawhirlofprancinghorsesallaboutusattheend,andalltheothersdancedafootbehindus,andeverybodysangwhatweweresinging.Whenwereachedthequarterofthewestthefourthtime,westoppedinnew

formation, facing inward toward the sacred tepee in the center of the village.Firststoodthevirgins,nextIstooduponthebay;thencametheSixGrandfatherswitheightridersoneithersideofthem—thesorrelsandthebuckskinsontheirright hand, the blacks andwhites upon their left.Andwhenwe stood so, theoldestoftheGrandfathers,hewhowastheSpiritoftheSky,criedout:“Letallthepeoplebeready.Heshallsendavoicefourtimes,andatthelastvoiceyoushallgoforthandcoupthesacred tepee,andwhoshallcoupit firstshallhavenewpower!”11All the riders were eager for the charge, and even the horses seemed to

understandandwererearingandtryingtogetaway.ThenIraisedmyhandandcriedhey-heyfourtimes,andatthefourththeridersallyelled“hokahey,”andchargeduponthetepee.Myhorseplungedinwardalongwithalltheothers,but

manywereaheadofmeandmanycoupedthetepeebeforeIdid.Thenthehorseswereallrubbeddownwithsacredsageandledaway,andwe

begangoingintothetepeetoseewhatmighthavehappenedtherewhileweweredancing.TheGrandfathershadsprinkledfreshsoilonthenation’shoopthattheyhadmadeintherewiththeredandblackroadsacrossit,andallaroundthislittlecircleof thenation’shoopwesaw theprintsof tinyponyhoofsas though thespirithorseshadbeendancingwhilewedanced.12NowBlackRoad,whohadhelpedmetoperformthedance, tookthesacred

pipefromthevirginoftheeast.Afterfillingitwithchacunshasha,thebarkoftheredwillow,helitandofferedittothePowersoftheWorld,sendingavoicethus:“Grandfathers,youwhere thesungoesdown,youof thesacredwindwhere

thewhitegiantlives,youwherethedaycomesforthandthemorningstar,youwherelivesthepowertogrow,youoftheskyandyouoftheearth,wingsoftheairandfour-leggedsoftheworld,behold!I,myself,withmyhorsenationhavedonewhat Iwas todoonearth.Toallofyou Ioffer thispipe thatmypeoplemaylive!”Thenhesmokedandpassedthepipe.Itwentallover thevillageuntilevery

onehadsmokedatleastapuff.Afterthehorsedancewasover,itseemedthatIwasabovethegroundanddid

nottouchitwhenIwalked.Ifeltveryhappy,forIcouldseethatmypeoplewereallhappier.Manycrowdedaroundmeandsaid that theyor theirrelativeswhohadbeenfeelingsickwerewellagain,andthesegavememanygifts.Eventhehorsesseemedtobehealthierandhappierafterthedance.Thefearthatwasonmesolongwasgone,andwhenthundercloudsappeared

I was always glad to see them, for they came as relatives now to visit me.Everythingseemedgoodandbeautifulnow,andkind.Beforethis,themedicinemenwouldnottalktome,butnowtheywouldcome

tometotalkaboutmyvision.Fromthattimeon,Ialwaysgotupveryearlytoseetherisingofthedaybreak

star.PeopleknewthatIdidthis,andmanywouldgetuptoseeitwithme,andwhenitcamewesaid:“Beholdthestarofunderstanding!”

15.

TheDogVision

We stayed there near the mouth of the Tongue until the end of theMoon ofMakingFat(June).Thenthesoldierchief1 toldus thatwecouldnotbe in thatcountrybecausewehadsolditanditwasnotoursanymore.2Wehadnotsoldit;butthesoldierstookalltherestofourhorsesfromus3andwhatgunswehadand loadedusonabig fire-boat that carriedusdown theYellowstoneand theMissouri to Fort Yates.4 There they unloaded us, and it was one of the newreservations they hadmade for the Lakota.Many of Sitting Bull’s andGall’speoplewere there,butGallandSittingBullwerestill inGrandmother’sLand.The soldiershad taken theponiesaway fromallourpeople, and they said theGreatFatherinWashingtonwouldpayusforthem;butifheeverdidIhavenotheardofit.Ilearnedthatmyownband,theOgalalas,hadbeentakenbacktothecountry

wherewearenow,andIdecidedthatIoughttogothereandperformmyduty.So in theMoonWhen thePlumsAreScarlet (September)5 I startedwith threeothers.Wehadtogoafootandwehadonlybowsandarrowsforweapons.TheBruleshadbeentakentotheplacewheretheyarenowonRosebudCreek

while Iwas inGrandmother’sLand, andwe setout first forwhere theywere,campingseventimesontheway.OneeveningwecrossedSmokyEarthRiver(theWhite)andcampedon the

southside.Wecampedbyaplumthicket,andtheplumswereripe.Thatisallwehadtoeat.Therewasabluffcloseby,andIwentuptherealoneandsatdownwithmyfacetowherethesunwassetting.Itwasacleareveningwithnowind,anditseemedthateverythingwaslisteninghardtohearsomething.WhileIwaslookingoverthereIfeltthatsomebodywantedtotalktome.SoIstoodupandbegantosingthefirstsongofmyvision,theonethatthetwospiritshadsungtome.

“Behold!Asacredvoiceiscallingyou!Allovertheskyasacredvoiceiscalling!”

While I was singing this song, suddenly the two men of my vision werecomingagainoutofthesunset,headfirstlikearrowsslantingdown.Theywerepointingatmewiththeirbows.Thentheystoppedandstood,raisingtheirbowsabove theirheadsand lookingatme.Theysaidnothing,but I could feelwhattheywanted.ItwasthatIshoulddomydutyamongtheOgalalaswiththepowertheyhadbroughtmeinthevision.Istoodtheresingingtothem,andafterwhiletheyturnedaroundandwentbackintothesunset,headfirstlikearrowsflying.WhenIwentbacktoourlittlecampbytheplumthicket,theothersthere,who

knewofmy power and had heardme on the bluff, askedwhat I had seen upthere.ItoldthemIwasonlysingingtosomepeopleIknewintheouterworld.6I stayedonlya littlewhile among theBrulesonRosebudCreek, and then I

came on alone toWhite Clay Creek where theWasichus were building PineRidgeAgencyfortheOgalalas.OurpeoplecalledittheSeatofRedCloudorthePlaceWhere Everything Is Disputed.7 There I stayed, and that winter in theMoonofPoppingTreesIwaseighteenyearsold.51fThatwasaveryhardwinter,anditwasjustlikeonelongnight,withmelying

awake, waiting and waiting and waiting for daybreak. For now the thunderbeingswere like relatives tomeand theyhadgoneawaywhen the frost cameand would not come back until the grasses showed their tender faces again.Without themI felt lost,andIwasalone thereamongmypeople.Veryfewofthemhadseenthehorsedanceorknewanythingaboutmyvisionandthepowerthatitgaveme.Theyseemedheavy,heavyanddark;andtheycouldnotknowthat theywereheavyanddark. Icouldfeel themlikeagreatburdenuponme;butwhenIwouldgoallthroughmyvisionagain,Ilovedtheburdenandfeltpityformypeople.AndnowwhenIlookaboutmeuponmypeopleindespair,Ifeellikecrying

andIwishandwishmyvisioncouldhavebeengiventoamanmoreworthy.Iwonder why it came tome, a pitiful old man who can do nothing.Men andwomenandchildrenIhavecuredofsicknesswiththepowerthevisiongaveme;butmy nation I could not help. If aman orwoman or child dies, it does notmatter long, for the nation lives on. Itwas the nation thatwas dying, and thevisionwasforthenation;butIhavedonenothingwithit.8WhenIwasstillyoung,Icouldfeelthepowerallthroughme,anditseemed

thatwiththewholeouterworldtohelpmeIcoulddoanything.IhadmadeagoodstarttofulfillmydutytotheGrandfathers,butIhadmuch

moretodo;andsothewinterwaslikealongnightofwaitingforthedaybreak.When thegrassesbegan to show their faces again, Iwashappy, for I could

hearthethunderbeingscomingintheearthandIcouldhearthemsaying:“ItistimetodotheworkofyourGrandfathers.”Afterthelongwinterofwaiting,itwasmyfirstdutytogooutlamenting.So

afterthefirstrainstormIbegantogetready.Whengoingouttolament9itisnecessarytochooseawiseoldmedicineman,

who is quiet and generous, to help.Hemust fill and offer the pipe to theSixPowersandtothefour-leggedsandthewingsoftheair,andhemustgoalongtowatch.TherewasagoodandwiseoldmedicinemanbythenameofFewTails,whowasglad tohelpme.Firsthe toldme to fast fourdays,and Icouldhaveonlywaterduringthattime.Then,afterhehadofferedthepipe,Ihadtopurifymyselfinasweatlodge,whichwemadewithwillowboughssetinthegroundandbentdowntomakearoundtop.Overthiswetiedabisonrobe.Inthemiddlewe put hot stones, and when I was in there, Few Tails poured water on thestones.IsangtothespiritswhileIwasintherebeingpurified.Thentheoldmanrubbedmealloverwiththesacredsage.Hethenbraidedmyhair,10andIwasnakedexceptthatIhadabisonrobetowraparoundmewhilelamentinginthenight, foralthoughthedayswerewarm, thenightswerecoldyet.AllIcarriedwasthesacredpipe.Itisnecessarytogofarawayfrompeopletolament,soFewTailsandIstarted

fromPineRidgetowardwherewearenow.52fWecame toahighhillclose toGrassCreek,which is justa littlewaywest

fromhere.Therewasnobodytherebuttheoldmanandmyselfandtheskyandtheearth.Buttheplacewasfullofpeople;forthespiritswerethere.Thesunwasalmostsettingwhenwecametothehill,andtheoldmanhelped

memaketheplacewhereIwastostand.Wewenttothehighestpointofthehillandmadethegroundtheresacredbyspreadingsageuponit.ThenFewTailssetafloweringstickinthemiddleoftheplace,andonthewest,thenorth,theeast,and the south sidesof it heplacedofferingsof redwillowbark tied into littlebundleswithscarletcloth.FewTailsnowtoldmewhatIwastodosothatthespiritswouldhearmeand

makeclearmynextduty. Iwas to stand in themiddle, cryingandpraying forunderstanding.ThenIwastoadvancefromthecentertothequarterofthewestandmourn there awhile. Then Iwas to back up to the center, and from thereapproachthequarterofthenorth,wailingandprayingthere,andsoonallaroundthecircle.ThisIhadtodoallnightlong.Itwas time forme tobegin lamenting, soFewTailswent away somewhere

andleftmethereallaloneonthehillwiththespiritsandthedyinglight.

Standinginthecenterofthesacredplaceandfacingthesunset,Ibegantocry,andwhilecryingIhadtosay:“OGreatSpirit,acceptmyofferings!Omakemeunderstand!”As Iwas cryingand saying this, there soareda spottedeagle from thewest

andwhistledshrillandsatuponapinetreeeastofme.Iwalkedbackwardstothecenter,andfromthereapproachedthenorth,crying

and saying: “O Great Spirit, accept my offerings and make me understand!”Thenachickenhawkcamehoveringandstoppeduponabushtowardsthesouth.Iwalkedbackwards to thecenteronceagainand from thereapproached the

east,cryingandaskingtheGreatSpirittohelpmeunderstand,andtherecameablack swallow flying all aroundme, singing, and stoppedupon a bushnot faraway.Walkingbackwardstothecenter,Iadvanceduponthesouth.UntilnowIhad

onlybeentryingtoweep,butnowIreallywept,andthetearsrandownmyface;for as I looked yonder towards the placewhence come the life of things, thenation’shoopand the flowering tree, I thoughtof thedayswhenmyrelatives,nowdead,werelivingandyoung,andofCrazyHorsewhowasourstrengthandwouldnevercomebacktohelpusanymore.11Icriedveryhard,andIthoughtitmightbebetterifmycryingwouldkillme;

thenIcouldbeintheouterworldwherenothingiseverindespair.12AndwhileIwascrying,somethingwascomingfromthesouth.Itlookedlike

dustfaroff,butwhenitcamecloser,Isawitwasacloudofbeautifulbutterfliesofallcolors.TheyswarmedaroundmesothickthatIcouldseenothingelse.Iwalkedbackwardstothefloweringstickagain,andthespottedeagleonthe

pinetreespokeandsaid:“Beholdthese!Theyareyourpeople.Theyareingreatdifficultyandyoushallhelpthem.”ThenIcouldhearallthebutterfliesthatwereswarming over me, and they were all making a pitiful, whimpering noise asthoughtheytoowereweeping.Thentheyallaroseandflewbackintothesouth.Now the chicken hawk spoke from its bush and said: “Behold! Your

Grandfathersshallcomeforthandyoushallhearthem!”Hearingthis,Iliftedupmyeyes,andtherewasabigstormcomingfromthe

west. Itwas the thunderbeingnation, and I couldhear theneighingofhorsesandthesendingofgreatvoices.It was very dark now, and all the roaringwest was streaked fearfully with

swiftfire.AndasIstoodtherelooking,avisionbrokeoutoftheshoutingblacknesstorn

withfire,andIsawthetwomenwhohadcometomefirstinmygreatvision.They came head first like arrows slanting earthward from the long flight; andwhentheynearedtheground,Icouldseeadustrisingthereandoutofthedustthe heads of dogswere peeping.13 Then suddenly I saw that the dustwas theswarmofmany-coloredbutterflieshoveringallaroundandoverthedogs.Bynowthetwomenwereridingsorrelhorses,streakedwithblacklightning,

andtheychargedwithbowsandarrowsdownuponthedogs,whilethethunderbeingscheeredforthemwithroaringvoices.Then suddenly the butterflies changed, and were storm-driven swallows,

swoopingandwhirlinginagreatcloudbehindthechargingriders.Thefirstof thesenowplungeduponadog’sheadandarosewith ithanging

bloody on his arrow point, while the whole west roared with cheering. Theseconddidthesame;andtheblackwestflashedandcheeredagain.Thenasthetwo arose together, I saw that the dogs’ heads had changed to the heads ofWasichus;14andasIsaw,thevisionwentoutandthestormwascloseuponme,terribletoseeandroaring.Icriedharderthanevernow,forIwasmuchafraid.Thenightwasblackabout

meandterriblewithswiftfireandthesendingofgreatvoicesandtheroaringofthehail.AndasIcried,IbeggedtheGrandfatherstopitymeandsparemeandtoldthemthatIknewnowwhattheywantedmetodoonearth,andIwoulddoitifIcould.All at once I was not afraid any more, and I thought that if I was killed,

probably Imight be better off in the otherworld. So I lay down there in thecenterofthesacredplaceandofferedthepipeagain.ThenIdrewthebisonrobeovermeandwaited.Allaroundmegrowledandroaredthevoices,andthehailwaslikethedrumsofmanygiants15beatingwhilethegiantssang:“Hey-a-hey!”NohailfellthereinthesacredcirclewhereIlay,noranyrain.Andwhenthe

stormwaspassed,Iraisedmyrobeandlistened;andinthestillnessIcouldheartherain-floodsinginginthegulchesallaroundmeinthedarkness,andfarawaytoeastwardthereweredyingvoicescalling:“Hey-a-hey!”Thenightwas old by now, and soon I fell asleep.And as I slept I sawmy

peoplesittingsadandtroubledallaroundasacredtepee,andthereweremanywhoweresick.AndasIlookedonthemandwept,astrangelightleapedupwardfrom the ground close by—a light of many colors, sparkling, with rays thattouchedtheheavens.Thenitwasgone,andintheplacefromwhenceitsprangaherbwasgrowingandIsawtheleavesithad.AndasIwaslookingattheherbsothatImightnotforgetit,therewasavoicethat‘wokeme,anditsaid:“Make

haste!Yourpeopleneedyou!”I looked and saw the east was just beginning to turnwhite. Standing up, I

facedtheyounglightandbegantomournagainandpray.Thenthedaybreakstarcameslowly,verybeautifulandstill;andallaroundittherewerecloudsofbabyfacessmilingatme,thefacesofthepeoplenotyetborn.Thestarsaboutthemnowwerebeautifulwithmanycolors,16andbeneath these therewereheadsofmenandwomenmovingaround,andbirdsweresingingsomewhereyonderandtherewerehorsesnickeringandblowingas theydowhen theyarehappy, andsomewheredeerwerewhistlingandtherewerebisonmooingtoo.WhatIcouldnotseeofthis,Iheard.I think I fell asleepagain, for afterwhile Iwas startledbyavoice that said:

“Getup,Ihavecomeafteryou!”Ilookedtoseeaspirit,butitwasthegoodoldman,FewTails,standingoverme.Andnowthesunwasrising.Sowe brought the sacred pipe back home and Iwent into the sweat lodge

afterofferingthepipetotheSixPowers.WhenIwaspurifiedagain,someveryoldmenwhoweregoodandwiseaskedme to tell themwhat Ihadheardandseen.17Soafterofferingandsmokingthesacredpipeagain,Itolditalltothem,andtheysaidthatImustperformthedogvisiononearthtohelpthepeople,andbecause thepeoplewerediscouragedandsad, Ishoulddo thiswithheyokas,18whoaresacredfools,doingeverythingwrongorbackwardstomakethepeoplelaugh. They said they did not know but Iwould be a greatman, because notmanymenwerecalled toseesuchvisions. Imustwait twentydays, theysaid,andthenperformmyduty.SoIwaited.

16.

HeyokaCeremony

Twentydayspassed,anditwastimetoperformthedogvisionwithheyokas.Butbefore I tell you howwe did it, I will say something about heyokas and theheyokaceremony,whichseemstobeveryfoolish,butisnotso.1Onlythosewhohavehadvisionsofthethunderbeingsofthewestcanactas

heyokas. They have sacred power and they share some of this with all thepeople, but they do it through funny actions.When a vision comes from thethunderbeingsofthewest,itcomeswithterrorlikeathunderstorm;butwhenthestormofvisionhaspassed, theworld isgreenerandhappier; forwhereverthetruthofvisioncomesupontheworld,itislikearain.Theworld,yousee,ishappieraftertheterrorofthestorm.But in theheyokaceremony,everything isbackwards,and it isplanned that

thepeopleshallbemadetofeeljollyandhappyfirst,sothatitmaybeeasierforthepowertocometothem.Youhavenoticedthatthetruthcomesintothisworldwith two faces.2 One is sadwith suffering, and the other laughs; but it is thesameface,laughingorweeping.Whenpeoplearealreadyindespair,maybethelaughingfaceisbetterforthem;andwhentheyfeeltoogoodandaretoosureofbeingsafe,maybetheweepingfaceisbetterforthemtosee.AndsoIthinkthatiswhattheheyokaceremonyisfor.TherewasamanbythenameofWachpanne(Poor)3whotookchargeofthis

ceremony forme,becausehehadactedasaheyokamany timesandknewallabout it. First he told all the people to gather in a circle on the flat nearPineRidge,andinthecenter,nearasacredtepeethatwassetthere,heplacedapotofwaterwhichwasmadetoboilbydroppinghotstonesfromafireintoit.4First,hehadtomakeanofferingofsweetgrasstothewest.Hesatbesidethefirewithsomesweetgrass inhishand,andsaid:“To theGreatSpirit’sday, to thatdaygrownoldandwise,Iwillmakeanoffering.”5Then,ashesprinkled thegrassuponthefireandthesweetsmokearose,hesang:

“ThisIburnasanoffering.Beholdit!

AsacredpraiseIammaking.AsacredpraiseIammaking.Mynation,beholditinkindness!Thedayofthesun6hasbeenmystrength.Thepathofthemoonshallbemyrobe.AsacredpraiseIammaking.AsacredpraiseIammaking.”

Then the dog had to be killed quickly and without making any scar, aslightningkills,foritisthepowerofthelightningthatheyokashave.Overthesmokeofthesweetgrassarawhideropewasheldtomakeitsacred.

Thentwoheyokastiedaslipnooseintheropeandputthisovertheneckofthedog.Threetimestheypulledtheropegently,oneateachendoftherope,andthefourthtimetheyjerkedithard,breakingtheneck.ThenWachpannesingedthedogandwasheditwell,andafterthathecutawayeverythingbutthehead,thespineandthetail.Nowwalkingsixstepsawayfromthepot,oneforeachofthePowers,heturnedtothewest,offeringtheheadandspinetothethunderbeings,thentothenorth,theeastandthesouth,thentotheSpiritaboveandtoMotherEarth.Afterthis,standingwherehewas,sixstepsaway,hefacedthepotandsaid:

“InasacredmannerIthusboilthisdog.”Threetimesheswungit,andthefourthtimehethrewitsothatitfellheadfirstintotheboilingwater.Thenhetooktheheartofthedoganddidwithitjustwhathehaddonewiththeheadandspine.Duringallthistime,thirtyheyokas,oneforeachdayofamoon,7weredoing

foolishtricksamongthepeopletomakethemfeel jolly.Theywerealldressedandpaintedinsuchfunnywaysthateverybodywhosawthemhadtolaugh.OneSide8 and I were fellow clowns.We had our bodies painted red all over andstreakedwithblacklightning.Therightsidesofourheadswereshaved,andthehairontheleftsidewaslefthanginglong.Thislookedveryfunny,butithadameaning; forwhenwe looked towardwhereyouarealways facing (thesouth)thebaresidesofourheadswere toward thewest,whichshowed thatwewerehumblebeforethethunderbeingswhohadgivenuspower.Eachofuscarriedavery longbow, so long thatnobodycoulduse it, and itwasverycrooked too.Thearrows thatwecarriedwerevery longandverycrooked,so that it lookedcrazy to have them.Wewere riding sorrelswith streaks of black lightning alloverthem,forweweretorepresentthetwomenofmydogvision.Wachpannenowwentintothesacredtepee,wherehesangabouttheheyokas:

“Thesearesacred,Thesearesacred,Theyhavesaid,Theyhavesaid.Thesearesacred,Theyhavesaid.”

Twelvetimeshesangthis,onceforeachofthemoons.9Afterward,while thepotwasboiling,OneSideandI,sittingonourpainted

sorrels,facedthewestandsang:

“Inasacredmannertheyhavesentvoices.Halftheuniversehassentvoices.Inasacredmannertheyhavesentvoicestoyou.”

Evenwhileweweresingingthus,theheyokasweredoingfoolishthingsandmakinglaughter.Forinstance,twoheyokaswithlongcrookedbowsandarrowspainted in a funnyway,would come to a little shallowpuddle ofwater.Theywouldactasthoughtheythoughtitwasawide,deepriverthattheyhadtocross;so,makingmotions,butsayingnothing,theywoulddecidetoseehowdeeptheriver was. Taking their long crooked arrows, theywould thrust these into thewater,notdownwards,butflat-wisejustunderthesurface.Thiswouldmakethewholearrowwet.Standingthearrowsupbesidethem,theywouldshowthatthewaterwasfarovertheirheadsindepth,sotheywouldgetreadytoswim.Onewouldthenplungeintotheshallowpuddleheadfirst,gettinghisfaceinthemudandfighting thewaterwildlyas thoughheweredrowning.Thentheotheronewouldplungeintosavehiscomrade,andtherewouldbemorefunnyanticsinthewatertomakethepeoplelaugh.AfterOneSideandIhadsungtothewest,wefacedthepot,wheretheheart

andtheheadofthedoghadbeenboiling.Withsharppointedarrows,wechargedonhorsebackuponthepotandpastit.IhadtocatchtheheaduponmyarrowandOneSidehadtocatchtheheart,forwewererepresentingthetwomenIhadseeninthevision.Afterwehaddonethis,theheyokasallchasedus,tryingtogetapieceofthemeat,andthepeoplerushedtothepot,tryingtogetapieceofthesacredflesh.10Eversolittleofitwouldbegoodforthem,forthepowerofthewestwasinitnow.Itwaslikegivingthemmedicinetomakethemhappierandstronger.When the ceremonywas over, everybody felt a great deal better, for it had

beenadayoffun.Theywerebetterablenowtoseethegreennessoftheworld,

thewidenessofthesacredday, thecolorsoftheearth,andtoset theseintheirminds.The Six Grandfathers have placed in this world many things, all of which

shouldbehappy.Everylittlethingissentforsomething,andinthatthingthereshould be happiness and the power tomake happy. Like the grasses showingtender faces to each other, thus we should do, for this was the wish of theGrandfathersoftheWorld.11

17.

TheFirstCure

After the heyoka ceremony, I came to live here where I am now betweenWoundedKneeCreek andGrassCreek.Others came too, andwemade theselittlegrayhousesoflogsthatyousee,andtheyaresquare.Itisabadwaytolive,fortherecanbenopowerinasquare.You have noticed that everything an Indian does is in a circle, and that is

becausethePoweroftheWorldalwaysworksincircles,andeverythingtriestobe round. In the old days when we were a strong and happy people, all ourpowercametousfromthesacredhoopof thenation,andso longas thehoopwasunbroken,thepeopleflourished.Thefloweringtreewasthelivingcenterofthehoop, and the circleof the fourquartersnourished it.Theeastgavepeaceandlight,thesouthgavewarmth,thewestgaverain,andthenorthwithitscoldandmightywindgavestrengthandendurance.Thisknowledgecametousfromthe outerworldwith our religion. Everything the Power of theWorld does isdoneinacircle.Theskyisround,andIhaveheardthattheearthisroundlikeaball,andsoareallthestars.Thewind,initsgreatestpower,whirls.Birdsmaketheirnestsincircles,fortheirsisthesamereligionasours.Thesuncomesforthandgoesdownagaininacircle.Themoondoesthesame,andbothareround.1Even the seasons formagreat circle in their changing, andalwayscomebackagain to where they were. The life of a man is a circle from childhood tochildhood,andsoitisineverythingwherepowermoves.Ourtepeeswereroundlikethenestsofbirds,andthesewerealwayssetinacircle,thenation’shoop,anestofmanynests,wheretheGreatSpiritmeantforustohatchourchildren.But theWasichushaveputus in thesesquareboxes.Ourpower isgoneand

wearedying,forthepowerisnotinusanymore.Youcanlookatourboysandseehowitiswithus.Whenwewerelivingbythepowerofthecircleinthewayweshould,boysweremenat twelveor thirteenyearsofago.Butnowit takesthemverymuchlongertomature.Well,itisasitis.Weareprisonersofwarwhilewearewaitinghere.Butthere

isanotherworld.It was in the Moon of Shedding Ponies (May) when we had the heyoka

ceremony. One day in the Moon of Fatness (June), when everything wasblooming,IinvitedOneSidetocomeoverandeatwithme.Ihadbeenthinkingaboutthefour-rayedherbthatIhadnowseentwice—thefirsttimeinthegreatvisionwhenIwasnineyearsold,andthesecondtimewhenIwaslamentingonthe hill. I knew that I must have this herb for curing, and I thought I couldrecognizetheplacewhereIhadseenitgrowingthatnightwhenIlamented.AfterOneSideandIhadeaten,ItoldhimtherewasaherbImustfind,andI

wantedhimtohelpmehuntforit.OfcourseIdidnottellhimIhadseenitinavision.Hewaswillingtohelp,sowegotonourhorsesandrodeovertoGrassCreek.Nobodywaslivingoverthere.Wecametothetopofahighhillabovethecreek,andtherewegotoffourhorsesandsatdown,forIfeltthatwewereclosetowhereIsawtheherbgrowinginmyvisionofthedog.Wesatthereawhilesingingtogethersomeheyokasongs.ThenIbegantosing

aloneasongIhadheardinmyfirstgreatvision:

“Inasacredmannertheyaresendingvoices.”

AfterIhadsungthissong,Ilookeddowntowardsthewest,andyonderatacertain spot beside the creek were crows and magpies, chicken hawks andspottedeaglescirclingaroundandaround.ThenIknew,andIsaidtoOneSide:“Friend,rightthereiswheretheherbis

growing.”Hesaid:“Wewillgoforthandsee.”SowegotonourhorsesandrodedownGrassCreekuntilwecametoadrygulch,andthiswefollowedup.Aswenearedthespotthebirdsallflewaway,anditwasaplacewherefourorfivedrygulchescametogether.Thererightonthesideofthebanktheherbwasgrowing,andIknewit,althoughIhadneverseenonelikeitbefore,exceptinmyvision.Ithadarootaboutaslongastomyelbow,andthiswasalittlethickerthanmy

thumb.Itwasfloweringinfourcolors,blue,white,red,andyellow.We got off our horses, and after I had offered red willow bark to the Six

Powers,Imadeaprayertotheherb,andsaidtoit:“Nowweshallgoforthtothetwo-leggeds,butonlytotheweakestones,andthereshallbehappydaysamongtheweak.”Itwas easy to dig theherb, because itwasgrowing in the edgeof the clay

gulch.Thenwestartedbackwith it.Whenwecame toGrassCreekagain,wewrappeditinsomegoodsagethatwasgrowingthere.Somethingmusthavetoldmetofindtheherbjustthen,forthenexteveningI

neededitandcouldhavedonenothingwithoutit.IwaseatingsupperwhenamanbythenameofCuts-to-Piecescamein,and

hewassaying:“Hey,hey,hey!”forhewasintrouble.Iaskedhimwhatwasthematter,andhesaid:“Ihaveaboyofmine,andheisverysickandIamafraidhewilldiesoon.Hehasbeensickalongtime.Theysayyouhavegreatpowerfromthehorsedanceandtheheyokaceremony,somaybeyoucansavehimforme.Ithinksomuchofhim.”I told Cuts-to-Pieces that if he reallywanted help, he should go home and

bringmebackapipewithaneaglefeatheronit.Whilehewasgone,IthoughtaboutwhatIhadtodo;andIwasafraid,becauseIhadnevercuredanybodyyetwithmypower,andIwasverysorryforCuts-to-Pieces.Iprayedhardforhelp.WhenCuts-to-Piecescamebackwiththepipe,Itoldhimtotakeitaroundtotheleft ofme, leave it there, andpassout again to the right ofme.Whenhehaddone this, I sent forOneSide tocomeandhelpme.Then I took thepipeandwent towhere thesick littleboywas.Myfatherandmymotherwentwithus,andmyfriend,StandingBear,wasalreadythere.IfirstofferedthepipetotheSixPowers,thenIpassedit,andweallsmoked.

After that I beganmaking a rumbling thunder sound on the drum.You know,whenthepowerofthewestcomestothetwo-leggeds,itcomeswithrumbling,and when it has passed, everything lifts up its head and is glad and there isgreenness. So Imade this rumbling sound. Also, the voice of the drum is anoffering to theSpiritof theWorld. Itssoundarouses themindandmakesmenfeelthemysteryandpowerofthings.Thesicklittleboywasonthenortheastsideofthetepee,andwhenweentered

atthesouth,wewentaroundfromlefttoright,stoppingonthewestsidewhenwehadmadethecircle.Youwanttoknowwhywealwaysgofromlefttorightlikethat.Icantellyou

somethingofthereason,butnotall.Thinkofthis:Isnotthesouththesourceoflife,anddoesnotthefloweringsticktrulycomefromthere?Anddoesnotmanadvancefromtheretowardthesettingsunofhislife?Thendoesnotheapproachthecoldernorthwhere thewhitehairs are?Anddoeshenot thenarrive, ifhelives,atthesourceoflightandunderstanding,whichistheeast?Thendoeshenotreturntowherehebegan,tohissecondchildhood,theretogivebackhislifetoalllife,andhisfleshtotheearthwhenceitcame?Themoreyouthinkaboutthis,themoremeaningyouwillseeinit.AsIsaid,wewentintothetepeefromlefttoright,andsatourselvesdownon

thewest side. The sick little boywas on the northeast side, and he looked asthoughhewereonlyskinandbones.Ihadthepipe,thedrumandthefour-rayedherb already, so I asked for a wooden cup, full of water, and an eagle bone

whistle,whichwasforthespottedeagleofmygreatvision.Theyplacedthecupofwaterinfrontofme;andthenIhadtothinkawhile,becauseIhadneverdonethisbeforeandIwasindoubt.Iunderstoodalittlemorenow,soIgavetheeaglebonewhistletoOneSide

andtoldhimnowtouseitinhelpingme.ThenIfilledthepipewithredwillowbark,andgave it to theprettyyoungdaughterofCuts-to-Pieces, tellingher toholdit,justasIhadseenthevirginoftheeastholdingitinmygreatvision.Everythingwasreadynow,soImadelowthunderonthedrum,keepingtime

asIsentforthavoice.FourtimesIcried“Hey-a-a-hey,”drummingasIcriedtotheSpiritoftheWorld,andwhileIwasdoingthisIcouldfeelthepowercomingthroughmefrommyfeetup,andIknewthatIcouldhelpthesicklittleboy.Ikeptonsendingavoice,whileImadelowthunderonthedrum,saying:“My

Grandfather,GreatSpirit,youaretheonlyoneandtonoothercananyonesendvoices. You havemade everything, they say, and you havemade it good andbeautiful. The four quarters and the two roads crossing each other, you havemade.Alsoyouhavesetapowerwherethesungoesdown.Thetwo-leggedsonearthareindespair.2Forthem,myGrandfather,Isendavoicetoyou.Youhavesaidthistome:Theweakshallwalk.Invisionyouhavetakenmetothecenteroftheworldandthereyouhaveshownmethepowertomakeover.Thewaterinthecupthatyouhavegivenme,byitspowershallthedyinglive.Theherbthatyou have shown me, through its power shall the feeble walk upright. Fromwherewearealways facing (thesouth),behold,avirginshallappear,walkingthegoodredroad,offeringthepipeasshewalks,andhersalsoisthepowerofthefloweringtree.FromwheretheGiantlives(thenorth),youhavegivenmeasacred,cleansingwind,andwherethiswindpassestheweakshallhavestrength.Youhavesaidthistome.ToyouandtoallyourpowersandtoMotherEarthIsendavoiceforhelp.”Yousee, Ihadneverdone thisbefore,andIknownowthatonlyonepower

would have been enough.But Iwas so eager to help the sick little boy that Icalledoneverypowerthereis.Ihadbeenfacingthewest,ofcourse,whilesendingavoice.NowIwalkedto

thenorthandtotheeastandtothesouth,stoppingtherewherethesourceofalllifeisandwherethegoodredroadbegins.StandingthereIsangthus:

“InasacredmannerIhavemadethemwalk.Asacrednationlieslow.InasacredmannerIhavemadethemwalk.

Asacredtwo-legged,helieslow.Inasacredmanner,heshallwalk.”3

While Iwas singing this I could feel somethingqueer all throughmybody,somethingthatmademewanttocryforallunhappythings,andthereweretearsonmyface.NowIwalkedtothequarterofthewest,whereIlitthepipe,offeredittothe

powers,and,afterIhadtakenawhiffofsmoke,Ipasseditaround.WhenI lookedat thesicklittleboyagain,hesmiledatme,andIcouldfeel

thatthepowerwasgettingstronger.Inexttookthecupofwater,drankalittleofit,andwentaroundtowherethe

sick littleboywas.Standingbeforehim, Istamped theearth four times.Then,puttingmymouth to thepit ofhis stomach, I drew through him the cleansingwind of the north. I next chewed some of the herb and put it in the water,afterwardblowingsomeofitontheboyandtothefourquarters.Thecupwiththe rest of thewater I gave to the virgin,whogave it to the sick little boy todrink.Then I told the virgin to help the boy stand up and towalk around thecirclewithhim,beginningatthesouth,thesourceoflife.Hewasverypoorandweak,butwiththevirgin’shelphedidthis.ThenIwentaway.NextdayCuts-to-Piecescameandtoldmethathislittleboywasfeelingbetter

andwas sittingupandcouldeat somethingagain. In fourdayshe couldwalkaround.Hegotwellandlivedtobethirtyyearsold.Cuts-to-Pieces gaveme a good horse for doing this; but of course Iwould

havedoneitfornothing.Whenthepeopleheardabouthowthelittleboywascured,manycametome

forhelp,andIwasbusymostofthetime.Thiswasinthesummerofmynineteenthyear(1882),intheMoonofMaking

Fat.

18.

ThePowersoftheBisonandtheElk

IthinkIhavetoldyou,butifIhavenot,youmusthaveunderstood,thatamanwhohasavisionisnotabletousethepowerofituntilafterhehasperformedthe vision on earth for the people to see.You remember thatmy great visioncametomewhenIwasonlynineyearsold,andyouhaveseen that Iwasnotmuch good for anything until after I had performed the horse dance near themouthoftheTongueRiverduringmyeighteenthsummer.Andifthegreatfearhadnotcomeuponme,asitdid,andforcedmetodomyduty,Imighthavebeenlessgoodtothepeoplethansomemanwhohadneverdreamedatall,evenwiththememoryofsogreatavisioninme.Butthefearcame,andifIhadnotobeyedit,Iamsureitwouldhavekilledmeinalittlewhile.Itwas even thenonly after theheyoka ceremony, inwhich I performedmy

dog vision, that I had the power to practice as a medicine man, curing sickpeople;andmanyIcuredwiththepowerthatcamethroughme.Ofcourseitwasnot I who cured. It was the power from the outerworld, and the visions andceremonieshadonlymademelikeaholethroughwhichthepowercouldcometothetwo-leggeds.IfIthoughtthatIwasdoingitmyself,theholewouldcloseup and no power could come through. Then everything I could do would befoolish. There were other parts of my great vision that I still had to performbeforeIcouldusethepowerthatwasinthoseparts.Ifyouthinkaboutmygreatvisionagain,youwillrememberhowtheredmanturnedintoabisonandrolled,and that the people found the good red road after that. If youwill read againwhatiswritten,youwillseehowitwas.1Tousethepowerofthebison,Ihadtoperformthatpartofmyvisionforthe

peopletosee.2 Itwasduringthesummerofmyfirstcure that thiswasdone.IcarriedthepipetoFoxBelly,awiseandgoodoldmedicineman,andaskedhimtohelpmedothisduty.Hewasgladtohelpme,butfirstIhadtotellhimhowitwasinthatpartofmyvision.Ididnottellhimallmyvision,onlythatpart.Ihadnever toldanyoneallof it,andevenuntilnownobodyeverheard itall.Evenmyold friend,StandingBear, andmysonherehaveheard itnowfor the first

timewhenIhavetoldittoyou.OfcoursetherewasverymuchinthevisionthatevenIcannottellwhenItryhard,becauseverymuchofitwasnotforwords.ButIhavetoldwhatcanbetold.3It hasmademe very sad to do this at last, and I have lain awake at night

worryingandwonderingifIwasdoingright;forIknowIhavegivenawaymypowerwhen Ihavegivenawaymyvision, andmaybe I cannot livevery longnow.ButIthinkIhavedonerighttosavethevisioninthisway,eventhoughImaydiesoonerbecauseIdidit;forIknowthemeaningofthevisioniswiseandbeautifulandgood;andyoucanseethatIamonlyapitifuloldmanafterall.4Well,ItoldFoxBellyallthatheneededtoknowthathemighthelpme.And

whenhehadheardevensolittle,hesaid:“Myboy,youhadagreatvision,andIcan see that it is your duty to help the peoplewalk the red road in amannerpleasingtothePowers.”Thisceremonywasnotalongone,butithadgreatmeaning,becauseitmade

apictureoftherelationbetweenthepeopleandthebison,andthepowerwasinthemeaning.Firstwemadeasacredplacelikeabisonwallowatthecenterofthenation’s

hoop,andtherewesetupthesacredtepee.5Insidethiswemadethecircleofthefourquarters.Across thecirclefromsouth tonorthwepaintedaredroad,andFoxBellymadelittlebisontracksallalongonbothsidesofit,meaningthatthepeopleshouldwalktherewiththepowerandenduranceofthebison,facingthegreatwhitecleansingwindoftheworld.Also,heplacedatthenorthendoftheroad the cup ofwater,which is the gift of thewest, so that the people,whileleaning against the great wind with the endurance of bison, would be goingtowardthewateroflife.Iwaspaintedredallover like themanofmyvisionbeforehe turned intoa

bison.Iworebisonhorns,andonthelefthornhungapieceofthedaybreak-starherb,whichbearsthefour-rayedflowerofunderstanding.OntheleftsideofmybodyIworeasingleeaglefeather,whichwasformypeople,hangingonthesideofthebisonandfeedingthere.OneSidehadcomeovertohelpmeinthisceremonytoo.Hewaspaintedred

allover,andhecarriedthedrumandthepipe,andwhereverIwent,hefollowed,asthepeoplefollowthebison.Westoodinsidethetepeeatthesouthendofthegoodredroad,andFoxBelly

sanglikethis:

“Revealingthis,theywalk.

Asacredherb—revealingit,theywalk.Revealingthis,theywalk.Thesacredlifeofbison—revealingit,theywalk.Revealingthis,theywalk.Asacredeaglefeather—revealingit,theywalk.Revealingthem,theywalk.Theeagleandthebison—likerelativestheywalk.”

Then,afterwehadwalkedtheredroad,OneSideandIwentoutofthetepeeandthepeopleflockedaroundus,andthesickcamewithscarletofferingstobecured.Wewentallaroundamongthepeople,actinglikebisonandmakingthesoundstheymake.Thenwereturnedtothetepee,andtherethepeoplebroughttheirlittlechildrentous,andtoeachIgavealittleofthewateroflifefromthewoodencup,thattheirfeetmightknowthegoodredroadthatleadstohealthandhappiness.It is fromunderstanding that power comes; and the power in the ceremony

wasinunderstandingwhatitmeant;fornothingcanlivewellexceptinamannerthatissuitedtothewaythesacredPoweroftheWorldlivesandmoves.After this,Iwentoncuringsickpeople,andIwasbusydoingthis.Iwasin

doubt no longer. I felt like aman, and I could feel the powerwithme all thetime.Itwasduringthenextsummer,whenIwasinmytwentiethyear(1883),thatI

performedtheelkceremony,asadutytothatpartofmygreatvision.6Youwillrememberhowthepipeandthebisonwereintheeastandtheelkinthesouth.Thisceremonyoftheelkwastorepresentthesourceoflifeandthemysteryof

growing.7IsentapipetoRunningElk,whowasStandingBear’suncleandagoodand

wiseoldman.Hecameandwaswillingtohelpme.Wesetupasacredtepeeatthecenterasbefore. Ihad tousesixelksandfourvirgins.Theelksareof thesouth,butthepowerthattheyrepresentedinmyvisionisnourishedbythefourquarters and from the sky and the earth; so therewere six of them. The fourvirginsrepresentedthelifeofthenation’shoop,whichhasfourquarters;sotherewerefourvirgins.RunningElkchosetwooftheelks,andI,whostoodbetweenthe Power of theWorld and the nation’s hoop,8 chose the four others, formydutywas to the lifeof thehoopon earth.The six elkmenwore complete elkhidesontheirbacksandovertheirheads.Theirlimbswerepaintedblackfromthekneeandelbowdown,andyellowfromthereup;for thegrowingpoweris

rooted in mystery like the night, and reaches lightward. Seeds sprout in thedarknessofthegroundbeforetheyknowthesummerandtheday.Inthenightofthewomb the spirit quickens into flesh.The fourvirginswore scarlet dresses,andeachhadasingleeaglefeatherinherbraidedhair;foroutofthewomanthepeople grows, and the eagle feather again was for the people as in the bisonceremony.Thefacesofthevirginswerepaintedyellow,thecolorof thesouth,thesourceoflife.Onehadadaybreakstarinreduponherforehead.Onehadacrescentmooninblue,forthepowerofwomangrowswiththemoonandcomesandgoeswithit.Onehadthesunuponherforehead;andaroundthemouthandeyebrowsofthefourthabigbluecirclewaspaintedtomeanthenation’shoop.Onthebackofeachoftheelkmenwaspaintedthenation’shoop,foruponthebacksofmenthenationiscarried,andinthecenterofeachhoophungasingleeaglefeatherforthepeople.Theyhadyellowmasksupontheirfaces,forbehindthe woman’s power of life is hidden the power of man. They all carriedfloweringstickscut from thesacred rustling tree (thecottonwood)with leavesleft at the top, and the sticks were painted red. Thewoman is the life of theflowering tree, but themanmust feed and care for it.One of the virgins alsocarried theflowering stick, another carried thepipewhichgivespeace, a thirdboretheherbofhealingandthefourthheldthesacredhoop;forallthesepowerstogetherarewomen’spower.9Of course, before any of this was done, those who were to take part were

purifiedinthesweatlodgeasalways.Wewereallinsidethesacredtepee,andRunningElksangthissong:

“Advancingtothequarters,Advancingtothequarters,Theyarecomingtobeholdyou.Advancingtothequarters,Advancingtothequarters,Theyarecomingtobeholdyou.”

Then the elkmenallmade the elk sound,unh,unh,unh.RunningElk thensangagain:

“Singing,IsendavoiceasIwalk.Singing,IsendavoiceasIwalk.AsacredhoopIwearasIwalk.”

Itwastimenowtocomeoutofthesacredtepee:firstcamethevirginwiththe

pipe;nextshewhoborethefloweringstick,thentheonewhoheldtheherb;andlast, thebearerof thenation’shoop.The fourvirgins stoodabreast, facing thewest.Thenwesixelkmencameout,snortingandstampingourfeet.Westoppedabreast, behind the virgins, who now held up the sacred things they carried,offering them to the thunder beings. When they had done this, they walkedabreasttothenorth,whileweelkmendancedaroundtheminacircle,andtheretheyofferedtheirsacredobjectstothegreatwhitecleansingwind.Inthesamewaywewenttotheeastandtothesouth,thevirginsmakingtheofferingateachplace,andweelkmendancingaroundtheminacircleallthewhile.Fromthesouth,thefourvirginsturnedstraightnorth,followingthegoodred

road to thecenterof thevillagewhere thesacred tepeestood,andweelkmenfollowed,dancingaroundthem,forthepowerofthemanencirclesandprotectsthepowerofthewoman.10Thefourmaidensenteredthetepee:first,shewiththesacredhoop;thenshe

who bore the flowering stick; next, the onewho held the cleansing herb; andafterher,thebearerofthepipe.Whentheyhadallentered,weelkmenfollowedintothetepee.This was the ceremony, and as I said before, the power of it was in the

understandingofitsmeaning;fornothingcanlivewellexceptinamannersuitedtothewaythePoweroftheWorldlivesandmovestodoitswork.11

19.

AcrosstheBigWater

AsItoldyou,itwasinthesummerofmytwentiethyear(1883)thatIperformedthe ceremony of the elk. That fall, they say, the last of the bison herds wasslaughteredbytheWasichus.Icanrememberwhenthebisonweresomanythattheycouldnotbecounted,butmoreandmoreWasichuscametokillthemuntiltherewereonlyheapsofbonesscatteredwheretheyusedtobe.TheWasichusdidnotkill them toeat; theykilled themfor themetal thatmakes themcrazy,andtheytookonlythehidestosell.Sometimestheydidnoteventakethehides,onlythetongues;andIhaveheardthatfire-boatscamedowntheMissouriRiverloadedwith dried bison tongues.You can see that themenwhodid thiswerecrazy.Sometimestheydidnoteventakethetongues;theyjustkilledandkilledbecause they liked todo that.Whenwehuntedbison,wekilledonlywhatweneeded.Andwhentherewasnothingleftbutheapsofbones,theWasichuscameandgatheredupeventhebonesandsoldthem.1Allourpeoplenowweresettlingdowninsquaregrayhouses,scatteredhere

and thereacross thishungry land,andaround them theWasichushaddrawnalinetokeepthemin.Thenation’shoopwasbroken,andtherewasnocenteranylongerforthefloweringtree.Thepeoplewereindespair.Theyseemedheavytome,heavyanddark;2 soheavy that it seemed theycouldnotbe lifted;sodarkthattheycouldnotbemadetoseeanymore.Hungerwasamongusoftennow,formuchofwhattheGreatFatherinWashingtonsentusmusthavebeenstolenbyWasichuswhowerecrazytogetmoney.Thereweremanylies,butwecouldnoteatthem.Theforkedtonguemadepromises.3Ikeptoncuringthesickforthreeyearsmore,andmanycametomeandwere

made over;4 but when I thought of my great vision, which was to save thenation’s hoop andmake the holy tree to bloom in the center of it, I felt likecrying,forthesacredhoopwasbrokenandscattered.Thelifeofthepeoplewasinthehoop,andwhataremanylittlelivesifthelifeofthoselivesbegone?5But late inmy twenty-thirdsummer (1886), it seemed that therewasa little

hope.TherecametoussomeWasichuswhowantedabandofOgalalasforabig

showthattheotherPahuska53fhad.Theytoldusthisshowwouldgoacrossthebigwater to strange lands, and I thought I ought to go, because Imight learnsome secretof theWasichu thatwouldhelpmypeople somehow. Inmygreatvision,whenIstoodat thecenterof theworld, the twomenfromtheeasthadbroughtmethedaybreak-starherbandtheyhadtoldmetodropitontheearth;andwhereittouchedthegroundittookrootandbloomedfour-rayed.Itwastheherb of understanding.Also, where the redman ofmy vision changed into abisonthatrolled,thesameherbgrewandbloomedwhenthebisonhadvanished,andafterthatthepeopleinmyvisionfoundthegoodredroadagain.MaybeifIcouldsee thegreatworldof theWasichu, Icouldunderstandhowtobring thesacredhooptogetherandmakethetreetobloomagainatthecenterofit.I lookedbackon thepastandrecalledmypeople’soldways,but theywere

notlivingthatwayanymore.Theyweretravelingtheblackroad,everybodyforhimselfandwithlittlerulesofhisown,asinmyvision.Iwasindespair,andIeven thought that if the Wasichus had a better way, then maybe my peopleshouldlivethatway.Iknownowthatthiswasfoolish,butIwasyoungandindespair.6MyrelativestoldmeIshouldstayathomeandgooncuringpeople,butIwouldnotlistentothem.7TheshowpeoplesentwagonsfromRushvilleontheironroadtogetus,and

wewereaboutahundredmenandwomen.Manyofourpeoplefollowedushalfway to the iron roadand therewecampedandate together.Afterwardwe leftourpeoplecryingthere,forweweregoingveryfaracrossthebigwater.Thateveningwherethebigwagonswerewaitingforusontheironroad,we

hadadance.Thenwegot into thewagons.Whenwestarted, itwasdark,andthinkingofmyhomeandmypeoplemademeverysad.Iwantedtogetoffandrunback.Butwewentroaringallnightlong,andinthemorningweateatLongPine. Thenwe started again andwent roaring all day and came to a very bigtownintheevening.54fThenweroaredalongallnightagainandcametoamuchbigger town.55f Therewe stayed all day and all night; and right there I couldcomparemypeople’swayswithWasichuways,and thismademesadder thanbefore.IwishedandwishedthatIhadnotgoneawayfromhome.Thenwewentroaringonagain,andafterwhilewecametoastillbiggertown

—averybigtown.56fWewalkedthroughthistowntotheplacewheretheshowwas.57f Some Pawnees and Omahas8 were there, and when they saw us theymade war-cries and charged, couping us. They were doing this for fun andbecausetheyfeltgladtoseeus.Iwassurprisedatthebighousesandsomany

people,andtherewerebrightlightsatnight,sothatyoucouldnotseethestars,andsomeoftheselights,Iheard,weremadewiththepowerofthunder.9Westayedthereandmadeshowsformany,manyWasichusall thatwinter.I

liked the part of the show we made, but not the part the Wasichus made.AfterwhileIgotusedtobeingthere,butIwaslikeamanwhohadneverhadavision.IfeltdeadandmypeopleseemedlostandI thoughtImightneverfindthem again. I did not see anything to help my people. I could see that theWasichusdidnotcareforeachotherthewayourpeopledidbeforethenation’shoopwasbroken.Theywouldtakeeverythingfromeachotheriftheycould,andso there were some who had more of everything than they could use, whilecrowds of people had nothing at all and maybe were starving. They hadforgottenthattheearthwastheirmother.10Thiscouldnotbebetterthantheoldways ofmy people. Therewas a prisoner’s house on an islandwhere the bigwatercameuptothetown,11andwesawthatoneday.Menpointedgunsattheprisonersandmadethemmovearoundlikeanimalsinacage.Thismademefeelverysad,becausemypeopletoowerepennedupinislands,andmaybethatwasthewaytheWasichusweregoingtotreatthem.Inthespringitgotwarmer,but theWasichushadeventhegrasspennedup.

Weheardthenthatweweregoingtocrossthebigwatertostrangelands.Someofour peoplewent homeandwantedme to gowith them,but I hadnot seenanything good for my people yet; maybe across the big water there wassomethingtosee,soIdidnotgohome,althoughIwassickandindespair.Theyputusallonaverybig fire-boat, sobig thatwhenI first saw, Icould

hardlybelieveit;andwhenitsentforthavoice,Iwasfrightened.12Therewereotherbigfire-boatssendingvoices,andlittleonestoo.AfterwhileIcouldseenothingbutwater,water,water,andwedidnotseemto

begoinganywhere,justupanddown;butweweretoldthatweweregoingfast.Ifwewere,Ithoughtthatwemustdropoffwherethewaterended;ormaybewemighthavetostopwheretheskycamedowntothewater.Therewasnothingbutmistwherethebigtownusedtobeandnothingbutwaterallaround.Wewereallindespairnowandmanywerefeelingsosickthattheybeganto

singtheirdeathsongs.Wheneveningcame,abigwindwasroaringandthewaterthundered.Wehad

things that weremeant to be hung upwhilewe slept in them. This I learnedafterward.Wedidnotknowwhattodowiththese,sowespreadthemoutonthefloor and lay down on them.The floor tipped in every direction, and this gotworse andworse, so that we rolled from one side to the other and could not

sleep. We were frightened, and now we were all very sick too. At first theWasichus laughedatus;butvery soonwecould see that theywere frightenedtoo,becausetheywererunningaroundandwereverymuchexcited.Ourwomenwere crying and even someof themencried, because itwas terrible and theycoulddonothing.AfterwhiletheWasichuscameandgaveusthingstotiearoundussothatwecouldfloat.Ididnotputontheonetheygaveme.Ididnotwanttofloat.Instead,Idressedfordeath,puttingonmybestclothesthatIworeintheshow, and then I sangmydeath song.Othersdressed fordeath too, and sang,becauseifitwastheendofourlivesandwecoulddonothing,wewantedtodiebrave.Wecouldnotfightthisthatwasgoingtokillus,butwecoulddiesothatourspiritrelativeswouldnotbeashamedofus.Everythingwehadeatencamerightup,andthenitkeptontryingtocomeupwhentherewasnothingthere.Wedidnotsleepatall,andinthemorningthewaterlookedlikemountains,

butthewindwasnotsostrong.Someofthebisonandelkthatwehadwithusfor theshowdied thatday,and theWasichus threwthemin thewater.WhenIsawthepoorbisonthrownover,Ifeltlikecrying,becauseIthoughtrighttheretheywerethrowingpartofthepowerofmypeopleaway.Afterwehadbeenon thefire-boata longwhile,wecouldseemanyhouses

andthenmanyotherfire-boatstiedclosetogetheralongthebank.13Wethoughtnowwecouldgetoffverysoon,butwecouldnot.Therewasa little fire-boatthathadcomethroughthegateofwatersanditstoppedbesideus,andthepeopleonitlookedateverythingonourfire-boatbeforewecouldgetoff.Wewentveryslowlynearlyallday,Ithink,andafterwhilewecametowherethereweremany,manyhousesclose together, andmore fire-boats thancouldbecounted.Thesehousesweredifferentfromwhatwehadseenbefore.TheWasichuskeptusonthefire-boatallnightand then theyunloadedus,and tookus toaplacewheretheshowwasgoingtobe.ThenameofthisverybigtownwasLondon.Wewereonlandnow,butwestillfeltdizzyasthoughwewerestillonwater,andatfirstitwashardtowalk.Westayed in thisplace sixmoons;andmany,manypeoplecame to see the

show.OnedayweweretoldthatMajestywascoming.Ididnotknowwhatthatwas

atfirst,butI learnedafterward.ItwasGrandmotherEngland(QueenVictoria),who owned Grandmother’s Land where we lived awhile after the WasichusmurderedCrazyHorse.Shecametotheshowinabigshiningwagon,andthereweresoldiersonboth

sidesofher, andmanyother shiningwagons came too.Thatdayotherpeople

couldnotcometotheshow—justGrandmotherEnglandandsomepeoplewhocamewithher.14Sometimeswehadtoshootintheshow,butthistimewedidnotshootatall.

We danced and sang, and I was one of the dancers chosen to do this for theGrandmother,becauseIwasyoungandlimberthenandcoulddancemanyways.Westoodright infrontofGrandmotherEngland.Shewaslittlebutfatandwelikedher,becauseshewasgoodtous.Afterwehaddanced,shespoketous.Shesaidsomethinglikethis:“Iamsixty-sevenyearsold.15AllovertheworldIhaveseenallkindsofpeople;butto-dayIhaveseenthebest-lookingpeopleIknow.Ifyoubelongedtome,Iwouldnotletthemtakeyouaroundinashowlikethis.”She said other good things too, and then she said we must come to see her,becauseshehadcometoseeus.Sheshookhandswithallofus.Herhandwasvery little and soft.Wegaveabig cheer forher, and then the shiningwagonscameinandshegotintooneofthemandtheyallwentaway.Inaboutahalf-moonafterthatwewenttoseetheGrandmother.Theyputus

in some of those shiningwagons and took us to a very beautiful placewheretherewasaverybighousewithsharp,pointed towerson it.Thereweremanyseats built high in a circle, and thesewere just full ofWasichuswhowere allpoundingtheirheelsandyelling:“Jubilee!Jubilee!Jubilee!”Ineverheardwhatthismeant.16Theyputustogether inacertainplaceat thebottomoftheseats.First there

appearedabeautifulblackwagonwithtwoblackhorses,anditwentallaroundtheshowplace.IheardthattheGrandmother’sgrandson,alittleboy,wasinthatwagon.Nextcameabeautifulblackwagonwithfourgrayhorses.Oneachofthetworighthandhorsestherewasarider,andamanwalked,holdingthefrontlefthand horse. I heard that some ofGrandmother’s relativeswere in thiswagon.Next cameeightbuckskinhorses, twoby two,pulling a shiningblackwagon.Therewasarideroneachright-handhorseandamanwalked,holdingthefrontlefthandhorse.Therewere soldiers,withbayonets, facingoutwardall aroundthiswagon.Nowallthepeopleintheseatswereroaringandyelling“Jubilee!”and“Victoria!”ThenwesawGrandmotherEnglandagain.Shewassittinginthebackofthewagonandtwowomensatinthefront,facingher.Herdresswasallshiningandherhatwasallshiningandherwagonwasallshiningandsowerethehorses.Shelookedlikeafirecoming.Afterward Iheard that therewasyellowandwhitemetalallover thehorses

andthewagon.Whenshecametowherewewere,herwagonstoppedandshestoodup.Then

allthosepeoplestoodupandroaredandbowedtoher;butshebowedtous.Wesentupagreatcryandourwomenmadethetremolo.Thepeopleinthecrowdweresoexcitedthatweheardsomeofthemgotsickandfellover.Thenwhenitwasquiet,wesangasongtotheGrandmother.Thatwasaveryhappytime.We liked Grandmother England, because we could see that she was a fine

woman, and shewas good to us.Maybe if she had been ourGrandmother, itwouldhavebeenbetterforourpeople.

20.

TheSpiritJourney

Yes,thatwasahappytime;butitwasallover.WewenttoManchesterandhadashowthereforseveralmoons.1Whentheshowwasgoingtoleaveveryearlynextmorning,threeotheryoung

menandmyselfgotlostinManchester,andthefire-boatwentawaywithoutus.2WecouldnottalktheWasichulanguageandwedidnotknowwhattodo,sowejustroamedaround.AfterwhilewefoundtwootherLakotaswhohadbeenleftbehind,andoneof thesecouldtalkEnglish.Hesaid ifwewent toLondonwecouldgetmoneyinanothershowthatwasthere,andthenwecouldgohome.Wewereallsicktogohome.SotheEnglish-talkergotsometicketswiththemoneyweallhadtogether,andwewenttoLondonontheironroad.TheshowwascalledMexicanJoe.3 Itwasasmallshow,but theygaveusa

dollareverydayforbeinginit.AfterwehadbeeninLondonawhile,MexicanJoetookustoParis,andwehadashowtherealongwhile.TherewasaWasichugirlwhocametotheshowveryoften.Shelikedmeandtookmehometoseeherfatherandmother.Theylikedmetooandweregoodtome.Icouldnottalktheirlanguage.Imadesigns,andthegirllearnedafewLakotawords.FromParis,wewentintoGermanyandfromtheretoaplacewheretheearth

wasburning.Therewasa tallbutte, shapedat the top likea tepee, and itwasburning up there. I heard that a long time ago a big town and many peopledisappearedintheearththere.4Iwasmoreandmoresick togohomeall the timenow,because ithadbeen

twowinterssinceIwentaway.Icouldnotthinkofanythingelse,andafterwhilethismademereallysick,butIthoughtIwouldhavetostaywiththeshowuntilIcouldgetmoneyenoughtogohome.MexicanJoetookusbacktoParis,butIcouldnotbeintheshowbecauseI

was so sick now. The girl I told you about took me home to her father andmother,andtheymademewell.ThenonemorningIdidgohomeforawhile.Thatmorning IhadonWasichuclothesandshoesandeverything.Theonly

differencewasthatmyhairwaslong.Itwasnotbraided,justhangingbackover

myshoulders. Iwasfeelingwellandwewere justsittingdowntoeat thefirstmeal.Thisgirl-friendofminewassittingbyme,andhermotherandfatherandtwosistersweresittingdowntoo.Aswesatthere,Ilookedupattheroofanditseemedtobemoving.Thehouse

wasgoingaroundupatthetop,andstretchingupwardasitwentaround.Icouldseethatwewereallrisingfastwiththewholehouse,anditwasturningaroundasit’rose.Thenacloudwascomingdownaswe’rose,andsuddenlyIwasonitandtheotherpeopleandthehousewerefallingbackawayfromme.Them I was alone on this cloud, and it was going fast. I clung to it hard,

because Iwas afraid Imight fall off. Far downbelow I could see houses andtownsandgreenlandandstreams,anditall lookedflat.ThenIwasrightoverthebigwater.Iwasnotafraidanymore,because,bynow,IknewIwasgoinghome.Itwasdark,andthenitwaslightagain,andIcouldseeabigtownbelowme,andIknewitwastheonewherewefirstgotonthebigfire-boat,andthatIwasinmyowncountryagain.Iwasveryhappynow.ThecloudandIkeptongoingvery fast, and I could see townsand streamsand townsandgreen land.ThenIbegantorecognizethecountrybelowme.IsawtheMissouriRiver.ThenI saw faroff theBlackHills and thecenterof theworldwhere the spiritshadtakenmeinmygreatvision.ThenIwasrightoverPineRidge,andthecloudstopped.Ilookeddownand

couldnotunderstandwhatIsaw,becauseitseemedthatnearlyallofmypeopleof the different bands were gathered together there in a big camp. I sawmyfather’sandmother’stepee.Theywereoutside,andshewascooking.Iwantedtojumpoffthecloudandbewiththem,butIwasafraiditwouldkillme.WhileIwas lookingdown,mymother lookedup,and I felt sureshesawme.But justthenthecloudstartedback,goingveryfast.Iwasverysad,butIcouldnotgetoff. There were streams and green land and towns going backward very fastbelowme.SoonthecloudandIweregoingrightovertheverybigtownagain.Thentherewasonlywaterunderme,andthenightcamewithoutstars;andIwasallaloneinablackworldandIwascrying.Butafterwhilesomelightbegantopeepinfaraheadofme.ThenIsawearthbeneathmeandtownsandgreenlandandhousesallflyingbackwards.Soonthecloudstoppedoverabigtown,andahousebegancominguptowardme,turningaroundandaroundasitcame.Whenittouchedthecloud,itcaughtmeandbegantodropdown,turningaroundandaroundwithme.Ittouchedtheground,andasittouchedIheardthegirl’svoice,andthenother

voicesoffrightenedpeople.

ThenIwaslyingonmybackinbedandthegirlandherfatherandhermotherandher twosistersandadoctorwerelookingatmeinaqueerway,as thoughtheywere frightened. TheEnglish-talker came from the show and he toldmehow it was. While I was sitting at breakfast, they said I had looked up andsmiled, and then Ihad fallen likedeadoutofmychair. Ihadbeendead threedays,exceptthatonceinawhileIwouldbreathejustalittle.Oftentheysaidtheycouldnotfeelmyheartatall.TheyweresureIwouldsoonbereallydead,andtheyweregettingreadytobuymycoffin.MaybeifIhadnotcomebacktolifethattime,theywouldhavegivenmea

goodcoffin;butasitis,Ithinkitwillbeonlyabox.I did not tell the people where I had been, because I knew they could not

believeme.Afewdaysafterthat,thesepeopleheardthatPahuskawasintownagain.5So

theytookmetowherehehadhisshow,andhewasgladtoseeme.Hehadallhispeoplegivemethreecheers.ThenheaskedmeifIwantedtobeintheshoworifIwantedtogohome.ItoldhimIwassicktogohome.Sohesaidhewouldfixthat.Hegavemeaticketandninetydollars.Thenhegavemeabigdinner.Pahuskahadastrongheart.Afterwhileapolicemancameandtoldmetogetmythings.Hetookmetotheironroad,andinthemorningIwasbythebigwaterandtheyputmeonanotherbigfire-boat.Wewereonthewatereightdays.Iwassickpartofthetime,butIwasnotsad,becauseIwasgoinghome.When the fire-boat was back at the big town in my own country again, I

startedrightawayontheironroad.It was early in the morning when we came to Rushville. There were no

Lakotasthereatall,buttherewasacoveredwagonwithmulesstartingoutforPineRidge,soIrodeinthewagon.WhenIgottoPineRidge,everythingwasjustasIhadseenitfromthecloud.

AlltheLakotaswerethere,asIhadseenthem,becausethatwastheyearofthetreaty (1889)when theWasichusbought somemoreofour land—all thatwasbetween the Smoky Earth (theWhite) andGoodRiver (theCheyenne). I hadbeen away nearly three years and knew nothing about this foolish thing untilthen.6Mymother’stepeewasrightwhereIhadseenitwhenIlookeddownfromthe

cloud,andotherpeoplewerecampedexactlywhereIsawthem.Myparentswereingreatjoytoseemeandmymothercriedbecauseshewas

sohappy. Icried too. Iwassupposed tobeamannow,but the tearscameoutanyway.Mymother toldmeshehaddreamedonenight inhersleepthatIhad

comebackonacloud,butcouldnotstay.SoItoldheraboutmyvision.

21.

TheMessiah

Therewashunger amongmypeoplebefore Iwent awayacross thebigwater,because theWasichus did not give us all the food they promised in theBlackHillstreaty.Theymadethattreatythemselves;ourpeopledidnotwantitanddidnotmakeit.YettheWasichuswhomadeithadgivenuslessthanhalfasmuchastheypromised.SothepeoplewerehungrybeforeIwentaway.But itwasworsewhen Icameback.Mypeople lookedpitiful.Therewasa

bigdrouth,andtheriversandcreeksseemedtobedying.Nothingwouldgrowthat thepeoplehadplanted,andtheWasichushadbeensendinglesscattleandotherfoodthaneverbefore.TheWasichushadslaughteredallthebisonandshutusupinpens.Itlookedasthoughwemightallstarvetodeath.Wecouldnoteatlies,andtherewasnothingwecoulddo.AndnowtheWasichushadmadeanother treaty to takeawayfromusabout

half the landwehad left.Ourpeopledidnotwant this treatyeither,butThreeStars58fcameandmade the treaty just thesame,because theWasichuswantedour land between the Smoky Earth and the Good River. So the flood ofWasichus,dirtywithbaddeeds,gnawedawayhalfoftheislandthatwaslefttous.WhenThreeStarscametokillusontheRosebud,CrazyHorsewhippedhimand drove him back. But when he came this time without any soldiers, hewhippedusanddroveusback.Wewerepennedupandcoulddonothing.1AllthetimeIwasawayfromthehomeacrossthebigwater,mypowerwas

gone,andIwaslikeadeadmanmovingaroundmostofthetime.Icouldhardlyremembermyvision,andwhenIdidremember,itseemedlikeadimdream.JustafterIcameback,somepeopleaskedmetocureasickperson,andIwas

afraidthepowerwouldnotcomebacktome;butitdid.SoIwentonhelpingthesick, and there weremany, for themeasles had come among the people whowerealreadyweakbecauseofhunger.Thereweremoresickpeoplethatwinterwhen the whooping cough came and killed little children who did not haveenoughtoeat.2Soitwas.Ourpeoplewerepitifulandindespair.

But early that summerwhen I came back from across the bigwater (1889)strange news had come from the west, and the people had been talking andtalkingaboutit.TheyweretalkingaboutitwhenIcamehome,andthatwasthefirstIhadheardofit.ThisnewscametotheOgalalasfirstofall,andIheardthatitcametousfromtheShoshonesandBlueClouds(Arapahoes).Somebelieveditandsomedidnotbelieve.Itwashardtobelieve;andwhenIfirstheardofit,Ithought it was only foolish talk that somebody had started somewhere. Thisnewssaidthatoutyonderinthewestataplacenearwherethegreatmountains(TheSierras) standbeforeyou come to thebigwater, therewas a sacredmanamongPaiuteswhohadtalkedtotheGreatSpiritinavision,andtheGreatSpirithadtoldhimhowtosavetheIndianpeoplesandmaketheWasichusdisappearandbringbackallthebisonandthepeoplewhoweredeadandhowtherewouldbeanewearth.3BeforeIcameback, thepeoplehadgot together to talkaboutthisandtheyhadsentthreemen,GoodThunder,BraveBearandYellowBreast,4toseethissacredmanwiththeirowneyesandlearnifthestoryabouthimwastrue.Sothesethreemenhadmadethelongjourneywest,andinthefallafterIcamehome,theyreturnedtotheOgalalaswithwonderfulthingstotell.TherewasabigmeetingattheheadofWhiteClayCreek,notfarfromPine

Ridge,whentheycameback,butIdidnotgoovertheretohear,becauseIdidnot yet believe. I thought maybe it was only the despair that made peoplebelieve,justasamanwhoisstarvingmaydreamofplentyofeverythinggoodtoeat.Ididnotgoovertothemeeting,butIheardalltheyhadtotell.Thesethree

men all said the same thing, and they were good men. They said that theytraveledfaruntiltheycametoagreatflatvalley59fnearthelastgreatmountainsbeforethebigwater,andtheretheysawtheWanekia,60fwhowasthesonoftheGreatSpirit,and they talked tohim.WasichuscalledhimJackWilson,buthisnamewasWovoka.Hetoldthemthattherewasanotherworldcoming,justlikea cloud. It would come in a whirlwind out of the west and would crush outeverythingonthisworld,whichwasoldanddying.Inthatotherworldtherewasplentyofmeat, just likeold times;and in thatworldall thedeadIndianswerealive,andallthebisonthathadeverbeenkilledwereroamingaroundagain.ThissacredmangavesomesacredredpaintandtwoeaglefeatherstoGood

Thunder.Thepeoplemust put this paint on their faces and theymust dance aghost dance that the sacredman taught toGood Thunder,YellowBreast, andBraveBear.Iftheydidthis,theycouldgetonthisotherworldwhenitcame,andtheWasichuswouldnotbeabletogeton,andsotheywoulddisappear.Whenhe

gave the two eagle feathers to Good Thunder, the sacredman said: “Receivethese eagle feathers and behold them, formy fatherwill cause these to bringyourpeoplebacktohim.”Thiswasallthatwasheardthewholewinter.When I heard this about the red paint and the eagle feathers and about

bringingthepeoplebacktotheGreatSpirit,itmademethinkhard.Ihadhadagreatvisionthatwastobringthepeoplebackintothenation’shoop,andmaybethissacredmanhadhadthesamevisionanditwasgoingtocometrue,sothatthepeoplewouldgetbackon the red road.Maybe Iwasnotmeant todo thismyself,butifIhelpedwiththepowerthatwasgivenme,thetreemightbloomagainandthepeopleprosper.Thiswasinmymindallthatwinter,butIdidnotknowwhatvisionthesacredmanouttherehadseen,andIwishedIcouldtalktohimand findout.Thiswas sittingdeeper inmymindeveryday, and itwas averybadwinter,withmuchhungerandsickness.Myfatherdiedinthefirstpartofthewinterfromthebadsicknessthatmany

peoplehad.Thismademeverysad.Everythinggoodseemedtobegoingaway.My younger brother and sister had died before I came home, and now I wasfatherlessinthisworld.ButIstillhadmymother.Iwasworkinginastore5fortheWasichus so that I could get something for her to eat, and I just kept onworkingthereandthinkingaboutwhatGoodThunder,YellowBreast,andBraveBearhadtold;butIdidnotfeelsureyet.During that winter the people wanted to hear somemore about this sacred

manandthenewworldcoming,sotheysentmoremenouttheretolearnwhattheycould.GoodThunderandYellowBreast,withtwoothers,wentfromPineRidge.6 Some went with them from other agencies, and two of these wereKickingBearandShortBull.Newscamebackfromthesemenastheytraveledwest,anditseemedthateverywherepeoplebelievedallthatwehadheard,andmore. Letters came back telling us this. I kept on working in the store andhelpingsickpeoplewithmypower.Thenitwasspring(1890),andIheardthatthesemenhadallcomebackfrom

thewestandthattheysaiditwasalltrue.Ididnotgotothismeetingeither,butIheardthegossipthatwaseverywherenow,andpeoplesaiditwasreallythesonoftheGreatSpiritwhowasoutthere;thatwhenhecametotheWasichusalongtimeago, theyhadkilledhim;buthewascomingtotheIndiansthis time,andtherewouldnotbeanyWasichusinthenewworldthatwouldcomelikeacloudinawhirlwindandcrushouttheoldearththatwasdying.Thistheysaidwouldhappenafteronemorewinter,whenthegrasseswereappearing(1891).

IheardmanywonderfulthingsabouttheWanekiathatthesemenhadseenandheard, and theywere goodmen.He couldmake animals talk, and oncewhiletheywerewithhimhemadeaspiritvision,andtheyallsawit.Theysawabigwater, andbeyond itwasabeautifulgreen landwhereall the Indians thathadever livedandthebisonandtheotheranimalswereallcominghometogether.ThentheWanekia,theysaid,madethevisiongoout,becauseitwasnotyettimeforthistohappen.Afteranotherwinteritwouldhappen,whenthegrasseswereappearing.Andonce,theysaid,theWanekiaheldouthishatforthemtolookinto;and

when they did this, all but one saw there the whole world and all that waswonderful.Butthatonecouldseeonlytheinsideofthehat,theysaid.7GoodThunderhimself toldme that,with thepowerof theWanekia,hehad

gone toabisonskin tepee;and therehisson,whohadbeendeada long time,waslivingwithhiswife,andtheyhadalongtalktogether.Thiswasnotlikemygreatvision,andI justwentonworkinginthestore.I

waspuzzledanddidnotknowwhattothink.Afterwhile Iheard thatnorthofPineRidgeat theheadofCheyenneCreek,

KickingBear had held the first ghost dance, and that peoplewho danced hadseentheirdeadrelativesandtalkedtothem.ThenextthingIheardwasthattheyweredancingonWoundedKneeCreekjustbelowManderson.I did not believe yet, but I wanted to find out things, because all this was

sitting more and more strongly in my heart since my father died. Somethingseemedtotellmetogoandsee.ForawhileIkeptfromgoing,butatlastIcouldnotanymore.SoIgotonmyhorseandwent to thisghostdanceonWoundedKneeCreekbelowManderson.Iwassurprised,andcouldhardlybelievewhatIsaw;becausesomuchofmy

vision seemed to be in it. The dancers, both women and men, were holdinghandsinabigcircle,andinthecenterofthecircletheyhadatreepaintedredwithmostofitsbranchescutoffandsomedeadleavesonit.8Thiswasexactlylike thepartofmyvisionwhere theholy treewasdying,and thecircleof themenandwomenholdinghandswaslikethesacredhoopthatshouldhavepowertomakethetreetobloomagain.Isawtoothatthesacredarticlesthepeoplehadofferedwerescarlet,asinmyvision,andalltheirfaceswerepaintedred.Also,theyusedthepipeandtheeaglefeathers.Isattherelookingonandfeelingsad.ItallseemedtobefrommygreatvisionsomehowandIhaddonenothingyettomakethetreetobloom.Thenallatoncegreathappinessovercameme,anditalltookholdofmeright

there.Thiswastoremindmetogettoworkatonceandhelptobringmypeopleback into thesacredhoop, that theymightagainwalk the red road inasacredmanner pleasing to the Powers of the Universe that are One Power.9 Irememberedhowthespiritshadtakenmetothecenteroftheearthandshownmethegoodthings,andhowmypeopleshouldprosper.IrememberedhowtheSixGrandfathershadtoldmethatthroughtheirpowerIshouldmakemypeoplelive and the holy tree should bloom. I believedmyvisionwas coming true atlast,andhappinessovercameme.When Iwent to the dance, Iwent only to see and to learnwhat the people

believed;butnowIwasgoingtostayandusethepowerthathadbeengivenme.The dancewas over for that day, but theywould dance again next day, and Iwoulddancewiththem.

22.

VisionsoftheOtherWorld

So I dressed myself in a sacred manner,1 and before the dance began nextmorningIwentamongthepeoplewhowerestandingaroundthewitheredtree.GoodThunder,whowasarelativeofmyfatherand latermarriedmymother,2puthisarmsaroundmeandtookmetothesacredtreethathadnotbloomed,andthereheofferedupaprayer forme.Hesaid:“Father,GreatSpirit,behold thisboy!Yourwaysheshallsee!”Thenhebegantocry.Ithoughtofmyfatherandmybrotherandsisterwhohadleftus,andIcould

notkeepthetearsfromrunningoutofmyeyes.Iraisedmyfaceuptokeepthemback,buttheycameoutjustthesame.Icriedwithmywholeheart,andwhileIcriedIthoughtofmypeopleindespair.Ithoughtofmyvision,andhowitwaspromisedmethatmypeopleshouldhaveaplaceinthisearthwheretheycouldbehappyeveryday.Ithoughtofthemonthewrongroadnow,butmaybetheycouldbebroughtbackintothehoopagainandtothegoodroad.Under the tree thatneverbloomedIstoodandcriedbecauseithadwithered

away.WithtearsonmyfaceIaskedtheGreatSpirittogiveitlifeandleavesandsingingbirds,asinmyvision.Then there came a strong shivering all overmy body, and I knew that the

powerwasinme.Good Thunder now took one of my arms, Kicking Bear the other, and we

begantodance.Thesongwesangwaslikethis:

“Whodoyouthinkheisthatcomes?Itisonewhoseekshismother!”3

Itwaswhat thedeadwouldsingwhenentering theotherworldand lookingfortheirrelativeswhohadgonetherebeforethem.4AsIdanced,withGoodThunderandKickingBearholdingmyarmsbetween

them,IhadthequeerfeelingthatIknewandIseemedtobeliftedclearofftheground.Ididnothaveavisionallthatfirstday.ThatnightIthoughtabouttheotherworldandthattheWanekiahimselfwaswithmypeoplethereandmaybe

theholytreeofmyvisionwasreallybloomingyonderrightthen,andthatitwastheremyvisionhadalreadycometrue.FromthecenteroftheearthIhadbeenshownallgoodandbeautiful things inagreat circleofpeace, andmaybe thislandofmyvisionwaswhere allmypeopleweregoing, and there theywouldliveandprosperwherenoWasichuswereorcouldeverbe.Beforewe started dancing next day,KickingBear offered a prayer, saying:

“Father,GreatSpirit,beholdthesepeople!Theyshallgoforthto-daytoseetheirrelatives,andyondertheyshallbehappy,dayafterday,andtheirhappinesswillnotend.”Then we began dancing, and most of the people wailed and cried as they

danced, holding hands in a circle; but some of them laughedwith happiness.Now and then some one would fall down like dead, and others would gostaggering around and panting before they would fall.While they were lyingthere likedead theywerehavingvisions,andwekeptondancingandsinging,andmanywerecryingfortheoldwayoflivingandthattheoldreligionmightbewiththemagain.5After awhile I began to feel veryqueer.First,my legs seemed tobe full of

ants.Iwasdancingwithmyeyesclosed,astheothersdid.Suddenlyitseemedthat Iwas swinging off the ground and not touching it any longer. The queerfeelingcameupfrommylegsandwasinmyheartnow.ItseemedIwouldglideforward like a swing, and then glide back again in longer and longer swoops.Therewasnofearwiththis,justagrowinghappiness.Imusthavefallendown,butIfeltasthoughIhadfallenoffaswingwhenit

wasgoingforward,andIwasfloatingheadfirstthroughtheair.6Myarmswerestretchedout,andallIsawatfirstwasasingleeaglefeatherrightinfrontofme.Then the featherwas a spotted eagle dancing on ahead ofmewith hiswingsfluttering, and he was making the shrill whistle that is his.My body did notmoveatall,butIlookedaheadandfloatedfasttowardwhereIlooked.Therewasaridgerightinfrontofme,andIthoughtIwasgoingtorunintoit,

butIwentrightoverit.OntheothersideoftheridgeIcouldseeabeautifullandwheremany,manypeoplewerecampinginagreatcircle.Icouldseethattheywere happy and had plenty.Everywhere therewere drying racks full ofmeat.The air was clear and beautiful with a living light that was everywhere. Allaroundthecircle,feedingonthegreen,greengrass,werefatandhappyhorses;and animals of all kinds were scattered all over the green hills, and singinghunterswerereturningwiththeirmeat.Ifloatedoverthetepeesandbegantocomedownfeetfirstatthecenterofthe

hoopwhere I could see a beautiful tree all green and full of flowers.When Itouchedtheground,twomenwerecomingtowardme,andtheyworeholyshirtsmadeandpaintedinacertainway.Theycametomeandsaid:“Itisnotyettimeto see your father, who is happy. You have work to do. We will give yousomethingthatyoushallcarrybacktoyourpeople,andwithittheyshallcometoseetheirlovedones.”Iknewitwasthewaytheirholyshirtsweremadethattheywantedmetotake

back.Theytoldmetoreturnatonce,andthenIwasoutintheairagain,floatingfastasbefore.WhenIcamerightover thedancingplace, thepeoplewerestilldancing,butitseemedtheywerenotmakinganysound.Ihadhopedtoseethewitheredtreeinbloom,butitwasdead.ThenIfellbackintomybody,andasIdidthisIheardvoicesallaroundand

aboveme,andIwassittingontheground.Manywerecrowdingaround,askingmewhatvisionIhadseen.ItoldthemjustwhatIhadseen,andwhatIbroughtbackwasthememoryoftheholyshirtsthetwomenwore.ThateveningsomeofusgottogetheratBigRoad’stepeeanddecidedtouse

theghostshirtsIhadseen.SothenextdayImadeghostshirtsalldaylongandpainted them in the sacred manner of my vision.7 As I made these shirts, Ithought how in my vision everything was like old times and the tree wasflowering,butwhen I cameback the treewasdead.And I thought that if thisworldwoulddoasthevisionteaches,thetreecouldbloomheretoo.Imade the first shirt forAfraid-of-Hawkand the second for the sonofBig

Road.IntheeveningImadeasacredsticklikethatIhadseeninmyfirstvisionand

painteditredwiththesacredpaintoftheWanekia.8OnthetopofitItiedoneeaglefeather,andthisIcarriedinthedanceafterthat,wearingtheholyshirtasIhadseenit.BecauseofmyvisionandthepowertheyknewIhad,Iwasaskedtoleadthe

dancenextmorning.Weallstoodinastraightline,facingthewest,andIprayed:“Father,GreatSpirit,beholdme!ThenationthatIhaveisindespair.9Thenewearthyoupromisedyouhaveshownme.Letmynationalsobeholdit.”Aftertheprayerwestoodwithourrighthandsraisedtothewest,andweall

began toweep, and right there, as theywept, someof them faintedbefore thedancebegan.AsweweredancingIhadthesamequeerfeelingIhadbefore,asthoughmy

feet were off the earth and swinging. Kicking Bear and Good Thunder wereholding my arms. Afterwhile it seemed they let go of me, and once more I

floated head first, face down, with arms extended, and the spotted eagle wasdancing there ahead of me again, and I could hear his shrill whistle and hisscream.Isawtheridgeagain,andasInearedittherewasadeep,rumblingsound,and

outofitthereleapedaflame.ButIglidedrightoverit.Thereweresixvillagesahead ofme in the beautiful land thatwas all clear and green in living light.OvertheseinturnIglided,comingdownonthesouthsideofthesixthvillage.And as I touched the ground, twelvemenwere coming towardsme, and theysaid:“OurFather,thetwo-leggedchief,youshallsee!”ThentheyledmetothecenterofthecirclewhereoncemoreIsawtheholy

treeallfullofleavesandblooming.ButthatwasnotallIsaw.Againstthetreetherewasamanstandingwitharms

heldwideinfrontofhim.Ilookedhardathim,andIcouldnottellwhatpeoplehecamefrom.10HewasnotaWasichuandhewasnotanIndian.Hishairwaslongandhangingloose,andontheleftsideofhisheadheworeaneaglefeather.Hisbodywasstrongandgoodtosee,anditwaspaintedred.Itriedtorecognizehim,butIcouldnotmakehimout.Hewasaveryfine-lookingman.WhileIwasstaringhardathim,hisbodybegantochangeandbecameverybeautifulwithallcolorsoflight,andaroundhimtherewaslight.Hespokelikesinging:“Mylifeissuchthatallearthlybeingsandgrowingthingsbelongtome.Yourfather,theGreatSpirit,hassaidthis.Youtoomustsaythis.”Thenhewentoutlikealightinawind.11Thetwelvemenwhoweretherespoke:“Beholdthem!Yournation’slifeshall

besuch!”I sawagainhowbeautiful thedaywas—the sky all blue and full of yellow

lightabovethegreeningearth.AndIsawthatallthepeoplewerebeautifulandyoung.Therewerenooldonesthere,norchildreneither—justpeopleofaboutoneage,andbeautiful.Thenthereweretwelvewomenwhostoodinfrontofmeandspoke:“Behold

them!Theirwayoflifeyoushalltakebacktoearth.”Whentheyhadspoken,Iheardsinginginthewest,andIlearnedthesongIheard.Thenoneofthetwelvementooktwosticks,onepaintedwhiteandonered,12

and,thrustingthemintheground,hesaid:“Takethese!Youshalldependuponthem.Makehaste!”Istartedtowalk,anditseemedasthoughastrongwindwentundermeand

pickedmeup.Iwasintheair,withoutstretchedarms,andfloatingfast.Therewas a fearful dark river that I had to go over, and Iwas afraid. It rushed and

roaredandwasfullofangryfoam.ThenIlookeddownandsawmanymenandwomenwhoweretryingtocrossthedarkandfearfulriver,buttheycouldnot.Weeping, they looked up to me and cried: “Help us!” But I could not stopgliding,foritwasasthoughagreatwindwereunderme.ThenI sawmyearthlypeopleagainat thedancingplace,andfellback into

mybodylyingthere.AndIwassittingup,andpeoplewerecrowdingaroundmetoaskwhatvisionIhadseen.I told my vision through songs, and the older men explained them to the

others.Isangasong, thewordsofwhichwerethosetheWanekiaspokeunderthefloweringtree,andtheairofitwasthatwhichIheardintheWestafterthetwelvewomenhadspoken.Isangitfourtimes,andthefourthtimeallthepeoplebegan to weep together because the Wasichus had taken the beautiful worldawayfromus.Ithoughtandthoughtaboutthisvision.Thesixvillagesseemedtorepresent

theSixGrandfathers that I had seen long ago in theFlamingRainbowTepee,and I had gone to the sixth village, whichwas for the SixthGrandfather, theSpiritoftheEarth,becauseIwastostandforhimintheworld.IwonderediftheWanekiamightbetheredmanofmygreatvision,13whoturnedintoabison,andthenintothefour-rayedherb,thedaybreak-starherbofunderstanding.Ithoughtthetwelvemenandtwelvewomenwereforthemoonsoftheyear.

23.

BadTroubleComing

Whilethesethingswerehappening,thesummer(1890)wasgettingold.Ididnotthenknowall thatwasgoingon at other places, but some things I heard, andmuchmoreIheardlater.WhenGoodThunderandKickingBearcamebackinthespringfromseeing

theWanekia,theWasichusatPineRidgeputtheminprisonawhile,andthenletthemgo.Thisshowed theWasichuswereafraidofsomething. In theMoonofBlack Cherries (August) many people were dancing at NoWater’s Camp onClayCreek,1andtheagentcameandtoldthemtostopdancing.Theywouldnotstop,and theysaid theywould fight for their religion if theyhad todo it.Theagent went away, and they kept on dancing. They called him Young-Man-Afraid-of-Lakotas.2Later,Iheardthat theBrulesweredancingovereastofus;andthenIheard

thatBig Foot’s peoplewere dancing on theGoodRiver reservation; also thatKicking Bear had gone to Sitting Bull’s camp on Grand River, and that thepeopleweredancingtheretoo.WordcametousthattheIndianswerebeginningtodanceeverywhere.Thepeoplewerehungryandindespair,andmanybelievedin thegoodnew

worldthatwascoming.TheWasichusgaveuslessthanhalfthebeefcattletheypromisedusinthetreaty,andthesecattlewereverypoor.Forawhileourpeoplewouldnot takethecattle,becausethereweresofewof themandtheyweresopoor.Butafterwhiletheyhadtotakethemorstarvetodeath.Sowegotmoreliesthan cattle, andwe could not eat lies.When the agent told the people to quitdancing,theirheartswerebad.3From the dancing onWounded Knee I went over to the Brules, who were

campingonCutMeatCreekatthistime,andItookwithmesixshirtslikethoseIhadseenthetwelvemenwearinginmyvision,andsixdresseslikethetwelvewomenwore.IgavethesetotheBrulesandtheymadeothersforthemselves.Wedancedthere,andanothervisioncametome.IsawaFlamingRainbow,

liketheoneIhadseeninmyfirstgreatvision.Belowtherainbowwasatepee

madeofcloud.4Overmetherewasaspottedeaglesoaring,andhesaidtome:“Rememberthis.”ThatwasallIsawandheard.Ihavethoughtmuchaboutthissince,andIhavethoughtthatthiswaswhereI

made my great mistake. I had had a very great vision, and I should havedepended only upon that to guide me to the good. But I followed the lesservisionsthathadcometomewhiledancingonWoundedKneeCreek.ThevisionoftheFlamingRainbowwastowarnme,maybe;andIdidnotunderstand.IdidnotdependuponthegreatvisionasIshouldhavedone;IdependeduponthetwosticksthatIhadseeninthelesservision.Itishardtofollowonegreatvisioninthisworldofdarknessandofmanychangingshadows.Among thoseshadowsmengetlost.5WhenIcamebackfromtheBrules,theweatherwasgettingcold.Manyofthe

BrulescamealongwhenIcameback,andjoinedtheOgalalasinthedancingonWoundedKnee.6WeheardthatthereweresoldiersatPineRidgeandthatotherswere coming all the time. Then onemorningwe heard that the soldiersweremarchingtowardus,7sowebrokecampandmovedwesttoGrassCreek.FromtherewewenttoWhiteClayandcampedawhileanddanced.TherecametousFireThunder,RedWound8andYoungAmericanHorsewith

amessagefromthesoldiersthatthismatteroftheghostdancemustbelookedinto,andthatthereshouldberulingsoverit;andthattheydidnotmeantotakethedanceawayfromus.ButcouldwebelieveanythingtheWasichuseversaidtous?Theyspokewithforkedtongues.9WemovedinclosertoPineRidgeandcamped.Manysoldiersweretherenow,

andwhatweretheytherefor?Therewasabigmeetingwiththeagent,butIdidnotgotohear.Hemadea

ruling thatwecoulddance threedayseverymoon,and therestof the timeweshouldgoandmakealivingforourselvessomehow.10Hedidnotsayhowwecoulddothat.Butthepeopleagreedtothis.Thenextday,whileIwassittinginatepeewithGoodThunder,apoliceman

cametousandsaid:“Iwasnotsenthere,butIcameforyourgoodtotellyouwhatIhaveheard—thattheyaregoingtoarrestyoutwo.”11GoodThunderthoughtweoughttogototheBrules,whohadabigcampon

WoundedKneebelowManderson.Sothateveningwesaddledandstarted.Wecame through Pepper Creek and White Horse Creek to Wounded Knee andfolloweditdowntotheBrulecamp.Theyweregladtoseeus.In the morning the crier went around and called a meeting. I spoke to the

Brules,andthisiswhatIsaid:“Myrelatives,thereisacertainthingthatwehavedone.Fromthatcertainsacred thing,wehavehadvisions. In thosevisionswehaveseen,andalsowehaveheard, thatourrelativeswhohavegonebeforeusare in theOtherWorld that has been revealed to us, and thatwe too shall gothere.TheyarerightnowwiththeWanekia.IftheWasichuswanttofightus,letthem do it. Have in your minds a strong desire, and take courage. We mustdependuponthedepartedoneswhoareinthenewworldthatiscoming.”MoreBrulescametherefromPorcupineandMedicineRootcreeks,andweall

broke camp, moving down the Wounded Knee to Smoky Earth River (theWhite).ThereaBlackRobe(CatholicPriest)cameandtriedtocoaxustoreturn.OurpeopletoldhimthatWasichupromiseswerenogood;thateverythingtheyhadpromisedwasalie.OnlyafewOgalalasturnedbackwiththeBlackRobe.HewasagoodmanandhewasbadlywoundedthatwinterinthebutcheringofBigFoot’sband.Hewasaverygoodman,andnotliketheotherWasichus.61fFromSmokyEarthRiverwemovedtoHighPockets’placesouthwestofthe

TopoftheBadlands.62fWhilewewerethere,AmericanHorseandFastThundercametous.Theywerebothchiefs,andtheycametobringusintoPineRidge.Wehadtoobey.TheBruleswouldnotobeyandtriedtokeepusfromgoing.12Theystruckus,andtherewasquiteastruggleforawhile;butwewentanyway,becausewehad togo.13KickingBearstayedwith theBrules that time,buthecameintoPineRidgealittlelater.AveryfewoftheBruleswentalongwithus.We camped onWhite River, then onWhite Clay, then on Cheyenne Creek

northofPineRidge.MostoftheOgalalaswerecampingneartheretoo.Itwasaboutthistimethatbadnewscametousfromthenorth.Weheardthat

somepolicemen fromStandingRockhadgone toarrestSittingBullonGrandRiver,and thathewouldnot let them takehim;so therewasa fight,and theykilledhim.14Itwas nownear the end of theMoon of PoppingTrees, and Iwas twenty-

sevenyears old (December, 1890).Weheard thatBigFootwas comingdownfromtheBadlandswithnearlyfourhundredpeople.15SomeofthesewerefromSittingBull’sband.TheyhadrunawaywhenSittingBullwaskilled,andjoinedBigFootonGoodRiver.Therewereonlyaboutahundredwarriorsinthisband,andall theotherswerewomenandchildrenandsomeoldmen.Theywereallstarvingandfreezing,andBigFootwassosickthattheyhadtobringhimalonginaponydrag.63fTheyhadallrunawaytohideintheBadlands,andtheywerecoming in now because they were starving and freezing. When they crossed

SmokyEarthRiver,theyfollowedupMedicineRootCreektoitshead.Soldierswere over there looking for them. The soldiers had everything and were notfreezing and starving. Near Porcupine Butte the soldiers came up to the BigFoots,andtheysurrenderedandwentalongwiththesoldierstoWoundedKneeCreekwheretheBrenanstore16isnow.Itwas in the eveningwhenwe heard that theBigFootswere camped over

therewiththesoldiers,aboutfifteenmilesbytheoldroadfromwherewewere.Itwasthenextmorning(December29,1890)thatsomethingterriblehappened.

24.

TheButcheringatWoundedKnee

Thateveningbeforeithappened,IwentintoPineRidgeandheardthesethings,andwhileIwasthere,soldiersstartedforwheretheBigFootswere.Thesemadeabout five hundred soldiers that were there next morning. When I saw themstarting I felt that something terriblewas going to happen. That night I couldhardlysleepatall.Iwalkedaroundmostofthenight.In the morning I went out after my horses, and while I was out I heard

shootingofftowardtheeast,andIknewfromthesoundthatitmustbewagon-guns(cannon)goingoff.1Thesoundswentrightthroughmybody,andIfeltthatsomethingterriblewouldhappen.WhenIreachedcampwiththehorses,amanrodeuptomeandsaid:“Hey-

hey-hey!Thepeoplethatarecomingarefiredon!Iknowit!”Isaddledupmybuckskinandputonmysacredshirt.ItwasoneIhadmadeto

bewornbynoonebutmyself.Ithadaspottedeagleoutstretchedonthebackofit,andthedaybreakstarwasontheleftshoulder,becausewhenfacingsouththatshoulderistowardtheeast.Acrossthebreast,fromtheleftshouldertotherighthip,was theflamingrainbow,and therewasanother rainbowaround theneck,likeanecklace,withastaratthebottom.Ateachshoulder,elbow,andwristwasaneaglefeather;andoverthewholeshirtwereredstreaksoflightning.Youwillseethatthiswasfrommygreatvision,andyouwillknowhowitprotectedmethatday.Ipaintedmyfaceallred,andinmyhairIputoneeaglefeatherfortheOne

Above.Itdidnot takeme long toget ready, for I could still hear the shootingover

there.IstartedoutaloneontheoldroadthatranacrossthehillstoWoundedKnee.I

hadnogun.IcarriedonlythesacredbowofthewestthatIhadseeninmygreatvision.2Ihadgoneonlyalittlewaywhenabandofyoungmencamegallopingafterme.ThefirsttwowhocameupwereLovesWarandIronWasichu.Iaskedwhattheyweregoingtodo,andtheysaidtheywerejustgoingtoseewherethe

shootingwas.Thenotherswerecomingup,andsomeoldermen.We rode fast, and there were about twenty of us now. The shooting was

gettinglouder.Ahorsebackfromovertherecamegallopingveryfasttowardus,andhe said: “Hey-hey-hey!Theyhavemurderedhim!”3ThenhewhippedhishorseandrodeawayfastertowardPineRidge.Inalittlewhilewehadcometothetopoftheridgewhere,lookingtotheeast,

youcanseeforthefirsttimethemonumentandtheburyinggroundonthelittlehillwherethechurchis.Thatiswheretheterriblethingstarted.Justsouthoftheburyinggroundonthelittlehilladeepdrygulchrunsabouteastandwest,verycrooked,anditriseswestwardtonearlythetopoftheridgewherewewere.Ithadnoname,buttheWasichussometimescallitBattleCreeknow.Westoppedontheridgenotfarfromtheheadofthedrygulch.Wagongunswerestillgoingoff over there on the little hill, and theywere going off againwhere they hitalong thegulch.Therewasmuchshootingdownyonder,and thereweremanycries, and we could see cavalrymen scattered over the hills ahead of us.Cavalrymenwereridingalongthegulchandshootingintoit,wherethewomenandchildrenwererunningawayandtryingtohideinthegulliesandthestuntedpines.Alittlewayaheadofus,justbelowtheheadofthedrygulch,thereweresome

womenandchildrenwhowerehuddledunderaclaybank,andsomecavalrymenweretherepointinggunsatthem.We stopped back behind the ridge, and I said to the others: “Take courage.

Theseareourrelatives.Wewilltrytogetthemback.”Thenweallsangasongwhichwentlikethis:

“AthunderbeingnationIam,Ihavesaid.AthunderbeingnationIam,Ihavesaid.Youshalllive.Youshalllive.Youshalllive.Youshalllive.”

ThenIrodeovertheridgeandtheothersafterme,andwewerecrying:“Takecourage!Itistimetofight!”Thesoldierswhowereguardingourrelativesshotatusandthenranawayfast,andsomemorecavalrymenontheothersideof thegulch did too. We got our relatives and sent them across the bridge to thenorthwestwheretheywouldbesafe.Ihadnogun,andwhenwewerecharging,I justheldthesacredbowout in

frontofmewithmyrighthand.Thebulletsdidnothitusatall.Wefoundalittlebabylyingallaloneneartheheadofthegulch.Icouldnot

pickherup just then,butIgother laterandsomeofmypeopleadoptedher. Ijustwrappedheruptighterinashawlthatwasaroundherandleftherthere.Itwasasafeplace,andIhadotherworktodo.The soldiers had run eastward over the hills where there were some more

soldiers,andtheywereofftheirhorsesandlyingdown.Itoldtheotherstostayback,andIchargeduponthemholdingthesacredbowouttowardthemwithmyrighthand.Theyallshotatme,andIcouldhearbulletsallaroundme,butIranmyhorserightclosetothem,andthenswungaround.Somesoldiersacrossthegulchbeganshootingatmetoo,butIgotbacktotheothersandwasnothurtatall.By nowmany otherLakotas,who had heard the shooting,were coming up

fromPineRidge,andweallchargedonthesoldiers.Theyraneastwardtowardwherethetroublebegan.Wefolloweddownalongthedrygulch,andwhatwesawwasterrible.Deadandwoundedwomenandchildrenandlittlebabieswerescatteredall along therewhere theyhadbeen trying to runaway.The soldiershad followed along the gulch, as they ran, and murdered them in there.Sometimes they were in heaps because they had huddled together, and somewerescatteredallalong.Sometimesbunchesofthemhadbeenkilledandtorntopieces where the wagon guns hit them. I saw a little baby trying to suck itsmother,butshewasbloodyanddead.4

Thereweretwolittleboys5atoneplaceinthisgulch.Theyhadgunsandtheyhadbeenkillingsoldiersallbythemselves.Wecouldseethesoldiers theyhadkilled.Theboyswereall alone thereand theywerenothurt.Thesewereverybravelittleboys.Whenwedrove thesoldiersback, theydug themselves in,andwewerenot

enoughpeopletodrivethemoutfromthere.IntheeveningtheymarchedoffupWoundedKneeCreek,andthenwesawallthattheyhaddonethere.Menandwomenandchildrenwereheapedandscatteredallovertheflatatthe

bottomofthelittlehillwherethesoldiershadtheirwagon-guns,andwestwardupthedrygulchallthewaytothehighridge,thedeadwomenandchildrenandbabieswerescattered.When I saw this I wished that I had died too, but I was not sorry for the

womenandchildren.Itwasbetterforthemtobehappyintheotherworld,andIwanted to be there too. But before I went there I wanted to have revenge. Ithoughttheremightbeaday,andweshouldhaverevenge.

Afterthesoldiersmarchedaway,Iheardfrommyfriend,DogChief,howthetroublestarted,andhewasrighttherebyYellowBirdwhenithappened.Thisisthewayitwas:In the morning the soldiers began to take all the guns away from the Big

Foots,whowerecamped in the flatbelow the littlehillwhere themonument6and burying ground are now. The people had stackedmost of their guns, andeventheirknives,bythetepeewhereBigFootwaslyingsick.Soldierswereonthelittlehillandallaround,andthereweresoldiersacrossthedrygulchtothesouth and over east alongWoundedKneeCreek too. The peoplewere nearlysurrounded,andthewagon-gunswerepointingatthem.Somehadnotyetgivenuptheirguns,andsothesoldiersweresearchingall

thetepees,throwingthingsaroundandpokingintoeverything.TherewasamancalledYellowBird,andheandanothermanwerestandinginfrontofthetepeewhereBigFootwas lying sick.Theyhadwhite sheets around andover them,witheyeholestolookthrough,andtheyhadgunsunderthese.Anofficercameto search them.He took the otherman’s gun, and then started to takeYellowBird’s.ButYellowBirdwouldnotletgo.Hewrestledwiththeofficer,andwhiletheywerewrestling,thegunwentoffandkilledtheofficer.7Wasichusandsomeothershavesaidhemeanttodothis,butDogChiefwasstandingrightthere,andhe toldme itwasnot so.Assoonas thegunwentoff,DogChief toldme,anofficershotandkilledBigFootwhowaslyingsickinsidethetepee.Then suddenly nobody knew what was happening, except that the soldiers

were all shooting and the wagon-guns began going off right in among thepeople.Manywereshotdownrightthere.Thewomenandchildrenranintothegulch

andupwest,droppingallthetime,forthesoldiersshotthemastheyran.Therewereonlyaboutahundredwarriorsandtherewerenearlyfivehundredsoldiers.Thewarriorsrushedtowheretheyhadpiledtheirgunsandknives.Theyfoughtsoldierswithonlytheirhandsuntiltheygottheirguns.DogChiefsawYellowBirdrunintoatepeewithhisgun,andfromtherehe

killedsoldiersuntilthetepeecaughtfire.Thenhediedfullofbullets.8Itwasagoodwinterdaywhenall thishappened.Thesunwas shining.But

after the soldiersmarchedaway from theirdirtywork,aheavysnowbegan tofall.Thewindcameupinthenight.Therewasabigblizzard,anditgrewverycold.Thesnowdrifteddeepinthecrookedgulch,anditwasonelonggraveofbutcheredwomenandchildrenandbabies,whohadneverdoneanyharmandwereonlytryingtorunaway.9

25.

TheEndoftheDream

After the soldiers marched away, Red Crow and I started back toward PineRidgetogether,andItookthelittlebabythatItoldyouabout.RedCrowhadonetoo.WeweregoingbacktoPineRidge,becausewethoughttherewaspeaceback

home; but it was not so. While we were gone, there was a fight around theAgency, andour people had all gone away.1Theyhadgone away so fast thattheyleftallthetepeesstanding.ItwasnearlydarkwhenwepassednorthofPineRidgewherethehospitalis

now,andsomesoldiersshotatus,butdidnothitus.Werodeintothecamp,anditwasallempty.Wewereveryhungrybecausewehadnoteatenanythingsinceearlymorning,sowepeepedintothetepeesuntilwesawwheretherewasapotwith papa (driedmeat) cooked in it.We sat down in there and began to eat.Whileweweredoingthis,thesoldiersshotatthetepee,andabulletstruckrightbetweenRedCrowandme.Itthrewdustinthesoup,butwekeptrightoneatinguntilwehadour fill.Thenwe took thebabiesandgotonourhorsesand rodeaway.Ifthatbullethadonlykilledme,thenIcouldhavediedwithpapainmymouth.The people had fled downClayCreek,2 andwe followed their trail. Itwas

darknow,andlateinthenightwecametowheretheywerecampedwithoutanytepees.Theywerejustsittingbylittlefires,andthesnowwasbeginningtoblow.WerodeinamongthemandIheardmymother’svoice.Shewassingingadeathsongforme,becauseshefeltsureIhaddiedoverthere.Shewassogladtoseemethatshecriedandcried.WomenwhohadmilkfedthelittlebabiesthatRedCrowandIbroughtwith

us.Ithinknobodybutthelittlechildrensleptanythatnight.Thesnowblewand

wehadnotepees.Whenitwasgettinglight,awarpartywentoutandIwentalong;butthistime

Itookagunwithme.WhenIstartedoutthedaybeforetoWoundedKnee,Itook

onlymysacredbow,whichwasnotmadetoshootwith;becauseIwasalittleindoubtabout theWanekia religionat that time,andIdidnot reallywant tokillanybodybecauseofit.But I did not feel like that any more. After what I had seen over there, I

wantedrevenge;Iwantedtokill.WecrossedWhiteClayCreekandfollowed itup,keepingon thewestside.

Soonwecouldhearmanygunsgoingoff.Sowestruckwest,followingaridgetowherethefightwas.ItwasclosetotheMission,andtherearemanybulletsintheMissionyet.3FromthisridgewecouldseethattheLakotaswereonbothsidesofthecreek

andwereshootingatsoldierswhowerecomingdownthecreek.Aswelookeddown,wesawalittleravine,andacrossthiswasabighill.Wecrossedandrodeupthehillside.Theywerefightingrightthere,andaLakotacriedtome:“BlackElk,thisis

thekindofadayinwhichtodosomethinggreat!”Ianswered:“How!”64fThenIgotoffmyhorseandrubbedearthonmyself,toshowthePowersthatI

was nothing without their help.4 Then I took my rifle, got on my horse andgallopeduptothetopofthehill.Rightbelowmethesoldierswereshooting,andmypeople called out tome not to go down there; that therewere some goodshotsamongthesoldiersandIshouldgetkilledfornothing.But I remembered my great vision, the part where the geese of the north

appeared.Idependedupontheirpower.Stretchingoutmyarmswithmyguninthe right hand, like a goose soaring when it flies low to turn in a change ofweather,Imadethesoundthegeesemake—br-r-r-p,br-r-r-p,br-r-r-p;and,doingthis,Icharged.Thesoldierssaw,andbeganshootingfastatme.Ikeptrightonwithmybuckskinrunning,shotintheirfaceswhenIwasnear,thenswungwideandrodebackupthehill.AllthistimethebulletswerebuzzingaroundmeandIwasnottouched.Iwas

notevenafraid. Itwas likebeing inadreamabout shooting.But justas Ihadreachedtheverytopofthehill,suddenlyitwaslikewakingup,andIwasafraid.I dropped my arms and quit making the goose cry. Just as I did this, I feltsomethingstrikemybeltasthoughsomeonehadhitmetherewiththebackofanax.Inearlyfelloutofmysaddle,butImanagedtoholdon,androdeoverthehill.AnoldmanbythenameofProtectorwasthere,andheranupandheldme,

fornowIwasfallingoffmyhorse.Iwillshowyouwherethebulletstruckmesidewiseacrossthebellyhere(showingalongdeepscarontheabdomen).My

insides were coming out. Protector tore up a blanket in strips and bound itaroundmesothatmyinsideswouldstayin.BynowIwascrazytokill,andIsaidtoProtector:“Helpmeonmyhorse!Letmegooverthere.Itisagooddaytodie, so Iwillgoover there!”ButProtector said: “No,youngnephew!5Youmustnotdieto-day.Thatwouldbefoolish.Yourpeopleneedyou.Theremaybeabetterdaytodie.”Heliftedmeintomysaddleandledmyhorseawaydownhill.ThenIbegantofeelverysick.Bynowitlookedasthoughthesoldierswouldbewipedout,andtheLakotas

were fighting harder; but I heard that, after I left, the blackWasichu soldierscame,andtheLakotashadtoretreat.6Thereweremanyof our children in theMission, and the sisters andpriests

weretakingcareofthem.Iheardthereweresistersandpriestsrightinthebattlehelpingwoundedpeopleandpraying.7Therewasamanby thenameofLittleSoldierwho tookchargeofmeand

brought me to where our people were camped. While we were over at theMissionFight,theyhadfledtotheO-ona-gazhee65fandwerecampedontopofitwherethewomenandchildrenwouldbesafefromsoldiers.OldHollowHornwasthere.Hewasaverypowerfulbearmedicineman,andhecameovertohealmywound.InthreedaysIcouldwalk,butIkeptapieceofblankettiedaroundmybelly.ItwasnownearlythemiddleoftheMoonofFrostintheTepee(January).We

heardthatsoldierswereonSmokyEarthRiverandwerecomingtoattackusintheO-ona-gazhee. Theywere nearBlack Feather’s place. So a party of aboutsixtyofusstartedonthewar-pathtofindthem.Mymothertriedtokeepmeathome,because,althoughIcouldwalkandrideahorse,mywoundwasnotallhealedyet.ButIwouldnotstay;for,afterwhatIhadseenatWoundedKnee,Iwantedachancetokillsoldiers.WerodedownGrassCreektoSmokyEarth,andcrossed,ridingdownstream.

Soonfromthetopofalittlehillwesawwagonsandcavalryguardingthem.Thesoldiersweremakingacorraloftheirwagonsandgettingreadytofight.Wegotoffourhorsesandwentbehindsomehillstoalittleknoll,wherewecreptuptolookatthecamp.Somesoldierswerebringingharnessedhorsesdowntoalittlecreek towater,andIsaid to theothers:“Ifyouwillstayhereandshootat thesoldiers,Iwillchargeoverthereandgetsomegoodhorses.”Theyknewofmypower, so they did this, and I charged onmy buckskin while the others keptshooting. Igot sevenof thehorses;butwhen I startedbackwith these,all thesoldierssawmeandbeganshooting.Theykilledtwoofmyhorses,butIbrought

fivebacksafeandwasnothit.WhenIwasoutofrange,Icaughtupafinebald-facedbay and turnedmybuckskin loose.Then I drove the others back to ourparty.By nowmore cavalrywere coming up the river, a big bunch of them, and

therewassomehardfightingforawhile,becausetherewerenotenoughofus.We were fighting and retreating, and all at once I saw Red Willow on footrunning. He called to me: “Cousin, my horse is killed!” So I caught up asoldier’shorsethatwasdraggingaropeandbroughtittoRedWillowwhilethesoldierswereshootingfastatme.Justthen,foralittlewhile,Iwasawanekia66fmyself.InthisfightLongBearandanotherman,whosenameIhaveforgotten,werebadlywounded;butwe saved themandcarried themalongwithus.ThesoldiersdidnotfollowusfarintotheBadlands,andwhenitwasnightwerodebackwithourwoundedtotheO-ona-gazhee.8Wewantedamuchbiggerwar-partysothatwecouldmeetthesoldiersandget

revenge.But thiswashard,because thepeoplewerenotallof thesamemind,andtheywerehungryandcold.Wehadameetingthere,andwereallreadytogooutwithmorewarriors,whenAfraid-of-His-HorsescameoverfromPineRidgetomakepeacewithRedCloud,whowaswithusthere.9Ourpartywantedtogooutandfightanyway,butRedCloudmadeaspeechto

us something like this: “Brothers, this is a very hardwinter. Thewomen andchildrenarestarvingandfreezing.Ifthisweresummer,Iwouldsaytokeeponfighting to the end.Butwe cannot do this.Wemust think of thewomen andchildrenandthatitisverybadforthem.Sowemustmakepeace,andIwillseethatnobodyishurtbythesoldiers.”The people agreed to this, for itwas true. Sowe broke campnext day and

wentdownfromtheO-ona-gazheetoPineRidge,andmany,manyLakotaswerealready there. Also, thereweremany,many soldiers. They stood in two lineswiththeirgunsheldinfrontofthemaswewentthroughtowherewecamped.10Andsoitwasallover.Ididnotknowthenhowmuchwasended.WhenIlookbacknowfromthis

highhillofmyoldage,Icanstillseethebutcheredwomenandchildrenlyingheapedandscatteredall along thecrookedgulchasplainaswhen I saw themwitheyesstillyoung.AndIcanseethatsomethingelsediedthereinthebloodymud, and was buried in the blizzard. A people’s dream died there. It was abeautifuldream.AndI,towhomsogreatavisionwasgiveninmyyouth,—youseemenowa

pitiful old man who has done nothing, for the nation’s hoop is broken and

scattered.Thereisnocenteranylonger,andthesacredtreeisdead.11

26.

Author’sPostscript

Aftertheconclusionofthenarrative,BlackElkandourpartyweresittingatthenorthedgeofCunyTable,lookingoffacrosstheBadlands(“thebeautyandthestrangenessoftheearth,”astheoldmanexpressedit).1PointingatHarneyPeakthat loomed black above the far sky-rim,BlackElk said: “There,when Iwasyoung,thespiritstookmeinmyvisiontothecenteroftheearthandshowedmeallthegoodthingsinthesacredhoopoftheworld.IwishIcouldstanduptherein the flesh before I die, for there is something I want to say to the SixGrandfathers.”2SothetriptoHarneyPeakwasarranged,andafewdayslaterwewerethere.

Onthewayuptothesummit,BlackElkremarkedtohisson,Ben:“Somethingshouldhappen to-day. If Ihaveanypower left, the thunderbeingsof thewestshouldhearmewhenIsendavoice,andthereshouldbeatleastalittlethunderand a little rain.”What happened is, of course, related toWasichu readers asbeingmerelyamoreor lessstrikingcoincidence.Itwasabrightandcloudlessday,andafterwehadreachedthesummit theskywasperfectlyclear. Itwasaseason of drouth, one of the worst in the memory of the old men. The skyremainedclearuntilabouttheconclusionoftheceremony.“Right over there,” said Black Elk, indicating a point of rock, “is where I

stoodinmyvision,butthehoopoftheworldaboutmewasdifferent,forwhatIsawwasinthespirit.”Havingdressedandpaintedhimselfashewasinhisgreatvision,hefacedthe

west,holdingthesacredpipebeforehiminhisrighthand.3Thenhesentforthavoice;andathin,patheticvoiceitseemedinthatvastspacearoundus:“Hey-a-a-hey! Hey-a-a-hey! Hey-a-a-hey! Hey-a-a-hey! Grandfather, Great

Spirit, oncemore beholdme on earth and lean to hearmy feeble voice.4 Youlived first, and you are older than all need, older than all prayer. All thingsbelong toyou—the two-leggeds, the four-leggeds, thewingsof the air and allgreenthingsthatlive.Youhavesetthepowersofthefourquarterstocrosseachother.Thegood road and the roadofdifficultiesyouhavemade to cross; and

wheretheycross,theplaceisholy.Dayinanddayout,forever,youarethelifeofthings.“Therefore I am sending a voice, Great Spirit, my Grandfather, forgetting

nothingyouhavemade,thestarsoftheuniverseandthegrassesoftheearth.“You have said to me, when I was still young and could hope,5 that in

difficultyIshouldsendavoicefourtimes,onceforeachquarteroftheearth,andyouwouldhearme.“To-dayIsendavoiceforapeopleindespair.6“You have given me a sacred pipe, and through this I should make my

offering.Youseeitnow.“From thewest, you have givenme the cup of livingwater and the sacred

bow,thepowertomakeliveandtodestroy.Youhavegivenmeasacredwindand the herb from where the white giant lives—the cleansing power and thehealing.Thedaybreakstarandthepipe,youhavegivenfromtheeast;andfromthesouth,thenation’ssacredhoopandthetreethatwastobloom.7Tothecenteroftheworldyouhavetakenmeandshowedthegoodnessandthebeautyandthestrangenessofthegreeningearth,theonlymother—andtherethespiritshapesofthings,astheyshouldbe,youhaveshowntomeandIhaveseen.AtthecenterofthissacredhoopyouhavesaidthatIshouldmakethetreetobloom.“With tears running, O Great Spirit, Great Spirit, my Grandfather—with

runningtearsImustsaynowthatthetreehasneverbloomed.Apitifuloldman,8you seeme here, and I have fallen away and have done nothing.Here at thecenteroftheworld,whereyoutookmewhenIwasyoungandtaughtme;here,old,Istand,andthetreeiswithered,Grandfather,myGrandfather!“Again,andmaybethelasttimeonthisearth,Irecallthegreatvisionyousent

me.Itmaybethatsomelittlerootofthesacredtreestilllives.Nourishitthen,thatitmayleafandbloomandfillwithsingingbirds.Hearme,notformyself,butformypeople;Iamold.Hearmethattheymayoncemoregobackintothesacredhoopandfindthegoodredroad,theshieldingtree!”Wewho listenednownoted that thincloudshadgatheredaboutus.Ascant

chill rainbegantofallandtherewaslow,mutteringthunderwithout lightning.Withtearsrunningdownhischeeks,theoldmanraisedhisvoicetoathinhighwail,andchanted:“InsorrowIamsendingafeeblevoice,OSixPowersoftheWorld.Hearme inmysorrow, for Imaynevercall again.Omakemypeoplelive!”Forsomeminutestheoldmanstoodsilent,withfaceuplifted,weepinginthe

drizzlingrain.9Inalittlewhiletheskywasclearagain.

THEEND

Appendix1Photographs

1.BlackElkandElkastheyappearedwhentouringEuropewithBuffaloBill’sWildWest.UsedwiththepermissionoftheSmithsonianInstitution,National

AnthropologicalArchives,SInegativeno.72-7016.

2.EnidNeihardt,NickBlackElk,BenBlackElk,StandingBear,andJohnG.Neihardt.CourtesyWesternHistoricalManuscriptCollection–Columbia,John

G.Neihardt(1881–1973)Papers,ca.1858–1974.

3.JohnG.NeihardtinthestudyinhishomeinBranson,Missouri,duringtheearly1930s.

4.BlackElkwithhisdrumandStandingBearwithBlackElk’spipe;intheforegroundaChiefJosephblanket.PhotographtakenbyJohnG.NeihardtduringtheinterviewsforBlackElkSpeaks.CourtesyWesternHistorical

ManuscriptCollection–Columbia,JohnG.Neihardt(1881–1973)Papers,ca.1858–1974.

5.BlackElkatafeastgivenbyJohnG.NeihardtinMay1931.PhotographtakenbyJohnG.Neihardt.CourtesyWesternHistoricalManuscriptCollection–

Columbia,JohnG.Neihardt(1881–1973)Papers,ca.1858–1974.

6.StandingBearatthesamefeast.PhotographtakenbyJohnG.Neihardt.CourtesyWesternHistoricalManuscriptCollection–Columbia,JohnG.Neihardt

(1881–1973)Papers,ca.1858–1974.

7.HildaNeihardt,BlackElk,Chase-in-the-Morning,andJohnG.Neihardtreadyforthehoopandspeargame.PhotographtakeninMay1931infrontofBlack

Elk’shome.CourtesyWesternHistoricalManuscriptCollection–Columbia,JohnG.Neihardt(1881–1973)Papers,ca.1858–1974.

8.BlackElkandNeihardtattheSiouxVictorycelebrationatPineRidgeinSeptember1945.CourtesyWesternHistoricalManuscriptCollection–Columbia,

JohnG.Neihardt(1881–1973)Papers,ca.1858–1974.

9.JohnG.NeihardtwithBlackElk’sdrumintheLibraryofSkyrim,hishomeinColumbia,Missouri,1958or1959.

Appendix2NeihardtLettertoJuliusHouse,August1930

When trying to understand an event as important as the creationof the bookBlackElkSpeaks,anyadditionalresourcecanbehelpful.Correspondencesuchastheletterbelowisanexampleofsucharesource.Thisparticularletter,fromNeihardt to his close friend Julius House, gives us a glimpse intowhat wasgoing on in Neihardt’s mind—how exactly he was responding to the initialmeetingwithBlackElkthathadjusttakenplace.Itisimportanttorememberthatwhenlookingatthisletter—eventhoughit

was later published as “‘Messiah’ Is on theWay” inPresent-Day AmericanLiterature(December1930)—itwasinitiallywrittenasapersonallettertoafriend. Neihardt’s other correspondence with House indicates that theirrelationshipwas one inwhichNeihardt felt free to discuss things hemightotherwisekeeptohimself.ItwasinthisrelationshipthatNeihardtsometimesadmitted feelingsofdiscouragementor frustration—luxurieshedidn’t allowhimselfinhispublicwriting.SowecanbefairlyconfidentthatthisletterisanaccurateindicationofNeihardt’searlyresponse.It is also interesting to note that althoughNeihardt had spent only a few

hourswithBlackElk (the hours anddays of interviews and companionshipwouldnot takeplaceforanotherninemonths),weseeadawningawarenesson the part of both men of sympathetic understanding and a merging ofconsciousness.

Branson,Missouri,August10,1930IthasbeenalongtimesinceIwroteyou,butyoucanbetsafelythatithasnoteverbeenlongbetweendeepthoughtsofyou.TheDakotaExcursionwentoffasperscheduleanditwasmostsuccessful

in everyway.Sig and I batted around theBlackHills, explored in theBadLands(whichwaslikewanderinginthemoon)andIhadastraightfivehoursof intimate talkofanextraordinarycharacterwitholdBlackElk,hereditarymedicinemanof theSioux.BlackElkhad just turneddownabustling lady

whohadcometogetapotortwooflocalcolorforsomewritingthatshehadinmind.BlackElkhadjusttoldherthathecouldseethatshewasaverynicelookingandgoodyounglady,butthathedidnotfeelinclinedtotalkaboutthethingswhich shehad inmind.Thismight seemverycurious ifonedidnotknowBlackElk.He struckmeasbeingabituncanny inhis intuitions;notthathefavoredme,but thatheseemedtoknowwhatwasinside thevisitor.Hetoldme—thesphinx-likechap—that,ashesatthere,hefeltinmyheartaverystrongwilltoknowthethingsoftheotherworldandthataspirit,whichstoodbehindme,hadforcedmetocometohimthatImightlearnalittlefromhim.Inspiteofthesoundofthisstatement,hewasverymodest,modestasamanmaybewhoissureofwhatheknowsandthatwhatheknowsisworthknowing.Ihadnodifficultywhateverwithhim.Heseemedtobeexpectingmeandwelcomedmeas thoughhehadseenmeoften.Hebeganbysayingthathemusttellmehiswholestoryinsofarasitcouldbedoneinthetimewehad,butthatitwouldtakealong,longtimetotellitall.First,hesaidthathecouldnotspeaktomewithoutgivingmesomereasontoknowthathehadauthoritytospeak.“Iamjustacommonman,”hesaid,“butIhaveagiftofvision,which has been hereditary inmy family and Imust tell you ofmypeople before I tell you of my life so that you may trust me.” He thenproceededtogivemesomethingofhislineagemuchasanoldHomericherousedtodo.HealsostatedthathewasthenephewofCrazyHorseanditgavemesatisfactiontotellhimthatI,myself,knewsomethingofCrazyHorseandthat I regarded him much as the average white man regards GeorgeWashingtononlythatIthoughtmyfeelingwasthedeeper.Itwaswonderfultoheartheoldmantellofhisearlyvisionswhenhewasbecomingamedicineman.Hispurpose,ofcourse,wastoarriveatthetimeoftheMessiahanditstragedy.Itwasgratifyingtometoknowthatnothingofmydeeperfeelingofthis whole affair varied in the least from what he told me. Very often itseemed as though I, myself, were telling the things he told me, but I gotsomethingfromhimthatIcannotdescribeandyouwillknowwhatitis.Also,itwillappearinthemessiahforthosewhocansee.OldBlackElkincidentallystated,inanswertoaquestion,that,yes,hehadfoughtagainstCusterwhenhe was only fourteen years old, and he added with a chuckle, “I got onescalp.”IhaveafeelingthatIought togoupthereandlivesixmonthswithBlackElkandhiswiseoldfriends.IoughttowritethecompletelifeofBlackElk,foritwouldbearevelationoftheIndianconsciousnessfromthedepths.Imaydothis,thoughhowIdonotknow.BeforeIleft,BlackElkpresentedto

meabeautifuloldsacredornamentthathehadusedalongwhileinthesundances in which he has officiated as priest. This ornament consists of apaintedrawhidemorningstartowhichareattachedbythongsaneaglefeatherandastripofbuffalohair.He toldme themeaningof this.Hesaid that themorningstarsignifiedthedesireforandthecertaintyofmorelight to thosewhodesire, that theeagle feathersignifiedhigh thinkingandfeeling,as theeagle flies high, and that the buffalo hair signified plenty of that which isneededbymeninthisworld.Andashegavemethesacredornament,hesaidthathewishedmeallthesethings.BlackElk speaksnoEnglish.FlyingHawk interpreted, andhedida fine

job—knowsEnglishwell.

Appendix3DrawingsbyStandingBear

1.TitlePageoftheFirstEdition2.AnIndianWayofWritingaName:BlackElk’sNameSignandStandingBear’sNameSign

3.TheBattleoftheHundredSlain4.TheTwoSpiritsComingforBlackElk5.BlackElkLeavingtoVisittheSixGrandfathers6.BlackElkbeforetheSixGrandfathersintheFlamingRainbowTepee7.KillingtheDrought8.BlackElkundertheTreeofLife9.BlackElkattheCenteroftheEarth10.ABisonHunt11.Custer’sBattle:Reno’sRetreat12.Custer’sBattle:Custer’sDefeat13.Custer’sBattle:SiegeofReno’sTroops14.BlackElkLivinginFearoftheThunderBeings15.IntheHorseDance:TheFourMaidens16.HorseDance(Chief):West17.HorseDance—Chief:North18.HorseDance(Chief):East19.HorseDance(Chief):South20.TheDogVision:ButterfliesandDragonflies21.TheDogVision:KillingtheDog22.BlackElk'sSpiritJourneyHome23.ThePeopleinDespair24.GoingtotheOtherWorld25.BlackElkintheOtherWorld26.TheWanekiaundertheHolyTree27.TheBattleofWoundedKnee:DisarmingBigFoot'sPeople

28.TheBattleofWoundedKnee:TheFirstShots29.WoundedKneeBattle:TheMassacre30.BlackElkProtectedbytheSacredBow

TheStandingBeardrawingsavailabletodayarecourtesyoftheWesternHistoricalManuscriptCollection—Columbia,JohnG.NeihardtPapers,ca.1858–1974.

1.TitlePageoftheFirstEditionThis collage of Standing Bear’s drawings includes twenty small tepeesborderingthecentralrectangle.Topleft:Twocrossedlong-stemmedpipeswithT-shapedcatlinitebowls.Topmiddle:Manandwomanoutsidea tepee that ispaintedwitharainbowabovethedoorway,ahorseontheleftside,facingthedoorway, and a buffalo on the right side, also facing the doorway.A dryingrackcoveredwithmeatistotheleftofthetepee.Topright:Aman inwinterdress,wearingafurredrobe,leggings,andmoccasins,withaquiverofarrowsslungoverhisrightshoulderandbowheldinhisrighthandlikeacane,dragsadeadantelope,evidentlyoverthesnow.Uppermiddleright:Ashield,paintedblue,depictsagoldeneagle;abovetheeaglearefivestarsandbelowarethreerainbow designs; eagle tail feathers are attached to the sides and bottom.Centermiddle right:Aman,wearing only a breechcloth and a spotted eaglefeatherinhishair,offersapipe,thestempointingupward.Lowermiddleright:A sacredbow lance, decorated at the top andbottomwith two spotted eaglefeathers, iscrossedwithanarrow.Bottomright:Abear, standingon itshindlegs; this may serve as Standing Bear’s signature. Bottom: A man onhorseback,withafurredrobetiedaroundhiswaistandtwofeathersinhishair,holds a bow as he gallops after two buffalo and a calf. Bottom left: Aceremonialwandfromthehųká(adoption)ceremony.Threewoodpeckerheadsareattachedtothewand,togetherwithpendantsofredhorsehair,afanofeagletail feathers, and, at the tip, apendantofdownyplumes.Middle left:Amanwearingtheregaliaofamen’ssociety.Hisbodyispaintedredandheholdsanundecoratedlance,suggestingthathemaybeanofficerintheSotkáyuhá‘barelance owners’ society.Hewears a headdress that appears to be of cut ravenfeathers, tipped with red plumes or horsehair, surrounding five eagle tailfeathers,alsotippedwithred.Aroundhisleftshoulderandacrosshisbodyhewearsasocietysashdecoratedwitheagletailfeathers.Inbattlehewillnotfleefromtheenemybutwillstakethesashtothegroundandnotretreatunlessheisvictoriousor is releasedbyoneofhis fellowsocietymembers.Top left:Acurvedcoupstick,wrappedwithfuranddecoratedwithfourclustersofeagle

tailfeathers.

Drawing1.

2.AnIndianWayofWritingaName2a.BlackElk’sNameSign.Thenameisdepictedbyadrawingofanelkhead,coloredblack,connectedbyalinetothemouthofahumanheaddrawnbelow.

Drawing2a.BlackElk'sNameSign

2b. Standing Bear’s Name Sign. The name is depicted by a standing bear,coloredblack,connectedbyalinetothemouthofahumanheaddrawnbelow.

Drawing2b.StandingBear'sNameSign

3.TheBattleoftheHundredSlain.ThebodiesofeightsoldiersofLt.Fetterman’scommandlayintermingledwithfourIndiandead,threeofwhomwearwarbonnetsandoneaneagletailfeatherinhishair.Thefourdottedlinesattopandbottomshowtheroutestothetopoftheridgewherethefightoccurred.AtthebottomappearswhatseemstobeacloudofsmokefromtheIndians’guns,andsurroundingthedead,arrowsand

puffs of smoke show how the Indians surrounded the soldiers. The threewarriors shown on either side are so distinctly drawn that they must depictspecific individuals.Allbutonewearonlyabreechcloth.Themanat the topleftseemstohavetiedallofhishairinaknotontopofhishead,withafeathersuspended from the back; he holds a drawnbow and arrow.Belowhim, theman in themiddlewearsawarbonnetandshirtandholdsa feathered lance.Thebottomfigurewearsabuffalohornheaddresswithashorttrailerofeagletail feathers;hisarmsand legsarepaintedwith lightningdesigns;heholdsaswordandcarriesashieldthatispaintedwithabuffalohead,lightning,andacrescentmoon.Thewarrioratthetoprighthashishairtiedinaknot,throughwhich is inserted what appears to be a carvedwooden pin or knife, and hewearsaneagle tail feather inhishairat theback;heholdsadrawnbowandarrowandashieldwithasimplecirculardesignandthreetriangularpendants.Belowhimisamanridingahorsepaintedwithlightningdesignsandwiththetailtiedupforwar;heholdsadrawnbowandwearsabirdskinattachedtothehairatthetopofhishead.Thebottomrightfigurealsowearsabirdskinonhisheadandcarriesadrawnbowandarrow;hislegsarepaintedwithlightning.

Drawing3.

4.TheTwoSpiritsComingforBlackElk.BlackElk,dressedonlyinabreechclothandholdingabowandarrow,standsoutsidehisfamily’stepee.Withoutstretchedarms,helooksupwardattwomenwhoaredescendingfromstormcloudsfromwhichlightningflashes.Theyaredressed in breechcloths,with single eagle tail feathers in their hair andwhatappearstobepaintalongthepart;theirbodiesarepaintedred,withdarkbands

around the knee and ankle joints, a common pattern for Lakota rituals. Thewingsontheirshouldersindicatethattheyarehumantransformationsofgeese,birdssymbolicallyassociatedwiththeNorth.Heretheyareservingasakíchita(messengersorenforcers)oftheSixGrandfathers.Theycarrylancesdecoratedwithclustersofeagletailfeathersatthetopandbottom;flames,symbolizingpower,flashfromthetips;thelancesrepresentlightning.

Drawing4.

5.BlackElkLeavingtoVisittheSixGrandfathers.Black Elk is shown leaving his family tepee below and following themessengers of the Six Grandfathers as they return to the sky, walking onclouds.Hisarmsareoutstretchedasthemessengersleadhimon.Heisdressed

inabuckskinshirt,leggings,andmoccasins.Hisfatherandmother,wrappedinfurredbuffalorobes,lookupandappeartobewatchinghimashedeparts.Themessengers are now depicted wearing headbands, and their lances aredecoratedwithbluependantsateachclusterofeaglefeathers.

Drawing5.

6.BlackElkbeforetheSixGrandfathersintheFlamingRainbowTepee.Here the twomessengers stand on either side of the rainbow that forms thedoorway to the tepeeof theSixGrandfathers. In thisdrawing it is clear thattheir bodies arepaintedwithwasé, red clay (abrownish red), anddark linesencircle the jointsof theirarmsand legs.Flames in fivecolors flareupfromtherainbowdoor,abovewhichbluestormcloudsstreakedwithred lightningsuggesttheshapeofatepee.Intheskytotheleft(south)aspottedeagle(animmature golden eagle) soars; to the right (north) is a smaller bird colored

blue,perhapsakingbirdorahawk.Thegreenspotsandsplotchesunderthearcoftherainbowmayrepresentrain.Abovetheclouds,oneitherside,arethreeplants depicted in light green; theymay represent the sacred herbs given toBlackElk.Nowdressedasawarriorinabreechclothandholdingabowinhisleft hand and an arrow in his right, Black Elk stands facing the SixGrandfathers,eachofwhomholdsoutacupofwater,symbolizingthegifthepresentstoBlackElk.TheSixthGrandfather,representingtheEarth,wearsaneagletailfeatherinhishair;BlackElkrecognizesthatitishimselfinoldage.

Drawing6.

7.KillingtheDrought.BlackElk,dressedasawarriorandastridethebayhorse,chargesontheblueman,thespiritofDroughtinhabitingtheforksoftheMissouriRiver.Aneagle

fliesaboveBlackElkas,withhis lance (representing lightning),heslays theblueman,whotransformsintoaturtle,hereshownonitsback.ClosebehindBlackElk,OneSideridesabuckskinhorsewithabrownfaceanddarkmaneandtail,andabluebird,apparentlyaswallow,fliesabovehim.Flamesshootoutfromtheirhorses’manes, tails,andhooves.Sixriders ineachof thefourdirections witness the deed; their horses are depicted with curved horns(representingpower) and they carry lances fromwhich lightning flashes.Onthewest areblackhorsespaintedwithblue lightning; twoof the ridersweareaglefeathers,threeridersappeartransformedintoswallows,andoneriderisnotdepicted.Onthenortharebluehorsespaintedwithredlightning;allsixoftheir riderswearhorns.Ontheeast thehorsesaresorrels,paintedwithblacklightning;twooftheridersweareagletailfeathers,twoareshownasswallows,andtwoarenotdepicted.Onthesouththehorsesarewhite,paintedwithbluelightning;tworidersweareagletailfeathers,threeappearasswallows,andoneisnotdepicted.NotethatStandingBearhasdrawnthepicturetorepresentthefourquartersorientedaccordingtotheLakotaconceptionofthedirections,thatis,thesemicardinaldirections:northwest,northeast,southeast,southwest.

Drawing7.

8.BlackElkundertheTreeofLife.BlackElk,dressedasawarrior,wearingabreechclothandasingleeagle tailfeather in his hair, stands at the crossing of the two roads, the center of thehoop of theworld, indicated by a blue circle. There, he raises his right armtowardthesacredtree,whichisbloomingwithgreenleaves.Thequartersarecolored symbolically: northwest, blue; northeast, white; southeast, red;southwest,yellow.FromtheWest,amanwithasingleeagletailfeatherinhishair,representingthewesterngrandfather,presentsBlackElkwithabowandarrowandacupofwater;fromtheNorthheisgiventhecleansingwindandahealing herb; from the East, a sacred pipe, with a single eagle tail featherattachedtothestem,andthemorningstardepictedasblue;fromtheSouth,thefloweringstickandthehoopofthenation,depictedinbrightblue.AlsofromtheSouthcomeafatherandmotherwithaboychild,eachwiththeirrightarmoutstretchedtowardthesacredtree,representingthecontinuityofgenerations.

Drawing8.

9.BlackElkattheCenteroftheEarth.BlackElkonHarneyPeak,intheBlackHills, thecenteroftheworld,wherethe sacred tree blooms and three birds (apparently swallows) circle above it.EncirclingtheBlackHillsisaredpath,borderedbypinetrees,thatrepresentstheRaceTrack, a geological formation that surrounds the hills. There, long,ago,thetwo-leggedsandfour-leggedsranarace;becausethetwoleggedswon,humansthereafterhadtherighttokillandeatbuffaloandotheranimals.BlackElkisdressedasawarrior.Hewearsaheadbandandasingleeagletailfeather;atthebackofhisheadisaspottedeaglewithitswingsoutstretched.Hecarriesalancedecoratedwitheagletailfeathers,likethoseofthetwomessengerswholedhimintothesky.Heridesthebayhorse,whosemaneandtailcracklewithpower, depicted as flames. Black Elk faces south, where a long-stemmedcatlinitepiperestsatthemountain’sedge;itstandsupright,withthebowlon

thegroundandthestempointingupward.Thelowerhalfofthestemappearstobefletchedlikeanarrow.Fromthestem,smokerisesinabluelineasthoughthepipewerebeingsmokedbyanunseenforce,perhapssuggestedbyafanofflamestotherightofthesmoke.Ridersinthefourdirections,eachemergingfromabluestormcloudflashingwithredlightning,offerhimgifts.Theridersfrom theWest and North have single eagle tail feathers in their hair, whilethosefromtheEastandSouthhavecurvedhorns,perhapspairsofeaglepinionfeathers.Allthehorseshavesimilarhornsandtheirmanes,too,aredepictedasflaming.Thehorseofthewesternriderisblack,paintedwithastreakofwhitelightning;thatofthenorthernriderisblue,withredlightning;thatoftheEastisred,withblacklightning;andthatoftheSouthiswhite,withbluelightning.The rider from the West presents a bow and arrow; from the North, thecleansingwind(depictedasatorch);fromtheEast,themorningstar(coloredred and flashing out red lines representing power); from the South, thefloweringstick.

Drawing9.

10.ABisonHunt.Amountedhunterwearsleggingsandmoccasinsandhasafurredbuffalorobefoldedaroundhiswaist.Inhishairhewearsafeatherpartiallystrippedofitswebbingandaroundhisheadiswhatappearstobeastripofredcloth.Holdingabowinhislefthand,hedrawsanarrowwithhisrighthand;aquiverfullofarrowsisathisleftside.Hechasestwobuffalowhileathirdliestotheside,dying.Thehunttakesplaceinthewinter,withsnowdepictedusingbluish-graypaint.

Drawing10.

11.Custer’sBattle:Reno’sRetreat.

ThisdrawingrepresentsReno’stroopsfleeingfromthesouthendofthegreatvillageontheLittleBigHornRiver.Fivetroopers,ledbyaCrowIndianscout(representedwithlonghairandwearingafringedjacketandahat)arefleeingonfoot.Intheirhaste,thesoldiershavelosttheirhats.Theircartridgebeltsandbootsarecarefullydepictedandtheyallfiretheirpistolswildlyastheyrun;thepistol of the trooper second from rightmisfires, and the Indian scout fires arifle aswell as a pistol.Twomountedwarriors are depicted; theywear onlybreechclothsandmoccasins,andtheirhorses’tailsaretiedupforwar.Themanattoprighthasaneagletailfeatherinhishairandcarriesabowasthoughitwereaclub.Themanatbottomrighthashishairtiedinaknotontopofhisheadandcarriesadistinctivelance,withalargepointandaneagletailfeatherattachedtotheend;hemaybeanofficerinoneofthemen’ssocieties.Thetwomenareracingtocountcouponthesoldiers.Thearrowsonallsidesrepresentthelargebodyofwarriorswhoareengagedinthefight.Totheleft,representedby the elliptical line, is the hill across the Little Big Horn River on whichReno’s troops sought refuge; ten soldiers aredepicted there, lyingdead.Thedottedlinesattherightendoftheellipserepresentthesoldiers’pathupthehill.

Drawing11.

12.Custer’sBattle:Custer’sDefeat.This drawing depictsCuster’s command onLast StandHill across theLittleBigHornfromthenorthernendofthevillage.Thejumbleofbodiesoffifteenmen and eight horses, lying on the ground with three fallen guidons, issurroundedbyarrowsandcloudsofgunsmokerepresentingtheIndianforces.Thesoldiers’bootsandcartridgebeltsarecarefullydepicted,asarethehorses’saddlesandbridles.Nohatsareamongthebodies,perhapsaconventionusedbyStandingBeartoemphasizethatthesoldiersaredead.

Drawing12.

13.Custer’sBattle:SiegeofReno’sTroops.TheIndianslaidsiegeonRenoandBenteen’s troops,whodugthemselves inontheridgetopacrosstheLittleBigHornRiver.Thecavalryissymbolizedbyalineofsoldiersvisiblefromthewaistupbehindtheirfortification,shownbythediagonallineinfrontofthem.Fivetroopersaredepictedwearinghats;thesixth figure at bottom right is a Crow Indian scout, symbolized by thepompadour hair style. The hoof prints behind the soldiers indicate that theyhave their horses with them. The Indian forces are symbolized by the fourfigures on the left. The boy at the top is probably Standing Bear himself,shownastridehisponywithadrawnbowandarrow;he isdressedonly inabreechcloth.Belowhimaretwowarriors,bothalsowearingonlybreechcloths,withquiversofarrowsslungover the left shoulderandholdingdrawnbows;onewearsawarbonnetwithabeadedband,theotherseemstohavehishairpulled up and tied at the top of his head. These two figures are drawn sodistinctivelythatStandingBearapparentlyintendedthemtorepresentspecificindividuals.Atbottom left,CrazyHorse isdepicted.Hewears abreechclothanddistinctivecalfskinshawl;hisfaceandbodyarestreakedwithredpaint;hewearsaspottedeaglefeatherdownwardatthebackofhishead;inhismouthisan eagle bone war whistle, and he holds a drawn bow. The horse, too, isstreakedwith red paint, and suspended from the reins arewhat appear to betwo eagle plumes. The line of arrows in the center symbolizes the Indians’continualfiringonthesoldiers.

Drawing13.

14.BlackElkLivinginFearoftheThunderBeings.BlackElkisshownhereasanadolescent,dressedinabuckskinshirt,leggings,andmoccasins.His arms are outstretched as he faces a semicircle of twelvetepees, each depicted distinctively, representing the hoop of the nation.Interspersed with the tepees are various kinds of plants, perhaps the sacredherbsofBlackElk’sgreatvision.Behindhimare theThunderBeingsofhisvision.Atthetopisthebayhorse,withthespottedeagleflyingoverhead;thencome twobluehorses (North), twoblacks (West), twobuckskins (East), andtwo sorrels (South). Birds—swallows and perhaps hawks—fly above thehorses,allofwhicharedepictedwithhornsandflamingmanes,andlightningcomingfromthemouthofonehorseineachdirectionflashesthroughthebluestormclouds(yellowlightningfromthenorth,redfromthewest,greenfromthe east, and black from the south). Previously published with the caption“BlackElkteachinghispeopletheuseoftheGhostShirt,”thisdrawingseems

to represent the time of adolescence when Black Elk described himself aslivinginfearoftheThunderBeings.

Drawing14.

15.IntheHorseDance:TheFourMaidens.Thefourmaidenswearreddresses, leggings,andbeadedmoccasins;ontheirheadstheywearwreathesofsage,withwhatappeartobepuffsofeagledownandasingleeagle tail feather.Themaidenon the left represents theEast;onherforeheadamorningstarispaintedandshecarriesaT-shapedcatlinitepipewithalongstemdecoratedwithanoutstretchedbird,representingtheeagleofBlackElk’svision.NextisthemaidenrepresentingtheNorth;paintedonherforehead is a curved line, perhaps a rainbow, and on her chin a crescent,perhapsthemoon;sheholdsabowlthatlikelycontainswaterandthehealing

herbfromtheNorth.ThethirdmaidenrepresentstheWest;shehasacrescentpaintedonherforeheadandholdsahooprepresentingthehoopofthenation.Thefourthmaidenrepresents theSouth;shehasacurvedlinepaintedonherforehead and a crescent on her chin; she carries a staff, representing thefloweringstickofBlackElk’svision.

Drawing15.

16.HorseDance(Chief):West.Inhisgreatvision,BlackElk sawachief ineachof the fourquartersof theuniverse(SixthGrandfather,118).TheStandingBeardrawingsdepictthechiefriders of the four directions as personified in the Horse Dance, Black Elk’sreenactmentofhisgreatvision.Thewesternriderispaintedblackwithwhitehailspotsonhistorsoandwhitelightningacrosshischestandarmsanddownhislegs.Notvisibleinthedrawingisadepictionofthemorningstarpaintedatthe base of the rider’s spine (Sixth Grandfather, 216). He wears only abreechclothandablackhoodedmaskwithroundcutouteyeholesthatcovershisentirehead;ithashorns(perhapseaglepinionfeathers).Inhislefthandhe

holdsasmallbowandarrow,thegifttoBlackElkfromthegrandfatheroftheWest.Withbothhandsheholdsabovehisheadaslenderbranchbentintoanarc;itssignificanceisnotrecorded.Thehorse,too,isblackandispaintedwithwhitehailspotsandlightningonthefrontandbackquarters,andwearshornssimilartothoseoftherider.Onthehorse’sback,justabovethetail,abirdispainted, apparently a swallow.Below the horse’s jaws a swallow appears tosoar.

Drawing16.

17.HorseDance(Chief):North.Thenorthernriderispaintedwhitewithredhailspotsonhistorsoandlegsandred lightning across his chest and arms and down his legs.Hewears only abreechcloth.Withbothhandsheholds abovehis head a slender branchbent

into an arc. He wears a headband; in his hair he has a single spotted eaglefeather; a short trailer of eagle feathers (Black Elk refers to them as whiteplumes) is attached to the back of his head, symbolic of geese (SixthGrandfather, 216).He rides awhite horsewhose front and hindquarters arepaintedsimilar tohisrider,withredlightningandhailspots; thehorsewearshorns,probablyeaglepinionfeathers.

Drawing17.

18.HorseDance(Chief):East.Thiseasternriderisdressedonlyinabreechcloth;heispaintedred,withblacklightningonhisarmsandlegs.Hewearsaheadband;inhishairhehasasinglespottedeaglefeather,andashorttrailerofeaglefeathersisattachedtothebackofhishead.Hecarrieswhatappearstobearawhidecutoutofthemorningstar,paintedblue.Heridesasorrelhorse,paintedwithblacklightningonthefront

andhindquarters.

Drawing18.

19.HorseDance(Chief):South.Thissouthernrideralsowearsonlyabreechclothand ispaintedyellow,withlightning (depicted here as blue, althoughBlackElk said itwas black;SixthGrandfather,216)acrosshischestandarmsandonhislegs.Hewearsablack,hooded mask with horns that is identical to that worn by the western riderexceptthatinadditiontoovaleyeholesthereisalsoacutoutatthemouth.Inhisrighthandhecarriesahooprepresentingthenationandinhisleftastickrepresentingthefloweringtree(althougheitherStandingBeardidnotcompletedrawingthestickorithasfaded).Heridesabuckskinhorsepaintedwithblue(black?) lightning on the front and hindquarters andwearing horns of eaglepinionfeathers.

Drawing19.

20.TheDogVision:ButterfliesandDragonflies.BlackElkisdepictedonahighbuttewearingonlyafurredbuffalorobe,withhishairunbraidedandfaceunpainted.InhisrighthandheholdstheT-shapedbowlofadecorated, long-stemmedpipe.Hestandsin themiddleofasacredplacemarkedatthefourcornersbychokecherrysaplings,tothetopsofwhichare tied short stickswith attached bundles of ch ąšáša (red willow bark) ortobacco wrapped in cloth. In his vision he is surrounded by a cloud ofbutterfliesanddragonfliesthatcomefromthesouth;theyrepresenttheLakotapeople.Sacredherbsgrowatthebaseofthebutte.

Drawing20.

21.TheDogVision:KillingtheDog.Twowarriorsonhorsebackchargeonthedoginthemidstofflames.Theyarethe messengers who took Black Elk to visit the Six Grandfathers in hisboyhoodvision.Themenwearonlybreechclothsandtheirbodiesarepainted,probably red,withdarkbands around the jointsof their armsand legs.Bothwearheadbands,withasingleeagletailfeatherinthehairontopofthehead

and trailersof eagle feathersbehind.Bothcarrybow lancesdecoratedbelowthe tip and at the bottomwith eagle tail feathers. The dog’smouth is open,apparentlybarkingandbaringhis teethas thewarrior in the lead is about tostrike it.Overhead a storm cloud is filledwith lightning and an eagle and aflockofswallowssoarabout,watchingtheevent.

Drawing21.

22.BlackElk’sSpiritJourneyHome.In the vision that he had while living in Europe, Black Elk, with his armsoutstretched,kneelsonacloudthathoversabovethetepeesoftheOglalacampatPineRidge.Dressedinwhitemen’sclothing,hislonghairunbraided,heisseenonlybyhismother,wholatertellshimthatshedreamedhehadreturnedonacloud.

Drawing22.

23.ThePeopleinDespair.This drawings depicts the situation at Pine Ridge when Black Elk returnedfromhisEuropeantripandfoundhispeopleindespair.Thehoopofthenationissuggestedbythetepeesdrawnaroundtheperipheryandtheredcircleontheground surrounding the sacred tree. Black Elk, wearing a breechcloth andmoccasins,standswithhisrightarmraisedtowardthetree,whichiswitheredandapparentlydead.Oneithersideofthedrawing,menwearingbreechclothsandwomenwearingclothdressesaredepictedas insorrow,with theirheadsbowed.

Drawing23.

24.GoingtotheOtherWorld.ThesacredtreestandsinthemiddleoftheGhostDancegroundandappearstobe bursting into bloom. Six individuals, four men and two women or girls,holding one another’s hands, represent the circle of dancers surrounding thetree. They have single feathers or plumes in their hair and wear the sacredGhostDance shirts anddresses,whicharemadeofclothanddecoratedwithpaintandeagletailfeathers.Theydancefacingthetree.Along-stemmedpipewith a T-shaped catlinite bowl is propped up against the tree. Black Elk isshowninatrance,lyingonhisbacknearthetree.Totherightheisdepictedagain,witharmsoutstretched,soaringupwardasaspottedeagleleadshimtotheotherworld,thelandofghosts.

Drawing24.

25.BlackElkintheOtherWorld.In hisGhostDance vision Black Elk visited the otherworld, where hewaswelcomedbytwelvemen,depictedhere.Fourofthemenarechiefs,whoareseatedinarowandwearfringedshirts,withsingleeagletailfeathersintheirhair;eachholdsalong-stemmedcatlinitepipeuprightbeforehim.Thetreeisinbloom,underabrightsun,withbirdsflyingaboutit—thespottedeaglethatwas Black Elk’s guide and four smaller birds, perhaps swallows. Black ElkalsohasasingleeagletailfeatherinhishairandwearshisGhostDanceshirt,decoratedwitheagletailfeathers.Hestandsatthebaseofthetree,witharmsuplifted, and sees theWanekia (Wovoka, theGhostDanceMessiah),who isstandingonacloud.Hewearsaneagletailfeatherinhishairandheispaintedred,thoughonlyhisfaceandhandsarevisiblesincehewearswhatappearstobeaGhostDanceshirt.TheWanekiaraiseshisrightarm,asinblessing,and

the eightmen around the tree—three on the left and five on the right (thosewhoarenotchiefs)—raisetheirrightarmaswell,returningthegesture.

Drawing25.

26.TheWanekiaundertheHolyTree.This drawing depicts a circular village in the other world, represented byeleventepees,withthebloomingtreeinthecenter.TheWanekiaisnowontheground,standingagainstthetreewithhisarmsoutstretched.Aroundthelowerhalfofhisbodyhewearsabuffalorobewiththeheadattached;therobeseemstobealivingbuffalo.(InBlackElk’schildhoodvisiontheeasterngrandfathershowed him aman painted redwho transformed into a buffalo. SinceBlackElk also saw theWanekia painted red, Standing Bear may have consideredthemtobethesame,andthushisdrawingmaydepictthetransformationfrom

mantobuffalo.)Ontheleft,thefourchiefsofthepreviousdrawingoffertheirpipes tohim.Thechiefnearest theWanekiaholds twosticks,onewhite andonered,agifttoBlackElkfromtheMessiah.Ontheright,BlackElkfallstohiskneesandraiseshisarmsto theWanekia;he iswearinghisGhostDanceshirt,decoratedwitheagle tail feathers.Hewill return tohispeoplewith thesacredsticks.

Drawing26.

27.TheBattleofWoundedKnee:DisarmingBigFoot’sPeople.This drawing depicts the SeventhCavalry disarmingBig Foot’s people. Themen have been separated from the women. Big Foot, holding the pipe thatsymbolizeshispositionaschief,sitsinfrontofthemenattheleft.Alongtheleftside,threemenarewrappedinblankets(twoblackandonered)andwearhats, eachwith a single eagle tail feather attached.Themen standwith theirrightarmextendedandhandopen;apparently,theyhavejustsurrenderedtheir

weapons.Behindthemstandthreeothermen,wrappedheadtofootinsheets,perhaps hiding their weapons. At bottom left, an officer (identified by theepaulets)pointsapistolataLakotamanwhoissurrenderinghisrifle;thismanwears a blue blanket and a hat with a red feather. On the right side of thedrawing a soldier carries a pile of confiscated weapons (rifles, a hatchet, aknife, and an awl) while three other soldiers, again pointing pistols, disarmthreewomen,eachofwhomwearsaclothdressandiswrappedinablanket.Atthetop,asoldierconfiscatesanawl;inthemiddle,anofficertakesawayanax;at thebottom,a soldier takesaknife.At the rightedge, the three tepees,depictedinred,representthevillage.

Drawing27.

28.TheBattleofWoundedKnee:TheFirstShots.

BigFootsitsholdinghischief’spipe,whileasoldierstruggleswithaLakotaman,tryingtowrenchtheman’srifleawayfromhim.Themanwearsablanketorsheet(underwhichhehadhiddentherifle);hisfaceispaintedblueandhewearsasingleeagletailfeatherinhishair.Astherifledischargesintotheair,thesoldierfireshispistol;theseshotsprecipitatethebattle.Thelineoffifteensoldier’sheadsontherightsymbolizesthecavalry,whosefireisshownbythebluestreaksofgunsmoke.SixLakotamenareshownlyingdead,killedbythesoldiers’ bullets. In themiddle of the line of soldiers is aHotchkiss gun, anexplodingshellfromwhichisdepictedasaroundbluesmudgeatthefarleft;thebodiesofamanandagirlarepropelled into theairby theexplosion.Atbottom left, a woman and two girls are attempting to flee into the gulch ofWoundedKneeCreek;oneofthegirlshasfallenandtheotherseemsabouttofall. The line curving across the bottom of the drawing representsWoundedKneeCreek.

Drawing28.

29.WoundedKneeBattle:TheMassacre.Thesoldiers,againsymbolizedbysixheads,andtheirHotchkissgun,continueto fire on the fleeing women and children in the gulch at Wounded Knee.Thirteenwomenandchildren,includingoneboyandababy,areshownlyingdead.

Drawing29.

30.BlackElkProtectedbytheSacredBow.Black Elk is portrayed on horseback, wearing a painted and fringed GhostDanceshirt,breechcloth,andbeadedmoccasins;hewearsaheadbandandhasasinglespottedeaglefeatherinhishair.Inhislefthandheholdsuprightthe

sacredbow(abowlancedecoratedwithaneagletailfeatherbelowthetipandat the bottom) that provides protection from a hail of soldiers’ bullets as hecoverstheretreatofawomanandherchildren,whoarerunningfortheirlives.StandingBearportraysthewomanwithablanketwrappedtightlyaroundherand secured with a belt, a baby on her back; her leggings and garters arecarefullydepicted.Thesoldiersareportrayedsymbolicallyalongtherightedgebyarowofsixheadsandtwelvepuffsofgunsmoke.

Drawing30.

Appendix4NeihardtLettertoNickBlackElk,November1930

NickBlackElkOglala,SouthDakota

DearFriend,YourletterofNovember3hasjustreachedmeandIamveryhappytohearfromyou!IwonderedwhyIdidnothearfromyou.ButIwassurethatyouwouldwritetome,forIfeltwhenwepartedatyourhomeinMandersonthatwewerefriendsandthatyouwouldnotfailme.Iseenowwhyyoudidnotwritesooner.I am glad to know that you arewilling tomake the picture story of the

MessiahandofWoundedKneeforme.YousayifIwillsendyou$7forthematerial, you cango aheadon thiswork, and I am sendingyou themoneywiththisletter,sothatyoucangetstarted.Youdidnottellmehowmuchyouwillwantforyourwork.Pleasedo.Ithinkthatfawnskinwillbeevenbetterforthepicturethanrawhide.1NowIhavesomethingtotellyouthatIhopeandbelievewillinterestyou

as much as it does me. After talking with you four and a half hours andthinking overmany things you toldme, I feel thewhole story of your lifeought to be written truthfully by somebody with the right feelingunderstandingofyourpeopleandoftheirhistory.Myideaistocomebacktothereservationnextspring,probablyinApril,andhaveanumberofmeetingswithyouandyouroldfriendsamongtheOglalaswhohavesharedthegreathistoryofyourrace,duringthepasthalfcenturyormore.Iwouldwantyouto tell thestoryofyour lifebeginningat thebeginning

andgoingstraightthroughtoWoundedKnee.Iwouldhavemydaughter,whoisashorthandwriter,takedowneverythingyouwouldsay,andIwouldwantyourfriendstotalkanytimeabout,andsharein,thedifferentthingsthatyouwouldtellabout.Thiswouldmakeacompletestoryofyourpeoplesinceyourchildhood.

So,yousee,thisbookwouldbenotonlythestoryofyourlife,butthestoryof the lifeofyourpeople.Thefact thatyouhavebeenbothawarriorandamedicine man would be of great help in writing the book, because bothreligionandwarareofgreatimportanceinhistory.ThebookthatIsentyouatManderson [TheSongof the IndianWars] is a poemdealingonlywith thewarsbetweentheSiouxandwhitemenanddoesnottelleverythingthatoughttobetold.Thisbookaboutyouwouldbewritteninprose,andIwoulduseasmuchofyourlanguageinitaspossible.Mypublisheriseagertohavemedothis,forIhavetoldhimallaboutit.Iwould,ofcourse,expecttopayyouwellforallthetimethatyouwould

giveme.Itwouldprobablybenecessaryforustohaveeightortenmeetings.Doesthisplanseemagoodonetoyou,andifitseemsgoodtoyou,willyounotbewillingtohelpmemakeitsuccessful?IdofeelthatsomuchisknownbyyouIndiansthatourwhitepeopledonotknowandshouldknow,thatIamveryeagertowritethisbookifyouwillhelpme.Writeandtellmehowmuchyouthinkyoushouldbepaidforeachmeeting,andthereshouldbefromsixto tenmeetings.And tellme ifyou thinkyoucouldget threeor fourof thefineoldmen thatyouknow tomeetwithusand talkaboutold timeswhileyouaretellingyourstorytome.Thisisnotamoney-makingschemeforme.Icanmakemoneymuchfaster

and easier in otherways. Iwant to do this book because Iwant to tell thethingsthatyouandyourfriendsknow,andIcanpromiseyouthatitwillbeanhonestandalovingbook.Ioftenlookatthebeautifulornamentsyougaveme,andIamveryproudof

them.Andalsowhen I look at them, I thinkofwhat they tellme, and thatmakesthemmorebeautifulstill.Witheverykindthoughtforyouandyourfamily.

Yourfriend,JohnG.NeihardtCourtesyJointCollection,WesternHistoricalManuscriptCollection,UniversityofMissouri,Columbia,andStateHistoricalSocietyofMissouriManuscripts.

Appendix5AGreatIndianPoet

In1931JohnG.NeihardtwasnotonlyaresearcherpreparingtowritethestoryofthelifeandvisionoftheOglalaLakotaHolyManBlackElkbutwasalsoarespectedmemberofthestaffoftheSt.LouisPost-Dispatch.Since1926hehadbeen literary editor for the newspaper, providing the bulk of thematerial for“OfMakingManyBooks,”adailycolumnofbookreviewsandliteraryessays.Over the yearsNeihardt had developed a close relationshipwith his readers,and so it is not surprising that he would want to tell them about this mostextraordinarymanthathehadjustmet.Neihardt knew, as he acknowledges in his 1972 preface to Black Elk

Speaks, that the general public of the early 1930s had “practically noknowledge of Indians.” The prevailing attitudewas thatNative culturewasuncivilized.Infact, thebookhad“averymodestreception,”andwithintwoyears it was forgotten. However, Neihardt thought highly enough of hisreaders to try toconnect themwith thewonderhehadfelt inhis interactionwiththeholyman.Neihardtwasnotawritergiventooverstatement.Heoftenspoke in his columns against hysterical critics who exhausted theirvocabulariesofsuperlativesinattemptstooutshouteachotherwithpraisesofthe“greatestthisorthemostestthat”everwritten.Neihardtgavepraisewhenhefeltitwasdue,andwhenhedidfindgenius,hemadeitcleartohisreaders.It is remarkable praise indeed, this acknowledgment to his readers that “hehadbeensittingatthefeetofapoetfittodinewiththefinestspiritsthathavesunginhisdiscordantworldandarenowamongthetallestofthedead.”The followingwasoriginallypublishedas“AGreat IndianPoet”onJune

20,1931.

Thiswriterhas just returned to themodernworld after spendingamonth in acontemporary antiquity that, in certain cultural respects, may be described aspre-Homeric. In companywith his two daughters he has been livingwith hisfriends, theOgalala [sic] Sioux, in lonely country empty ofwhitemenwhere

therewaslittletoremindoneofourcivilizationsavetheusualinjusticeandtheresultantpovertyofaconqueredpeoplewhodeserveabetterfate.Thewriterhadonlycasualcontactswiththeyoungergeneration,who,having

little of their own racial culture and less of ours, seem lost somewhere in ashadowyborderland that lies between thewhiteman and the red and that hasbeencrossedfarlessoftenbypeoplebyourracethanisgenerallysupposed.Thewriter’s host and intimate associateswere theoldpahuskas, that is to say, thelonghairedold-timerswhohaveretainedtheir“pagan”culturewithapassionatedevotion;menwhowereinatthedeathwhenFettermanandhis80troopersdiedthatblizzarddayonPineyCreeknowmorethan60yearsago;menwho,asboysof 12 and 14 and 16, slaughtered Reno’s panic-stricken cavalrymen “like fatcows”inthevalleyof theLittleBigHorn,andhelpedtoruboutCuster in thedarknessof thehoof-dustand thesmokeuponthehill;menwhowent throughthetragicaffairatWoundedKneewhentheirfellingwomenandchildrenweremurderedastheyfledandwhereagreatdreamdiedinthebloodysnow.Well,wekilledabullandhadafeast,cookingintheancientway,andthere

were enough of us so thatwhen the feastwas finished little remained but thehideandthehornsandhoofs.(Tobequiteaccurate,lateronweatethehoofs.)Andtheoldmenandwomendancedinfulldressandwrinkledold-timersmade“killtalks,” remembering theiryouthbefore theyhadbecomeprisonersofwar,recountingdeedsofprowessinquitethetrueHomericmannerwhiletherawhidedrums boomed at high points in the story and the old women sent forth thetremoloofadmiration.Andithappened,sopowerfulwasthespellofitall,thatwethreedanced,too,

merewhitefolksthatwewere,andwediditinnospiritofderision,butwithahappyhumility,aswasfitting.Andthatnightwedancedtherabbitdanceunderthestarstotheboomingofthebigdrumwhiletheyoungdrummerssangandtheoldandtheyoung,thedarkandthewhite,themenandtheboysandthewomenandthegirls,seemedofoneageandofonecolorandofnosexatall.Thepurelyricjoyofitisverygoodtoremember.Butitwasn’tthedancingortheGargantuanfeastingthatmatteredmostinthe

end. It wasn’t even the eating of raw liver hot from the bull—an act ofcommunion with the old warriors and hunters far more satisfactory as asymbolism, be it confessed, than as a gustatory experience! The best of it allcameoutinthelongdaysofconstanttalkwiththeoldmen,andespeciallywithourhost,HerakaSapa[sic](BlackElk),whois thesecondcousinof thegreatchiefCrazyHorse.BlackElkisagreat“medicineman,”thatistosay,apriest

andaseerofvisions.Attheageof13hedidaman’sshareofthebloodyworkontheLittleBigHorn,andhefoughtatWoundedKneeandatWhiteClayCreekintheBadlandsduringtheMessiahtroubleof1890.Butwar,tohim,wasonlyanunavoidablenecessity.Hehaslivedforspiritualvaluesandhisvisions,assetforth in careful detail for this writer, rank easily in beauty and profundity ofsignificancewiththesupremethingsintherichliteratureoftheAryanpeoples.Hisgreatvision,whichcametohimfirstattheageof9,duringa12-dayperiodofapparentunconsciousness,isinitselfaverygreatworkofart,bothastoformandtocontent.Unfortunately,foruswhitepeople,literature,inoursense,neverdevelopedamongBlackElk’speople.Hiscultureneverpassedtheevolutionarystage of the dance ritual and accordingly the great vision can be adequatelyexpressedonlyinthedanceceremony,withitsaccompanyingsong.Oneportionofthevisionalone—thehorsedance,whichispoetryofasublimeorder—wouldrequire some five of six hours to produce. No white man has ever seen itperformed, and no white man until now has ever heard it described in itsastonishingbeauty;butthatonewhiteman,whohasspenthislifeinaweofthegreatonesofourliterature,feltthathehadbeensittingatthefeetofapoetfittodinewith the finest spirits thathavesung inhisdiscordantworldandarenowamong the tallest of the dead.BlackElk is truly a great poet; and if ever ourworldshallbeprivilegedtoseeandunderstandhismasterpiece,thehorsedance—asthiswriterhopesitmay—therewillbefewtoquestiontheindubitabletruthofthisstatement.

Appendix6JohnG.NeihardtandNicholasBlackElkRaymondJ.DeMallie

Black Elk Speaks is arguably the single most widely read book in the vastliterature relating to North American Indians. John G. Neihardt’s poeticrendering of the life story of an Oglala Lakota holy man captivates theimaginationofreaders,drawingthemintoameaning-chargedworldofsymbolsand otherness. We come away from our experience of Black Elk throughNeihardtnotwithanalyticalunderstandingoftheoldLakotareligiouslife,but,asNeihardtwroteafterhis firstmeetingwithBlackElk,with insights into theholyman’s“innerworld,imperfectlyrevealedasbyflashes.”Thatexperience,inNeihardt’swords,isforus,asitwasforhim,“bothstrangeandwonderful”(BES,xvii).The mystery of the intellectual and emotional bond that these two men

recognizedbetweenoneanother,andthatledtotheircreativecollaboration,addsaveryhumandimensiontothenarrative.AsNeihardtexplainedtoBlackElkina letter about theproposedbookabouthis life, “Iwoulduse asmuchofyourlanguage in it as possible” (SG, 29).1 Indeed, Neihardt was so successful inblending his own voice with Black Elk’s that they became a single voice, aliterarydevicesoconvincingthatNeihardtfadedintothebackground,allowingreaders thesensation thatBlackElkwasspeaking to themdirectly,withoutanintermediary.Havinggrownuphuntingbuffalo,witnessingCuster’sdemiseattheLittleBig

Horn,experiencingvisionsandlivingasamedicineman,travelingwithBuffaloBill,andparticipatingintheGhostDanceandtheaftermathofWoundedKnee,Black Elk’s life stretched back across the historical epoch that Neihardtcelebratedinhisepicpoem,ACycleoftheWest.Admittedly,whenhefirstmetBlack Elk, Neihardt’s only intention was to gain a sense of what the GhostDancebeliefswerelikeandhowtheritualfeltinordertoinfusehisSongoftheMessiahwithanemotionalauthenticity.ButinthatfirstmeetinginAugust1930,

BlackElkofferedmuchmore,asharingofhisvision,ofthestoryofhislife,andofhispeople.AndNeihardtjumpedattheopportunity.From thebeginning,Neihardtunderstood that the“verypeculiarmergingof

consciousness”(SG,40)thatheexperiencedwithBlackElkhadamysticalbasis.BlackElktoldhimonthatfirstvisit,Neihardtwrote,“thataspirit,whichstoodbehindme,hadforcedmetocometohimthatImightlearnalittlefromhim”(SG, 27).Neihardt believed that his interest in “the thingsof theotherworld,”which Black Elk instantly intuited, provided the Lakota holy man with theopportunitytopassontheknowledgeofthingsthatweresacredintheoldwaysofhispeople.FormorethanaquarterofacenturyBlackElkhadputasidethoseoldwaysandembracedCatholicismandthewaysof thewhitepeople.HehadservedasacatechistandamissionaryandwasastaunchmemberoftheCatholicIndian community. He had given up his traditional ceremonies and healingpracticesandhadnotsharedwithhischildrenanyofhisoldsacredknowledge.Although Black Elk’s commitment to Catholicismwould not waver, Neihardtunderstoodthat thefailure to liveup to themandateofhisvisionwasaheavyburdenfor theLakotaholyman.Butsuddenly,withNeihardt’sarrival,andhisobvious desire to learn about the “other world,” Black Elk could transfer hisburdentoanotherman—awriter,whocouldpreservethesacredknowledgeinabook.So itwas arranged forNeihardt to return in the spring and set down inwritingthatwhichBlackElkwishedtotellhim.WhenNeihardt returned inMay 1931,with financial support fromWilliam

Morrow,aNewYorkpublisher,hisprojectwasveryclearlydefined.AshewrotetoBlackElkduringthewinter,“Iwouldwantyoutotell thestoryofyourlifebeginningatthebeginningandgoingstraightthroughtoWoundedKnee...thisbookwouldbenotonly thestoryofyour life,but thestoryof the lifeofyourpeople”(SG,29).Forhispart,BlackElkwasready.Hehadenlistedthehelpofthreefriends—menolderthanhe—whocouldtellwithfirsthandauthorityaboutevents ofwhichBlack Elk could not speak from his own experience.He hadobviouslycarefullythoughtthroughwhathewouldtellNeihardtsinceherelatedhislifestoryverynearlyinchronologicalorder,withouttheneedtogobackandfillingaps.Butbefore theworkcouldproperlybegin, itwasnecessaryforBlackElkto

formalizehisrelationshipwithNeihardtbyadoptinghimasarelative(SG,31–38). Black Elk accepted Neihardt as a writer, a “word sender,” and clearlyrespected him for it, but the relationship they were establishing as Black ElkgavetoNeihardtthesacredknowledgehehadneversharedwithanyonebefore

required establishing a bond of kinship. So, at the beginning of their worktogether, in thepublic contextof a feast,BlackElkadoptedNeihardt as a sonandgavehimthenameFlamingRainbow.Thenamereflectedastrikingimageinhisgreatvision,arainbowdoorradiatingmulticoloredflamesthroughwhichBlackElkhadtopasstogaintheknowledgeandgiftsoftheSixGrandfathers.Neihardt himself would be the conduit through which that knowledge wouldsubsequently pass to the world at large. Also representing images from hisvision,BlackElknamedEnidNeihardtSheWalkswithHerSacredStick,whileHildaNeihardtwascalledDaybreakStarWoman.Thesewerenotcasualnamesandtheadoptionceremonywasnotaninsignificantspectaclefortheedificationof non-Indian visitors. Rather, these new identities were central to thecollaborationthatwouldeverafterlinkBlackElktoNeihardt,andtheirfamiliestooneanother.Throughout the interviews,asBlackElkspoke,Neihardt’sprimary taskwas

toclarifyhismeaningbyquestioningBenBlackElkashetranslatedhisfather’swords.Frequent repetitionwas required to clear up ambiguities; only thendidEnidNeihardttranscribethesentencesinhernotebook.Hernoteswererecordedin Gregg shorthand, except for proper names and Lakota words, which werewrittenoutinfulltopreventconfusion.Theprecisionandneatnessofhernotesreveal that once a sentencewas clarified and transcribed therewas very littlerevision. The record reveals only a very few occasions when Neihardt askedsubstantivequestions;theinterviewswerestructuredbyBlackElkhimself.Neihardtwasintimatelyfamiliarwiththenineteenth-centuryhistoricalrecord

ofconflictsbetweenthewhitesand theLakotas,andhehad longacquaintanceand amicable relationships with individuals among the Omaha, Crow, andLakota peoples. He was less familiar with the ethnographic record of PlainsIndiancultures,nordidheevinceinterestinculturaldescriptionforitsownend.Hewasastorytellerand,ashewrotetoBlackElk,“peoplelikestories”(SG,50).BlackElkSpeaksisfilledwithculturaldetailsbuttheyarecarefullyselectedtoadvancethestoryandtoprovidenecessarycontext.TheinterviewnotesaboundwithadditionaldetailsthatNeihardtomittedintheinterestofwritingabookthatwould speak to a broad audience. His interest was universalistic, theidentification of commonalities between Lakota culture and that of whiteAmerica, both as a means of promoting understanding and of using LakotaspiritualandsocialvaluestocritiquemodernAmerica.Central to the success of their collaboration was a shared sense of the

significanceofthedreamorvision.BlackElktoldNeihardt indetailabouthis

visionexperiences,mostimportantly,thegreatvisionhehadattheageofnine,when he lay unconscious for twelve days. It was that dream that set his lifecourseandplacedtheburdenonhimtoservehispeopleasanintercessorwiththe spirit world. In return, Neihardt told Black Elk about the dream heexperiencedat theageofeleven,whenhe lay ina fever.Repeated three timesduring the night, Neihardt felt himself hurtling through a vast emptiness at adreadful speed, his arms stretched forward, a great voice driving him on.Neihardtinterpretedthedreamasamandateforhislife’swork,tochooseapathwith higher purpose,which finally settled into his vocation as a poet.AlmosttwodecadeslaterNeihardtreturnedtothedreamandtransformeditintoapoem,“TheGhostlyBrother,” thatconceptualized thecosmic force in thedreamasaspiritualalterego,afateorguide:“IamyouandyouareI.”Thepoemexpressesthetensionbetweenthetwoegos,thespiritualleadingforward,urgingtheothertofollow“throughtheouterwallsofsense,” towardahigherreality,while theearthlyfearsthechallengeandbegstostopandenjoylife’sworldlypleasures.2Black Elk found Neihardt’s dream perfectly comprehensible. It was, in his

words(asinterpretedbyBen),“apowervision.”BlackElkidentifiedNeihardt’sunseen guide: “I think this was an Indian brother from the happy huntinggroundswho isyourguide.”ForBlackElk, itwasnatural thatone’s lifeworkshould be revealed in a dream; he said to Neihardt, “The work you wereassigned was man thinker.” Moreover, Neihardt’s invisible guide and hisvocationasawriter linkedhimdirectly toBlackElk.BeforehemetNeihardt,BlackElkconfided,hewouldthinkabouthisvisionandbecomesadbecausehewantedtheworldtoknowabouthisvisionbutwaspowerlesstodoso.“Itseemsthatyourghostlybrotherhassentyouheretodothisforme”(SG,43).Neihardt’smissionwas clear: to preserveBlackElk’s vision and to share it

with theworld.Whenhe returnedhomefromhisvisitwithBlackElkand theotheroldLakotamenhefeltasthoughhewasreturningtothetwentiethcentury.Hehadbeenlost,hewrote,“intheconsciousnessofthoseessentiallyprimitivemen,anditsohappenedthatthewholemoodoftheexperiencewasdeterminedby one of them in whom the highest spiritual conceptions of his race havefloweredinbeautyandwisdom.”ThebeautyandwisdomofLakotaculture,asarticulated by Black Elk, served as a stark counterpoint to “the dominantcontemporaryconsciousness”(SG,49).AshecomposedBlackElk Speaks, usingEnid’s transcript of her shorthand

notesasthebasicsource,Neihardtwasconcernedthatthebookbefactual,butmore importantly—ashewrote inhis introduction toapaperback reprint forty

yearsafterthefirsteditionwaspublished—“torecreateinEnglishthemoodandmanneroftheoldman’snarrative”(BES,xxvii).ThetaskwastocreatealiteraryBlack Elk real enough to be accepted by twentieth-century readers. The first-person voice obviated the problems of description and explanation thatwouldhavefacedathird-personnarrative.ReaderswouldhavetojudgeforthemselveswhatBlackElk’s experiences, actions, and beliefs truly signified.Neihardt, asrecorder,wouldnotserveasanintermediarybetweenBlackElkandthereadersofthebook.Thematerial,however,waschallengingforgeneralreaders,forwhomvisions

and spiritual intervention in the affairs of thisworld seemed both archaic andsuspect.ThisbecamecleartoNeihardtwhentheeditorsinNewYorkproposedrelegating the account of the great vision to an appendix, a suggestion thatNeihardt adamantly rejected. The conflict exemplified how unprepared non-IndianreaderscouldbetotakeNativeAmericanspiritualityseriously.Neihardtwonthatbattle,buthelostwhenitcametothetitle.Hewantedtocallthebook“TheTreethatNeverBloomed,”focusingonthiscentralsymbolofBlackElk’svisionandofhishopefor thefutureofhispeople.Intheend,NeihardtsettledforBlack Elk Speaks, a tactful compromise suggested by hiswife,Mona (SG,53).Neihardt’s literary Black Elk, as his character developed from boyhood to

manhood,becameaspiritual leaderdevoted tousingprayer, sacredsongs,andceremonies to cure the sick and to heal his people. His visions placed aburdensomeresponsibilityonhimtousethepowersgivenhimforthebenefitoftheLakotas,whosewayoflifeandreasonforlivingwerebothcasualtiesoftheEuroamericanconquestoftheWest.ThemetaphorsofrestoringthehoopofthenationandmakingthetreebloomsummedupwhatBlackElkfelthimselfcalledtodo,theresponsibilitythathehadfailed.AndsotheliteraryBlackElkdeliversanelegyonHarneyPeak,thefeeblecryofapitifuloldman,defeated,butwhostillhopesthathispeoplemayhaveafuture.The power ofNeihardt’s book tomove readers to an appreciation ofBlack

Elk’ssenseoftheotherworld, therealityofhisvisions,andthetragedyofhispeopleisundeniable.WhetherreadinEnglishorthehalf-dozenotherlanguagesintowhichthebookhasbeentranslated,readersrespondviscerallytoBlackElkSpeaks.Becausethebookspeakssoeloquentlyaboutourcommonhumanityandfulfillsourdesire,inNeihardt’swords,“tolearnalittlemoreinaworldwheresovery little can be known” (BES, xviii), it has become a religious classic, theparadigmofAmericanIndianreligions,andBlackElkaniconof thewiseand

holymedicineman.Forthefirst threedecadesafter itspublicationBlackElkSpeaksattractedan

audience primarily of scholars interested in other cultures and specialists inAmericanliterature.Whenitwasreprintedinpaperbackin1961itsoondrewacounterculturalaudienceofyouthswhofoundin thebookanalternative to thealienationoftwentieth-centuryindustrialculture.Manyofthem,inturn,passedon their enthusiasm to their children and grandchildren, with each newgenerationfindinginBlackElkanantidotetotheirdiscontentsandapromiseofmeaningfulconnectiontotheworldinacosmicsense.Thepopularity ofNeihardt’s book inevitablydrew the attentionof scholars,

who,overthepastfourdecades,havefashionedaveritableindustryinanalyzingandcommentingonBlackElk.TwootherworksalsopresentmaterialdictatedbyBlackElk,andthey,too,havebeenpartofthescholarlydebate.ThefirstisNeihardt’sWhentheTreeFlowered:AnAuthenticTaleoftheOld

SiouxWorld (1951). In 1944,while employedby theOffice of IndianAffairs,Neihardt once again visited Black Elk, who told him a series of stories thatconstituted a history of the Lakotas. Distressed that Black Elk Speaks, in itsinitial edition, had failed to find a popular audience, Neihardt decided to tryagain.WhentheTreeFloweredcombinesincidentsfromthelifeofanotheragedOglala, Eagle Elk, with a reworking of Black Elk’s story of his travels withBuffaloBill and of theGhostDance.The time frame of the two books is thesame,butWhentheTreeFloweredtakesabroaderviewofLakotasocietyandissomewhat less focused on the spiritual aspects of Lakota culture. Unlike theearlierbook,itemploysanon-IndiannarratortoframeEagleElk’sfirst-personnarrative,tellingthestoryasaseriesofvisitstotheoldman.The second work is Joseph Epes Brown’s The Sacred Pipe: Black Elk’s

Account of the Seven Rites of the Oglala Sioux (1953). In 1947 and 1948,Brown, a student of comparative religion, was moved by reading Black ElkSpeaks to seek out the Oglala holy man. Brown visited Black Elk, whowelcomed him as he hadNeihardt, adopting him and enlisting him towrite abook recording the traditional ceremoniesofLakota religion.WhileBlackElkhaddescribedtoNeihardtceremoniesbasedonhispersonalvisions,hehadnottouchedonthecommunalritualscentraltoLakotareligiouspractice.BlackElkwasintruththeagedsageNeihardthadportrayed;now,towardthecloseofhislife(hediedatage86in1950),thematerialthathedictatedtoBrownreflectedamature integration of Lakota tradition with Catholicism. For an obviousexample, throughoutNeihardt’s interviews,BlackElk consistently used six as

thesacrednumber;whenheworkedwithBrown,thesacrednumberwasseven,andhisaccountofthesevenLakotaritualsisstructuredinawaythatparallelsthesevensacramentsoftheCatholicChurch.These three works—Black Elk Speaks,When the Tree Flowered, and The

SacredPipe—aretheprimarytextsaroundwhichdebateswirlsendlessly.

BecauseIhavemyselfcontributedtotheBlackElkliterature, itmaybefair tostatemyinvolvement.IlearnedofBlackElkthroughTheSacredPipe,whichIpurchased inabookstore inRochester,NewYork, in1960. It ledme toBlackElkSpeaks,whichIfoundinthepubliclibrary,butlovedsomuchthatIlocatedand purchased a copy from the catalog of an antiquarian bookseller—my firstsuchpurchase.ThenextyearIfoundinLowdermilk’sbookstoreinWashingtonDC,acopyoftheBritisheditionofWhentheTreeFlowered,publishedunderthetitle Eagle Voice. Reading and rereading these volumes throughout my highschoolyearsplayedamajorroleinmychoiceofacareerinanthropology.AsacollegestudentIwasfortunatetohavebeenabletospendthreesummers

inthemid-1960sworkingintheoldBureauofAmericanEthnologyArchivesatthe Smithsonian Institution. Surrounded by original manuscripts documentinggenerations of scholars’ work studying American Indians, I was deeplyimpressedbythewealthofknowledgetheycontained.SittingatadeskbehindtherosewindowoftheSmithsonianCastle—adeskIcoulduseafterhoursandontheweekends—andrevelingintheheadysenseofdirectcontactwithhistory,I wrote to Neihardt asking whether it would be possible to read the originaltranscript of his interviews with Black Elk. He graciously agreed to allow aphotocopy tobemade from theoriginal in theWesternHistoricalManuscriptsCollectionattheUniversityofMissouri.Thenotesamazedmewiththetreasuryofethnographicdetailtheycontained.Ireturnedtothetranscriptagainandagain,referringtothemincollegeterm

papers, inmy Ph.D. dissertation, and in some ofmy early publications. Theyformsuchan important source for the anthropological studyofLakota culturethatIwasconvincedthattheyshouldbepublished.Finally,in1980,whenIhadgained tenure at IndianaUniversity, I felt in a position to undertake the job. IproposedtheprojecttoHildaNeihardt,whoallowedittoproceedandultimatelygave permission to publish not only the 1931 interviews, but also those from1944, forwhich she had served as her father’s stenographer.The book, calledTheSixthGrandfather:BlackElk’sTeachingsGiventoJohnG.Neihardt(1984)includes a biographical introduction about Black Elk and a complete and

correctedversionofthe1931notesbasedonaretranscriptionofEnid’soriginalshorthand. While the publisher wanted a title that would attract attention,perhaps “Black Elk Speaks Again,” I preferred something that reflected themessagethatBlackElkwishedtosend,soIbasedthetitleonhisstatement,“thesixthgrandfatherwasmyself,whorepresentedthespiritofmankind”(SG,141).For the subtitle Iwanted to avoid “interviews” and thought aboutBlackElk’sstatementtoNeihardtat theirfirstmeetingin1930:“HehasbeensenttolearnwhatIknow,andIwillteachhim”(BES,xxiii).The Black Elk literature has become impressively large in size and scope,

ranging over and between disciplines as diverse as anthropology, NativeAmericanstudies, literature, rhetoric,philosophy,history,andreligiousstudies.This is not the place to attempt a systematic review.Readers can gain a goodsense of the variety of issues and approaches involved from The Black ElkReader,editedbyClydeHoller(2000).3HereIwishtofocusontwodebatesthatshapedthisliteratureandthatarerelevantforreadersofBlackElkSpeaks.Firstis the authorship of the book, which inevitably leads to the question ofauthenticity. Second is Black Elk’s identity as a Catholic and the question ofChristianinfluencesonhisaccountoftraditionalLakotareligion.The question of authorship and authenticity began with one of the first

reviewsofBlackElkSpeaks in1932,whichaccusedNeihardtof inventing thenarratorsofthebook:“perhapsthemain’tIndiansatall...howcouldtheytalkthatway?”4Most reviewers, however,went to theother extremeandacceptedthebookasa transcriptofBlackElk’swords,understandingNeihardt’srole tohavebeenthatofarecorder.They,likereadersofthebookingeneral,tookthewordson the titlepage literally:“theLifeStoryofaHolyManof theOgalalaSioux told to JohnG.Neihardt.” To counter thismisunderstanding, beginningwith the1972edition,Neihardt reworded the titlepage:“told throughJohnG.Neihardt.”Scholarly debate over authenticity began in the early 1970s, with the first

critics being students of literature. Robert Sayre was apparently the first tocompare parts of the book with Enid’s transcript, on the basis of which heconcluded thatNeihardthadbeenfaithful toBlackElk’swordsand intentions.SallyMcCluskey interviewed Neihardt and asked directly for his assessment.The reply was definitive: “Black Elk Speaks is a work of art with twocollaborators,thechiefonebeingBlackElk.Myfunctionwasbothcreativeandeditorial.”Notethathedoesnotsay“twoauthors,”forthewritingofthebookwasentirelyNeihardt’s.Theonlypartsofthetextthatheleftlargelyunchanged

from the interview transcript are the song lyrics.As to thevoice inwhich theworkiswritten“itisabsurdtosupposethattheuseofthefirstpersonsingularisnot a literary device.” Neihardt is absolutely clear in stating his approach towritingthebook:“Thebeginningandendingaremine;theyarewhathewouldhavesaidifhehadbeenable.”NeihardtperceivedthatBlackElkwasunabletoexpress fully his thoughts and emotions through a translator. Even though thetranslatorwasBlackElk’ssonBenjamin,hewascompletelyunfamiliarwithhisfather’s traditional religion, and this, combined with the limitations of hisEnglish, made translating Black Elk’s words a challenging task. It thereforebecame thepoet’sduty to synthesizewhatBlackElkwouldhave said, hadhebeenanEnglishspeakerwithaliterarybent.Neihardtisveryspecificabouthiswritingmethod: “At times I changed aword, a sentence, sometimes created aparagraph.Andthetranslation—orratherthetransformation—ofwhatwasgivenmewasexpressedsothatitcouldbeunderstoodbythewhiteworld.”5In1983,MichaelCastropublishedan insightful andwell-reasonedessayon

NeihardtandBlackElkthatdealt inpartwiththeprocessofwritingBlackElkSpeaks, focused particularly on the great vision. Using Enid Neihardt’stranscript,hecomparedNeihardt’sadditions,andwasthefirstcontributortotheBlackElkliteraturetodiscusshisdeletions.Castrocharacterizesthoseeditorialstrategiesasfollows:“UnlikemostotherpoetswhotooklibertiesintranslatingIndian materials, Neihardt’s changes tend to read like extensions of theinformant’s consciousness, reflecting less the white writer’s independent andimpressionistic judgment than a hard-earnedmutual understanding and trust.”6Hisdiscussionofdeletionsfocusesontheomissionofthevisionscenesdevotedtowarandthepowertodestroy.Brian Holloway, a professor of English, in Interpreting the Legacy: John

NeihardtandBlackElkSpeaks(2003),discussestheresponsesofliterarycriticsto Black Elk Speaks, especially in terms of authorship and of the genre ofAmericanIndianautobiography.OfspecialvalueisHolloway’sownanalysisoftheways inwhichBlackElkSpeaks fits into thebroaderpictureofNeihardt’sliterary work, and in particular his mysticism. Neihardt once commented that“the essence of religion ismystical experience” (p. 61), and it is the commonbondofmysticalexperiencethatforgedhisrelationshipwithBlackElkandledthepoettoconsidertellingBlackElk’sstoryas“asacredobligation”(p.2).The heart of the book has the greatest relevance for anyone wishing to

understandthemakingofBlackElkSpeaks.HereHollowaypresentsaselectionofphotocopiedpagesofEnidNeihardt’sinterviewtranscriptstogetherwiththe

corresponding pages of Neihardt’s handwritten manuscript, with corrections,strikeouts, and additions, that allow a reader to see step-by-step thetransformationoftherawmaterialintothepublishedbook.Hollowaydiscussesthe literary voice thatNeihardt created for thiswork, arguing that it skillfullyreproducesoralnarrativeanddemonstratingitsinfluenceonlaterwriters.A more recent interpretation by Dana Anderson from a perspective of

rhetorical theory contributes to an understanding of Black Elk Speaks byexamining alternative identities. He examines issues of authenticity, thedynamics of Christian conversion, and presents an insightful summary of therelevantliterature.TurningtothedebateoverChristianity,thereisnoquestioningthefactthatthe

Oglalas, thepeopleofPineRidgeReservation,knewNicholasBlackElk from1904 until his death in 1950 first and foremost as a leader in the CatholicChurch. Inhisyoungeryearsheservedasamissionary toother tribesand formuchofhislifeheservedhiscommunityofMandersonasacatechist.BlackElktaughtgenerationsofchildrentosaytherosaryandgavethemtheirfirstlessonsinCatholicdogma.It is thereforenotsurprising thatwhencopiesofBlackElkSpeakscirculatedatPineRidgein1932theJesuitmissionarieswereinfuriated.TheyblamedNeihardt for failing tocarryBlackElk’s lifestoryforward tohisconversion to Catholicism and repudiation of the old system of belief. In adocument written in Lakota and translated into English in 1934, Black Elkaffirmedhiscommitmenttothefaith.Becauseofhis identificationwith thechurch, somecriticscastdoubton the

authenticityofthematerialBlackElktoldNeihardt,andtheCatholicpriestsatthat timeclaimed that thevisionaccountswereamalgamsofstoriesBlackElkhad learned from others. Many years later, Michael F. Steltenkamp, a youngJesuitpriestwhowasagraduatestudentatMichiganStateUniversity,recordedreminiscencesofBlackElkfromindividualswhohadknownhim.Theybecamethe basis for his dissertation, later published as Black Elk: Holy Man of theOglala(1993).TheyincludedstoriestoldbyBlackElk’sdaughter,LucyLooksTwice,astaunchCatholicwhospokeofherfather’sactivitiesintheChurchandofhisuseof theTwoRoadsMap,apictorialcatechismin theformofascrollthat was used to teach Christian doctrine without requiring any written text.Steltenkamparguedthatthetworoadsofthecatechism—oneleadingtoheaven,theothertohell—mighthavebeenamalgamatedbyBlackElkintothememoryofhischildhoodvision.(Thisargumentleavesunresolvedhowthecircularformofthevisioncouldbemergedwiththelinearformofthecatechism.)Ratherthan

conceptualizing traditional religious practice andCatholicism as two stages ofhislife,Steltenkamp’sinterpretationopensthepossibilitythatBlackElkblendedthe two and that Neihardt, since he was unprepared to recognize Christianinfluences inBlackElk’snarrative, simply failed tounderstand them. Inshort,for some Jesuits, Black Elk exemplified fulfillment theology, in which nativetraditions are interpreted as laying the moral foundation for the eventualintroductionofChristianity.7Morerecently,writing inapostcolonial framework,DamianCostelloargued

in Black Elk: Colonialism and Lakota Catholicism (2003) that, under thetutelageoftheJesuitpriests,BlackElk’sgenerationdevelopedacreolizationofNative and Christian traditions (p. 50). While this is undoubtedly true, theimplications that Costello draws seem implausible. Drawing particularly onparallels to the Book of Revelation, Costello characterizes Black Elk’s greatvisionas“christiological,”a“salvationhistory”inwhich“BlackElkredescribedtheLakota tradition toavoidcontradictionwith theChristian storyandalso toshowhowChristpermeatedtheentireLakotatraditionasitscentraltheme”(p.93).ManywritersconceptualizeBlackElkashavingacceptedChristianitywithout

forsaking the old religion; see, for example, Marie Therese Archambault,Meditations with Black Elk. Others, like Ed McGaa, in Mother EarthSpirituality, are concerned to defendBlackElk against the charge that he hadforsakenhistraditionalreligion.InBlackElk’sStory:DistinguishingItsLakotaPurpose, Julian Rice argues—to me, unconvincingly—that Black Elk’s mainconcernwas toperpetuateLakota tradition, and thathis apparent adherence toChristianitywasentirelyopportunistic.ClydeHoller,aphilosopherofreligion,argues persuasively in Black Elk’s Religion: The Sun Dance and LakotaCatholicism thatBlackElkdrewcreativelyonboth religions to forgehisownspiritualpath.FrankFoolsCrow,anephewofBlackElk’sandalsoaholyman,is reported to have told thewriter ThomasMails, “Black Elk toldme he haddecidedthattheSiouxreligiouswayoflifewasprettymuchthesameasthatoftheChristianchurches,andtherewasnoreasontochangewhattheSiouxweredoing.”8Ultimately, the two issues of authenticity and Christianity impinge on the

appreciation ofBlack Elk Speaks. In their harshest forms, critics dismiss thebookcompletely.AnthropologistWilliamK.Powersdeclaresthat“inBlackElkSpeaks andother bookswritten bywhitemen for awhite audience, the ideas,plots,persons,andsituationsofthesebookshavebeenconstructedtoconformto

the expectations of a white audience.”9 Julian Rice suggests that Black ElkSpeaks “may perhaps be relegated to the ranks of nineteenth century curios,reflecting white misconceptions of Indians.”10 The contrast between theseevaluations and that of Vine Deloria, Jr., the Lakota scholar, activist, andreligious thinker, is stark. Writing in a foreword to the 1979 reprint, hecharacterizedBlackElkSpeaksas“areligiousclassic,perhapstheonlyreligiousclassic of this century.” Deloria observed that “Present debate centers on thequestionofNeihardt’sliteraryintrusionsintoBlackElk’ssystemofbeliefs...Itis, admittedly, difficult to discover if we are talking to Black Elk or JohnNeihardt.”ButforDeloria,thisquestionisoflittlerelevance:“Theverynatureof great religious teachings is that they encompass everyonewho understandsthemandpersonalitiesbecomeindistinguishablefromthetranscendenttruththatisexpressed.SoletitbewithBlackElkSpeaks.”11

NoteveryonesharesDeloria’ssenseofequanimity.Perhapsitismynatureasananthropologisttotry,towhateverextentpossible,todisentanglethevoices.Forthat reason, I was eager to take up the invitation to prepare this annotatededition. Interestedreaderswhofollowthefootnoteswill findfactsandfigures,explanations of matters Neihardt left implicit, Lakota words and phrases,identificationofthosesectionswrittenbyNeihardtandthosethatvaryfromtheinterviewnotes,andbibliographicalsuggestionsthatleadintothevastliteratureofwhichBlackElkSpeaks formsapart. Ihaveundertaken thiswithakindofremorse, realizing that the aesthetic pleasure of reading the book for the firsttimeis,toquoteonceagainVineDeloria,Jr.,“Thatitspeakstouswithsimpleandcompellinglanguage”(xvi).Mygoal,simply,hasbeentoproducethekindofeditionofthetextthatIwouldliketohavehadwhenIfirstreaditmanyyearsago.So,withapologiestoDeloria,andtoNeihardthimself,Ihavetakenonthejob

ofexplicatingauthorship.The annotations I have added throughout the text provide comparisons

between the book as published and the transcript of the interview notes.Recognizing the impracticality of sentence-by-sentence or even paragraph-by-paragraph comparison (truly devoted readers can perform that task forthemselvesbycomparingthebookwiththetranscriptinTheSixthGrandfather),IhavelimitedmyselftopointsthatIfoundsignificantorjustinteresting.Suchcomparison makes apparent material in the book that is either lacking in the

transcriptorhasbeen substantially reworked.Limitedasweare to thewrittensources, it is possible that some of the material lacking in the transcript didoriginate in the interviews.Such is apparently the casewith the storyofHighHorse’s courting (chapter6),which is not found in the transcript.While someanecdotesanddetailsmayhavebeenpreservedinNeihardt’smemory,itisveryclearthathedependedcloselyonthetranscripttowritethebook.HepromisedBlackElk touseasmuchofhis language in thebookaspossible,andhewasfaithfultothatpromise.Thebulkof thematerialfoundinBlackElkSpeaks thatseems tobewritten

entirely byNeihardt, without reference to theBlack Elk interviews, is of twokinds: historical events and cultural context. Both types of additions werenecessary in order to make the book accessible to readers who have neitherprevious knowledge of the history of Indian-white relations on the northernplainsnoranyunderstandingofLakotaculture.When Black Elk and the other oldmen told their stories, Neihardt did not

interrupttheflowoftheirnarrativeswithquestions.ThetranscriptrecordsveryfewoccasionswhenNeihardtaskedanyquestionsatall.BlackElkwaspreparedtotellhislifestoryandknewinadvancethetopicsaboutwhichhewouldspeak.He spoke about himself and his people, but said relatively little about theirrelationship with the white people beyond military engagements, from theFettermanFight(BattleoftheHundredSlain)atFortPhilKearnyin1866totheWounded Knee Battle in 1890. It was therefore up to Neihardt to fill in thehistorical context in which these military encounters occurred. Based on hisreading of the literature and correspondence with old frontiersman that hadformedthebasisforhisSongoftheIndianWars,Neihardtwasableeasilytoaddmaterial on the building of theUnionPacificRailroad in the 1860s; the 1868treatythatcreatedtheGreatSiouxReservation;themilitaryexpeditionsintotheBlackHillsin1874and1875andthediscoveryofgold;thesubsequentinfluxofminers into the Hills; the government order for the Lakotas to return to theiragenciesbeforeJanuary31,1876,orbeconsideredhostile;Reynolds’attackona Sioux andCheyenne camp onMarch 17, 1876;Miles’s attack onAmericanHorse’svillageatSlimButtes,September9,1876;theBlackHillsAgreementinSeptember 1876; theBattle ofWolfMountains, January 8, 1877, a fightwithMiles’stroops;thesurrenderofCrazyHorseatFortRobinsoninMay1877andhisdeaththereonSeptember5ofthatyear;thedestructionofthebuffaloherdsintheearly1880s;thecorruptionattheLakotaagenciesthatledtohungeranddespair; the1889Agreementbywhich theLakotas surrendereda largepartof

theirreservationandwerereducedtofivesmallerones;theoriginoftheGhostDanceamongthePaiutes;thedeathofSittingBull,December15,1890;andthedescriptionof thedead atWoundedKnee,December31, 1890.This historicalbackgroundbolsteredBlackElk’snarrativeandtransformeditfromBlackElk’sstory to the story of the Lakotas as a people, with Black Elk as theirrepresentativeandspokesman.Neihardt’s additions that provide cultural context were more modest. The

most substantive of them is the account of the Sun Dance (chapter 8). BothBlack Elk and Standing Bear told Neihardt about the pranks boys played onadults during the Sun Dance, but they did not describe the ceremony itself.Neihardtalsoaddedadiscussionoftherelationshipbetweenvisionexperience,publicperformanceofthevision,anduseofpowersgrantedinthevisiontocurethesick(chapter18),andaddedsomeexplanatorycommentsabout theheyokaandelkceremonies.Less easy to specify is themanner inwhichNeihardt shaped the narrative.

WhilebeingfaithfultothetranscriptofwhatBlackElksaid,thestoryistold,astherevisedtitlepagereads,“throughJohnG.Neihardt.”Byhischoiceofwordsand by the selection of material he decided to omit, Neihardt necessarilyinterpreted Black Elk’s meanings, both literal and emotional. To the extentpractical, I have added annotations to draw attention to those choices, whichrevealawritergrapplingwithhisart.Neihardtjustifieshisrolealongtwogrounds.Oneisempathy.Theircommon

visionexperience leadsNeihardt to read intoBlackElk’sexperiencemeaningsandemotionssimilartohisown.HetransformsBlackElk’s“otherworld”intohis own concept of the “outer world,” doing so apparently naturally, perhapsunconsciously.Theotherfactoristhelanguagebarrier.SpeakingthroughhissonBenjamin as translator, the meaning of what Black Elk said was sometimesobscure. It was necessary for Neihardt to hone expression and explicatemeaning.Bychoosingtowriteinthefirstperson,hetookonhimselftheburdenofspeakingforandasBlackElk—literallytakingovertheburdenofhisvision—creatingaliteraryBlackElkthat,asNeihardtlaterexpressedittoMcCluskey,was“aworkofartwithtwocollaborators.”BlackElkasaliterarycharactercreatedbyNeihardtmaybecharacterizedas

humble;dedicatedtoahigherpurposeinlife;asagewhosewisdomisuniversal,transcending time and cultures; a primitive thinker, outside the systems ofWesternknowledgeandChristiantheology;amanwhoquietlysufferedoutrageat themistreatmentofIndiansandwhoselifeepitomizedthepathosofadying

people. In combinationwith the exoticism of Lakota culture and the sense ofinevitable doom in the face ofmodern civilization, the narrative appeals in afundamentallyhumansense,eventoreaderswithnospecificinterestinlearningaboutAmericanIndians.Neihardt underscores Black Elk’s humility from the very start of the book:

“whatisonemanthatheshouldmakemuchofhiswinters”?(BES,1).Asforhisfamedpowersasamedicineman,hetakesnopersonalcredit:“itwasnotIwhocured.Itwasthepowerfromtheouterworld”(BES,127).Thatmankindhasahigherpurposeinlifeisfundamentaltothepersonaofthe

literaryBlackElk:“thethoughtsofmen...shouldrisehighaseaglesdo”(BES,2).Yetallonecandoisstriveforunderstanding,whichisalwaysbeyondhumangrasp. Neihardt has Black Elk say, speaking of the symbolism of the pipe:“because itmeansall this, andmore thananymancanunderstand, thepipe isholy”(BES,2).Nomatterhowmuchapersonlearnsabouttheholy,asinvisionexperiences, we are only human and fall short of our potential: “It is hard tofollowonegreatvisioninthisworldofdarknessandofmanychangingshadows.Among those shadowsmenget lost” (BES, 157).Noneof these sentiments areexpressedinthe transcript; theyareauthoredbyNeihardt,expressing inwordswhathefeltBlackElk’smeaningstobe.The universality of Black Elk’s teachings gives them their special literary

significance.TheliteraryBlackElkwishestosharehisvisionoftheuniverse:“Itis the story of all life that is holy and is good to tell, and of us two-leggedssharinginitwiththefour-leggedsandthewingsoftheairandallgreenthings;forthesearechildrenofonemotherandtheirfatherisoneSpirit”(BES,1).WhatwastrueinBlackElk’syouth,hisgreatvisionexperience,muststillbetrue,nomatterhowdrasticallylifehaschanged:“ifthevisionwastrueandmighty,asIknow,itistrueandmightyyet;forsuchthingsareofthespirit,anditisinthedarknessoftheireyesthatmenget lost”(BES,1).Thevisionrelatesnotjust totheLakotas,buthasuniversalmeaning:“AndIsawthatthesacredhoopofmypeoplewas one ofmany hoops thatmade one circle,wide as daylight and asstarlight, and in the center grew one mighty flowering tree to shelter all thechildrenofonemotherandonefather.AndIsawthatitwasholy”(BES,26).WhilehewaswithBlackElkandtheotherLakotaelders,asNeihardtwrote

shortlyafterhisvisit,he“wasabletolosehimselfintheconsciousnessofthoseessentiallyprimitivemen”(SG,49).Fundamentaltruthsbecomeobvious:“Isnottheskyafatherandtheearthamother,andarenotalllivingthingswithfeetorwings or roots their children?” (BES, 2). These truths are arrived at without

outside influence, even thoughBlackElk (the literary figure),mayhaveheardbits of thewhitemen’s knowledge: “thePower of theWorld alwaysworks incircles, . . . . This knowledge came to us from the outer world with ourreligion....Theskyisround,andIhaveheardthattheearthisroundlikeaball,and so are all the stars” (BES, 121).Neihardt uses “Power of theWorld,” “thepowersthatareonePower,”and“SpiritoftheWorld,”and“Spirit,”asalternatetranslations forBlackElk’s “GreatSpirit,” the literal translationof theLakotadesignation,Wakhátháka,asubtlechangethatlendsauniversalsense.Even though the literaryBlackElk isdevoted toharmonywithallcreatures

and all peoples, he nonetheless expresses his bitterness toward the whites fortaking theLakotas’ lands and destroying theirway of life. In theDogVision,whenthespiritriderskill thedogs,BlackElkcomments:“Isawthatthedogs’headshadchangedtotheheadsofWasichus”(BES,115).Thispersonificationofthe enemy aswhitemen is not found in the transcript, butNeihardt uses it totransform the vision into a powerful symbol of the Lakotas’ disdain for thewhites.AfterthedeathofCrazyHorse,BlackElksays,“nowtheyweregoingtopenusupinlittleislandsandmakeusbelikeWasichus”(BES,91).Thencametheexterminationofthebuffalo:“Thatfall[1883],theysay,thelastofthebisonherdswasslaughteredbytheWasichus.Icanrememberwhenthebisonweresomanythattheycouldnotbecounted,butmoreandmoreWasichuscametokillthemuntiltherewereonlyheapsofbonesscatteredwheretheyusedtobe.TheWasichusdidnotkillthemtoeat;theykilledthemforthemetalthatmakesthemcrazy”(BES, 133). Confined to the reservations: “Hungerwas among us oftennow,formuchofwhattheGreatFatherinWashingtonsentusmusthavebeenstolenbyWasichuswhowerecrazytogetmoney.Thereweremanylies,butwecouldnoteatthem”(BES,133).Greedwasintrinsictothewhitemen’scharacter.Speaking of his experiences with the Buffalo Bill Show in the East and inEurope, theliteraryBlackElkobserves,“Icouldseethat theWasichusdidnotcareforeachotherthewayourpeopledidbeforethenation’shoopwasbroken”(BES,135).Commentingonthe1889Agreement,BlackElksays:“SothefloodofWasichus,dirtywithbaddeeds,gnawedawayhalfoftheislandthatwaslefttous”(BES,144).Thiscritiqueofwhitecivilizationisamajorthemeinthebook,butitisNeihardt’scritique,writtenonBlackElk’sbehalf.The theme of despair and the death of the Lakota people permeates the

narrative.BlackElk’s pathos epitomizes that of his people: “Andnowwhen Ilookaboutmeuponmypeopleindespair,IfeellikecryingandIwishandwishmyvisioncouldhavebeengiventoamanmoreworthy.Iwonderwhyitcameto

me,apitifuloldmanwhocandonothing....Itwasthenationthatwasdying,and thevisionwas for thenation;but Ihavedonenothingwith it” (BES, 112).Through repetition, Neihardt drives this theme home. The literary Black Elksays:“Thepeoplewereindespair.Theyseemedheavytome,heavyanddark;soheavythatitseemedtheycouldnotbelifted;sodarkthattheycouldnotbemadeto see any more” (BES, 133). Five times in the book Black Elk characterizeshimselfasa“pitifuloldman,”andNeihardtheightens the sensebygiving theimpressionofBlackElk’sgreatage:“nowthatIcanseeitallasfromalonelyhilltop”;“WhenIlookbacknowfromthishighhillofmyoldage”(BES,1,169).Thisisaneffectiveliterarydevice,butBlackElkwasonlysixty-sevenyearsoldandnotonceinthetranscriptsdoesherefertohimselfasapitifuloldman.Yetanagednarratorisbetterabletorepresentinhispersonthesymbolsofthedyingnation, the tree thatwitheredanddied, thehoopof thepeople thatwasbrokenandscattered.Another perspective on Neihardt’s portrayal of Black Elk is provided by

focusingonthematerialheomittedintheprocessofcreatingBlackElkSpeaks.Comparisonoftheinterviewtranscript,publishedinTheSixthGrandfather,withthebook reveals someofNeihardt’sdecisionsas towhichmaterial to cutout.Cuts were necessary, given the length of the transcript and the necessity forNeihardttoaddmaterialonessentialeventsandtopicsthatBlackElkhadfailedto discuss. Many of the cuts eliminated detail that, while historically andethnographically important, cluttered the narrative andmade it harder to read.ButhavingcharacterizedBlackElkintheprefaceofthebookas“asaintinthedeepermeaningof that term, as signifying a rare formof genius” (BES,xviii),some of the cuts seem motivated by the desire to make Black Elk bothempatheticandbelievable.In relatingBlackElk’sgreatvision, for example,Neihardtomitted theparts

directlyrelatingtowarfareandemphasized,instead,thoserelatingtohealing.HemadenomentionoftheepisodeinwhichBlackElkandhiscompanionsattackabeing in themidstof flames that transformsintoadogafterBlackElkkills it.BlackElk commented toNeihardt, “Thismeant thatwhen you go towar youshouldkill your enemy like adog” (SG, 122).Neihardt alsoomitted theentireepisode in the vision in which he saw warfare personified as a horned man,paintedblack,with lightningflashingalloverhisbodyashemoved.ThemantransformedintoanothersacredherbthatBlackElkwasgiven,thesoldierweedofdestruction,whichhadthepowertokillindiscriminately.Thisepisodeoccursinthefourthascentofthevision,whenBlackElkreturnsfromthecenterofthe

worldtotheSixGrandfathers.Hemeetsfourridersondifferentcoloredhorses(bay, gray, sorrel, and white), each wearing a headdress of living eagles andotheranimals;thesorrelridercarriesalancethatisalivingserpent.Eventhoughthis isoneof themostpowerfulvisual images in thevision,Neihardtomits it.The riders represent a time in the fourth ascentwhen therewould bewarfarethroughouttheworld.Inthevision,BlackElkwastoldthathewouldbethirty-sevenyearsoldandthatbyusingthesoldierweedhewoulddefendhispeople,even though it would kill many men, women, and children. Black Elk toldNeihardtthatherefusedtocausesuchdestructionandsaidthatwhenhereachedthatage,hegaveuphisvisionandjoinedtheCatholicChurch(SG,135–37).12NeihardtincludesinthebookthestoryofBlackElk’sfirstcureasamedicine

man,a remarkableaccount that reveals thepsychologicalprocessbywhichhemovedfromtheabstractionofthevisiontotheritualactsofcuring,convincinghimself, as well as others, that he had the power to heal. However, NeihardtomitsacentralpartofBlackElk’ssystemofshamaniccuring.When,inhisgreatvision, he returns to the SixGrandfathers, theGrandfather of theNorth giveshimacupofwatertodrinkinwhichthereisatinyman,paintedblue,holdingabowandarrow.WhenBlackElkdrank thewater,ashisgrandfather instructedhim,hedrankdownthemanaswell,transformedintoafishthatrepresentedthehealing power of thewater.During his first cure,BlackElk felt the bluemanmovinginhischest,thenfelthiminhismouthashedrewthroughthepatient’sbody the healing power of theNorthwind, removing the sickness. Black Elkcommented thatwheneverhewascuringapatient,“Icouldactuallymake thislittlebluemancomeoutandswiminthecupIused”(SG,139).Anin-dwellingspirit being is an element of shamanism found widely throughout NorthAmerica,asistheconceptofillnesscausedbyanintrusiveobject,andcuringbysuckingitout.Clearly,thebluemanwascentraltoBlackElk’shealingrituals.DoubtlessNeihardtsensedthatincludingthisaspectofBlackElk’sstoryinthebook would test the reader’s credulousness and render the literary Black Elkunbelievable.In the same vein, not wanting Black Elk to seem gullible or simply

superstitious, Neihardt in some instances softens Black Elk’s accounts ofseeminglymiraculous events. For example, in describing the pictographs seenhighonDeerRocksthattheIndiansbelievedforetoldCuster’sdefeat,Neihardtwrites: “There was a picture on it then, of many soldiers hanging headdownward;andthepeoplesaiditwastherebeforetherubbingoutofLongHair.Idonotknow;butitwastherethen,anditdidnotseemthatanybodycouldget

upthathightomakeapicture”(BES,81).Incomparison,thetranscriptrevealsnoshade of doubt about the picture’s mysterious origin: “Next we stopped at asacredplacewhereabigrockbluffwas.TheIndiansclaimthatbeforetheCusterfightthewholethingwaspicturedonit.Nomancouldpossiblygetuptowherethe picture is” (SG, 198). Similarly,whenBlackElk returns to the preparationtepeeafter theHorseDance,Neihardthashimsay: “wesaw theprintsof tinyponyhoofsasthoughthespirithorseshadbeendancingwhilewedanced”(BES,109).The transcript, however, is definitive as to the sourceof thehoofprints:“On the fresh dirtwe could see small horse tracks all over the tipi floor. Thespirithorseshadbeendancingaroundthecircleofthetipi”(SG,224).Another example involves an omission. In fall 1875, asNeihardt hasBlack

Elktellit:“Iwentupintothe[Black]Hillsaloneandsatalongwhileunderatree.IthoughtmaybemyvisionwouldcomebackandtellmehowIcouldsavethatcountryformypeople,butIcouldnotseeanythingclear”(BES,51).Infact,accordingtothetranscript,BlackElkdidexperienceavisiononthisoccasion:“IwentupintotheBlackHillsaloneandhadanothervisionunderatreeandfoundoutthatthedutyIwastodowastocometomeandthatIwouldprobablysavethe BlackHills. It looked as though it were impossible, but I was anxious toperformmydutyonearth”(SG,164).Perhapsbecausethisvisioninevitablyledbacktotheherbofdestructioninthegreatvision,Neihardtchosetoomitit.Onefinalinstanceisworthnoting.Earlyin1877,justbeforehispeoplegoto

FortRobinsontosurrender,Neihardt’sliteraryBlackElkcomments:“Ithoughtandthoughtaboutmyvision,anditmademeverysad;forIwonderedifmaybeitwasonlyaqueerdreamafterall”(BES,86).Thecorrespondingpassageinthetranscript seems to relate to the fall of 1877, after the killing ofCrazyHorse,whenhispeoplelefttheagencyandheadednorth:“Irecalledmyvisionnowandthen and wondered when my duty was to come” (SG, 204). Nowhere in thetranscriptdoesBlackElkexpressanydoubtabout thesignificanceofhisgreatvision.AndwhereasBlackElkSpeaks leaves thenatureofBlackElk’s “duty”unspecified,itseemsclearfromthetranscriptthatBlackElkunderstoodhisdutytobesavingtheBlackHills.In writing Black Elk’s story Neihardt created some powerful images and

crafted many quotable sentences. Some are well-crafted versions of oldstereotypes:“It[theland]wasoursalreadywhentheWasichusmadethetreatywithRedCloud, that said itwould be ours as long as grass should grow andwater flow”; “only crazy or very foolishmenwould sell theirMotherEarth”;“could we believe anything the Wasichus ever said to us? They spoke with

forked tongues” (BES, 83, 157). Others are lyrical and deeply evocative. Forexample,regardingCrazyHorse:“Itdoesnotmatterwherehisbodylies,foritisgrass; but where his spirit is, it will be good to be” (BES, 90). Regarding theheyoka:“Youhavenoticedthat thetruthcomesintothisworldwithtwofaces.Oneissadwithsuffering,andtheotherlaughs;butitisthesameface,laughingorweeping”(BES, 117).The importance of the nation’s unity: “The life of thepeoplewasinthehoop,andwhataremanylittlelivesifthelifeofthoselivesbegone?”(BES,134).TheinexorablegreedofthewhitesforLakotaland:“SothefloodofWasichus,dirtywithbaddeeds,gnawedawayhalfoftheislandthatwaslefttous”(BES,144).ThevictimsofWoundedKnee:“Thesnowdrifteddeepinthecrookedgulch,anditwasonelonggraveofbutcheredwomenandchildrenandbabies,whohadneverdone anyharmandwereonly trying to run away”(BES,164).Afterstudyingthetranscriptoftheinterviews,itisnotclearthatanyofthese

imagesarebasedonwordsBlackElkspoke; theyareNeihardt’s.ButNeihardtdid not invent them alone, for his narrative flowed from the experience oflistening toBlackElk and absorbing, in his ownway,whatBlackElk had toteachhim.So,aftermyattempttodisentangletheirvoices,IamledbacktoVineDeloria’s conclusion concerningBlack Elk Speaks: “That it speaks to us withsimple and compelling language about an aspect of human experience andencouragesustoemphasizethebestthatdwellswithinusissufficient.BlackElkand John Neihardt would probably nod affirmatively to that statement andcontinuetheirconversation.Itisgood.Itisenough”(p.xvi).

ThehistoricalBlackElklivedonfortwomoredecadesafterfirstmeetingJohnNeihardt.DuringthattimeNeihardtvisitedhimfortheentiresummerof1934,whilehefinishedwritingTheSongof theMessiah;foraweekin1944(duringwhich he recorded a second set of interviews, focused on Lakota history andculture);andforbriefperiodsin1945and1946.DuringthoseyearsthatsawtheGreat Depression, the Dust Bowl, and World War II, Pine Ridge becameprogressivelylessisolatedfromtherestofthecountryandtheOglalasbecameprogressively more involved in the world outside the reservation, working asmigrantfarmlaborers,movingtonearbycitiesforemployment,volunteeringforthe army, or doingwar-relatedwork.For at least a decadebeginning in 1934,BlackElkreturnedtotheworkhehaddoneinhisyouthwithBuffaloBillandorganized an Indian show in theBlackHills, designed to teach tourists abouthistoricalLakotaculture.Thepageanttookplacethroughoutthesummersatthe

Duhamel’s Crystal Caverns attraction near Rapid City and provided theopportunity to live in tepees in the coolness of theHills andmakemoney aswell.UnliketheWildWestshows,whichglorifiedIndianwarfare,BlackElk’spageant—aseriesofvignettes—focusedprimarilyon traditional sacred rituals,includingtheSunDance(SG,63–66).13Then, in1947, JosephBrownsoughtoutBlackElkand tookon the taskof

writingBlackElk’s lastbook,whichBrowncharacterizedasa“history”of thesacredpipe.WhileBlackElkdoesspeakoftheoriginofthepipeasthegiftofWhiteBuffaloCowWoman,TheSacredPipeisdevotedtodetailedaccountsofwhat Black Elk considered to be the seven fundamental rituals of traditionalLakotareligion.Brownexperiencedthesamesenseof transcendentmystery inmeeting Black Elk as had Neihardt. Apparently, Black Elk was anxious forsomeone to help him preserve an account of Lakota sacred rituals inwriting.Perhaps thiswas the “greatwork” that Black Elk toldNeihardt in a letter hewishedtoaccomplish“beforewearebothlaidintheground”(SG,69).Because his relationshipwith Black Elkwas someaningful to him, Brown

was reluctant to talk about it freely. I clearly recall my sense of puzzlement,overcome by embarrassment, whenmy questions to him about his workwithBlackElkweremetwithsilence.Recently,however,Brown’sdaughter,MarinaBrownWeatherly, hiswidow,ElenitaBrown, andMichaelO. Fitzgerald,whowasonceBrown’steachingassistantandisastudentofPlainsIndianreligions,publishedextractsfromaseriesoflettersthatBrownwrotewhileworkingwithBlack Elk. They are invaluable for the light they shed on their collaboration.According to Brown, Black Elkwas not only engaged inmaking a record ofsacredceremonies,butwasdoingsoinordertoinsurethattheywouldcontinueintothefuture.HewishedtoenlisttheotheroldLakotameninestablishing“theOrderofthePipe,”arevitalizedLakotareligion.Inthis,hewasencouragedbyaCatholic priest, Father Gall, an ordained Trappist monk in Belgiumwho wasclearly ahead of his time in his attitude toward Indian religion. Brownwrote,“BlackElksaysthatheissorrythathispresentactiontowardsrevivingLakotaspiritual traditionsshallanger thepriests [theJesuitsatHolyRosaryMission],butthattheirangerisproofoftheirignorance;andthatinanycaseWakan-Tankaishappy;forheknowsthatitisHisWillthatBlackElkdoesthiswork.”14Brown’smaterial supports the hypothesis that after Neihardt’s initial visits,

Black Elk came to consider comparatively the fundamental truths of Lakotatradition in relation to those of Catholicism. That this should be so is notsurprising.Thegradualopeningofthereservationstoinfluencesfromthewider

societynecessarilycastIndianandwhiteculturesinadifferentlight.Whathadseemed an unquestionable hierarchical relationship, with Euroamericancivilization eclipsingnative cultures, began to appear comparatively.Eachhadits strengths, inapractical sense, for thosewhowouldsurvive. Inmiddleage,Black Elk had accommodated to thewhiteman’sway.He found it congenialduring his trip with theWildWest shows, and after the failure of the GhostDance visions to protect the people at Wounded Knee, there seemed noalternative.HeembracedCatholicismenthusiastically,servingasmissionary tootherreservationsandascatechistinhisowncommunity.Hisroleinthechurchprovided him with social standing and modest economic reward. But whenNeihardt reawakened inhim thevivid realityofhisvisionsand the realizationthat thiswhitemanhadbeen led to him to learn about theLakota path to theotherworld, theexperiencedidnotprompthim to reject theCatholic religion,buttoreaffirmhistraditionalreligion.JustasBlackElkregrettedhisactionaftertheWoundedKneeBattlewhenhereliedsolelyonhisGhostDancevisionandput aside thevisionsofhisyouth,hemayhave regrettedputting asideLakotabeliefandrelyingsolelyonCatholicisminmiddleage.Noneofthethreewereincompatible;allpathsleadtothesametranscendenttruth.This conclusion, simple as it is, will not end the debate over Black Elk’s

religious life or the interpretation of Black Elk Speaks. Proponents of everyinterpretationofwhatBlackElksaidormeantarepassionateindefenseoftheirperspective. I do not consider them all of equal merit, but I do consider thepassion of the debate to be a clear reflection of the power that Black Elk,primarilythroughNeihardt’sportrayalofhiminBlackElkSpeaks,hastoinspirereaders to think about and even experience a kind of transcendence sorelylacking inourworkaday lives.Weneedfromtime to time tobeshakenoutofourcertaintiesandbegivenglimpsesofalternaterealities.AstheliteraryBlackElk says, in Neihardt’s words, speaking of when he was a boy, just afterexperiencinghisgreatvision:“whenthepartofmethattalkswouldtrytomakewordsforthemeaning,itwouldbelikefogandgetawayfromme....ItwasasIgrewolderthatthemeaningscameclearerandcleareroutofthepicturesandthewords; and evennow I know thatmorewas shown tome than I can tell”(BES, 30–31). Even now, after multiple efforts over many years to analyzeNeihardt’sworkcritically,IreturntoBlackElkSpeakswithappreciationandasenseofaweasfreshasthatIexperiencedonmyfirstreading.Itrustthatotherreaders, too, will find that the experience of following the processes ofNeihardt’screativitythroughtheannotationsinthiseditionaddsadimensionof

understandingandenjoymenttoreadingthisclassicbook.

Appendix7JohnG.NeihardtbeyondBlackElkAlexisN.Petri

Readers of JohnG. Neihardtmay know this story. Certainly it is recorded innumerousplacesbutitseemsfittingtobeginhere,inthesummerof1930,withalong,dusty trip in a1920s-model automobile fromBranson,Missouri, toPineRidge, South Dakota. Neihardt—poet, writer, and literary critic—and his sonSigurdwerespeakingandperformingonalecturecircuitanddecidedtomakeadetour to do some research. For the past eighteen years, Neihardt had beenworkingonanepicpoemcalledACycleoftheWest(1949),ofwhichSongoftheMessiah (1935)wouldbecome its fifthandfinal song.Hewanted tomeetandbecomeacquaintedwithaSiouxholymanwhowasreputedtohaveparticipatedinorhadfirsthandknowledgeoftheGhostDance,aMessianicmovementattheendofthenineteenthcenturythatexpressedthelongingofNativeAmericanstoreturn to a life free from the hunger, epidemic disease, and divisivenessexperiencedundertheirsubjugationbytheU.S.government.Hehopedtocollectmaterial forMessiah, butwhat hemost desired to learnwas holy.As awhiteman,becomingprivilegedtothisknowledgewasunlikely.From previous research, Neihardt was acquainted withW. B. Courtright, a

field agent at the Pine Ridge Agency, and so he began his inquiries there.CourtrighttoldhimaboutanoldSiouxholymannamedBlackElk,whomighthave participated in the Ghost Dance movement and who lived close by inManderson. Because Black Elk did not speak English, Neihardt madearrangementsforFlyingHawk,aninterpreter,tojointhem.ThiswasnotFlyingHawk’s first trip to take a writer to interview Black Elk, and on the road toManderson,NeihardtlistenedtoFlyingHawk’scautionthatBlackElkmightnottalktothem.Inadditiontobeingaholyman,BlackElkwasalsosecondcousintoCrazyHorse andhadknown thegreatwarriorwell.DespiteFlyingHawk’scounsel Neihardt pressed on in hopes of having the opportunity to talk tosomeonewhowouldbeable todiscuss thedeeper spiritual significanceof the

Messianicmovement.Assoonasthesmallpartyapproached,theyspottedBlackElk, who stood in the shade beneath some pine boughs and appeared to beexpectingNeihardt.At thatmomentBlackElk and JohnNeihardt began theirfriendship.1BlackElk,Neihardt,andafewotherSiouxIndians talkedallafternoon,and

aftertheirinitialvisit,BlackElkandNeihardtbeganmakingarrangementsforalonger conversation. That afternoon Black Elk gave Neihardt a star-shapedsacredornamentthatheldgreatvalueforhim;bothBlackElkandhisfatherhadused it in ceremonies.BlackElk toldNeihardt that hewanted to give him aneven greater gift: hewanted to teachNeihardt about a special spiritual visiongiventohimwhenhewasaboy.Whiletheygottoknoweachotherduringthefirst day of their friendship, Black Elk asked Neihardt to record his spiritualvision for futuregenerations.Severalaccountsof thismost famousmoment inNeihardt’slifeexist—somederivingfromNeihardtandothersfromBlackElk’sdescendants.2Eachaccountisclearaboutonething—BlackElkwantedtoteachNeihardtabouthisbeliefs,experiences,andknowledgesothathemightbeabletokeephisvisionalivebysharingitwithothers.InalettertoJuliusT.House,Neihardt’sfriendandfirstbiographer,Neihardtwrote:

Hetoldme...that,ashesatthere,hefeltinmyheartaverystrongwilltoknowthethingsoftheotherworldandthataspirit,whichstoodbehindme,hadforcedmetocometohimthatImightlearnalittlefromhim....IhaveafeelingthatIoughttogoupthereandlivesixmonthswithBlackElkandhiswiseoldfriends.IoughttowritethecompletelifeofBlackElk,foritwouldbearevelationoftheIndianconsciousnessfromthedepths.(258–59)

Clearly, Neihardt felt a powerful connection with Black Elk and beganplanninghowhecouldarrangetotravelagaintoSouthDakotatobecomeBlackElk’s student. He also began talking to his publisher regarding a book aboutBlack Elk’s life. The following spring he returnedwith two of his daughters,EnidandHilda,andlivedforseveralweeksonBlackElk’sland.BlackElkandmanyothersofhisgenerationspokeverylittleEnglish,buttheywantedtotalkabouttheirmostsacred,spiritualbeliefs,sotheyneededsomeonetheyknewandtrustedtotranslate.BlackElk’ssonBen,whospokeagoodamountofEnglish,servedasinterpretertoBlackElkandhisfamilyandfriends.Fromtheirin-depthconversationsNeihardtwroteBlackElkSpeaks:BeingtheLifeofaHolyManoftheOglalaSiouxandalsocollectedthematerialheneededtowriteMessiah.Neihardt was uniquely qualified to write Black Elk Speaks through a

combinationofhispersonalphilosophy,senseofspirituality,researchcapability,knowledgeofAmericanhistory,lifeexperiences,andlifelong,closefriendshipswithNativeAmericans,particularlyamong theOmahasandSioux.Oneof themostremarkableaspectsof theirfirstmeetingwastheir immediateconnection.Neihardtmade a good choice for representing the richness and complexity ofBlackElk’sspiritualvision.Hehadtoomuchconsiderationforhisfriendsandtheir beliefs and experiences topursuewhat hewouldhave called sentimentaltalesofthenoblesavageandthetypesof“Indianlore”thatweretheusualandpopularpresentationofNativeAmericancultureinthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury. In his introduction to The End of the Dream and Other Stories, acollection of Neihardt’s short stories, Jay Fultz quotes from a book reviewNeihardtwrotefortheSt.LouisPost-Dispatchin1927:

FromCooperonwarditistruetheIndianhasbeenmisrepresented....Eitherhewas a paintedwhitemanwith feathers as in Cooper, or a blood thirstybrute, as in lurid thrillers, or amilksop, as inLongfellow, or an interestingsubjectfordilettanteenthusiasts.Theonlywaytounderstandaraceistogetinsidetheracialconsciousnessthroughintimateandsympatheticcontact.3

Interestedinmorethanproducingtalesorcollectinglore,Neihardtsoughttocommunicatedeeperspiritualsignificancethroughhiswriting.Neihardt’sworkclearlyillustratedhisabilityasapoet toknowandempathizewiththesubject.To accomplish this level of familiarity, he approachedwriting in this fashion:read everything that is printed inbooks—history, theory, social criticism—andthen go find people with direct experience or knowledge and learn about thesubject from them. He had a talent for fusing the theories and the power offirsthandknowledgeinhiswriting,whichrequiredthathedeveloptrust-buildingskills toinspiretherapportessentialforadiscussionatadeeperlevel—alevelthatbothspiritualityandpoetryaimtoreach.Neihardt’sresearchsurpassed thefact-gathering and observations relied on for the biographical sketches of“dilettante enthusiasts” and extended beyond the familiar who, what, where,when,why,andhowof journalism.AlthoughhedidnotknowitwhenhefirstmetBlackElk,NeihardthadbeenpreparingtowriteBlackElkSpeaksforthirtyyears.Whilehewasnotapessimist,Neihardtbelievedthathelivedduringtroubled

times. The end of the nineteenth century, the beginning of the modern era,increasingmovement toward science aswell as technological advances, and ashift in the population base of the country from rural to urban molded the

socioculturalenvironmentinwhichhewrote.AsapoetandwriterNeihardtfeltadutytoengagethisquicklyshiftingworldaroundhimindialoguewithamoreenduring world of spirituality, philosophy, and humanity. Neihardt grew upduringatimehecalleda“watershedofhistory.”Bornin1881inIllinois,hewasadirectdescendantofpeoplewhotraveledwestincoveredwagons.Hegrewupprimarily in Kansas, where he lived on the plains in a sod house, and inBancroft, a northeasternNebraska town that bordered theOmaha Reservationand served as a point of access for explorations and trading. As a child andyoungman,Neihardt becamewell acquaintedwith lingering traces of frontierlife.Heoftensought theopportunity to listen tohiselders talkabout theearlydaysofexplorationandhomesteading.Fromtheirstories,Neihardtlearnedaboutcourageandadventurebutwasalsointroducedtoa“worldbeingborninagony,”ashewouldcalltheseyearsinhisintroductiontoCycle.4Thelastyearsof thenineteenth century, fromNeihardt’s perspective, were not victorious ones. Hewas deeply moved by the American Indian experience as well as by thehardshipsofexplorers,trappers,andpioneersforgingalifeontheplains.Atthecloseofthenineteenthcentury,opportunitiesforformaleducationwere

fewandthosethatexistedwereindividuallystructured.Neihardtshowedstrongacademic potential, and with support from his mother and the educationalguidance of his teachers, he was able to work through a course of study andprepareforcollegebyagetwelve.In1893heenrolledintheNebraskaNormalCollegeinWayne.Hismothernegotiatedwiththepresidentofthecollegeforawork-study opportunity that would finance his education. How fitting for thefuture poet to have worked his way through college as bell-ringer with theprimaryresponsibilityofnotifying thecampuswhen tochangeclasses.Storiesstillcirculateamonghisfriendsandfamilythatwhiletuggingonthegreatbellropes,hewouldrecitepoetrytokeepthejobinteresting.Neihardtalsoenjoyedtheseclusionof thebell towerforreflectionandstudy.Ashewasanexcellentstudent, his college experience sparked a lifelong love of the classics—and aparticularpassionfor“theGreeks,”ashecalledthem.Neihardtcametofeelthatreading was the most important part of his education, and he extended thispracticewellpasttheyearshespentincollege.5While inWayne,Neihardtbefriendeda local“infidel”—the town tombstone

carver and intellectual—called “Professor” Durrin. Through Durrin, Neihardtbegan reading books in Oriental studies, which were fashionable at the time,especiallyHinduscriptures.Inthe1890stentrevivalsprovidedopportunitiestolisten to the preaching of travelingministers.One particularly blustery prairie

day,a revivalistpreacherpromisedhisaudience that theLordassuredhim thetentwouldnotblowdown. Inamatterofminutes the tent rathermysteriouslycaught fire and burned down—fortunately everyone escaped without injury.Young Neihardt, struck by the irony, composed a good-humored mock epiccalled“TheTentiad,”whichdelightedafewoftheintellectuals,suchasDurrin,butbroughtaboutscornfromeveryoneelse.Throughhisreading,Neihardthadbeen exploring different forms of mysticism and other religious beliefs; thiscoincidence had sparked his poetic imagination. Now on his way as poet,Neihardt extended theboundsof religious experience and spirituality fromhisProtestantupbringingandgalvanizedhispreference forabroaderdefinitionofspirituality andmysticism through his first published, book-length poem, TheDivineEnchantment (1900),which celebrated theHindu gods and religion hehad read about. Soon after the book was published Neihardt became self-conscious, fearing that the book provided evidence of his technical, poeticgrowing pains, and he purchased every copy he could find. Neihardt laterremarked,“Theykeptthekitchenfireburningforweeks.”Thefewcopiesofthefirsteditionthatescapedthefirearenowacollector’sitem.6Asayoungman,NeihardtworkedinBancroftasaclerkforanIndiantrader.

ThroughhisworkhemetandbecamefriendswithmanyOmahaIndians—suchgoodfriends,hisdaughterHildasays,thatonoccasionOmahaIndianswouldsetup their teepee inNeihardt’s yard and spendmanyhours in conversationwithhim. Chief White Horse on one occasion stopped a ceremony to introduceNeihardtasa“fineyoungmanwhohastheheartofanIndian.”DuringthistimeNeihardtwrotemanysuccessfulshortstories inspiredbywhathelearnedfromhisfriendshipswiththeOmaha.Hesoldthestoriestothepopularmagazinesofthe day:Overland,Outing, theAmerican, Smart Set, andMunsey’s. Neihardtscholarsagreethathisearlyshortstoriesanticipatedhislaterpoetryinbothstyleand theme. For example, Neihardt framed his stories with an outer layer ofnarrative and reliedondialogue to express thehumanityof his characters andportray them multi-dimensionally. This technique became part of Neihardt’sstyle in his narrative poems and in works like Black Elk Speaks. Threecollections of Neihardt’s short stories are currently in print: Indian Tales andOthers (1926)was compiledduringhis life.TheEndof theDreamandOtherStories (1991) and The Ancient Memory (1991) were edited posthumously.TodayNeihardtreadersandscholarsconsidertheshortstoriesawarmupforhislaterwork.Inparticulartheshortstory“TheAncientMemory”prefiguresoneofNeihardt’s literary preoccupations, a concept he would later define as

“Otherness,” which explores a writer’s connection to a realm beyond thephysicalworld.An important trait ofNeihardt’swriting could be described asunityoftheme:asteadfastclarityaboutwhathewantedtoaccomplishthroughhiswriting.EarlyinhiscareerNeihardtfocusedhisenergyonlyricpoems,writingthree

books:ABundle ofMyrrh (1907),Man-Song (1909), andThe Stranger at theGate(1912).AtfirsttheliteraryworlddidnotclassifyNeihardtasaregionalist,although his writing always addressed themes influenced by his beliefs andexperiences derived from his life in the Midwest. Neihardt began his poeticcareer influenced byWaltWhitman and was writing free verse several yearsbeforehis contemporaries.Although laterknownas a formalist poet,Neihardtspent a great deal of energy practicing and defending free verse during theseyears. His early poetry combines classical treatments of naturewith imagisticqualities of the French symbolists, such as Baudelaire, Rimbaud, or Verlaine,whowroteinreactiontothecoldnessoftherealisticnovelinthelastthirtyyearsof the nineteenth century. Neihardt’s early poetry also had much in commonthematically with the symbolists, who often explored the mystery of humanexistence.Severalyearsbeforethemodernsdevelopedimagisminprotestofthestiffness and sentimentality of the Georgian poets (who closed the nineteenthcentury in Britain and America), Neihardt experimented with symbolism andimagery in his poetry, to great success and rave reviews. Some of his mostenduring poems appear in A Bundle of Myrrh. In “Let Down Your Hair” herevealsasensualsideinlinessuchas“Unbindyourhair,andletitsmassesbe/Softmidnighton thewearyeyesofme.” In“TheCityofDust”heconnectsaclassicalsettingwithanotherearlyexplorationofwhatwouldbecomeOthernessinastylethatisquitemodern:

Beholdme—ashadow!Theshadowofanancientlaughingthing!Fallencolumnsdisintegratedwithtime;Sacredmoundsinsultedwiththegrowthofscornfulweeds;...Andonceinthislongfallowgardenalilygrew;Itwasmylily—itgrewforme.Weedsgrowtherenowandflaunttheirraggedcoatsinthesun—Ruffiansandshameless.7

OneofthemostfamouspoemsfromMyrrhis“LetMeLiveOutMyYears,”in which Neihardt, in a mixture of plea, prayer, and command, writes, “And

grantme,when I face the grisly Thing, / One haughty cry to pierce the grayPerhaps!/Ohletmebeatunesweptfiddlestring/ThatfeelstheMasterMelody—andsnaps!”ABundleofMyrrhenjoyedsuchsuccessthatitreachedawomannamedMonaMartinsenwhowasstudyingsculpture inParisunderRodin.Sheand Neihardt began an epistolary romance and came to understand that theyweresoulmates.ThefirsttimetheymetwaswhenNeihardtgreetedtheworldlyandculturedMonaatthetrainstationinBancroft.Laterthatdaytheymarried.In1912NeihardtcompletedTheStrangerat theGate,which includedsome

of his most memorable lyric poems: “Hark the Music,” “April Theology,”“WhenIHaveGoneWeirdWays,”“L’Envoi,”and“TheGhostlyBrother.”Thelast poem is particularly significant because it continues Neihardt’spreoccupation with the theory of Otherness. In her foreword to the secondvolumeofcollectedshortstories,TheAncientMemoryandOtherStories,HildaNeihardtdefinesOthernessas“anunseenrealityofwhichtheobservableworldis only a shadow.”8 This is an important concept in understanding Neihardt’swritingbecause it is connected tohiscommitmentasapoet.Neihardtbecamededicated to poetry when at age eleven he had a mystical experience whilefightingahighfever.Inadream,whilesoaring,propelledbyanunknownforce,hedevelopedavisionforandsenseofdutytowritepoetrythatneverlefthim.Onereadingof“TheGhostlyBrother”showshowhecrystallizedthissenseofduty in the poem, a dialogue between two “brothers” in which the speakerrealizes:

ThoughIseektoflyfromyou,Likeashadow,youpursue.DoIconquer?Youarethere,Claiminghalfthevictor’sshare.Whenthenight-shadesfrayandlift,’Tisyourveiledfacelightstherift.Inthesighingoftherain,Yourvoicegoadsmelikepain.9

InthispoemNeihardtexploreshowthosewiththegiftofpoeticsightcanseetraces—like shadows, but not cast from the sun—of an eternal world in thevisibleworld.When thinkingabout this theoryof“Otherness” it isdifficult toresist looking forward to the shadow that Black Elk saw standing next toNeihardtandthesimilarityintimebetweenNeihardt’sfeverdreamatageelevenandthevisionsthatSiouxboyshadattheageoften,describedbyBlackElkto

Neihardt.Neihardt’svisionsetacourse inhis lifeandcompelledhim tomakedecisionsabouthisartthatwentagainstthetastesandtrendsofhisday.Asawriterandasanindividual,Neihardtfeltandactedinwaysoutofstep

withthezeitgeist.Thiscanbeseeninseveralofthechoiceshemadeinhisearlyadulthood. Responding to his lifelong vision of becoming a poet, he stoppedwriting short stories at a time when they were very much in demand. ThisrepresentedhisdecisiontobeaJohnG.Neihardtinsteadof,say,aJackLondon.Second, soonafterhis thirtiethbirthdayandata timewhenmanypoetsbeganwriting in free verse,Neihardtmade anold-fashionedmove towardwriting informs.HisdecisionwasrootedinastrongadmirationfortheclassicsandfortheBritish poets who wrote longer, narrative verse. Deciding to write narrativepoetry,Neihardtsoughtasubjectforarigorouspoeticexplorationofthe“humanstuffoflife.”HisfirstplansforthisepiccenteredonagrandexplorationoftheFrenchRevolution.Oneofour family stories recounts a conversationbetweenJohnandMonainwhichthepoetannounceshistheme.Duringsomediscussion,Monaadviseshim,“John,don’twasteyourtimewiththatrot.Writeaboutwhatyouknow.”Neihardtsaidyearslaterintellingthestory,“Idid,anditcameupthrough the soles of my feet.” This simple advice launched Neihardt on atwenty-nine-year journey that ultimately earned him the reputation of the“AmericanHomer.”Although theymight havemoved toNewYork, especially sinceMona had

grown up in European cities, the Neihardtsmade their home in theMidwest,another choice that was out of step with the zeitgeist. At a time when theintellectual set looked to urban areas as power centers, Neihardt surroundedhimselfwithanddrewstrengthfromthecountry.EarningalivingasawriterintheMidwestwasnotalwayseasy,buthestucktohispoeticvision.Whenmanymen andwomenhad to pack up their dreams in the great struggle to survive,Neihardtkepthisdreamsalive,sometimesdrivinghimself toexhaustionwhilebalancinghispoetrywith the responsibilitiesof raisinga familyandearningaliving.Livingup tohis responsibilitiesasahusbandandfatherof fourwasanimportantvaluetohim.Attimeswhenhetriedtosetasidehispoeticvisionforwork,hebecamesickatheart.Neihardtnevertrulyhadachoiceinthematter—hewasborntobeexactlythemanhewas.Neihardtbelievedthatifhedidnotliveuptohisresponsibilitiesasaman,he

would have little to say as a poet, at least little that would resonate with hisreaders. During the years of writing the Cycle, he earned a living as literaryeditorandliterarycriticfortheMinneapolisJournal,KansasCityJournal-Post,

NewYorkTimes,andtheSt.LouisPost-Dispatch.Duringthecourseofhisthirty-year career, he published more than twenty-five hundred book reviews. Hisliterary criticism, collected and edited by Neihardt scholar Lori Utecht inKnowledge and Opinion: Essays and Literary Criticism of John G. Neihardt(2002), shows the breadth of Neihardt’s knowledge. He read widely on justabout every subject imaginable. In his critical writing, Neihardt showed apopuliststreakbyencouraginghisreaderstotacklegreatworksofliteratureandbooks of theoretical importance. Even though hewrote a column called “TheBookNook,”therewasnothingquaintaboutNeihardt’sreviews.Hedevelopedasizeablereadershipduringthecourseofhiscareerandapproachedhiscriticisminaneducationalmanner.Hilda,Neihardt’sseconddaughter,remembersherfatherworkinginhisstudy

each morning on the book reviews and his poetry. When he wrote heconcentrated so intently that when she would knock on his door to tell himdinnerwasreadyheseemedtolookrightthroughher.Hildaalsoremembersthatherfatherwashandyaroundthehouseandnevermindedpitchinginonprojectsandmaintenance.Sheappreciatesthathethoughtenoughofhischildrentosharewith themhis great love of reading and books—through an organized readingprogrambeginningwith the classics but not omitting thebig thoughts of theirday.WhenNeihardtorganizedalecturetourforextramoney,heoftentookhisson Sigurd along.When old enough, theNeihardt children accompanied theirfather on research trips that he thoughtwould interest them, educate them, orotherwisehelphimout.ThisishowHilda,withthetitle“officialobserver,”andher sister Enid, “stenographer,” happened to accompany Neihardt during the1931conversationswithBlackElkinSouthDakota.Fortwenty-nineyearsNeihardtresearchedandwrotehisepic,ACycleofthe

West.Itiseasytoassumethataworkofpoetryislargely“creative”inthatitisimaginedormadeup.WhileitistruethatNeihardtusedhisintensefacultiesforcreativity and imagination, his visionwas to present an epic story thatwouldrekindleanAmericansenseoffreedomandcontributetoAmericanliteratureavoicethatwasneitherEastCoastnorurban.Tosucceed,hisworkhadtobeashistorically accurate as possible. Neihardt read all of the historical accountspublished during his day and sought primary sources in western documents,records, and diaries. He pored through state historical society collections andspecialcollectionsinuniversitylibraries.Healsoreadsecondarysourcessuchasbiographiesandhistoriestohelpfillinaframeworkofthepeople,struggles,andeventsthattookplaceduringthesettlingoftheWest.Hecouldnotfindmuchof

whathewantedtoportrayindocumentsandrecords,soheinterviewedasmanypeople as he could find—at that time elderly men and women—about theirexperiences. He interviewed Native Americans, soldiers who fought in theIndianWars, survivors of the IndianWars, anddescendants and friendsof theexplorersandtraders.HeinterviewedMajorLemly,whowitnessedthedeathofCrazyHorseandwhowassooutragedat the treatmentofCrazyHorse thatheputinarequesttotransfer.Neihardtalsovisitedhistoricalsitestogainasenseofthegeographies,vistas,landscapes,andvegetationtorenderanauthenticsettinginhiswriting.In approximately seventeen thousand rhymed blank verse lines, Neihardt

wrote about the history of America from 1822, when the Ashley-Henry mentraveled up the Missouri River on a fur-trading mission, through years ofexploration,settlement,andIndianWars,endinghisstorywiththedevastationattheBattleofWoundedKneein1890.Itwouldbeeasytoimaginethataseriesofnarrativepoemsthislongwouldbuckleundertherestrictionofrhyme.Justtheoppositeisso.Neihardtdisplaysmasteryofthestructureandmeterofpoetrybyvarying the lines to shiftemphasis fromrhymingwords to lines thatmove themeaning along and reduce a sing-song effect. He also manipulated his linebreaks using caesura and enjambment to avoid monotony and set a paceappropriatetothesubjectmatterathand.Neihardthadagiftforwritingdirectlyandclearlyandforcreatingmeaningfulimagestosustainthenarrativesequence.Hewasamasterofthememorableline—somelittleimage,efficientlyconveyedin a line or two that, once considered, amount to volumes of thought andobservation.InthepoetryoftheCycle,symbolistrootsremaininlinessuchas“The still white windwas blowing out the stars.” There are a few unwritten,unspoken,commonperceptionsunderlyingepicpoems:longagoandfaraway,eliteandintellectual,dustyandawkward.Perhapstoomanyofuswereassignedtoreadweaktranslationsof“theGreeks”inhighschooltextbooks.ButNeihardtcouldreadGreekandtherebyderivedhisinspirationfromapowerful,classicalsource, which he brought to the reader of his poetry while refuting thosecommonperceptions.ThelasttwosongsintheCyclefocusontheIndianWarsandtheGhostDance

movement.Thisisdifficultandpainfulsubjectmatterforallwhoreadit,anditis important toknowthatNeihardtdidnotwrite theCycle to takesidesin thisdistressinghistoryofourcountry.Asdiscussedearlier,hefeltthathelivedina“worldbornofagony,”andthroughouttheCycleheconcentratesonthestruggleof individuals for what he referred to as “higher values.” History’s lessons

weakenwhen presented only as a series of dates and explanations.Neihardt’swritingputshumanfacesonthestruggleandturmoilandlossthatunderpinthesettling of theWest.Neihardt spent twenty-nine years of his life studying andsynthesizing many of the fundamental events of that era and presented thissweepofhistoryinindividualstoriesinwhichthereadercanrecognizeorgaininsightintohumanexperienceandperhapsevenfindsomevaluetobringbacktohis or her own life. Meeting Black Elk and writing Black Elk Speaks wasparamount to Neihardt’s completion of his Cycle of the West. He felt thatexperiencewas pivotal in his spiritual and human understanding, a belief thatresultedinaninfluentialfriendshiptowhichthisbookisa testament.Neihardtintended each song to build toward a deepening of spirituality. In hisintroductiontothecollectedCycle(1949),Neihardtwrote,“Inadditiontotheirprogressintimeandacrossthevastland,thosewhomayfeelasIhavefeltwhilethetalesweregrowingmaynoteaspiritualprogressionalso—fromthelevelofindomitable physical prowess to that of spiritual triumph in apparent worldlydefeat.”10Neihardt had the benefit of being recognized as awriter during his lifetime

andreceivedmanyhonors—toonumeroustolisthere.WhenunabletoattendadedicationofamemorialtohiminWayne,Nebraska,in1925heinsteadsentalettertobereadattheceremony,inwhichhewrote:

I believe that your purpose is not to honor a certain little manwhomightarriveonthe11a.m.trainfromEmersonwithahandbagandadustygrinofsatisfaction.That onewould certainly be an imposter. . . .You have come,firstofall,toremembersome—thingpreciousthatisinyourselves...yoursense of necessary human values other than those of bread and meat andmoney....Ifatanytime,inanythingthatbearsmyname,youhavefeltmorekeenly than usual how human life, for all the hurt and pity of it, is shotthrough and throughwith a justifying glory, then you havemet the best ofme.11

ThegreatesthonorforNeihardtwasreaders’personalresponsestohiswritingandteaching,whichwashisprimaryreasonforbeingapoetandhismainhopeforpoetry.Althoughhegreatlyappreciated thehonorsbestoweduponhim,hedidnotwriteforthem.I do notwant to give the impression that the end achievement of hiswork

amounted to the recognition hewas fortunate to receive.At the same time, abiographicalessaywouldnotbecompletewithoutsomementionofthesuccess

and recognition Neihardt enjoyed in his own lifetime. In 1921 Neihardt wasbestowed thehonorofPoetLaureateofNebraska and thePrairie; in 1982 thepeopleofNebraskaaskedthatthestatelegislaturenamehim“PoetLaureateinPerpetuity.” To this day Neihardt remains Poet Laureate, and Nebraska hasswitchedovertoastatepoetsystem.Hewasalsonamed“PrairiePoetLaureateof America” in 1968 by Poets Laureate International. Neihardt served aschancellor of the Academy of American Poets, and in 1919 he received thePoetrySocietyNationalPrize.In1942hewaselectedtotheNationalInstituteofArtsandLetters,anhonorthatdeeplymovedhim,asmembershipislimitedto250 U.S. citizens, of which 50 are elected to the academy for notableachievements in art, literature, or music. The Poetry Center in New YorkawardedNeihardtthegoldmedalasforemostpoetofthenationin1963.In1968the governor of Nebraska proclaimed that the first Sunday of August becelebratedasNeihardtDay.Neihardt also receivedhonorarydoctoratedegreesfrom the University of Nebraska (1917), Creighton University (1928), theUniversity ofMissouri (1947), andMidlandLutheranCollege (1972).Hewasalso the first civilian member of the Order of IndianWars. Finally, the statecapitols ofNebraska andMissouri display bronze busts ofNeihardt thatweresculptedbyhiswife,Mona.12AfterNeihardtcompletedtheCycle,hiseyesbegantoweakenandhesoughta

jobthatinvolvedlessreading.In1942NeihardtandhiswifemovedtoChicago,wherehefoundworkwithJohnCollierattheBureauofIndianAffairs.NeihardtwroteandeditedajournalaswellascompiledsocialhistoriesoftheAmericanIndians that he had befriended as a younger man. These social histories, incombinationwith his earlier research, resulted in hismost acclaimedwork offiction,WhentheTreeFlowered(1952).Althoughinthestrictestsensethebookisfiction,likeallofNeihardt’swriting,muchofitisrealandtrue.WhentheTreeFlowered presents a loose collectionofLakotaSioux stories and legendsheldtogetherbythelifeofEagleVoice.AfterWorldWar II, Neihardtwas invited towork inWashington dc and to

continue his work with the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Tiring of city life andmissingtheirhomeinBranson,theNeihardtsreturnedtoMissouri.Afterafewyears of living in Branson, Neihardt was offered his dream job. In 1949 hebecamepoet-in-residenceattheUniversityofMissouri,apositionhehelduntil1966.TheNeihardtssoldtheirBransonhomeandmovedtoafarmjustoutsideColumbia, which they named Skyrim. This move marked the beginning ofanothererainNeihardt’slife:professor.

As poet-in-residenceNeihardt taught creativewriting courses,most notablypoetics. Neihardt insisted that his students develop skills in poetic forms. Hismost popular course, Epic America, appealed to a wider audience of literaryenthusiasts; itwasbasedonhisCycle andofferedstudentsan interdisciplinarylookatthattimeinAmericanhistory.OnceagainNeihardtprovedtobeaheadofhistimeandliveduptothischallengewithgreatsuccessbasedonalifetimeofreading.Neihardtlecturedonawidevarietyofsubjectsthatrelatedthethemeofthe course to history, geography, folklore, anthropology, and personalphilosophy.ThestudentsinEpicAmericapackedanauditoriumeachsemester,and fortunately the University of Missouri had the foresight to videotape hiscourse, which is still offered through the distance education department.Neihardtalwaysprizedbeingadescendantof“coveredwagonpeople,”andsoitisnosurprisethatwhentheuniversitydecidedtoinauguratetelevisioncourses,Neihardtwasanearlypioneerof lecturingon television. In1958hepresentedforty-seven live, half-hour lectures. Teaching brought Neihardt great pleasureandprovidedahappyoccupation for the lastdecadesofhis life.After retiringfrom teaching Neihardt wrote two autobiographies: All Is But a Beginning(1972) andPatterns and Coincidences (1978). In these accounts of his earlyyears, his energy and zest for life are contagious. In that sense these areincrediblygivingbooks.Hiscelebrationsofyouthmakeitpossibleforhimtobeyoungwithsubsequentgenerationsofreaders.The world has changed even more since Neihardt died in 1973, but his

writing, like other classics, still speaks to the currentmood of the age in thedistinctmeter of eternal truths. This is a poet’s gift.Black Elk Speaks meansmanydifferentthingstomanydifferentpeople,whichisamarkofaclassic.I’veread it several times with wonder and awe—as a student reading a work ofliterature full of imagery that teaches and invites and as a descendant readinglanguagelovinglycrafted.I’veheardBlackElkSpeaksdiscussed inanEnglishliterature seminar amongotherwriters and readers interested in theplains andthe AmericanWest. I’ve also met people from many different countries whohavecometoadmirethebookintranslation.AsNeihardt’sgreat-granddaughter,IamhonoredtosharewhatIhavelearnedabouthislife,work,andqualificationsforwritingBlackElkSpeaks.Manypeoplehavethestoriesofthosewhowalkedaroundintheworldbefore

them—agreatpersonageortwoaboutwhichheorshehearswhengrowingup.Asmygreat-grandfather,JohnNeihardt fills that familialseatofhonor.Tomethis information is a precious treasure, and his writing provides a source of

inspiration aswell as being amarvel. I am familiarwith hiswords because Igrew upwith them; if theywere human theywould be a cousin of sorts. If Isearchthecornersofmymind,IalsohaveafewmemoriesofNeihardtfromtheearliestdaysofmychildhood.Itwouldbeimpossibletoforgethimbecauseeveninoldagehehadsuchacompellingpresence.Hislifeoverlappedminebyonlyafew years, and mymemories are mostly small, ordinary, and not in the leastvaluableforanessay.WhenIsearchthosememoriesthough,Ialwaysencountera strong sense ofNeihardt as a person—his humor,wisdom, and kindwayoflooking at the world. Everything he wrote, he wrote from his best vision;everythinghetaught,hetaughtfromthatsamebestvision.Ithinkhewouldhaveliked that his descendants remember himnot only as JohnNeihardt, poet, butalsoasapersonwithvision,talent,andscruples,readytolearnandtoteach.

Appendix8NeihardtandBlackElkLoriUtecht

Acasual observer looking at the circumstances that brought JohnG.Neihardtand Nicholas Black Elk together in the summer of 1930 might use the word“coincidence” to describe the encounter that ultimately resulted in the bookBlackElkSpeaks:BeingtheLifeStoryofaHolyManoftheOglalaSioux.Itisclear,however,fromtherecordofthetwoparticipantsandotherwitnessesthatneither Black Elk nor Neihardt would have used such a word to describeanythingabouttheirrelationship.Neihardt,anestablishedauthor,hadtraveledtothePineRidgeReservationin

SouthDakota to researchmaterial for the final song inhisepicACycleof theWest.Hewaslookingforfirsthandaccountsfromoldmenwhohadbeenapartof the Ghost Dance religious movement and had witnessed the massacre atWounded Knee. Black Elk, an old man at the time of their meeting, was nolonger living the life of a traditionalmedicineman andwas, in fact, a visibleleaderintheCatholicChurchonthereservation.Thoughneitheranticipatedthedirection their conversations would take, both soon recognized that they hadbeenbroughttogethertofulfillasacredobligation:bringingthestoryofBlackElk’svision,whichhad lainslumbering fornearlyhalfacentury, to theworldoutsideofBlackElk’stribalcommunity.BlackElkSpeaks tells the storyof the lifeof theOglalaHolyMan,born in

1863intoatimeofturbulenceforhispeople,theLakotas.Readerslearnofhisearly life on theGreat Plains, his relationships among the tribe (including hisrelationshipwithhissecondcousinCrazyHorse), thestoryofhisgreatvision,thebattleswonandlost,travelstoEuropewithBuffaloBill’sWildWestShow,andthetragedyofWoundedKnee,whichbroughttriballifeashehadknownittoanend.Neihardt’s1961prefacetothebookalsoprovidesinformationaboutwhatled

to theencounter—hisresearchfor thefinalpieceofhiscycle,TheSongof the

Messiah.Neihardtexplainsthathehadthehistoricaldetailsbutfelthecouldnotadequately present the story without getting a sense of the deeper spiritualsignificance of the religious movement. He traveled to the Pine RidgeReservationtofindsomeonewhocouldhelphimgainthatperspective.WhatisnotrevealedishowbothBlackElkandNeihardtcametoaplacein

their lives where Black Elk, after holding his vision to himself for decades,recognized inNeihardt the chance for the fulfillment of his vision, andwhereNeihardtsawhimselfasbothco-creatorandconduitofBlackElk’sstory.Neihardt’s respect forBlackElk’s gift is evident in his preface to the 1932

edition.Hepaystributetotheholyman’sdevotiontoaworldofhighervaluesandexpressesgratitude for themomentswhenBlackElk sharedglimpses intohis innerworld, “imperfectly revealed as by flashes,” aworldNeihardt found“both strange and wonderful” (xvii). Neihardt chose to indicate the specialnature of their collaboration by listing both their names as authors: “as toldthroughJohnG.Neihardt(FlamingRainbow)”and“byNicholasBlackElk.”Thisisnotthetale,however,ofawriterwhojusthappenedontothestoryofa

lifetime. In truth, Neihardt’s entire life had prepared him for the task heembraced.Hewasamaturemanof fiftywhenhe satdownwithBlackElk torecordhisstories.Neihardthadimpressivecredentials:hewasawell-respectedpoet,novelist,short-storywriter,journalist,historian,critic,lecturer,thinker,andphilosopherandwashighlyqualifiedtotacklesuchademandingproject.Neihardt’s standing as an informed recorder of western history is well

documented.HewasparticularlyknowledgeableabouttheTrans-MissouriRivercountryandthestoriesofexploration,expansion,andeventualconflictbetweenawestward-movingU.S. populace and theNative peoples living on theGreatPlains.However,whileNeihardtcelebrated thecourageous spiritof suchearlyexplorers asHughGlass, Thomas Fitzpatrick, and Jedediah Smith, he did notignore the tragic cost of thiswestward expansionism.He had great respect aswellformenlikeRedCloud,SittingBull,andCrazyHorse.Hisportrayalsoftheconquered leadersare sympatheticanddealwith individualhumangloriesandfailingsratherthan“types.”FromtheverybeginningofTheSongoftheIndianWars,Neihardt divides our sympathies: “And therewere those, and theywerealsomen.”Neihardt also brought a highly tuned sensitivity to his environment to this

merging of artistic gifts. Over and over, hiswriting reflects his connection toplace, his lifelong love for the western landscape. One of Neihardt’s earlymemorieswasofstandingwithhisfatheronaKansasCitybluffoverlookingthe

MissouriRiverinflood.HedescribedthefeelingofbothkinshipandaweinthatmomentinTheRiverandIasthebeginningofalifelongrelationshipwiththis“turbulentfriend,whohassincebecomeasabrothertome.”InhisearlyyearstoilingonthelandNeihardtabsorbedasenseof themysteryofall lifeandtheinfusionoftheGod-spiritineverything,acommonthemeinhislyricpoetry.Intheearlyyearsofthetwentiethcentury,whenNeihardtworkedasaclerkontheOmaha Reservation, his conversations with the Omaha elders cemented thisunderstanding as he saw a people who considered themselves as well as thecreaturesandcreationaroundthemasonewiththeGreatMystery.Itisdifficultto find a description of landscape inNeihardt’swriting that doesn’t have thissenseofmystery.Neihardtsawalloflifeasfilledwithspirit,andthissensibilityisreflectedinhiswritingsofthewesternlandassacredspace.ItislikelythatBlackElkwasnotasinterestedinNeihardt’squalificationsas

historianorwriterashewasinsomethingmuchlesstangible.Therecordoftheirinitialmeetingisbrief,butitindicatesrecognitionbyBlackElkofsomethinginthismanNeihardt,somethinginthemeetingitselfthatwasbeyondtheordinary.The interaction between Neihardt and Black Elk is filled with moments ofintuitiveunderstandingandspiritualkinship.HildaNeihardtrecallsinherbookBlackElk andFlamingRainbow (Nebraska 1995) thatBlackElk listened andrespondedpolitelytoquestionsposedbyNeihardtbutseemedtobeinterestedinsomething outside the scope ofNeihardt’s inquiry. In the preface to the 1961editionofBlackElkSpeaks,NeihardtwrotethatBlackElkaskedhimtoreturnsothathecouldtellhimofhisvisionandhislifestory.BlackElksays,intheirvery firstmeeting, thatNeihardt had a desire to know the things of the otherworld, and that a spirit standing behind Neihardt had forced him to come.Neihardt,forhispart,alsosensedsomethingoutoftheordinaryinthisholymanwhoappearedtobea“bituncannyinhisintuitions”andwho“seemedtoknowwhatwasinsidethevisitor”(182).Thereadergetsaclearersenseofagrowingawarenessoftheirjointcallingas

oneyear later theyspent threeweeks together, sitting longhoursasBlackElktalked, Ben Black Elk interpreted, Neihardt clarified, and Enid Neihardtrecorded.The storydocumented inBlackElk Speaks is a powerful one;whencoupledwiththedetailsofeventsandconversationssurroundingtheinterviews,a remarkable collaboration is revealed, evidencing a sense of mysticalconnectednessthatonlydeepenedastimewenton.HildaNeihardtwritesofthecompletionofthecollaboration,shortlyaftertheyhadcomedownfromHarneyPeak.Ataneveningmealsharedamong theNeihardtsand theBlackElks, the

moodwassubdued.Theywereall“envelopedinthefeelingthatwehadbeeninthe presence of something very large, very mystical, very meaningful,” andHildasays,“thatfeelingwastoremainwithusallandtogrowinpower.”1After parting, theNeihardts planned to visit theCusterBattlefield and then

return home, but an automobile breakdown forced a change in plans. Whilewaiting inSpearfish,SouthDakota, forparts tobesent fromDenver,NeihardtwrotetohisfriendJuliusHouse.HespokeofspendingfourgloriousweekswithBlack Elk and other members of the tribe and of the vision, which was “amarvelous thing, vast in extent, full of profound significance and perfectlyformed. If it were literature instead of a dance ritual, it would be a literarymasterpiece.” Neihardt revealed to his friend that “the vision has never beentold,asawhole,toanyone,noteventoBlackElk’sson,whointerpretedforme”(June3,1931).2In that letter Neihardt revealed his impressions of a sympathy of

understandingbetweenthetwomen:

AstrangethinghappenedoftenwhileIwastalkingwithBlackElk.Overandoverheseemedtobequotingfrommypoems,andsometimesIquotedsomeofmystufftohim,whichwhentranslatedintoSiouxcouldnotretainmuchoftheir literarycharacter,but theoldmanimmediatelyrecognizedtheideasashisown.Therewasoftenanuncannymergingofconsciousnessbetweentheoldfellowandmyselfandheseemedtohaverememberedit.

NeihardtalsodescribestheacknowledgmentbyBlackElkofhiscontributionto the collaborative endeavor in a naming ceremony, inwhich he is given thenameFlamingRainbowinrecognitionofhisgiftas“wordsender.”AsBlackElkexplained,“Theearthislikeagardenandoverityourwordsgolikerainmakingitgreen,andafteryourwordshavepassedthemeaningofthemwillstandlongintheWestlikeaFlamingRainbow.”3Neihardt also shared his impressions in a June 1931 letter to his publisher,

WilliamMorrow:“TherewasaverypeculiarmergingofconsciousnessbetweenmeandBlackElk,andhisson,whointerpretedforme,commentedonthefact.VeryoftenitseemedasthoughBlackElkwereonlyrepeatingmyownthoughtsormyownpoetryalthoughheknowsnoEnglishandisutterlyunawareof theexistenceofliterature.”Inthisletter,NeihardtmakesclearhisunderstandingofthepurposebehindBlackElk’ssharingofhisvision:

AtvarioustimesBlackElkbecamemelancholyover the thought thatat last

hehadgivenawayhisgreatvision,andoncehesaidtome,“nowIhavegivenyoumyvision that I have never given to anyone before andwith it I havegivenyoumypower.Ihavenopowernow,butyoucantakeitandperhapswithityoucanmakethetreebloomagain,atleastformypeopleandyours.

BlackElk’spainatgivingawayhispowervision iscoupledwithhope that indoingsoheisatlastfulfillinghissacredobligation.Neihardt also recordedhis impressionsof the interviewswith the readersof

hisSt.LouisPost-Dispatchcolumns.Inasecondessay,hereflectsuponhistimespent with the old men of the Oglalas where he “was able to feel withextraordinaryintensitytheprofoundandperhapsfataltruthaboutourcivilizationinitsdominantaspect.”EspeciallyprofoundwererevelationsbyBlackElk,“oneoftheminwhomthehighestspiritualconceptionsofhisracehavefloweredinbeauty andwisdom.”Neihardt felt hewas able to lose himself in the “emptycountryand socialvacuum,” remindedonlyoccasionally, though forcefully,ofthecultureheleftbehind.Forexample:

whentheoldOgalalaseerhappenedtosaysomethinglikethefollowing:“TheGreatSpiritmadetheTwo-LeggedtolivelikerelativeswiththeFour-LeggedandtheWingsoftheAirandallthingsthatliveandaregreen.Butthewhitemanhasputusinalittleislandandinotherlittleislandshehasputthefour-leggedbeings;andsteadilytheislandsgrowsmaller;foraroundthemsurgesthe hungry flood of theWasichu (white men) and it is dirty with lies andgreed.”At such a time one could insist with pathetic truth that there are many,

many good men and women among the “Wasichu.” “Of course,” was thereply,“butsurelythey,too,shalldrown.”4

TheverypreparationoftheinterviewsettingsindicatedBlackElk’ssenseoftheimportanceoftheprocess.OneofthefirsteventsBlackElkarrangedwasanadoption ceremony of Neihardt, which served as public testimony of theintimacyoftherelationshipandalsocreatedthekinshipnecessaryforBlackElktoshare sacredstoriesandceremonieswith thewriter.BlackElk invitedotherold men of the tribe to participate in the interviews, to provide additionalmemories that he did not have, and also to affirm the truth of what he wassaying.BlackElk’simpressionscanbegleanedfromEnid’srecordofthetrip.Shenot

onlytookshorthandnotesoftheactualinterviewsbutalsokeptadetaileddiary

of events and conversations that occurred throughout the trip. RaymondDeMallie has made the behind-the scenes record accessible in The SixthGrandfather:BlackElk’sTeachingsGiventoJohnG.Neihardt(Nebraska1984).Itisanamazingaccount.Asthe twomengot toknoweachother,Neihardtnotonly listenedtoBlack

Elk’sstoriesofmysticaleventsbutalsotoldsomeofhisownexperiences.InonecaseNeihardt related toBlackElkan incident thathadoccurredwhilehewaswritingTheSongofHughGlass,thestoryofanearlyexplorerwhoismauledbyabearalongthebanksoftheGrandRiverandthencrawlsoverahundredmilestosafety.ThelandscapeandGlass’stediouscrawlaredescribedinminutedetail;however,becauseNeihardtwasunabletovisitthesitebeforewritingthetale,hewasforcedtorelyonintuitiontocapturethedetailsofthesetting.Duringa1923tripwithsomefriendstoerectamonumenttoGlassatthesitewherethecrawlbegan, Neihardt nervously awaited the discrepancy that was bound to berevealedbetweentheactuallandscapeandthelandscapeofhisnarrative.Tohisastonishment, he toldBlack Elk, the two corresponded to an uncanny degree.Black Elk, however, was not surprised, nor did he feel it to be coincidental.Rather,hesensedakindofpowerworking inNeihardt thatwassimilar to thepowerthathadcometohiminhisvision:“Asyousitthere,inyourmindthereisakindofapowerthathasbeensentyoubythespirits;andwhileyouaredoingthisworkindescribingthisland,probablythereisakindofpowerthatdidtheworkforyou,althoughyouthinkyouaredoingityourself.”5AsweknowfromBlackElkSpeaks,BlackElkrelatedtoNeihardtthestoryof

thevisionthathadcometohimasaboy.NeihardtalsotoldBlackElkofavisionhehadhadatageeleven.Extremelyill,theyoungNeihardtlayforseveraldayswith a fever. During this time he experienced a vision in which he left hisfeverishbodyandflewthroughspaceatdizzyingspeeds.Hefeltthepresenceofwhat he came to call his ghostly brother urging him on. The sense of thispresence did not leave him once he recovered from his illness, and from thatpoint onNeihardt considered himself to be a poet and the ghostly brother the“something”thatbothdroveandaidedhiminhiswriting.BlackElkrespondedby tellingNeihardt that the spirit he had seen standing behind himwhen theyfirstmetwasthisghostlycompanion.This incident seems central in affirmingBlack Elk’s decision that Neihardt

wasindeedthemantohelpfulfillhissacredobligationtohisvision.DeMallieincludesthistranscriptfromEnid’snotes:

Before I ever sawyou Iwonderedabout thedream;andyourbrotherghosthasputyouheretodogoodtoyourpeople,andthroughyouyourpeoplehavetheirknowledge.Furthermore,thisvisionofmineoughttogoout,Ifeel,butsomehowIcouldn’tgetanyonetodoit.Iwouldthinkaboutitandgetsad.Iwantedtheworldtoknowaboutit.Itseemsthatyourghostlybrotherhassentyouhere todo this forme.Youarehereandhave thevision just theway Iwanted,andthenthetreewillbloomagainandthepeoplewillknowthetruefacts. We want this tree to bloom again in the world of true that doesn’tjudge.6

BlackElkhad takenhisvision tohispeoplebyperforming it inceremonialdance, a public act fulfilling a sacred obligation. But the sacred tree had notflowered, and Black Elk recognized in his meetings with Neihardt that here,perhaps,wasananswer.TheboundariesofthecommunityofBlackElk’svisionhadbeenexpandedtoinclude“theworld.”Tomeetthisobligationforthevisiontogo“out,”heneededtounitehisgiftswiththoseofakindredspiritwhohadthetoolstomakethevisionaccessibleinadifferentway.Forthisnewcircleofrecipients, a reenactment of the horse dance might enhance but not completeunderstanding. This world needed words, and Black Elk sensed that JohnNeihardtwouldbeastrueasahumancouldbeincreatingthewordstoexpresshisvision. Itwasn’t just amatterof translating fromone language,Lakota, toanotherlanguage,English,butoftranslatingmysteryintolanguage.Neihardtrecognizedthedifficultyandyetacceptedresponsibilityforthistask.

In fact, Neihardt’s understanding of the responsibility of the artist demandedsucharesponse.Hebelievedthattheartisthasanexpandedconsciousnessandisable to peer into a world most people are unaware of. It is the artist’sresponsibility to bridge the gap between ordinary states of awareness and theouterboundariesofconsciousness.Initshighestexpression,art—poetry,music,painting, sculpture—captures and then shares, sometimes for just an instant, aglimpseintomystery.ItwasthisgiftthatNeihardtbroughttothatinauspiciousmeetingwiththeholyman,thisgiftthatBlackElkintuitedontheirfirstmeeting.BlackElkrecognizedaswellthatthisjoiningofartisticvisionwouldbindthe

two men (and indeed their families) together forever. Once again there is ablendingofsadnesswithhope:“ThemoreI talkabout these things themoreIthinkofoldtimes,anditmakesmefeelsad,butIhopethatwecanmakethetreebloomforyourchildrenandformine.”BlackElksawarelationshipthatwouldbeongoing,thattheywouldforeverberelatives—infact,thataspecthadalready

comeintoexistence—butevenmore,that“wewillthinkofthatdeeplyandsetthat remembrance down deep in our hearts—not just thinly, but deeply in ourheartsitshouldbemarked.”7Neihardt’ssenseofrelationshipandobligationalsocontinuedafterBlackElk

Speaks was published. Though the book was launched to critical acclaim, itwasn’tacommercialsuccessandquicklywentoutofprint.ItwasnotuntiltheUniversityofNebraskaPressreissueditin1961thatitfoundapublicfollowing.Butevenduringthosequietdecadesthetwomenandtheirfamiliesremainedincontact, and Neihardt continued to speak about Black Elk’s vision and theamazinggifthefelthehadbeenprivilegedtobringtotheworld.The record of the interaction between the two men—letters, stenographic

record of conversations,memories by familymembers of bothBlack Elk andNeihardt—indicates a clear understanding that, regardless of the initial burdenon Black Elk alone as recipient of the vision, a subsequent demand was thecombinationofartisticgiftstomeetsacredobligation.Thereisanunderstandingthatthisstoryismeanttobesentoutintotheworldandthetwomysticsfulfilledthatdemand.BlackElkSpeakshasbecomeaspiritualclassic thathasenrichedunderstandingforthousandsofreaders,sustainingBlackElk’shopethatthetreeof his vision will bloom again. The story of the collaboration itself can be aguideforthosewhoseekagreaterunderstandingofmystery.Twogiftedartists,who not only recognized but carried through on sacred obligation, offer theworldaglimpse,howevermomentary,intotheouterboundariesofmystery.

Appendix9“OriginofthePeacePipe”

DuringtheBlackElkinterviews,asJohnNeihardthasdescribedintheprefacetothe1961edition,“afaithfulrecordofthenarrativeandconversations”waskeptbyhisdaughterEnid,askilledstenographer,andatranscriptofhernoteslaybeforehimwhenhewroteBlackElkSpeaks.ToillustrateconcretelyhowNeihardt interpreted thespiritofBlackElk’snarrative, thisappendixpresentsthe transcript ofBlackElk’s oral account of the origin of the peace pipe forcomparisonwith the corresponding passages inNeihardt’s handwritten draft.(Forcomparisonwiththeprintedversion,seepage2,line23,throughpage4,line4.)A comparison of the transcript and the draft reveals that Neihardt

suppressedunnecessarydetails,alteredawkwardexpressions,andintroduceda tone of reverence and solemnity, transmuting the oral narrative intoliterature. For the general reader the omitted details clutter up the story,makingithardertofollow;butforanthropologists,folklorists,andstudentsofreligionsomeofthesedetailsaresignificant.Forexample,fromthebeginningofthestorythewomanisseentobecarryingsomething,andwhenshearrivesat the camp she first places this bundle down facing east.Adozenor so ofthese specific detailswhich do not appear in the story can be found in thetranscript.

TheTranscriptOriginationofPeacePipe

The Indians were in camp and they had a meeting to send scouts out to killbuffalo. The scouts were on top of a hill and as they looked to north in thedistancesomethingwasappearing.Theyweregoingon,buttheywantedtofindoutwhatitwasandtheykeptlookingandfinallyitcamecloser;thentheyfoundoutitwasawoman.Thenoneofthemensaid:“Thatisawomancoming.”Oneof themhadbad thoughtsofherandone themsaid:“This isa sacredwoman,

throwallbadthotsaside.”Shecameupthehillwheretheywere.Shewasverybeautiful,herlonghairhangingdownandshehadonabeautifulbuckskincoat.Sheputdownwhatshewascarryingandcovereditupwithsage.Sheknewwhattheyhadintheirminds.Shesaid:“Probablyyoudonotknowme,butifyouittodoasyouthink,come.”Sotheonesaidtoother,“That iswhatI toldyou,butyouwouldn’t listen tome.”Sooneof themenwent and just as he facedher,therewasacloudthatcameandcoveredthem.Thebeautifulwomanwalkedoutofthecloudandstoodthere.Thenthecloudblewoffandthemanwasnothingbutaskeletonwithwormseatingonit.Thatiswhathappenedtohimforbeingbad.Sheturnedtotheotheroneandsaid,“Youshallgohomeandtellthynationthat I am coming.Therefore in the center of thy nation they shall build a bigteepeeandthereIwillcome.”Sothismanleftatonceandhewasveryscared,forhisfriendwasaskeleton.Hetoldthetribewhathadhappenedandtheyallgotexcitedandrightawaytheypreparedaplaceforher tocome.Theybuiltateepeerightinthecenterandshewasnowinit.Sheputwhatshewascarryingfacing the East. All the people gathered right there. She sang a song as sheenteredtheteepee:

10.Sample1fromNeihardt'shandwrittendraft.CourtesyWesternHistoricalManuscriptCollection—Columbia,JohnG.Neihardt(1881–1973)Papers,ca.

1858–1974.

11.Sample2fromNeihardt'shandwrittendraft.CourtesyWesternHistoricalManuscriptCollection—Columbia,JohnG.Neihardt(1881–1973)Papers,ca.

1858–1974.

“WithvisiblebreathIamwalking.AvoiceIamsendingasIwalk.InasacredmannerIamwalking.WithvisibletracksIamwalking.InasacredmannerIamwalking.”

Thenshepresentedthepipetothechief.Itwasanordinarypipebuttherewasacalfcarvedinonesideandthereweretwelveeaglefeatherstiedonwithagrass

thatneverbreaks.Shesaid:“Beholdthis,foryoushallmultiplywiththisandagoodnation thou shaltbe.You shallgetnothingbutgood from thispipe, so Iwantittobeinthehandsofagoodmanandthegoodshallhavetheprivilegeofseeingit,butthebadshallnothavetheprivilegeofseeingit.”ThispipeisstillinthepossessionoftheSioux.ThefirstmanwhokeptitwasamanbythenameofHighHollowHorn.Thepipeishandeddownfromsontoson.She taught them to “keep spirits” and if aman’s son dies, themankeeps a

pieceofhisson’shair.Thiswomanwasreallyawhitebuffalo.Thustherespectfor thewhite buffalo.She told them thatwhen therewasno food they shouldoffer thispipe theGreatSpiritand theywouldknowfromthispipewhentheyweregoingtohavetrouble.Thepipegets longatcertain timesandthismeanshardtimes.Whenitgetsshortthetimesaregood.Aftershewentbackshesanganothersong.Asshewentitoftheteepeeeveryonesawawhitebuffalokickinguphishindlegsandleavinginahurrysnortingasitwent.

TheHandwrittenDraft

Thereisastoryaboutthewaythepipefirstcametous.Averylongtimeago,theysay,twoscoutswereoutlookingforbison;andwhentheycametothetopofahighhillandlookednorththeysawsomethingcomingalongwayoff,andwhenitcameclosertheycriedout,“Itisawoman!”,anditwas.Thenoneofthescouts,beingfoolish,hadbadthoughts&spokethem;buttheothersaid:“Thatisasacredwoman;throwallbadthoughtsaway.”When she came still closer, they saw that she wore a fine white buckskin

dress,thatherhairwasverylongandthatshewasyoung&verybeautiful.Andsheknewtheir thoughtsandsaid inavoice thatwas likesinging:“Youdonotknowme,butifyouwanttodoasyouthink,youmaycome.”Andthefoolishonewent,butjustashestoodbeforeher,therewasawhitecloudthatcame&coveredthem.Andthebeautifulyoungwomancameoutofthewhitecloud,andwhen itblewaway the foolishmanwasa skeletoncoveredwithworms.Thenthewoman spoke to the onewhowas not foolish: “You shall go home& tellyour people that I am coming& that a big tepee shall be built forme in thecenterofthenation.”Andthemanwhowasverymuchafraidwentquicklyandtoldthepeople,whodidatonceastheyweretold;&therearoundthebigtepeetheywaitedforthesacredwoman.Andafterawhileshecame,verybeautiful&singing,andasshewentintothetepeethisiswhatshesang:

“WithvisiblebreathIamwalking.AvoiceIamsendingasIwalk.

InasacredmannerIamwalking.WithvisibletracksIamwalking.InasacredmannerIamwalking.”

And as she sang there came from hermouth awhite cloud thatwas sweet tosmell.Thenshegavesomethingtothechief,anditwasapipewithabisoncalfcarved on one side tomean the earth that bears& feeds us, andwith twelveeaglefeathershangingfromthestemtomeantheskyandthetwelvemoons,andtheseweretiedwithagrassthatneverbreaks.“Behold!”shesaid.“Withthisyoushallmultiply&beagoodnation.Nothingbutgoodshallcomefromit.Onlythehandsofthegoodshalltakecareofit&thebadshallnotevenseeit.”Thenshe sangagain&wentoutof the tepee, andas thepeoplewatchedhergoing,suddenlyitwasawhitebisongallopingaway&snorting,andsoonitwasgone.Thistheytell,andwhetherithappenedsoornotIdonotknow;butifyouthinkaboutit,youcanseethatitistrue.

JointCollection,WesternHistoricalManuscriptCollection,UniversityofMissouri,Columbia,andStateHistoricalSocietyofMissouriManuscripts.

Appendix10LakotaWordsUsedintheText

JohnG.NeihardtspelledLakotawordsasheheardthem,attemptingtousethesounds of English to convey the rhythm of Indian speech. Some of histranslationsof those terms intoEnglishwereeffectiveandevocativeofdeepermeanings,buttheydidnotalwaysgetacrosstheliteralmeaningsofthewords.HealsocreatedpluralsofLakotawordsasthoughtheywereEnglish,byaddings.This,ofcourse,doesnotreflectthegrammarofLakota.Forclarification,thefollowing list gives modern linguistic transcriptions of the Lakota words inBlackElkSpeaks,withliteraltranslations.

aguiapa:agúyapi‘bread’(literally,‘causedtobrown’)BlackKettles(note1,chapter5):confusionofBlackFeetandTwoKettlesBlackFeet:Sihásapa‘Blackfeet’(oneofthesevenLakotatribes)BlueClouds:Mahpíyatho‘ArapahoIndians’Brules:Sičhągu‘BurnedThighs’(oneofthesevenLakotatribes)chacunshasha:čhąšaša‘kinnikinick’(theinnerbarkofredwillow,usedasanadditivetotobaccoforsmoking)

chahumpiska:čhąhąpiska‘sugar’(literally,‘whitetreesap’)Hetchetualoh!:Héčhetuyeló‘Soitis!’Hey-hey!:Héhé!‘Lookhere!’(aninterjection,usedinprayerandritualtocalltheattentionofspiritbeings)

heyoka:heyókha‘contrary;sacredclown’Hokahey!:Hókhahé‘Onward!’(arallyingcry,usedtoencourageothers,asinbattle)

Hunkpapa: Húkpapha ‘Head of theCampCircle’ (one of the seven Lakotatribes)

Hya-a-a-a!:Hiyé!‘Thanks!’(anexclamation,usedritually)Inkpaduta:Íkpaduta‘RedTip’(nameofaSanteeDakotachief)

Lakota:Lakhóta‘TetonSioux’(thewesterndivisionoftheSioux)Minneconjou:Mnikóhowožu ‘Planters byWater’ (one of the seven Lakotatribes)

O-ona-gazhee:ónažiča,onákižį‘refuge’(called“TheStronghold”inEnglish;CunyTable, in the badlands north of PineRidge,where theGhostDancerstookrefugeaftertheWoundedKneeMassacre)

Ogalala:Oglála‘ScatterOne’sOwn’(oneofthesevenLakotatribes)paezhutasapa:phežútasápa‘coffee’(literally,‘blackmedicine’)Pahuska:Phehí˛há˛ska‘LongHair’(apersonalnameusedbothforMaj.Gen.GeorgeA.CusterandforWilliam[BuffaloBill]Cody)

papa:pápa‘driedmeat’Red Cloud’s Agency, Red Cloud Agency: Red Cloud Agency, laterrenamed Pine Ridge Agency, home of the Oglala; also called owákpamni‘Indian agency’ (literally, ‘place of distribution’; Neihardt called it “thePlaceWhereEverythingIsDisputed”)

SansArcs:Itázipčho‘WithoutBows’(oneofthesevenLakotatribes)sheo:šiyó‘prairiechicken’Shyela:Šahíyela‘CheyenneIndians’TwoKettles:Oóhenųpa‘TwoBoilings’(oneofthesevenTetonTribes)Un-hee!:Hųhé!(aninterjectionexpressingsurprise)Wachpanne:Wahˇhpánica‘Poor’(apersonalname)wagachun:wágačhą‘cottonwood’WakonTonka:WakhąThąka‘GreatSpirit,God’Wanekia:Waníkhiya ‘Savior’ (literally, ‘OneWhoMakes Live’, a personalnameusedforWovokaandforJesus)

Wasichu:wašíču‘whitepeople’;also,‘somethingholy,incomprehensible’Watanye:Watąye‘Bait’(apersonalname)wichashawakon:wičhášawakhą‘holyman’Yanktonais:Ihąkthųwąna‘LittleEndVillage’(oneofthethreedivisionsoftheSioux)

Ye-a-a!:Hiyá!‘No!’Yuhoo!:Yuhú!(aninterjection,apparentlyexpressingtriumph)

Notes

Endnotesareindicatedby1,2,3,andsoforth,inthetext.Footnoteshavean“f”appendedtothenumber.


1.Neihardtusestheexpression“innerworld”onlyinthispreface.HeconceptualizedBlackElk’straditionalreligiousbeliefsandpracticesasan“entiresystemofknowledgethathisvisionrepresented,”knowledgethathekeptlockedinsidehimselfafteracceptingthewhitemen’sreligionandjoiningtheCatholicChurch(TheSixthGrandfather:BlackElk’sTeachingsGiventoJohnG.Neihardt,28).

2.Theexplorationof“highervalues”wasacentralthemeofNeihardt’slife.SeehisPoeticValues:TheirRealityandOurNeedofThem.

3.ForNeihardt’saccountofhisfirstmeetingwithBlackElk,writtensoonafterward,seeSixthGrandfather,27–28.

4.SeeHildaNeihardt,BlackElkandFlamingRainbow:PersonalMemoriesoftheLakotaHolyManandJohnNeihardt,foranintimatereminiscenceofNeihardt’srelationshipwithBlackElk.Forthe1931interviews,seeSixthGrandfather,101–296.

5.Theexpression“outerworld”occursonlyonceinthetranscriptofNeihardt’sconversationswithBlackElk:“spirit(outer)world”(SixthGrandfather,220).“Outerworld”isNeihardt’sgloss;inthetranscript,BlackElkuses“spiritworld”twiceand“otherworld”ninetimes.SeeNeihardt’sdiscussionof“outerfield,”thefundamentaldimensionbeyondtimeandspace,characterizedbyimages,ratherthanwords(PoeticValues,111).Inhispoem,“TheGhostlyBrother,”basedonachildhooddream,Neihardtisbeckoned“Throughtheouterwallsofsense”(CollectedPoems,164).

6.BlackElk’simpairedvision,accordingtooralaccounts,resultedfromhispracticeasamedicineman.Asademonstrationofhispower,hewouldhidechargesofgunpowderinafire,whichallowedhimtocauseseeminglyspontaneousexplosions;onetimethepowderexplodedinhisface(SixthGrandfather,13–14).

7.NeihardtlikelydidnotknowthatBlackElkwasliterateinhisnativelanguage.NotonlyhadhereadpartsoftheBibleinDakota,butbeginningin1888,whenhewastravelingwithBuffaloBill’sWildWestshowinEngland,hewrotelettersinLakotathatwerepublishedinchurchnewspapers.SeeSixthGrandfather,8–10,17–21.

8.ForthetranscriptofatalkgivenbyBenjaminBlackElkin1969,seeH.NeihardtandUtrecht,BlackElkLives,3–22.


1.Duringthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,cuttingthehair,togetherwiththechangetoEuro-Americanstyleclothing,wassymbolicofLakotamen’sacceptanceofthewhitemen’swayoflife.Whenboysattendedschooltheirbraidswereshornaway,theirhairwascutshort,andtheycouldnolongerwearbreechclothsandblankets.Bythe1930s,onlyafewmenrefusedtocuttheirhair.Theywerecalled“longhairs,”atermthatdesignatednotmerelytheirhairstylebuttheirorientationtotraditional

Lakotaculture.2.Wichášawakhá‘holyman.’ThecharacterizationofBlackElkasa“kindofapreacher”wasprobablyintendedtodesignatehisroleasacatechistintheRomanCatholicChurch,nothisidentityasatraditionalLakotaholyman,butatthattimeNeihardtwouldnothaveunderstoodthis.

3.InSixthGrandfather,26–27,IhypothesizedthattheinterpreterwasEmilAfraidofHawk.Thatidentificationnowappearstobeanerror.TheinterpreterwasapparentlyFlyingHawk(1852–1931),whowasadecadeolderthanBlackElk.ForFlyingHawk’slifestory,seeMcCreight,FirewaterandForkedTongues:ASiouxChiefInterpretsU.S.History.

4.NeihardtwrotethatithadbeenusedbyBlackElkfor“alongwhileinthesundancesinwhichhehasofficiatedaspriest”(SixthGrandfather,28).Thesacredornamentisacirclewithtriangularnotchescutaroundthecircumference.Itwasmadefromarawhideparfleche(thatis,arectangularstoragecontainer);thefrontispainteddeepblue,whilethebackrevealspartoftheoriginalpainteddesignoftheparfleche.Adarkmottledeaglewingfeatherissuspendedfromthecenter,togetherwithsomeshedbuffalohairwovenwiththreadtoformapendant.

5.Wakhátháka‘greatholy.’6.CarlisleIndianIndustrialSchool,inCarlisle,Penn.,aboardingschoolforIndianstudentsfoundedin1879.SeePrucha,TheGreatFather,vol.2,694–700.BenjaminBlackElkattendedtheschoolfrom1915–17(SixthGrandfather,23–24).

7.ThecompletetranscriptoftheshorthandnotesispublishedinSixthGrandfather.

TheOfferingofthePipe

1.Neihardt’sexpression“SpiritoftheWorld”correspondstoBlackElk’s“GreatSpirit”(Wakhátháka‘greatholy’),thetraditionalLakotaconceptionofthetotalityofallthatissacred,powerful,andmysterious).TheLakotasalsousethiswordtodesignatetheChristianSeeWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,68–80.

2.Thethunderbeings(Wakíyą)areembodimentsofthepoweroftheWest,manifestedintheviolenceanddestructivenessofstormsofthunderandlightning.Theyareconceptualizedasgiantbirdswhoseoutstretchedwingsareblackcloudsandtheflashofwhoseeyesislightning.SeeWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,119–20,155–57,278–80.

3.Thefourdirections(worldquarters)arepersonifiedaswinds,eachdesignatedbyasymboliccomplexofcolors,animalsorbirds,anddistinctivepowers(seeWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,124–27).Twootherdirections,upanddown,wererecognizedinadditiontothefourwinds,makingatotalofRitualactions,suchasofferingthepipe,includeallsixdirectionsinordertocalluponandbringtogetherthepowersoftheuniverse.

4.ThefirstsixparagraphsareNeihardt’s,expressinginhisownwordshissenseofBlackElk’smoodandmotivationfortellinghislifestory.

5.SeeSixthGrandfather,283–85.AlongerversionofthisstoryastoldbyBlackElkisinBrown,TheSacredPipe,3–9.Forothertellingsofthestory,seeLoneMan(TetonfromStandingRock)inDensmore,TetonSiouxMusic,63–67;FingerandThomasTyon(Oglalas)inWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,109–12,148–50.ThebringingofthepipemarksthebeginningsoftheLakotasasaSeeDeMallie,“KinshipandBiologyinSiouxCulture,”127–30.

6.Thephrase“thepowersthatareonePower”isNeihardt’s.7.“GreatSpirit,youhavebeenalways,andbeforeyounoonehasThereisnoonetopraytobutyou.”Comparewithaprayerofthehųká(adoption)ceremony:“TuwáthókecakephícašniWakháthá-ka,niyéthokéyanicága”‘Nooneelsemaybementioned[Therecanbenoother].GreatSpirit,youwerethefirsttoexist’(Curtis,TheNorthAmericanIndian,3,77,151).TheseareLakotaritualexpressionsthatareaddressedinturntoeachofthepowerscalledupon.Here,Neihardt’swordinggivesasenseofmonotheism.SeediscussioninSixthGrandfather,91.

8.TheLakotawordtranslatedas“nation”isoyáte‘people’,inthesenseofasocialItisusednotonlyforhumansbutalsoforanimals(forexample,thefour-leggednation,thebuffalonation);birds(thewinged

nation);celestialphenomena(stars),andanyothertypeoflivingthing.Here,“finished”means“created.”9.TheWhiteGiantisWazíya,thespiritoftheNorth.Heisacontraryfigurewhowrapshimselfinhisrobeduringthesummer,butremovesitinwinter,shakingittoproducesnow.SeeWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,120–21.

10.ThisisatraditionalLakotaStandingBearcommentedtoNeihardtthathefirsthearditwhenhewastwentyyearsold(SixthGrandfather,285).

11.Héchetuyeló!‘Soitis!’12.TheLakotasbelievethatwhenmensmokeasacredpipeincommon,“itsinfluencesaresupposedtobindthemtogetherforeverinamicablerelationship”(Walker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,90).

EarlyBoyhood

1.Lakhóta‘Allies’istheself-designationoftheWesternSioux;theycompriseseventribes:theOglála,Brule(Sichágu),Minneconjou(Mnikhówožu),Hunkpapa(Húkpapha),TwoKettles(Oóhenųpa),NoBows(Itázipchola),andBlackfootSioux(Sihásapa).SeeDeMallie,“SiouxUntil1850,”718–60.

2.ThePawnees,aCaddoan-speakingtribe,livedinearthlodgevillagesineast-centralNebraska.TheyandtheLakotaswarredwithoneanotheruntilthefederalgovernmentremovedthePawneestoOklahomainthe1870s.SeeParks,“Pawnee,”515–47.

3.Monthsweredesignatedbymoonsandnamedtoreflectthechangingoftheseasons.Chąnáphopawi‘poppingtreesmoon’referstotheloudcrackingoftreesduringthecoldestpartofthewinter.ForBlackElk’slistofnamesofthemoons,seeSixthGrandfather,291–92;compareWalker,LakotaSociety,123.

4.Yearsweredesignatedas“winters,”beginningwiththefirstsnowfall,andwerenamedaftermemorableevents.Pictographiccalendars(waníyetuyawápi‘wintercounts’)servedtorecordthepassingwinters,thenamesservingthesamefunctionasdatesinEuroamericanculture.SeeWalker,LakotaSociety,111–57.ThewintercountcollectionpreservedintheSmithsonianInstitutionispublishedinGreeneandThornton,TheYeartheStarsFell.

5.BlackElk’sgrandfathertoldhimthat,beforewhitemencame,thetermwašícudesignatedbuffaloinlargeherds,andheassociateditwithfat.Unfortunately,thissectionofthetranscriptisconfusing.Manyfolketymologieshavedevelopedtoexplainthename,including“fat-takers”and“bigtalkers,”bothofwhichBlackElkmentions.SeeSixthGrandfather,150–51.Neihardt’ssummaryhere,“Thattheyaremany,”representsapartofwhatBlackElksaid.

6.ThiswastheBozemanTrail,acutofffromtheOregonTrailontheNorthPlatteRiverthatledthroughWyomingtothegoldfieldsofMontana.SeeHebardandBrininstool,TheBozemanTrail,1:211–35.Firstblazedin1862,thetrailwentthroughtheLakotahuntinggroundsandwasthemajorsourceofcontentionthatledtowhatisoftencalledRedCloud’sWar,1866-68.TheLakotasdesignategoldbytheexpressionmázaska-zi‘yellowwhite-metal,’thatis,“yellowsilver.”

7.DrinksWater’sLakotanamewasprobablyWíyatke‘DrinkingCup’;inhis1944interviewswithBlackElkNeihardtrecordedthenameas“WoodenCup.”SeeSixthGrandfather,290,337–41.

8.TheLakotasbelievedthatbuffalowerecreatedwithinthewombofmotherearthandthat,intimesofevil,theyreturnedunderground.WindCave,neartheBlackHills,wasbelievedtobeaconduittothatundergroundworld.SeeGeorgeBushotterinDorsey,“AStudyofSiouanCults,”476–77.

9.FortPhilKearny,establishedbytheU.S.ArmyonJune13,1866,toprotecttravelersontheBozemanTrail(Prucha,MilitaryPostsoftheUnitedStates,97).Foraveryreadablehistory,seeBrown,FortPhilKearny.

10.ForthelifeofCrazyHorse,seeSandoz,CrazyHorse:StrangeManoftheOglalas,andBray,CrazyHorse:ALakotaLife;forRedCloud,seePaul,AutobiographyofRedCloud;Olson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem;andLarson,RedCloud:Warrior-StatesmanoftheLakotaSioux.

11.Ítokhecawi‘changingmoon.’12.ForBlackElk’slistofnamesforthephasesofthemoon,seeSixthGrandfather,292.13.Hókahé!‘Comeon!Charge!’14.Lakotaparentsinducedgoodbehaviorintheirchildrenbyportrayingthewhitesasbogeymen.George

Bushotter,aLakota,describedinhisautobiography,writtenin1887,how,whenhemisbehaved,hismother’sthreattocallinawhitemantopunishhimwasaterrifyingandimmediatedeterrent(Bushotter,“LakotaTexts,”no.101;alsoseeErikson,“ObservationsonSiouxEducation,”141).

15.Theponydragisatravois,madeoftwolodgepolestiedtogetherwheretheycrossoverahorse’swithers,theendsdraggingonthegroundandsupportingaplatformofcrosspiecesthatservedtotransportbaggage.SeeHandbookofNorthAmericanIndians,vol.13:Plains,7,606.

16.Snowblindness,causedbysunlightreflectingoffthesnow-coveredlandscape,wassuchaproblemfortheLakotasthattheynamedMarch“theMoonoftheSnowblind.”DragonfliesrepresentedthepowersoftheWest;theyweremessengers(akíchita)oftheThunderbirds(Wakíyą)(seeWalker,“SunDance,”68,84).Asasymboltheywerefrequentlyassociatedwithwarfaresince,likedragonflies,warriorsneededtobefastandagileinbattle.

17.Lakotaboys’gamesareextensivelydocumented;seeCulin,GamesoftheNorthAmericanIndians;Dorsey,“GamesofTetonDakotaChildren”;Meeker,“OglalaGames”;Walker,“SiouxGames”;Bucko,“WhenDoesaCactusBecomeanAngryBuffalo?TraditionalGamesoftheLakotas.”

18.Chąphásápawi‘blackcherriesmoon.’19.ForabiographicalsketchofStandingBear,seeWarren,BuffaloBill’sAmerica,390–96.20.KnownontheNoEarswintercountastheyearwhen“anoldwomanwaskilledbyatree”(Walker,LakotaSociety,146).

21.Šúkawakhąhįpáhpawi‘poniesshedmoon.’22.Chąwápekasnawi‘fallingleavesmoon.’23.ChiefsoftheBrulesandsouthernOglalassignedthetreatyof1868atFortLaramieinAprilandMay;chiefsoftheotherSiouxtribessignedatFortRiceinJuly.ThetreatycreatedtheGreatSiouxReservation—essentiallythatportionofpresentSouthDakotawestoftheMissouri—althoughitreservedalargeareastretchingwestwardintoWyomingandMontanaasuncededterritoryinwhichtheSiouxcouldcontinuetohunt.Aspromisedinthetreaty,thearmyabandonedthepostsontheBozemanTrailinJulyandAugust—FortsC.F.Smith,PhilKearny,andReno.RedCloudandothernorthernOglalachiefswaiteduntilNovembertocometoFortLaramietosignthetreaty,finallyendingwhatbecameknownasRedCloud’sWar.SeeHyde,RedCloud’sFolk,164–67;Olson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,74–82.AlthoughNeihardtaddedthecomment,“aslongasthegrassshouldgrowandthewaterflow,”itdoesnotappearinthestenographictranscriptofhisinterviewswithBlackElk.Thephrasecapturesthespiritofmanyofthetreaties,butitdoesnotinfactappearinanytreatywiththeSioux.Forthetreatyandsignaturesoftheleaders,seeKappler,IndianAffairs:LawsandTreaties,vol.2,998–1007;thetextofthetreaty,withoutthesignatures,isalsoprintedinOlson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,341–49.

24.Kingbirds,orflycatchers,(wasnásnaheca)aresmallbirdsthataggressivelydefendtheirnestingarea,attackinglargerbirds,evencrowsandhawks.SeePeterson,AFieldGuidetoWesternBirds,189.

25.Metaphorically,one-sided(wasánica)impliessuccess,suchasvictoryinbattle.Inthisvision,thecloudsseemtobepromisingBlackElksuccessinthefuture.ThesuggestionthattheexpressionmeansthatthecloudswerelookingatBlackElkdoesnotappearinthestenographictranscriptandshouldprobablybeattributedtoNeihardt.

26.Geese,symbolically,areakíchita‘messengers;enforcers’ofthepoweroftheNorth.Fordiscussionsoftheroleoftheakíchita,seeWissler,“SocietiesandCeremonialAssociationsoftheOglalaDivisionoftheTetonDakota,”9–10;Walker,“SunDance,”75–77,andLakotaSociety,28–31.

TheGreatVision

1.Thetwomessengersaregeesetransformedintomen,theakíchitaoftheNorth.Inhisdrawings,StandingBearportraysthemashumanswithwingsontheirshoulders,indicatingtheirtrueidentityasbirds.

2.InretellingBlackElk’sgreatvisionNeihardtsimplifiedandsystematizedsomedetailsandabridgedtheaccountasrecordedintheinterviewtranscript.Forasummaryofthesechangesandomissions,seeSixthGrandfather,93–98.

3.Blihéic’iyapo!‘Takecourage!’isacommonLakotaexpressionusedinwarorwhenfacingdifficulty.

4.FourisanimportantritualnumberfortheLakotas,aswellasformostNorthAmericanIndiantribes.SeetheaccountbyThomasTyon,anOglala,inWalker,“SunDance,”159–60.

5.AtepeeformedofstormcloudsisafrequentmotifinLakotavisions.Therainbowiscalledwígmųke‘trap,’becauseitisbelievedtoholdbacktherain.Thisexplainsitsfunctionasthedoorwaytothecloudtepee.

6.Thedescription“oldlikehills,likestars,”doesnotappearinthetranscript;thewordingisapparentlyNeihardt’s.

7.Theinterviewtranscriptshowsthatthefirstsongwasactuallysungbythefirstgrandfather,representingthethundernationoftheWest,whilethesecondsongwassungbythesecondgrandfather,representingthewhitegeesenationoftheNorth(SixthGrandfather,117).

8.Afterdeaththesoultravelssouthacrossthesky,followingtheMilkyWay(wanágithacháku‘ghost’sroad’)tothelandofthedead.Thus,throughoutlife,oneisalways“facingsouth.”

9.TheLakotawordchá˛means‘wood,’‘stick,’and‘tree.’InBlackElk’svisionandsubsequentritualsthefloweringstickservesasaportablesymbolofthefloweringtree,whichrepresentstheLakotasasapeople.Thecane(sagyé)islikewisesymbolicofthefloweringtree,somethingonwhichthepeoplecanleanintimesofadversity.

10.Thetworoadsthatcrossinthecenter,wherethesacredtreeistobloom,foretellthepeople’sfutureandtheyalsorepresentthepowersgiventoBlackElkpersonally,bothtodogoodandtodefendthepeoplefromtheirenemies.Inthetranscript,theblackroadisdescribedasgoingfromeasttowest.SeeSixthGrandfather,118–19.

11.Inthisrole,BlackElkistheakíchitaofthegrandfatheroftheWest.12.Thebluemansymbolizesdrought(sickness).Inthevision,BlackElkovercomesthebluemanbystrikinghimwithlightning,afterwhichthemantransformsintoaturtle(symboloffertilityandlonglife).BythisvictoryBlackElkgainspowerovertheblueman.Towardtheendofthevisionthesecondgrandfather(North)presentsBlackElkwithacupofwaterinwhichtherewasasmallmanpaintedblue;BlackElkdrinksthewaterandswallowstheman,whothereafterresideswithinhisbodyandgiveshimthepowertocure(SixthGrandfather,139).Inlaterlife,BlackElkwoulddoctorindividualswhoweresickbyreenactingonearththecosmiccurethatheaccomplishedinthevisionwhenheridtheworldofdrought.

13.Hųhé!isaninterjectionexpressingsurprise.14.Themorningstarsymbolizeswisdom;intrinsictothatwisdomistheunderstandingthatthelifeformsoftheentireuniversecompriseasystemofrelationshipswithhumans.ThuskinshipisthecentraltropeoftheLakotas’world.BlackElksaidtoNeihardt:“[T]hebuffalo,elk,andbirdsintheair—theyarejustlikerelativestousandwegetalongfinewiththem,forwegetourpowerfromthemandfromthemwelive”(SixthGrandfather,127).Prayeristheinvocationofrelationshipbetweenhumansandspiritbeings;wachékiyameansboth‘topray’and‘toaddressarelative’(Deloria,SpeakingofIndians,28–29).

15.“Wing”isapparentlyanerrorfor“wind.”Becausethepeoplearewalkingfromsouthtonorth,thecleansingwhitewindisintheirfaces.

16.Thesechiefsarecallednacá.17.Theadvisors,calledwakíchųza,areappointedtooverseeamovingcamp.SeeWalker,LakotaSociety,60.

18.Thetranscriptreads,“swallowswerecomingunderthecloud”(SixthGrandfather,130).Again,thesearetheakíchitaoftheWestandshouldbeconsideredmorefrighteningthanfrightened.

19.Phiyá‘tomakeover’implies“toheal”;ahealeriscalledwaphíya‘onewhomakesover.’20.ThissentenceisapparentlyNeihardt’s,addedtoexplainthatnow,forthefourthascent,BlackElkreturnstotheearth.Thetranscriptreads,“Iamnowreadytoreturntotheearthafterbeingintheairwiththefowls”(SixthGrandfather,128).InLakotaconception,horsesareassociatedasmuchwiththeskyaswiththeearth.

21.Héhé!Aninterjectionusedbymeninprayerandritualtocalltheattentionofspiritbeings.22.BlackElkcommentedtoNeihardt,“Thehorse’svoicewentallovertheuniverselikearadioand

everyoneheardit.Itwasmorebeautifulthananythingcouldbe”(SixthGrandfather,133).23.Thelastpartofthisparagraph(from“AndwhileIstoodthere...”)isNeihardt’s(compareSixthGrandfather,134).Here,NeihardttransformsBlackElk’svision,whichrelatedspecificallytotheLakotapeople,intoauniversalisticvisionforthefutureofallhumankind.BlackElkhimselfprovidedthebasisforNeihardt’sinterpretation.Inthetranscript,whentellingaboutthegreatvision,BlackElksays,“Thesacredhoopmeansthecontinentsoftheworldandthepeopleshallstandasone”(SixthGrandfather,129).

24.Paintingthejoints(wrists,elbows,shoulders,hips,knees,andankles)withnarrowbandsofcontrastingcolorwasastandardLakotaritualpractice.See,forexample,“WarInsignia,”plates1,3,8,inWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,followingp.226.

25.InthetranscriptofNeihardt’sinterviewsthisparagraphisspokenbythesecondgrandfather,representingtheNorth(SixthGrandfather,139).Thephrase“hundredsshallbesacred,hundredsshallbeflames”isenigmaticbutapparentlyreferstothepowersgiventoBlackElktodogoodandtodestroy.ThebluemanintheMissouriRiverisportrayedasbeinginthemidstofflames(above)andinalaterepisodeofthevisionthatNeihardtomitted,BlackElkkillsanenemyinthemidstofflameswhothentransformsintoadog(SixthGrandfather,131–32).

26.Inthetranscriptthissongissungbythefourthgrandfather,representingtheSouth(SixthGrandfather,140).

27.NeihardtrecordedthissongasapartofBlackElk’sprayerceremonyassociatedwiththevision,ratherthanasapartofthevisionitself(SixthGrandfather,287–88).Inthetranscript,theline“Withvisibleface,beholdme!”is“WithavisiblefaceIamappearing.”Thenextlineis:“Yourearthonitthefour-leggeds,Ihavemadethemwalk”;thesongdoesnotmentionthetwo-leggedsorwingeds.

TheBisonHunt

1.ThetranscriptspecifiesthatWhirlwindChaserwasStandingBear’smother’sbrother,andthatBlackElk’sfatherandStandingBear’sfatherwerecousins-in-law(SixthGrandfather,150).

2.Anindividualcouldusethespiritualgiftsreceivedinvisions“onlybyeffortandstudy”(Densmore,TetonSiouxMusic,85n2);forBlackElk,theylaydormantformanyyearsuntilheachievedthematuritytounderstandandactivatethem.

3.Atthispointinthetranscript,thenameisgivenasKeepsHisTipi(SixthGrandfather,150).Theyarelikelyalternativetranslationsofthesamename,perhapsIglákaThehíla‘unwillingtomovecamp.’ThiswasalsothenameofasmallOglalaband(DeMallie,“SiouxUntil1850,”745).

4.Thecrier(éyapaha)wasgenerallyanoldmanwithastrongvoicewhowasselectedbythecounciltowalkaroundthecampcircleandshoutoutannouncements.SeeWalker,LakotaSociety,31.

5.Prairieturnips(Psoraleaesculenta),calledthípsilabytheLakotasandpommesblanchesbytheFrench-speakingvoyageurs,wereduginJuneandearlyJuly.Somewereeatenfresh,butmostwerebraidedtogetherinstringsanddriedforlateruse.Theywereboiledwithdriedmeattomakeasoup.SeeGilmore,“UsesofPlantsbyIndiansoftheMissouriRiverRegion,”92–93.

6.Chąšáša‘kinnikinick,’oftenreferredtoas“redwillow,”isactuallytheinnerbarkofredosierdogwood;itwassmokedinritualcontextsandusedasanadditivetotobacco.SeeWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,88,132,andLakotaSociety,75–76;Gilmore,“UsesofPlantsbytheIndiansoftheMissouriRiverRegion,”107–8.

7.“Soldierband”referstotheakíchitaappointedbythecounciltooverseeorderduringthehunt.8.Yuhú!isaninterjectionthatapparentlyexpressestriumph.9.ThesoundoftheLakotawomen’stremoloisarapid,high-pitchedlililililili!thatiscalledųgnágicalahothúpi‘screechowlhoot’(BoasandDeloria,“DakotaGrammar,”151).

10.Chąphášawi‘Redcherriesmoon.’11.Hayé!‘Thanks!’Anexclamation,oftenusedritually.12.Countingcouponanenemyinbattle,thatis,touchingorstrikinghim,wasthehighestwarhonoramancouldachieve.InLakotatheactiscalledkté‘kill,’afigurativeuseoftheword.Thusa“killtalk”isa

man’sstylizedrecitationofacoup.13.Hiyá!‘No!’14.TheLakotasrecognizedfourfundamentalvirtues:bravery,generosity,fortitude(endurance),andintegrity(Walker,“SunDance,”62).

AttheSoldiers’Town

1.Chąphásápawi‘blackcherriesmoon.’2.PumpkinButtes,neartheheadoftheBelleFourcheRiverinCampbellCounty,Wyoming.3.WhiteCliffs,nearpresentCrawford,Nebraska.4.BlackElktoldNeihardtthat“someoftheIndianboyswentupandchoppedtheflagpoledownduringthedaytime”(SixthGrandfather,154).NeihardtmisunderstoodBlackElkandassumedtheincidentwasaprankofmischievousboys.TheLakotawordkhoškálaka‘youngman’isfrequentlytranslatedas“boy.”TheflagpoleincidentreflectedtheLakotas’oppositiontoflyinganAmericanflagatRedCloudAgency;onOctober23,1874,agroupofnorthernLakotawarriorsvisitingtheagencychoppedtheflagpoletopiecesasitlayontheground,beforeitwasevenerected.SeeWilliamGarnett’saccountinJensen,TheIndianInterviewsofEliS.Ricker,114–16;alsoseeHyde,RedCloud’sFolk,220–22,andOlson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,168–70.

5.ThisstatementaboutCrazyHorsedoesnotappearintheinterviewtranscriptandapparentlyreflectsNeihardt’sjudgment.However,in1944,BlackElkcommentedtoNeihardt,“CrazyHorseisthelastbigchief,andthenit’sallover”(SixthGrandfather,322).

6.Phežíšahináphawi‘redgrassappearingmonth.’TheLakotasvisitedtheBlackHillstocutthetall,straightlodgepolepinestomaketipipoles.SeeGilmore,UsesofPlantsbytheIndiansoftheMissouriRiverRegion,63.

7.ThenameWatháye‘UsesforBait’seemstorefertohisskillasafisherman.

HighHorse’sCourting

1.ThestoryofHighHorse’scourtingdoesnotappearinthe1931interviewtranscript.However,the1944interviewsmentionit:“BlackElksaidHighHorse’scourtingisabsolutelytrue.”HighHorse,aNorthernCheyenne,wasanoldmanwhenBlackElkvisitedhimaround1900andheardthestoryofhiscourting.SeeSixthGrandfather,346.

2.TheLakotaspracticedthreeformsofmarriage.Elopementwasthesimplest,butleasthonorable.Marriagebymutualagreementwasthemostcommon.Marriagebypurchasewasthemosthonorableformforitallowedawomantoboastthroughoutherlifethatherhusbandthoughtsomuchofherthathehadgivenacertainnumberofhorsesorothergoodsforher.SeeDeloria,TheDakotaWayofLife,chap.5;Walker,LakotaSociety,179n59.

WasichusintheHills

1.SwallowsaretheakíchitaoftheWest.2.Chips(ca.1836–1916)wasanOglalamedicineman(wichášawakhá‘holyman’)whoisparticularlyrememberedforhavingprovidedthewarmedicine(wóthawe)thatprotectedCrazyHorseinbattle.SeeinterviewwithChipsinJenson,TheIndianInterviewsofEliS.Ricker,273–77.

3.HorseheadCreek.4.Neihardtusesthetermssweattepee,sweathouse,andsweatbathinterchangeablytodesignatethesweatlodge(iníthipi).ForBlackElk’saccountofthesweatlodgeritual(iníkagapi‘renewinglife’),seeBrown,TheSacredPipe,31–43.ThefulleststudyofthesweatlodgeisBucko,TheLakotaRitualoftheSweatLodge.

5.Duringsummer1874,Lt.Col.CusterledanexpeditionofsomeonethousandmenintotheBlackHillstoselectalocationforbuildingamilitarypost.WhentheyreturnedtoFortAbrahamLincoln,acrosstheMissouriRiverfromBismarck(thentheterminusoftheNorthernPacificRailroad)theyreportedthediscoveryofgoldinthehills.Despitethearmy’seffortstodiscouragethem,bysummer1875someeight

hundredminerswereworkingillegallyintheBlackHills,anareareservedfortheLakotasbythe1868treaty.SeeUtley,FrontierRegulars,243–45.

6.Thehistoricalmaterialinthisandtheprecedingthreeparagraphs(beginning“AfterwardIlearned...”)isNeihardt’s.

7.ForthelifeofSittingBull,theHunkpapachief,seeVestal,SittingBull,andUtley,TheLanceandtheShield.

8.ThenamereferstotheWágluhe‘liveswithhiswife’srelatives,’generallytranslated“Loafers.”ThisisthenameofthemixedOglalaandBrulebandthatformedduringthe1850saroundFortLaramie,whereanumberofLakotawomenweremarriedtosoldiers.SeeHyde,RedCloud’sFolk,86,314,SpottedTail’sFolk,86.

9.Wakíchepawi‘fatteningmoon’(referringtothebuffalo).10.ThisSunDancetookplacemidwaybetweenRedCloudandSpottedTailagencies(Hyde,SpottedTail’sFolk,209).

11.TheSunDancewastheonetimeduringtheyearwhensocialnormsforproperbehaviorweretemporarilyrelaxed.IntheinterviewtranscriptBlackElkmentionsthrowingchewedelmleavesonpeoplewhoweredressedup,includingolderpeople,buthedoesnotmentiondoingthistothedancers(SixthGrandfather,160).Sincetheywereinasacredstateitseemsunlikelythatboyswouldplaypranksonthem.

12.Ptehícalahįúyawi‘calvesgrowhairmonth.’13.Insummer1875thesecretaryoftheinteriorappointedacommissionheadedbySen.WilliamH.AllisontonegotiatefortherelinquishmentoftheBlackHills.ThecommissionersmetwithrepresentativesoftheSiouxfromSeptember20–28atalocationontheWhiteRiversomeeightmileseastofRedCloudAgency.ThechiefswereunwillingtocomplyandthecommissionerswereforcedtoreturntoWashingtonandreporttheirfailure.SeeOlson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,201–13;Hyde,RedCloud’sFolk,239–46,SpottedTail’sFolk,211–15;Utley,FrontierRegulars,247–48.

14.TheLakotasusethetermthųkášila‘grandfather’todesignateboththePresidentoftheUnitedStatesandtheU.S.governmentingeneral.

15.Thetranscriptissignificantlydifferent:“ThenIwentupintotheBlackHillsaloneandhadanothervisionunderatreeandfoundoutthatthedutyIwastodowastocometomeandthatIwouldprobablysavetheBlackHills.Itlookedasthoughitwereimpossible,butIwasanxioustoperformmydutyonearth”(SixthGrandfather,164).

16.Theexpression“onlycrowsandcoyotes”isapparentlyNeihardt’s,sinceitdoesnotoccurinthetranscript.SeeSixthGrandfather,164.

17.ThissentencewasaddedbyNeihardt.18.ThestoryofCrazyHorse’srescueofhisbrotherwasaddedbyNeihardt.19.Hump’sLakotaname,Chąháha‘buffalohump,’isalsotranslatedasHighBackbone.HewasaMinneconjouandwasonlyafewyearsolderthanCrazyHorse.Neihardtmisunderstoodtheagedifference;BlackElkdoesnotmentionitintheinterviewtranscript.SeeBray,CrazyHorse,13.

20.ThematerialinthisparagraphwasaddedbyNeihardt.Intheinterviewtranscript,BlackElkmakesnomentionofthemeaningofCrazyHorse’sname.

21.In1870,CrazyHorsestoleBlackBuffaloWoman,thewifeofNoWater.Inretaliation,NoWatershotCrazyHorseinthejawandreclaimedhiswife(Sandoz,CrazyHorse,240–42;Bray,CrazyHorse,143–47).Inthetranscript,BlackElkmakesnomentionofthisincident.

22.Thelastpartofthisparagraph(“Maybehewasalways...”)wasaddedbyNeihardt.23.Thekilldance,usuallycalledthevictorydance(wakté-gli‘returnfromkilling’)wasperformedbymenwhoreturnedvictoriousfromwar;init,theyenactedthebravedeedstheyhadperformedinbattle.Thescalpdance(iwákichipi‘danceforone’sown’)wasgenerallyperformedbywomen,whodancedholdingpolestowhichwereaffixedscalpsorbodypartstakenbytheirhusbandsorbrothersfromslainenemies.SeeDensmore,TetonSiouxMusic,363–69.

24.BlackElktoldNeihardtthatamanblackenedhisfacetoindicatethathehadscalpedorkilledanenemy

(SixthGrandfather,211).AlsoseeDensmore,TetonSiouxMusic,359.Inhisoldage,BlackElkreinterpretedthiscustomfromaChristianperspective,tellingJosephBrown,“Bygoingonthewarpath,weknowthatwehavedonesomethingbad,andwewishtohideourfacesfromWakan-Tanka”(TheSacredPipe,92n4).

25.ThisparagraphisNeihardt’s.Respondingtothefailureofthe1875AllisonCommissiontoobtainthesurrenderoftheBlackHills,thecommissionerofIndianaffairssentwordthroughtheIndianagentsthattheLakotasandCheyennesmustreturntotheiragenciesbyJanuary31,1876,ortheywouldbeconsideredhostile(Hyde,RedCloud’sFolk,250–51;Olson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,216).

26.Ptehícalastápiwi‘darkredcalvesmonth.’27.Ištáwichayaząwi‘soreeyesmoon.’28.Íc’ilową,apersonalsongsungintimeofextremedanger.29.ThisparagraphisalsoNeihardt’s.Thepoeticphrase“weheardenoughtomakeuspaintourfacesblack”actuallyinvertstherelationshipbetweenblackfacepaintandwarfare;Lakotamenpaintedtheirfacesblacktosignifyvictory,nottosignifythattheyweregoingtowar.

TheFightwithThreeStars

1.ForthelifeofSpottedTail,seeHyde,SpottedTail’sFolk.2.Inthetranscript,BlackElksaysthepistolwasgiventohimbyhissister(SixthGrandfather,170).3.ThiswasLittleBigMan,theOglalawhoheldCrazyHorse’sarmswhenhewaskilled(SixthGrandfather,170).

4.JackRedCloud(1862–1928).In1903,RedCloudformallypassedonhispositionaschieftohissonJack(Walker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,137).

5.NeihardtprovidedthisdescriptionoftheSunDance;BlackElkdoesnottalkabouttheceremonyintheinterviewnotes.ForBlackElk’saccountoftheSunDance(wiwáyągwachípi“looking-at-sundance’),seeBrown,TheSacredPipe,67–100.OtherbasicsourcesontheSunDanceincludeCurtis,TheNorthAmericanIndian,vol.3,89–99;Deloria,“TheSunDanceoftheOglalaSioux,”354–413(transcriptionandtranslationoftheaccountwritteninLakotabyGeorgeSword);Densmore,TetonSiouxMusic,84–151;Dorsey,“AStudyofSiouanCults,”450–64(includingatranslationoftheaccountwritteninLakotabyGeorgeBushotter);Walker,“TheSunDanceandOtherCeremoniesoftheOglalaDivisionoftheTetonDakota,”55–121.

6.Historically,itwasessentialforanindividualtohavepiercedearsinordertobeconsideredfullyLakota(seeRockyBearinWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,191–93.)

7.Small,pointedwoodenpegsareinsertedintopairsofslitsmadeinthedancer’sflesh;thentherawhideropesareloopedaroundthem.

8.ThisisafolketymologyfortheLakotawordforbabyorsmallchild,wakháhežaorwakháyeža.9.BothBlackElkandStandingBeartoldNeihardtaboutthepranksplayedbyboysduringtheSunDance(SixthGrandfather,160,173–74).Bushotterdescribedaboys’gameplayedduringtheSunDanceinwhichtheythrewwadsofchewedelmleavesintothefacesofboysbelongingtootherbands.Healsodescribedthegameofthrowingsharpgrassandthemakingofpopguns.SeeBushotter,“LakotaTexts,”nos.134,157,174.

10.Inthetranscript,BlackElkdoesnotmentionCrazyHorseastheleader.11.Inthetranscript,BlackElkisaddressedsimplyas“Nephew”(SixthGrandfather,174).KinshiptermsaretheusualformofaddressinLakotaculture,buttheyarenotmodifiedtoindicateage.

12.Followingthefailureofthewintercampaign,thearmyplannedathree-prongedassaultontheLakotasandCheyennes.Brig.Gen.GeorgeCrookwouldmovenorthwardfromFortFettermaninWyoming,Gen.JohnGibbonwouldcomeeastwardfromFortEllisinMontana,andBrig.Gen.AlfredH.TerrywouldmarchwestwardfromFortAbrahamLincolninDakota.Crook’scolumn,numbering47officersandonethousandmen,followedtheoldBozemanTrailandestablishedabasecamponGooseCreek,atthesiteofpresentSheridan,Wyoming.Therehewasjoinedbymorethan250CrowandShoshonescouts.OnJune17Crook’scommandengagedtheLakotasandCheyennesinbattleontheRosebudRiver,then

returnedtotheirbasecamptoawaitreinforcements.SeeUtley,FrontierRegulars,253–56;Vaughan,WithCrookontheRosebud.ForIndianperspectives,seePowell,PeopleoftheSacredMountain,2:994–1002.ForWhiteBull’seyewitnessaccount,seeVestal,Warpath,185–90,andHoward,TheWarriorWhoKilledCuster,48–50.

13.Héhé!Aman’sexpletiveexpressingresignation.14.TheLakotascalledthefirstAfricanAmericanstheymetwašíchųsápa‘blackwhitemen’;latertheyusedthetermhásapa‘blackskins.’

15.Itwascustomarytoscalpfallenenemies.Thescalpofasingleindividualcouldbedividedamongseveralmen.Ascalpwasscrapedclean,frequentlystretchedonasmallhoop,andattachedtotheendofapole.Whenawarpartyreturnedhome,amangavethescalpshetooktoafemalerelativetocarryintheVictoryDance.SeeDensmore,TetonSiouxMusic,360;Hassrick,TheSioux,83–84,99.

TheRubbingOutofLongHair

1.ThefirsttwoparagraphsareNeihardt’s.Gen.TerrysentLt.Col.GeorgeArmstrongCusterattheheadoftheSeventhCavalrytodrivetheLakotasandCheyennesdowntheLittleBigHorntowardGen.Gibbon’stroops.DiscoveringthegreatvillageonJune25,Custerdividedhisforces,sendingadetachmentunderCapt.FrederickW.BenteentocirclearoundtothesouthandwesttopreventtheIndiansfromescaping.Meanwhile,Maj.MarcusA.Reno’sdetachmentwouldattackthevillagefromthesouthwhileCuster’stroopswouldattackfromthenorth.SeeUtley,FrontierRegulars,257–61.Gray,CentennialCampaign,isausefulsummary.ForIndianperspectivesandaguidetoIndiansources,seePowell,PeopleoftheSacredMountain,2:1009-30,1138.ParticipantaccountsincludeRedHorseinMallery,Picture-WritingoftheAmericanIndians,563–66andpl.39–48;Graham,TheCusterMyth,45–100;WhiteBullinVestal,Warpath,191–205andinHoward,TheWarriorWhoKilledCuster,51–62,69–70;BadHeartBullinBlish,APictographicHistoryoftheOglalaSioux,212–72;Hammer,Custerin’76:WalterCamp’sNotesontheCusterFight;Hardorff,LakotaRecollectionsoftheCusterFightandCheyenneMemoriesoftheCusterFight;Michno,LakotaNoon:TheIndianNarrativeofCuster’sDefeat.

2.StandingBearsketchedamapofthecamp(preservedintheNeihardtCollection)thatshowssixcampcircles,theSansArcsandBlackfootSioux,togetherwiththeTwoKettles,formingasinglecampcircle.AllareshownneartheLittleBigHornRiverexceptfortheOglalacamp,whichislocatedfartherwestoftheothers,awayfromtheriver.Indianaccountsreportvaryingnumbersofcamps.WoodenLeg,theCheyenne,alsoreportssixcampcirclesbutnotesthattherewerealsostragglersfromvariousbandswhoselodgeswerenotarrangedinformalcampcircles(Marquis,AWarriorWhoFoughtCuster,208).BadHeartBull’sdrawingdepictsonlyfivecamps,omittingtheSanteesandYanktonais(Blish,APictographicHistoryoftheOglalaSioux,215).Gray,CentennialCampaign,346–47,estimatesthevillageat“nomorethanathousandlodges.”

3.Here,BlackElkisenlistedbyHairyChin,aHunkpapamedicineman,toparticipateintheBearceremony.BlackElksaidtoNeihardt,“MaybethismedicinemanknewthatIhadthispower,sothisiswhyhebroughtmeover”(SixthGrandfather,178).LakotasbelievedthatthepowertohealwoundswasgiventomeninvisionsbytheBearspirit.Thosewhohadsuchvisions,aswellasotherswhowerehealedbyBearmedicinemen,formedtheBearSociety.SeeGeorgeSwordandThomasTyoninWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,91–82,157–59.AlsoseeWissler,“SocietiesandCeremonialAssociationsintheOglalaDivisionoftheTetonDakota,”88–90;andDensmore,TetonSiouxMusic,195–97.

4.Thetranscripthas“eagleplumes”(SixthGrandfather,179),thatis,thedownyfeathersfromunderthebird’stail.

5.Again,thetranscriptreads“sister”(SixthGrandfather,181).6.Inthetranscript,BlackElkdoesnotmentionGall;thisseemstohavebeenNeihardt’saddition.ForthelifeofGall,seeLarson,Gall:LakotaWarChief.

7.Inbattle,Lakotawarriorsusedwhistlesmadefromthewingboneofaneagle.SeeClark,IndianSignLanguage,402;Densmore,TetonSiouxMusic,388andpl.61.

8.Neihardtsubstituted“brothers”for“brothers-in-law,”whichwasthefirstwordofthesongasBlackElk

gaveit(SixthGrandfather,183).Lakotawomenhadafree,jokingrelationshipwiththeirbrothers-in-law,whereastheirrelationshipwiththeirbrotherswasaformalonethatprohibiteddirectcommunicationbetweenthem.ForadiscussionofLakotakinrelationships,seeDeMallie,“KinshipandBiologyinSiouxCulture.”Neihardtapparentlydecidedthat,lackinganunderstandingofthebehavioralpatternsamongrelatives,readerswouldbepuzzledby“brothers-in-law.”

9.RattlingHawkwasanofficerintheKitFoxSociety(thokhálaokhólakichiye‘kitfoxfriends-joined-together’).HehadhissocietylanceinfrontofhimandsangaKitFoxsocietysongaddressedtohisfellowsocietymembers,whomhecalls“friends”(kholá)(SixthGrandfather,184).SeeDensmore,TetonSiouxMusic,314–17;Wissler,“SocietiesandCeremonialAssociationsintheOglalaDivisionoftheTeton-Dakota,”14–23.Again,bychangingthefirstwordto“brothers,”Neihardtspeaksmoredirectlytonon-Indianreaders.Inthetranscript,thesongisnotintheformofaquestion:“Friends,whatyouaredoing,Icannotdo.”

10.The“redbird”(škelúta)isaBullock’soriole;malesareblackontop,withwhitestripesonthewings,andhaveabrightorangefaceandunderside.TheLakotasfrequentlyusedthemasheadornaments(waphégnake)(Buechel,DictionaryoftheTetonLakotaSiouxLanguage,464).Onthisoccasion,StandingBeardependedonthebirdasprotectivewarmedicine(wóthawe).

11.WhiteBullidentifiedthismanasLongRoad,aSansArc(Vestal,Warpath,203).12.Nineteensoldiersvolunteeredtogoformuch-neededwater.Fourofthemservedassharp-shooterstokeepupaprotectivefirewhiletheotherfifteenmadethetripdownaravinethatledtotheriver.Overfourhourstheymadetripaftertrip,fillingcanteensandkettles.Onewaskilledandsixwerewounded.AllreceivedtheCongressionalMedalofHonor.SeeBrininstool,TrooperswithCuster,261–67;Gray,CentennialCampaign,278,294.

13.ThismayhavebeenDog’sBackbone,aMinneconjou,althoughWhiteBullstatedthathehadbeenkilledduringthesiegeofReno’smenthepreviousafternoon.SeeVestal,Warpath,203,andSittingBull,173–74.

14.NeihardtmighthavemisunderstoodBlackElk’smeaning.Intheinterviewtranscript,IronHawkidentifiestheman’sshawlonlyas“theskinofananimalofsomekind,”andthebeltsimplyas“hairy”(SixthGrandfather,190–91).TheLakotadesignationwapháhaglegléga‘stripedwarbonnet’issometimestranslatedas“spottedwarbonnet.”Itreferstoabonnetwithalternatingsectionsofredandwhitefeathers.SeeWalker,LakotaSociety,146,andLakotaBeliefandRitual,275andwarinsigniaplate4).TheidentityofthisCheyennewarriorisnotknown.SeePowell,PeopleoftheSacredMountain,2:1024.

15.ThesewerethehorsesofCompanyE.SeeGraham,TheCusterMyth,x;Stewart,Custer’sLuck,449–50.

16.AmongtheLakotas,menwhowerekholá‘friends’tooneanothervowedtosupportoneanother,eventodeath.

17.Hná!Anexpletiveusedbymen,asnortorgruntusedinangerorwhenfacingdanger.18.ThephraseisNeihardt’s;sincetheLakotawordt’émeansboth‘todie’and‘tofaint,’thisexpressionisappropriate.

19.TheWeiradvance.20.IntheBattleoftheLittleBighornthearmylost263men:209mendiedwithCusterand53menofReno’scommandwerekilled.SeeGray,CentennialCampaign,293–97.EstimatesofIndianskilledvarywidely.AccordingtoMcChesney’sreport,theMinneconjouchiefRedHorsesaidthat136Lakotaswerekilledinthebattle;however,RedHorse’spictographicrecorddepicts61bodies(Mallery,Picture-WritingoftheAmericanIndians,566;Viola,LittleBighornRemembered,96–97).WhiteBull,alsoaMinneconjou,reportedonly19LakotaskilledattheLittleBigHorn(Vestal,Warpath,203–4).ThenumberofCheyennedeathsisputatsixorseven(Powell,PeopleoftheSacredMountain,2:1373n15).

21.ThecombinedcommandofGen.TerryandGen.Gibbon.22.TheLakotawordforgunismázawakhą‘sacrediron.’

WalkingtheBlackRoad

1.FollowingCuster’sdefeat,theFifthCavalryunderCol.WesleyMerrittwassenttoreinforceGen.Crook’scommand.TheFifthInfantry,underCol.NelsonA.Miles,andtheTwenty-SecondInfantry,underLt.Col.ElwellS.Otis,reinforcedthecombinedcommandofGen.TerryandGen.Gibbon.CrooklefthisbasecamponGooseCreekonAugust5;hiscolumnnownumbered2,000men.TerrylefthisnewsupplydepotatthemouthoftheRosebudRiveronAugust8;hiscolumnnownumbered1,700men.TheymetupstreamontheRosebudonAugust10andcombinedforces.SeeUtley,FrontierRegulars,268–69.

2.TheLakotaagencieswereRedCloud,fortheOglalas(establishedinitsthen-currentlocationin1871);StandingRock,fortheHunkpapas,BlackfeetSioux,andYanktonais(1875);CheyenneRiver,fortheMinneconjous,SansArcs,andTwoKettles(1871);SpottedTail,fortheBrules(1875);andLowerBrule(1875).SeeHill,TheOfficeofIndianAffairs.

3.ThefirsttwoparagraphsareNeihardt’s.4.ThisisasacredplaceknowntotheCheyennesasDeerRocksorPaintedRocks.ThesiteislocatedinRosebudCounty,Montana,abovetheNorthernCheyenneReservation.SeeMarquis,AWarriorWhoFoughtCuster,191-92,andBeverlyBadhorse,“Petroglyphs:PossibleReligiousSignificanceofSome.”

5.Thissentenceisnotfoundintheinterviewtranscript.SeeSixthGrandfather,198.6.OnAugust2,1876,apartyofLakotasattackedthesteamboatFarWestatTerry’soldsupplydepotontheYellowstonebelowthemouthofPowderRiver.SeeHanson,TheConquestoftheMissouri:BeingtheStoryoftheLifeandExploitsofCaptainGrantMarsh,325–27.

7.Neihardtaddedthedetailsaboutburningthegrassandtherain;BlackElkdoesnotmentionthemintheinterviewnotes.

8.TheLakotascalledCanadaŲcíthamákhoche‘grandmother’scountry,’afterQueenVictoria.9.Ptehícalahįsápawi‘blackcalfmoon’isanalternatenameforSeptember.10.Pápa.11.Thisparagraphandthenext,referringtothe1868treaty,wereaddedbyNeihardt.Intheinterviewtranscript,BlackElknotesonlythattheMinneconjous—thesurvivorsoftheSlimButtesbattle—joinedwithCrazyHorsetospendthewinterof1876–77(SixthGrandfather,199).

12.TheLakotadesignationforwhiskeyismníwakhą.13.ThetranscriptdoesnotmentiontheLakotaseatinghorses.SeeSixthGrandfather,201.14.ThefinalsentenceofthisparagraphwasaddedbyNeihardt.TheCheyennesledbyDullKnifesurrenderedatFortRobinsononApril21,1877.SeePowell,PeopleoftheSacredMountain,2:1141–45.

15.ThissentenceisapparentlyNeihardt’s.16.OnAugust28,1876,Col.MilesestablishedacantonmentontheTongueRiveratitsjuncturewiththeYellowstone,nearmodernMilesCity,Montana;itwasnamedFortKeoghonNovember8,1877(Prucha,MilitaryPostsoftheUnitedStates,82).

17.Thiyóheyųkawi‘frostinthetepeemoon.’18.Milesbroughtalongtwoartillerypieces,atwelve-pounderNapoleongunandathree-inchRodmanriflegun.TheNapoleongunfiredsphericalexplodingshells.SeeGreene,YellowstoneCommand,76–77.

19.Wíachéic’ithi‘sunmakingitselffires’istheLakotadesignationfor“sundogs,”ahaloaroundthesunthatindicatesacomingchangeofweather.SeeSixthGrandfather,292.

20.Again,thetranscriptdoesnotmentioneatingponies.21.SpottedTail,headingapartyoftwohundredfiftymenfromhisagency,setoutforCrazyHorse’scampinFebruaryandreturnedinearlyApril.SeeHyde,RedCloud’sFolk,289,SpottedTail’sFolk,243–44.ThematerialinthisparagraphwasaddedbyNeihardt;inthetranscript,BlackElkdoesnottalkaboutthisincident,nordoeshegiveanevaluationofSpottedTail.

22.Inthetranscript,BlackElkdoesnotexpressdoubtaboutthesignificanceofhisvision(SixthGrandfather,204).

23.IntheinterviewtranscriptBlackElksaysthathisfamilyreturnedtoFortRobinson“inaboutMay,”afewdaysinadvanceofCrazyHorse(SixthGrandfather,203).ThearmyrecordedthearrivalofBlackElk’sfamilyatFortRobinsonwiththerestofCrazyHorse’sband,numbering899people,onMay6,

1877.SeeBueckerandPaul,TheCrazyHorseSurrenderLedger,159.24.MostofthisparagraphwasaddedbyNeihardt.Inthetranscript,BlackElkdoesnotmentionbeingpresentwhenCrazyHorsesurrendered.AlthoughNeihardtimaginedthescenepoeticallyinTheSongoftheIndianWars(p.223),itseemsunlikelythatCrazyHorseworeawarbonnetonthisoccasion.Lt.W.P.Clark,themilitaryofficerwhoreceivedCrazyHorse’ssurrender,wrotethatoneoftheheadmenputawarshirtandwarbonnetonClark,andpresentedhimwithapipe(Clark,TheIndianSignLanguage,296).Moreover,WilliamGarnett,amixedblood,reportedthatheheardCrazyHorsetellthatinavisionhehadbeeninstructednevertowearawarbonnet(Jensen,TheIndianInterviewsofEliS.Ricker,117).

25.ThelastparagraphisNeihardt’s.

TheKillingofCrazyHorse

1.Inthetranscript,BlackElksayslittleaboutthedeathofCrazyHorse(seeSixthGrandfather,203–4).MostofthematerialinthischapterwasprovidedbyNeihardt.CrazyHorsewaskilledatFortRobinsononSeptember5,1877,whileresistingarrest.SeeOlson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,237–49;Sandoz,CrazyHorse:TheStrangeManoftheOglalas,360–413;Bray,CrazyHorse:ALakotaLife,374–90.AmongthemanysourcesonCrazyHorse’sdeath,seeBrininstool,CrazyHorse:TheInvincibleOgalalaSiouxChief;Friswald,TheKillingofCrazyHorse;KadlecekandKadlecek,ToKillanEagle:IndianViewsontheLastDaysofCrazyHorse;andHardorff,TheSurrenderandDeathofCrazyHorse.

2.InAugust1876thearmytookovertemporarycontroloftheSiouxagencies.SoonafterthechiefssignedtheBlackHillscessionagreement,thearmyconfiscatedtheLakotas’gunsandhorsesandforcedthemtomovetheircampstotheagencieswheretheycouldbecloselywatched.SeeHyde,RedCloud’sFolk,284–85;Olson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,231–33.

3.AfterconfiscatingthehorsesbelongingtotheOglalas,Gen.CrookcalledthementoameetingatFortRobinsonforthepurposeofannouncingthathehaddeposedRedCloudasheadchiefandnowrecognizedSpottedTailaschiefofalltheLakotasatbothRedCloudandSpottedTailAgencies.SeeHyde,RedCloud’sFolk,285–86;Olson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,233–34.

4.FordetaileddiscussionofCrazyHorse’srefusaltovisitWashington,seeBray,CrazyHorse,322–35.ThequotationfromCrazyHorseisnotfoundinthetranscript.

5.ThisaccountofCrazyHorse’sburialcloselyfollowstheinterviewtranscript,exceptthatBlackElkdidnotmentiontheaccusationthatthebodyhadbeencutinhalf.SeeSixthGrandfather,204.

6.Thissentenceisoneofthemostfrequentlyquotedintheentirebook.ThesentimentexpressedisapparentlyNeihardt’s;itdoesnotappearintheinterviewtranscript.

Grandmother’sLand

1.Thefirsttwoparagraphsofthischapterpresentmaterialthatisnotfoundinthetranscript.In1877CongressinsistedthattheOglalasandBrulesbemovedtotheMissouriRiver;iftheyrefused,theywouldreceivenorations.AdelegationofchiefsvisitedWashingtoninSeptember1877andreceivedPresidentHayes’spromisethatiftheyagreedtospendthewinterontheMissouri,inthespringtheycouldchoosenewagencysiteswithintheGreatSiouxReservation.AlthoughCrazyHorse’soldband,nowledbyBigRoad,startedtomakethemove,theyeventuallybrokeawayandheadednorth.AfterspendingsometimeonPowderRivertheycontinuednorthandjoinedSittingBullinCanada.SeeHyde,RedCloud’sFolk,299–300;Olson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,247–56;McCrady,LivingwithStrangers,73–75.

2.WhiteMudorFrenchmanRiver.3.WoodMountain,inpresentSaskatchewan,atradingcenterfortheRedRiverMétis.SeeMcCrady,LivingwithStrangers,76–102.Vestal,SittingBull:ChampionoftheSioux,210,reportsthatSittingBullalsoheldaSunDancetheretheprevioussummer,1877.

4.Lakotamenhadadutytosupportthewidowsofbrothersandcousins;theywerepotentialspouses.SeeHassrick,TheSioux,120–21.

5.ForLakotamourningcustoms,seeHassrick,TheSioux,295–96;andTyoninWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,163–64.

6.Hahó!Hahó!‘Thanks!’,anexclamationofgratitudeorjoy.7.ThisparagraphisNeihardt’s.Inthetranscript,BlackElkmerelysays,“WestartedbacktotheU.S.becauseweweretiredofbeinginCanada”(SixthGrandfather,210).

TheCompellingFear

1.TheBlackfeet(Piegan)ofMontana,anAlgonquian-speakingpeoplewhowereenemiesoftheLakotas.TheyarenotrelatedtotheBlackfeetSioux.SeeMcCrady,LivingwithStrangers,91,fordiscussionofrelationsbetweentheLakotasandBlackfeetduringthisperiod.

2.ThegroupwithwhichBlackElkandhisfamilytraveledarrivedatFortKeoghinJune1880.Theretheysurrenderedtothearmyandwereplacedintheprisonerofwarcamp.SeeSixthGrandfather,212–13.

3.Invisions,spirit-beingsofferedindividualspowersthatcouldbeusedforpersonalsuccessaswellasforthegoodofthepeople.Beforeheorshecouldactivatethosepowersitwasnecessarytoenactthevisionceremoniallyasapublictestimonyofthedreamexperience.Apersonwhoignoredthevisionriskeddeathbybeingstruckbylightning.HenceBlackElk’sfearofthunderstorms.SeeDensmore,TetonSiouxMusic,157.

4.Inthetranscript,thesongofthedaybreakstardiffersintense:“InasacredmannerIamwalking/Thynationhasbeheldme”(SixthGrandfather,213).Thisseemstoreferbacktothevision,whileNeihardt’sversionlooksforwardtotheHorseDance.

5.Accordingtothetranscript,thisisanexclamation“meaningthattheywerecharging”(SixthGrandfather,214).

TheHorseDance

1.Sage(Artemisia),calledphežíhóta‘graygrass’inLakota,wasextensivelyusedinrituals.BlackElkexplainedthatsage,becauseitisthemostfragrantofplants,wasusedasmedicineandwasburnedritually,usingthesmoketopurifypersonsandthings(SixthGrandfather,216–17).Itsodorwassaidtodriveawayevilspirits.SeeWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,77.

2.Hunúpaoyáte‘two-leggednation’hereclearlyreferstohumans;inrituallanguage,itmayalsorefertobears.SeeWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,94,140.Inthetranscript,ratherthan“makeholy,”thepenultimatelinereads,“Iwillmakeover,”i.e.,heal(SixthGrandfather,216).“Painttheearthonme”referstopaintingtheparticipantswithmakhá(‘earth;clay’)paints.

3.BlackElkmentionedthathisforearmswerealsopaintedblack(SixthGrandfather,217).4.Accordingtothetranscript,alloftheriders,includingBlackElk,woreblackmasks;theyeachworetwofeathersinthehair,“likehorns”(SixthGrandfather,216).SeeStandingBear’sdrawing,whichdepictsthemaskandshowscurvedfeathers,probablyeaglepinionfeathers.Inthedrawings,however,onlyoneoftheriders—presumablyBlackElk—wearsamask.

5.Thetranscriptstartswiththenorth:“Tothenorththehorsenationisdancing,Theyarecomingtobeholdthem.(Thissongwasrepeatedtothedifferentsides.)”(SixthGrandfather,218).

6.ReferringtothebayhorsethatBlackElkrides.7.Thesongasgiveninthetranscriptissimpler:“Grandfathers,beholdme./Whatyouhavesaiduntome,Ihavethusperformed./Hearme”(SixthGrandfather,221).

8.TheswallowscomeasakíchitaoftheThunder-beings.9.Theword“relic”designatesasymbolicornament,generallyofrawhide,abirdskinorfeathers,orcloth.10.Smallbundlesofchąšášaortobaccowrappedinredcloth,atraditionalofferinginritualcontexts.11.Inrituals,asinwar,menrushedonthe“enemy”andcountedcoup.Compare,forexample,countingcouponthesacredtreebeforeitwascutdownandonthespotwhereitwouldstandintheSunDanceenclosure.

12.BlackElk’swordingwasmoredefinitive:“Thespirithorseshadbeendancingaroundthecircleofthetipi”(SixthGrandfather,224).

TheDogVision

1.GeneralMiles.2.ThissentenceisNeihardt’s.3.Despitepromisesofcompensationforthelossoftheirherds,itwasnotuntil1928thatCongressauthorizedageneralinvestigationoftheponyclaims.Thatlegislationstipulatedthattheclaimantsmustnothavebeen“membersofanybandofIndiansengagedinhostilitiesagainsttheUnitedStatesatthetimethelossesoccurred.”Ofthethousandsofclaimsfiled,fewwereeverpaid.SeeMarioGonzalezandElizabethCook-Lynn,ThePoliticsofHallowedGround,395.

4.InMayandJune1881,theLakotaprisonersofwar—2,766individuals—weresentbysteamboatdowntheMissouritoFortYates,atStandingRockAgency.Those,likeBlackElk,whobelongedatotheragencieswereallowedtoreturntotheirownpeople.SeeDeMallie,“TheSiouxinDakotaandMontanaTerritories,”54.

5.Khátašawi‘redplumsmonth,’analternatenameforSeptember.6.Thetranscripthas“otherworld”(SixthGrandfather,227).7.TheOglalascallthePineRidgeAgencyowákpamni‘distributionplace,’indicatingthatitwastheplacefromwhichgoodsweredistributedtothepeople.Inpreparingthetranscriptionofherstenographicnotes,EnidNeihardtinadvertentlywrote“disputed”insteadof“distributed,”andNeihardthimselfperpetuatedtheerror.

8.InthisparagraphandthenextoneNeihardtuseshisownwordingtoexpresshisunderstandingofBlackElk’sperspectiveatthistime.However,inthetranscript,BlackElkdoesnotcharacterizehisnationas“dying.”HetoldNeihardtthatinspring1882hehadabriefvisioninwhichheagainsawthetwomen,theakíchitaoftheThunderbeings:“TheysaidnothingbutIknewthattheywantedmetoperformthatduty”(SixthGrandfather,227).

9.Thevisionquestiscalledhąblécheyapi‘cryingforadream.’ForBlackElk’sdetailedaccountoftheritual,seeBrown,TheSacredPipe,44–66.

10.Thisshouldbe,“hethenunbraidedmyhair”;thewordinghererepeatsanerrorinthestenographicrecord(SixthGrandfather,227).Unbraidedhair,likenakedness,wasasignofhumility.BlackElksaidthatthevisionseekermustmakehimself“lowerthaneventhesmallestant”(Brown,TheSacredPipe,54n,4).Bymakingoneselfpitiful,amanattractedthesympathyofthespirits.

11.NeihardtaddedthisreferencetoCrazyHorse.12.Thetranscripthas“Ijustcriedmyselftodeathnearly”(SixthGrandfather,228).Again,NeihardtisattemptingtoarticulateBlackElk’semotions.

13.Inthetranscript,BlackElkmentionsseeingonlyasingledog’shead(SixthGrandfather,229).14.Thetranscriptstatesthatthedog’sheadtransformsintoaman’shead,withoutspecifyingitasawhiteman’shead.BlackElktoldNeihardtinacommentthatfailedtobeincludedinthetypescriptbutispreservedinthestenographicrecord,“Thedoginthisvisionwasasymbolofanyenemy”(SixthGrandfather,229,231).

15.Theexpression,“thedrumsofmanygiants”isNeihardt’s;thetranscriptdoesnotuseeither“drums”or“giants”indescribingthesoundofthehail(SixthGrandfather,230).

16.Thetranscripthas“Thecolorofthestarseemedtobeallcolors,”referringonlytothemorningstar(SixthGrandfather,231).

17.ThetranscriptindicatesthatBlackElktoldtheoldmenabouthisvisionwhiletheyweretogetherinthesweatlodge(SixthGrandfather,231).

18.WhenanindividualhadavisionoftheThunder-beings,heorshemustparticipateinaheyókhaceremony(heyókhakága‘makeorimpersonateheyoka’),enactingtheroleofceremonialclownandpubliclyacknowledgingthepowersgivenbytheWest.Anywhofailedtomakesuchacknowledgment,itwasbelieved,wouldbekilledbylighting.SeeTyoninWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,155–57.

HeyokaCeremony

1.BasicethnographicsourcesontheheyokaceremonyareDorsey,“AStudyofSiouanCults,”468–71(includingBushotter’saccount);Wissler,“SocietiesandCeremonialAssociationsoftheOglala,”82–85;

Densmore,TetonSiouxMusic,157–72;TyoninWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,155–57.2.Themetaphorof“twofaces”—theclassicaltragedyandcomedy—isNeihardt’s;itisnotfoundinthetranscript.

3.Wahpánica.4.Watercouldbeboiledinabuffalostomach,suspendedfromatripod.Rockswereheatedinafire,droppedintothewater,andremovedastheycooled,tobereplacedwithothers.ThiswastheoldestmethodknowntotheLakotasforboilingmeat.SeeHighHawkinCurtis,TheNorthAmericanIndian,vol.3,159.Inthisceremony,however,itseemsmorelikelythatanironkettlewasused,placedoverafire.Inthetranscript,thereisnomentionofstoneboiling.

5.Thisofferingprayerandthesongthatfollowswerenotrecordedaspartoftheheyókhaceremony.Inthetranscripttheyappearaspartofthepipeceremonyundertheheading“PrayertoGowiththeVision.”Neihardthasrevisedthewordingoftheprayer;inthetranscriptitreads:“TotheGreatSpirit’sday;tothecenterofthatdayIwillgoandmakeanoffering”(SixthGrandfather,287).

6.“Thedayofthesun”isapparentlyamistranslationofąpétuwí‘daysun,’whichtheLakotasdifferentiatefromhąhépiwí‘nightsun,’themoon.

7.Inthetranscript,BlackElksaysthattherewerethirtyheyokas,buthedoesnotequatethemwiththenumberofdaysinamonth(SixthGrandfather,233).Rather,theLakotasrecognizedlunarmonths.BlackElkcommented,“themoonlivestwenty-eightdays,andthisisourmonth”(Brown,TheSacredPipe,80).

8.Inhisgreatvision,whenBlackElkkilledthedoginthemidstofflames,OneSideaccompaniedhim(SixthGrandfather,130–31).(NeihardtomittedthisepisodeofthevisioninBlackElkSpeaks.)BlackElktoldNeihardtthattheman’snamewasoriginallyKillstheEnemy,butthatafterthisceremonyhechangedittoOneSide(SixthGrandfather,235).

9.Thetranscripthas“repeatedabouttwelvetimes,”withoutreferencetothemonths(SixthGrandfather,233).TheLakotas,beforeadoptingthewesterncalendar,countedthirteenmoonsinayear.ForLakotatimedivisions,seeWalker,LakotaSociety,122–23.

10.Thetranscriptmakesclearthatitistheotherheyokaswhorushtothepot,thrustingtheirhandsintheboilingwatertoretrievepiecesofmeat.Itistheywhopassthemontothepeople.SeeSixthGrandfather,234.Theceremonyiscalledheyókhawóze‘heyokatakingoutfood.’Theheyokasrubbedapastemadebychewingredfalsemallow(Malvastrumcoccineum[Pursh])ontheirhandsandforearmstopreventthemfrombeingscalded.SeeTyon’saccountinWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,155–57,andGilmore,“UsesofPlantsbytheIndiansoftheMissouriRiverRegion,”103.

11.NeihardtbasedthelasttwoparagraphsoncommentsmadebyBlackElkduringavisittotheBadlands,astheygazedwestwardtowardtheBlackHillsinthedistance:“Weseeherethestrangelandsoftheworld[theBadlands],andonthissideyouseethegreennessoftheworld[theplains]anddowntherethewidenessoftheworld[theprairies],thecolorsoftheearth.Andyouwillsettheminyourmind”(SixthGrandfather,44–45).

TheFirstCure

1.InthisparagraphNeihardtsummarizesBlackElk’sdiscussionofthesacredhoop(SixthGrandfather,290–91),embellishingforliteraryeffect.Theexpressions“PoweroftheWorld,”referringtoWakhátháka,and“nestofmanynests,”referringtothecampcircle,areNeihardt’s.Thesentence“Ihaveheardthattheearthisroundlikeaball,andsoarethestars,”doesnotappearinthetranscriptandservesheretoplaceBlackElkoutsidethesphereofwesternscientificknowledge,whileatthesametimesuggestingcompatibilitybetweenLakotaandwesternbeliefs.Anothersignificantdiscussionofthesymbolismofthecircle,byTyon,isinWalker,“TheSunDanceandOtherCeremoniesoftheOglalaDivisionoftheTetonDakota,”160.

2.Thetranscriptreads,“Onthisearththetwo-leggedswillnotperish”(SixthGrandfather,238).3.Inthetranscript,thelastlineisinthepresenttense,“Ihavemadehimwalk”(SixthGrandfather,238).

ThePowersoftheBisonandtheElk

1.ThefirsttwoparagraphsareNeihardt’ssummary;theyhavenospecificparallelintheinterviewtranscript.ThemetaphorofBlackElkas“aholethroughwhichthepowercouldcome”isapparentlyNeihardt’s.

2.BasicethnographicsourcesontheBuffaloceremonyareDorsey,“AStudyofSiouanCults,”475–76(includingBushotter’saccount);Wissler,“OglalaSocieties,”91–92;Densmore,TetonSiouxMusic,173–76;TyoninWalker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,153.

3.ThisparagraphisNeihardt’ssummary,basedinpartonthetranscript.SeeSixthGrandfather,240.4.Thisparagraphisbasedonmaterialdictatedaspartofthetellingofthegreatvision.Thetranscriptreads:“BlackElksaysatthispoint[theepisodeofwalkingtheredroadfromsouthtonorth]hehasaqueerfeelingallthetimeheistellingthis,andthatheisgivinghispoweraway.Hefeelsthathewilldieverysoonafterward”(SixthGrandfather,126).Theexpression,“Iamonlyapitifuloldmanafterall,”althoughitcouldbetakenasaritualexpressionasinprayertothespirits,isheremorelikelyNeihardt’sphrasing.NowhereinthetranscriptdoesBlackElkrefertohimselfas“pitiful.”

5.Thetranscriptmakesclearthatthealtar,intheshapeofabuffalowallow,wasmadeinsidetheceremoniallodge,ontheeastside,bythedoorway.SeeSixthGrandfather,240.

6.Accordingtothetranscript,thisceremonytookplacewhenBlackElkwastwenty-oneyearsold,1884(SixthGrandfather,242).

7.ThissentenceisNeihardt’s.TheElkceremonycelebratesmalegenerativepower.BasicethnographicsourcesontheElkceremonyareFletcher,“TheElkMystery”(basedonfirsthandobservationofaceremonyamongtheOglalasin1881);Wissler,“OglalaSocieties,”85–88;Densmore,TetonSiouxMusic,176–79;Walker,LakotaBeliefandRitual,135.

8.TheimageofBlackElkasstanding“betweenthePoweroftheWorldandthenation’shoop”hasnocorrelateinthetranscript.

9.Again,thisparagraphweavesintoBlackElk’saccountimagesthataredistinctivelyNeihardt’s:seedssprouting;“thenightofthewomb”;men’spowerhiddenbehindwomen’spoweroflife;“Thewomanisthelifeofthefloweringtree,butthemanmustfeedandcareforit”;and“allthesepowerstogetherarewomen’spower.”

10.ThattheritualdancingoftheelkimpersonatorsrepresentsthepowerofmenencirclingandprotectingthepowerofwomenisNeihardt’sinterpretation;thereisnocorrelateinthetranscript.Elkdreamerswerebelievedtohavepowertocharmwomen(Wissler,“OglalaSocieties,”87–88).

11.ThisparagraphisNeihardt’ssummary.

AcrosstheBigWater

1.ThisparagraphwasaddedbyNeihardt.Thelastsurvivorsofthenorthernbuffaloherdswerekilledoffin1881.Forareadablehistoryoftheexterminationofthebuffalo,seeSandoz,TheBuffaloHunters.

2.Thecharacterizationofthepeopleas“dark”isapparentlyNeihardt’s.3.ThelastthreesentencesofthisparagraphareNeihardt’s.4.Healed(waphíyapi).5.ThelastsentenceofthisparagraphisNeihardt’s.6.Inthisandtheprecedingparagraph,Neihardtaddedthereferencestothevision.Intheinterviewtranscript,BlackElkdoesnotmakeaspecificconnectionbetweenhisvisionandthedesiretoseetheworldofthewhitemen.SeeSixthGrandfather,245.Thissentence(“Iknownowthatwasfoolish...”)isNeihardt’saddition.

7.BlackElkcontractedwiththeshowfortwoyears,duringwhichhewastoreceivetwenty-fivedollarspermonth,plusallexpensesfortravel,food,clothing,medicalcare,andincidentals.WhenBlackElkjoinedtheshow,BuffaloBillhadnotyetmadearrangementsforaEuropeantour.SeeSixthGrandfather,7–8.

8.Inthetranscript,BlackElkmentionsthePawnees,butnottheOmahas(SixthGrandfather,246).9.TheLakotawordforelectricityiswakhágli‘lightning,’hence“thepowerofthunder.”

10.Thecharacterizationofwhitepeopleinthisparagraph(“IcouldseethattheWasichusdidnotcareforeachother...”)isNeihardt’s.Infact,inaletterwritteninLakotain1889,afterhereturnedtoPineRidge,BlackElkexpressedadmirationforthewhitepeople’spracticeoftheChristianvalueofcharity.SeeSixthGrandfather,9–10.

11.TheNewYorkCitypenitentiary,onBlackwell’sIsland,intheEastRiver.12.TheBuffaloBillshow,including133Indians(Lakotas,Cheyennes,Arapahos,Kiowas,andPawnees),leftNewYorkonthesteamshipStateofNebraskaonMarch31,1887,boundforEngland(“BuffaloBill’sGood-Bye,”NewYorkTimes,April1,1887).SeeGallop,BuffaloBill’sBritishWildWest,40–41.

13.BuffaloBill’strooparrivedatGravesendonApril16,1887;thenextdaytheysaileduptheThamestoLondonandthentookatraintoEarl’sCourt,wheretheshow’sheadquartersandexhibitionarenawerestillunderconstruction.TheshowwaspartoftheAmericanExpositionthatwasorganizedaspartofthecelebrationoftheGoldenJubileeofQueenVictoria’sreign.BuffaloBill’sWildWestopenedofficiallyonMay9andclosedonOctober31(Russell,TheLivesandLegendsofBuffaloBill,327–29;Yost,BuffaloBill,186–203;SellandWeybright,BuffaloBillandtheWildWest,159–76;Gallop,BuffaloBill’sBritishWildWest,54–129).

14.TheprivatecommandperformanceforQueenVictoriaatEarl’sCourtwasheldonMay11,1887.SeeRussell,TheLivesandLegendsofBuffaloBill,330;SellandWeybright,BuffaloBillandtheWildWest,169–71;Gallop,BuffaloBill’sBritishWildWest,95–102.

15.Inthetranscript,BlackElkgivestheQueen’sageasseventy-five(SixthGrandfather,249);Neihardtcorrectedit.

16.OnJune21,1887,BuffaloBill’sperformerswereassignedseatsinoneofthegrandstandsconstructedforthespectacularparadeofEuropeanroyaltycelebratingQueenVictoria’sGoldenJubilee.SeeGallop,BuffaloBill’sBritishWildWest,112.

TheSpiritJourney

1.AfterclosinginLondon,theshowmovedfirsttoBirmingham,whereitranfromNovember6toNovember26,thenontoManchester,whereitopenedonDecember17andclosedonApril30,1888.SeeRussell,TheLivesandLegendsofBuffaloBill,204–8;Gallop,BuffaloBill’sBritishWildWest,133–50.

2.FollowingafinalperformanceinHullonMay5,BuffaloBillsailedforNewYorkonMay6,1888.SeeRussell,TheLivesandLegendsofBuffaloBill,204–8;Gallop,BuffaloBill’sBritishWildWest,150–52.

3.CaptainMexicanJoeShellyorganizedarivalWildWestShowtocompetewithBuffaloBill.HeapparentlysailedfromBaltimoreinJuly1887.SeeSixthGrandfather,252n10.

4.MexicanJoe’sshowapparentlyvisitedNaples,whereBlackElklearnedaboutPompeii.5.BuffaloBill’sWildWestopenedinParisattheExpositionUniverselleonMay10,1889(Yost,BuffaloBill,221;Russell,TheLivesandLegendsofBuffaloBill,350).

6.Inthetranscript,BlackElkmerelysays,“Thiswasintheyearofthetreaty(1889)”(SixthGrandfather,254).The1889agreementreducedtheGreatSiouxReservationbyabouthalf(elevenmillionacres)andcreatedfivesmallerreservationsoutoftheremainder.Tothenorth,abovetheCheyenneRiver,wereStandingRockandCheyenneRiverReservations;tothesouth,belowtheWhiteRiver,werePineRidge,Rosebud,andLowerBruleReservations.SeeOlson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,312–19;Hyde,ASiouxChronicle,198–228.

TheMessiah

1.ThethreeintroductoryparagraphsareNeihardt’s.AftertheSiouxsignedthe1889agreement,thecommissionerofIndianaffairsreducedtheirbeefrationsbyhalf.SeeOstler,ThePlainsSiouxandU.S.Colonialism,237–38;Olson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,320;Hyde,ASiouxChronicle,230–31.

2.ThisparagraphisalsoNeihardt’s.ConditionsatPineRidgehadworsenedconsiderablyduringtheyearsofBlackElk’sEuropeantravels.SeeOlson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,320–21;Mooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,826–42.

3.NeihardtprovidedtheidentificationoftheMessiahasaPaiuteandtheinformationthatnewsofhimcamethroughtheShoshonesandArapahos.SeeAndersson,TheLakotaGhostDance,foraninsightfulsummaryoftheGhostDancefromtheLakotapointofview,aswellasanalysesfromotherperspectives,includingthoseofIndianagents,settlers,journalists,themilitary,missionaries,andtheU.S.Congress.

4.GeorgeSword,anOglalaandajudgeoftheCourtofIndianOffensesatPineRidge,wrotethatthisdelegationcomprisedGoodThunderandfourorfiveothers.SeeMooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,797,819.

5.BlackElkwasapparentlyaclerkinthestoreatManderson.SeeSixthGrandfather,257.6.Fordiscussionofthisdelegation,seeMooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,820–22.7.Neihardtapparentlyprovidedthestoryofthehat;itdoesnotappearinthetranscript.8.Mrs.Z.A.Parker,areservationschoolteacher,wroteanexcellenteyewitnessdescriptionofaGhostDanceonWhiteClayCreekinOctober1890.SeeMooney,“TheGhost-DanceReligion,”916–17.

9.Thephrase“thePowersoftheUniversethatareonePower”isNeihardt’s.

VisionsoftheOtherWorld

1.Thetranscripthas,“Idressedupinthesacredclothes,”whichseemstoimplythatGhostDanceshirtswerealreadyinuse(SixthGrandfather,259).

2.GoodThunderwasabrotherofBlackElk’sfather;itwascustomaryamongtheLakotasforamantomarryhisdeceasedbrother’swidow.

3.Thetranscriptgivesafinallineforthissong:“Fatherhassaidthis,”referringtotheWanekia.Thisisoneofthewell-knownLakotaGhostDancesongs.Thetext,aswritteninLakotabyLizzieBlackFox,aLakotawoman,waspublishedinGeorgeSword’s“TheStoryoftheGhostDance,”34.

4.Thetranscriptreads:“Tobesaidintheotherworldtosomeonecomingtherefromhere”(SixthGrandfather,260).ThusitisthespiritswhoweresingingthesongtothepeoplewhocamethereintheirGhostDancevisions.

5.In1882theSecretaryoftheInteriorcondemnedthepracticeofAmericanIndianreligionsanddirectedthecommissionerofIndianaffairstoputanendtotheSunDanceandotherpublicreligiousceremoniesanddances,toprohibitgiveaways(thedistributionofmaterialgoodsafterarelative’sdeath),tosuppresstheactivitiesofmedicinemen,andtooutlawpolygamy.Inresponse,theOfficeofIndianAffairsestablishedcourtsofIndianoffensesoneachreservationtoenforcetheseprohibitions.SeethereportofSecretaryoftheInteriorHenryM.TellerinPrucha,DocumentsofUnitedStatesIndianPolicy,160–62.

6.ThisvisionhadspecialresonanceforNeihardtsincehe,attheageofeleven,hadexperiencedasimilardreaminwhichheflewthroughtheair,armsoutstretched.SeeSixthGrandfather,42.

7.Inthetranscript,BlackElkexplicitlystates,“SoIstartedtheghostshirt”(SixthGrandfather,262).However,heearlierstated(p.259)thathedressedinsacredclothestoparticipateinthedance,andindescribingthevisionhesaysthatthetwomenwhospoketohim“weredressedwithghostshirtslikeIwasdressed”(p.261).Mrs.ParkerobservedthattheGhostDanceshirtsanddresseswerenewinOctober1890andshewastoldthattheyhadoriginatedinavisionexperiencedbythewifeofReturnsfromScout(Mooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,916).ItseemslikelythatseveraloftheGhostDancersbroughtbackfromtheirvisionsspecificdesignsforthesacredregaliausedintheceremonies.

8.ItisuncleartowhichvisionBlackElkisreferring.Thetranscriptreads,“IgotasticktoresembletheoneIhadseeninmyvision...Iwantedallthepeopletoknowthefactsofthisvision”(SixthGrandfather,262).ThismakesitseemthatBlackElksawasacredstick,paintedredwiththeMessiah’ssacredpaint,inhisfirstGhostDancevision,butNeihardtseemstohaveassumedthatthereferencewastoBlackElk’sgreatvision.

9.Thetranscripthas“difficulty,”not“despair”(SixthGrandfather,187).10.Inthetranscript,BlackElkcomments:“HedidnotresembleChrist.HelookedlikeanIndianbutIwasnotsureofit”(SixthGrandfather,263).

11.ThisisNeihardt’sexpression.Thetranscriptreads:“AsIlookedathim,hisbodybegantotransform.Hisbodychangedintoallcolorsanditwasverybeautiful.Allaroundhimtherewaslight.Thenhe

disappearedallatonce.Itseemedasthoughtherewerewoundsinthepalmsofhishands.”Later,hecommented:“ItseemstomeonthinkingitoverthatIhaveseenthesonoftheGreatSpirithimself”(SixthGrandfather,263,266).

12.RedandwhitearethetwocolorsoftheMessiah’ssacredpaints.13.Inthetranscript,BlackElkdoesnotmentionthepossibilitythattheMessiahmightbetheredmanofhisgreatvision.

BadTroubleComing

1.WhiteClayCreek.2.DanielF.Royer,whohadnopreviousexperiencewithIndianaffairs,wasappointedagentatPineRidgeearlyinOctober1890.SeeMooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,848;Olson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,325.

3.ThefirstfourparagraphsofthischapterareNeihardt’s.TheLakotaexpressionchątéšíca‘badheart’means“angry.”

4.TheimageofacloudtepeebelowtherainbowseemstobeanerrorsincetheflamingrainbowinBlackElk’sgreatvisionservedasthedoorwaytothetepee.Thetranscriptsimplyreads,“Oneithersideofthisrainbowwasacloud”(SixthGrandfather,265).

5.ThelasttwosentencesareNeihardt’s.6.ShortBullledtheBruleGhostDancerstoPineRidgeReservation,probablyaboutthebeginningofOctober,1890.Inatalkrecordedbyanewspaperreporter,hetoldhisfollowersthatthesacredtreewassproutingatPassCreek,onPineRidge,andthattheyshouldgotheretodanceandmeettheirdeceasedrelatives,whowereabouttoreturn.SeeMooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,788,849.

7.RespondingtoAgentRoyer’surgentpleasformilitaryprotection,PresidentBenjaminHarrisondecidedonNovember13,1890,toauthorizethesecretaryofwartotakenecessaryactiontopreventanIndianoutbreak.ActingunderordersfromGen.Miles,troopscommandedbyGen.JohnR.BrookebegantoarriveatPineRidgeonNovember19(Mooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,850).

8.LittleWound,theOglalachief.“RedWound”isanerrorintheoriginalshorthandtranscription.9.ThelasttwosentencesareNeihardt’s.10.OnNovember8,1890,AgentRoyercalledacouncilofthechiefsinavainattempttoconvincethemtogiveuptheGhostDance.SeeOlson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,325.HistoricalrecordsdonotmentionapromisetotheOglalasthattheycouldperformtheGhostDancethreedaysamonth.

11.OnNovember25,1890,AgentRoyerrecommendedthearrestof66GhostDanceleadersonPineRidgeReservation,includingBlackElkandGoodThunder.SeeSixthGrandfather,268n16.

12.Inthetranscript,BlackElkexplainsthatitwastheBruleakíchita,actingascamppolice,whotriedtopreventtheOglalasfromleavingforPineRidge(SixthGrandfather,269).

13.OnDecember16,someonethousandLakotasunderTwoStrikeandCrowDoglefttheBadlandsforPineRidgeandwenttotheagency.ByDecember29,KickingBearandShort’sBull’speoplewerealsomovingtowardtheagency.AlltheLakotashadlefttheBadlands.SeeMooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,861,867–68.

14.Neihardtauthoredthisparagraph;inthetranscript,BlackElkdoesnotmentionSittingBull’sdeath.SeeUtley,TheLanceandtheShield,296–305.

15.BigFootandhisbandofsomethreehundredMinneconjousfledfromCheyenneRiverReservationonDecember23,headingforPineRidge.TheysurrenderedtoMaj.SamuelM.WhitsideandadetachmentoftheSeventhCavalryonDecember28,andtogethertheLakotasandthesoldierscampedforthenightatthevillageofWoundedKnee,abouteighteenmileseastofPineRidgeAgency.Theretheywerejoinedbytheregimentalcommander,Col.JamesW.Forsyth,andtheremainderoftheSeventhCavalrywhoarrivedfromPineRidgeAgency.Combined,theforcenumberedaboutfivehundredmen.SeeMooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,865-67;Utley,LastDaysoftheSiouxNation,197–202.

16.ThetradingpostatWoundedKnee.ThepostofficetherewasnamedBrennaninhonorofJohnR.Brennan,whoservedasthePineRidgeIndianagentfrom1900to1917;in1932thepostofficewas

renamedWoundedKnee(Jensen,TheSettlerandSoldierInterviewsofEliS.Ricker,81;Riegert,QuestforthePipeoftheSioux,34).

TheButcheringatWoundedKnee

1.TheSeventhCavalryhadfourHotchkissguns,whichwereplacedonthehillwestoftheWoundedKneepostofficeandstoreandoverlookingtheIndians’camp.

2.Thetranscripthas“sacredredstick”ratherthan“bow”;later,however,BlackElksays“Ihadthesacredbowwithme”(SixthGrandfather,272,274).

3.Thetranscripthas,“theyhavemurderedthem!”(SixthGrandfather,272).4.Neihardtprovidedthedescriptionofthedeadandwounded,andofseeingababysucklingathisdeadmother’sbreast.

5.Accordingtothetranscript,theboyswereactuallyaboutfifteenyearsold(SixthGrandfather,274).6.ThedeadwereburiedinacommongraveonthehillwheretheHotchkissgunshadbeen.In1903,JosephHornCloud,asurvivorofthebattle,organizedtheefforttoerectonthegravesiteagranitemonument,whichstillstandstoday.

7.ThetranscriptstatesthatYellowBirdshottheofficer,butitdoesnotsaythathekilledhim.8.TheliteratureonWoundedKneeisextensive.ThefoundationalaccountisinMooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,843–86.ThephotographicrecordispresentedandanalyzedinJensen,Paul,andCarter,EyewitnessatWoundedKnee.ValuablehistoricalworksincludeUtley,LastDaysoftheSiouxNation,200–30;andOstler,ThePlainsSiouxandU.S.Colonialism,338–60.EyewitnessLakotaaccountsincludeJensen,TheIndianInterviewsofEliS.Ricker,189–272;McGregor,TheWoundedKneeMassacre,103–40;BeardinWalker,LakotaSociety,157–68;non-IndianeyewitnessaccountsareinJensen,TheSettlerandSoldierInterviewsofEliS.Ricker,1-62.DetailsoftheencountervarywidelyandnoneareincompleteagreementwithBlackElk’saccount.

9.ThelastsentenceisNeihardt’s.

TheEndoftheDream

1.ThesoundoftheHotchkissgunsfiringatWoundedKneewasheardatPineRidgeAgencyandsoonsurvivorsbegantoarrivewithreportsoftheslaughter.LedbyTwoStrike,agroupofwarriorsattackedtheagency,whichwasdefendedbytheIndianpolice.MostoftheLakotasattheagencyflednorthwest,downWhiteClayCreek,takingRedCloudwiththem,apparentlyagainsttheelderlychief’swishes.OnthewaytheymetShortBullandKickingBear’speoplewhowerereturningtotheagency.Theyjoinedtogether—numberingsomefourthousandpeople—andcampednearthesiteofNoWater’svillage,fifteenmilesnorthoftheagency.SeeUtley,TheLastDaysoftheSiouxNation,251,andMooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,873.

2.WhiteClayCreek.3.ThefightatDrexel(HolyRosary)Mission,aboutfourmilesnorthofPineRidgeAgency,tookplaceonDecember30,1890.SeeUtley,TheLastDaysoftheSiouxNation,237–40,andMooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,875.

4.NeihardtprovidedthemeaningofBlackElk’scoveringhimselfwithdirt;itisnotinthetranscript.SeeSixthGrandfather,277.

5.Thetranscripthas,simply,“No,nephew”(SixthGrandfather,278).“Youngnephew”isnotausualformofaddressinLakota.

6.TheNinthCavalry(African-American),commandedbyMaj.GuyV.Henry(Utley,LastDaysoftheSiouxNation,239).

7.Thetranscriptreads,“Thepriestsandsisterswerealloverthere[atDrexelMission]praying”(SixthGrandfather,278).FathersCraftandJohnJutz,S.J.,missionariesatPineRidge,werepresentatthebattle;thefiveFranciscansistersatthemissionwerenot,butallcaredforthewoundedandrefugeesfromWoundedKnee.SeeMooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,872–74.

8.ThisfightwiththeSixthCavalrytookplaceonJanuary1,1891.SeeUtley,LastDaysoftheSioux

Nation,253.9.Whilethereservationwasbeingoccupiedbythearmy,YoungManAfraidofHisHorses,theleadingchiefatPineRidge,hadbeenvisitingtheCrowReservationinMontana.GeneralMilessentforhimandhadhimreturnbyrailroadfromWyoming.HearrivedbackatPineRidgeonJanuary7or8andMilesimmediatelysentthechieftotheStrongholdtonegotiatefortheLakotas’surrender.RedCloudhimselfhadlefttheBadlandsonJanuary7toreturntotheagency.SeeUtley,LastDaysoftheSiouxNation,258.

10.TheLakotasfromtheStrongholdarrivedatPineRidgeAgencyonJanuary15,1891,andsurrenderedthefollowingday.Theypitchedtheircampof742tepeesalongWhiteClayCreek,justwestoftheagency.SeeMooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,887–88.

11.ThelasttwoparagraphsareNeihardt’ssummary.

Author’sPostscript

1.Atthistime,BlackElksaidtoNeihardt,“Somehowthespiritshavemadeyoucometorevivethetreethatneverbloomed.”SeeSixthGrandfather,44–45.

2.Inthetranscript,BlackElksays,“Iwillsendthevoicestothesixgrandfathers”(SixthGrandfather,294).3.Steppingbehindarock,BlackElkremovedhiswhiteman’sclothesandputonablackordarkbluebreechclothedgedingreen,whichheworeoverredlongunderwear—asubstituteforredbodypaint—thatLakotasofthetimeworeindances.Onhisfeetheworehigh,patternedstockingsandfullybeadedmoccasinsthathehadgottenfromthetraderinManderson.Heworeaheaddressofbuffalohidewiththehairlefton,asingletailfeatherfromanimmaturegoldeneaglefixedtransverselyatthefrontandseveralothershangingdownfromtheback,eachfeathertippedwithplumesdyedpink.InhislefthandhecarriedapipewithaT-shapedcatlinitebowlandalongstemfromwhichcoloredribbonshung,symbolizingthefourdirections,andasingleeagletailfeather,symbolizingWakhátháka(SixthGrandfather,48).

4.Thephrase“leantohearmyfeeblevoice”isNeihardt’s.Thetranscripthas,“Ithuswillsendupavoice”(SixthGrandfather,295).

5.Thephrase,“whenIwasstillyoungandcouldhope”isalsoNeihardt’s.6.InLakotaprayer,“despair”isaritualexpressionofthesupplicant’shelplessnessbeforetheoverwhelmingpowerofthespirits.Whenamansays,inprayer,“Iamindespair,”onewayofexpressingitismatákunišni‘Iamnothing.’Foranexample,seeCurtis,NorthAmericanIndian,vol.3,72,151.

7.Neihardtsystematizedmentionofthegiftsfromthefourdirections.Inthetranscript,BlackElkbeginswiththenorthandthegiftofwind,nextthewestandthecupofwater,andthenthesouthandthesacredhoop,omittingtheeast,apparentlyaccidently(SixthGrandfather,295).

8.“Apitifuloldman”isNeihardt’sphrase;inthisprayer,BlackElkdoesnotrefertohisage.9.ForBlackElk,thetriptoHarneyPeak,wherehehadseenhimselfinhischildhoodvision,andthevalidationintheformofrainthattheSixGrandfathersstillheardhim,offeredhopeforrevivingthetreethatneverbloomed.Together,BlackElkandhissonBenjamin,withNeihardtandhisdaughtersEnidandHilda,representedcontinuitywithgenerationsyettocome,bothLakotasandwhites.Inthetranscript,thefinalwordsoftheprayerare:“Grandfathers,beholdthispipe.Inbehalfofmychildrenandalsomynephew’s[Neihardt’s]children,Iofferthispipe,thatwemayseemanyhappydays”(SixthGrandfather,296).

Appendix4

1.ThereisnoindicationthatBlackElkevermadeapictographicrecordoftheGhostDance.PerhapsthereferencehereistoBlackElkadvisingStandingBearonthecontentofthepictureshedrewforNeihardt,whicharereproducedinthisvolume.

Appendix6

IamgratefultoJohnG.NeihardtforhispermissiontostudythetranscriptsofhisinterviewswithBlackElk,andtoHildaNeihardtPetriforpermissiontopublishthem.Iwishespeciallytoexpressmy

gratitudetoCoralieHughesandGaryDunhamfortheirencouragementofthisannotatededition.IwishtoexpressmythankstoRaymondA.Bucko,S.J.,DouglasR.Parks,andPatrickWarrenfortheirassistance,botheditorialandsubstantive.SpecialthanksgoestoDavidC.Posthumuswhocontributedtoeveryaspectofthisprojectandwhocompiledthedataforthemaps.

1.ThroughoutthisessayIuse“SG”todesignateTheSixthGrandfatherand“BES”forBlackElkSpeaks.2.ThepoemappearsinNeihardt’sCollectedWorks,164.SeeHouse,JohnG.Neihardt:ManandPoet,29–32,63–64;Aly,JohnG.Neihardt:ACriticalBiography,14,50.

3.Foranextensive,well-annotatedbibliographyofpublicationsrelatingtoBlackElkSpeaksupto2000,seeHolloway,InterpretingtheLegacy:JohnNeihardtandBlackElkSpeaks,197–212.

4.Aly,JohnG.Neihardt,172.5.McCluskey,“BlackElkSpeaks,andSoDoesJohnNeihardt.”6.Castro,InterpretingtheIndian,90.7.See,forexample,Steinmetz,Pipe,Bible,andPeyote,179–82.8.Mails,FoolsCrow,45.9.“WhenBlackElkSpeaks,EverybodyListens,”148.10.BlackElk’sStory:DistinguishingItsLakotaPurpose,14.11.“Foreword,”xiii,xvi.12.AssumingthatBlackElkwasborn,ashesaid,in1863,hewasjustturningforty-oneyearsoldwhenhewasbaptizedintheCatholicChurchonDecember6,1904,thefeastofSt.Nicholas,whosenamehewasgiven(SG,14).

13.AlsoseeBorn,“BlackElkandtheDuhamelSiouxIndianPageant.”14.Brown,SpiritualLegacyoftheAmericanIndian,105.

Appendix7

Iamhugelyindebtedtomygrandmother,HildaNeihardt,forguidanceandmaterialforthisessay—bothrecentlyandoverthecourseofmylife.

1.HowJohnG.NeihardtandNicholasBlackElkmetandthereasonsNeihardtwroteBlackElkSpeaks(1932)arerecountedinmuchgreaterdetailinseveralprefacestothebook(1932,1961,1972).ThestoryisalsotoldinHildaNeihardt’sbookBlackElkandFlamingRainbow:PersonalMemoriesoftheLakotaHolyManandJohnNeihardt(Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1995).InthisbookNeihardt’sdaughterwritesabouthermemoriesoftheinterviewsbetweenthetwogreatvisionaries.

2.EstherBlackElkDeSersaetal.,BlackElkLives:ConversationswiththeBlackElkFamily(Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,2001).

3.ReviewofTheAmericanIndian,North,South,andCentral,byHyattVerrill,St.LouisPost-Dispatch,March28,1927,quotedinJayFultz,introductiontoTheEndoftheDreamandOtherStoriesbyJohnG.Neihardt,compiledbyHildaNeihardtPetri(Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1991),ix.

4.JohnG.Neihardt,introductiontoACycleoftheWest:TheSongofThreeFriends,TheSongofHughGlass,TheSongofJedSmith,TheSongoftheIndianWars,TheSongoftheMessiah(Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1991),xiii.

5.Neihardtamassedahugeandvaluablelibrary,whichhedonatedtotheUniversityofMissouri–Columbiafromadesiretokeepitintact.

6.GordonPresspublishedafacsimilereproductioninhardcoverin1974.In1989theUniversityofNebraskaPresspublishedaneweditionincombinationwithNeihardt’sessay“PoeticValues:TheirRealityandOurNeedofThem.”

7.Neihardt’searlypoetryiscollectedinLyricandDramaticPoemsofJohnG.Neihardt(Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1965).

8.Foradiscussionof“Otherness”seeHildaNeihardt,foreword,TheAncientMemoryandOtherStoriesbyJohnG.Neihardt,editedbyHildaNeihardt(Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1991).

9.Neihardt’searlypoetryiscollectedinLyricandDramaticPoems.10.IntroductiontoACycleoftheWest(Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1991),ix–xiii.11.LetterfromNeihardtreadatdedicationceremonyinWayne,Nebraska,andpublishedintheOmahaWorld-Herald,August22,1925;quotedinLucileF.Aly,JohnG.Neihardt:ACriticalBiography(Amsterdam:Rodopi,1977),127–28.

12.IcompiledthislistofaccomplishmentswithHildaNeihardtandalsofromtheresearchofLucileF.AlypublishedinJohnG.Neihardt.

Appendix8

1.Neihardt,BlackElkandFlamingRainbow,96.2.NeihardttoJuliusT.House,June3,1931.Shorthanddrafts,JohnG.NeihardtCollection,WesternHistoryManuscriptsCollection,UniversityofMissouri–Columbia.

3.NeihardttoWilliamMorrow,June1931.Shorthanddrafts,NeihardtCollection.4.JohnG.Neihardt,“Merejkowski’sThesis,”fromOfMakingManyBooks,St.LouisPost-Dispatch,July3,1931.

5.QuotedinDeMallie,41.6.DeMallie,43.7.DeMallie,44.

Footnotes

Footnotesareindicatedby1f,2f,3f,andsoforth,inthetext.Endnotesareindicatedbynumeralsonly.

1f.TheFettermanFight,commonlydescribedasa“massacre,”inwhichCaptainFettermanand81menwerewipedoutonPenoCreeknearFortPhilKearny,December21,1866.[Lt.Col.W.J.Fettermanandhiscommandwerekilledinthebattlecalled“theHundredSlain,”followingaCheyenneprophecythattheIndianswouldkillonehundredsoldiers.Theactualnumber,asNeihardtnotes,wasless.ForWhiteBull’seyewitnessaccountofthebattle,seeVestal,Warpath,50–69,andHoward,TheWarriorWhoKilledCuster,37–38.AdetailedaccountfromtheCheyenneperspectiveisgiveninPowell,PeopleoftheSacredMountain,1:451–61.AlsoseeHyde,RedCloud'sFolk,145–49.—RDM]

2f.Atermusedtodesignatethewhiteman,buthavingnoreferencetothecolorofhisskin.[ThehistoricalrecordshowsthatwhenLakotasfirstmetwhitepeopletheycalledthemwašícu‘spirits.’SeeWhite,“EncounterswithSpirits,”381–93.Overtimethetermhaslostitsprimaryconnotationasspiritandhascometobeusedalmostexclusivelyasadesignationforwhitepeople.—RDM]

3f.Cheyennes.[Šahíyela‘Cheyennes’;acommonfolketymologyis“RedTalkers,”implyingunintelligiblespeech.—RDM]

4f.Arapahoes.[MaHpíyatho‘BlueClouds.’—RDM]5f.Becauseofitscurrentcolloquialusageasavapidsentimentalism,theexpressionmaywellseemoffkeyinthemouthofthegrizzledoldwarrior.

6f.TheWagonBoxFight,whichtookplaceaboutsixmileswestofFortPhillipKearnyonAugust2,1867.[ForWhiteBull’seyewitnessaccountoftheWagonBoxFight,seeVestal,Warpath,70–83,andHoward,TheWarriorWhoKilledCuster,33–39.AdetailedaccountfromtheCheyenneperspectiveisgiveninPowell,PeopleoftheSacredMountain,2:747–54.AlsoseeHyde,,159–60.—RDM]

7f.Breech-loadingSpringfields.[Thearmyhadreplacedmuzzle-loaderswithbreech-loadingSpringfieldrepeatingrifles;theincreasedfirepowerallowedthissmalldetachmenttofendofftheLakotaandCheyennewarriors(seeHebardandBrininstool,TheBozemanTrail,2:39–87).ThefiguresforIndiancasualtiesvarywidely.WhiteBullclaimedthatonlysixIndianswerekilled(Vestal,Warpath,78).Capt.JamesW.Powell,wholedthetroopsinthefight,estimatedthenumberofIndianskilledatsixty(Utley,FrontierRegulars,125).—RDM]

8f.TheUnionPacificRailway.[Mázachąkú‘ironroad’istheLakotadesignationforrailroad.Neihardtaddedthisparagraph,includingthehistoricalcontextconcerningthebuildingoftherailroadandthesplittingofthebuffalointonorthernandsouthernherds(seeRorabacher,TheAmericanBuffaloinTransition,38).TheUnionPacificbeganlayingtrackwestofOmahain1865;inNovember1867thelinereachedCheyenne,Wyoming,andinMay1869itconnectedwiththeCentralPacificlineatPromontoryPoint,Utah(Billington,WestwardExpansion,556–57).—RDM]

9f.TheLittleBighornRiver.[Phežíslawakpá‘GreasyGrassRiver.’—RDM]10f.BlackElkthinksthiswastheThreeForksoftheMissouri.11f.Thecottonwood.[Wágachą.—RDM]12f.Prairiehen.[Šiyó.—RDM]

13f.AtthispointBlackElkremarked:“Ithinkwearenearthatplacenow,andIamafraidsomethingverybadisgoingtohappenallovertheworld.”Hecannotreadandknowsnothingofworldaffairs.[Thelastsentencemaybeforliteraryeffect.BlackElkwaswellawareofworldaffairs.Infact,atthispointintheinterviews,hecommentedthateventhoughhissonwantedtojoininthewar(WorldWarI),hewouldnotpermithimtodoso(SixthGrandfather,126).—RDM]

14f.Blueaswellasblackmaybeusedtorepresentthepowerofthewest.15f.BlackElksaidthemountainhestooduponinhisvisionwasHarneyPeakintheBlackHills.“Butanywhereisthecenteroftheworld,”headded.

16f.“Itissoindeed.”[AdetailedaccountoftheritualofthereturnedscoutsbeforeabuffalohuntbyŠiyáka(Yanktonai-TetonfromStandingRock)appearsinDensmore,TetonSiouxMusic,440–42.—RDM]

17f.Ogalalas,Brules,SansArcs,BlackKettles,Hunkpapas,Minneconjous.[TheLakotascomprisedsevenmajordivisions,notsix;althoughthesegroupsarefrequentlyreferredtoasbands,theyaremoreaccuratelydesignatedasindependenttribes.Here,NeihardthasmergedtheBlackfootSiouxandTwoKettlesintoasinglegroup.—RDM]

18f.FortRobinson.[Camp(laterFort)RobinsonwasestablishedMarch8,1874,atRedCloudAgency,nearpresentCrawford,Nebraska(Prucha,MilitaryPostsoftheUnitedStates,102).TheLakotanamefortheWhiteRiverisMakhízitawakpá,‘smokingearthriver.’—RDM]

19f.Aguiapi,“brownallover,”bread.Paezhutasapa,“blackmedicine,”coffee.Chahumpiska,“whitejuiceofthetree,”sugar.[Agúyapi;phežútasápa;châhápiska.—RDM]

20f.LongHair,GeneralCuster.[Phehiháska‘longhair’wastheLakotanamegiventoLt.Col.GeorgeArmstrongCuster.—RDM]

21f.ColonelDodgewith400menand75wagonsfromFortLaramieescortedageologicalexpeditionintotheHillsthatspringandremaineduntilOctober.[WalterP.Jenny,ageologist,headedtheexpeditionofsummer1875intotheBlackHills,accompaniedbyamilitaryescortunderLt.Col.RichardI.Dodge.SeeUtley,FrontierRegulars,245.—RDM]

22f.CheyennesandArapahoes.23f.TheBozemanTrail.[Atthistime,BlackElk’speoplewereinnorthwesternNebraska,fareastoftheBozemanTrail.HeretheycrossedtheroadbetweenCheyenne,WyomingTerritory,andthegoldminingcampsintheBlackHills.—RDM]

24f.Theactofstrikinganenemy,deadoralive,withastickconferreddistinction,thefirstcoupnaturallycountingmost.

25f.ColonelReynoldswithsixcompaniesofcavalryattackedCrazyHorse’svillageasstatedintheearlymorningofMarch16,1876.[ThearmyplannedawintercampaignagainsttheLakotasandCheyenneswhofailedtocometotheagencies.Brig.Gen.GeorgeCrookledanexpeditionofsomeninehundredmenuptheBozemanTrailfromFortFetterman.OnMarch16hisscoutssawtwoIndiansnearPowderRiverandCrooksentCol.JosephJ.Reynoldswithsomethreehundredmentofollowthem.ThenextdayReynoldsfoundandattackedacampofsomeonehundredlodgesthatheunderstoodtohavebeenthecampofCrazyHorse,butthatwasapparentlyacampofCheyenneswithasmallgroupofvisitingOglalas.Reynoldsburnedthetipisbuthisfailuretopressforwardafterhisinitialsuccesscosthimacourtmartial.SeeHyde,RedCloud’sFolk,254–55;Olson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,217;Utley,FrontierRegulars,249–51;Powell,PeopleoftheSacredMountain,2:937–46.Inthetranscript,BlackElkdoesnotmentionthisbattle;Neihardtprovidedtheinformationgivenhere.—RDM]

26f.TheBozemanTrail,closedbytheTreatyof1868.[Again,BlackElk’speoplewereatthistimeinnorthwesternNebraska.ThisattackmusthavetakenplaceontheroadbetweenCheyenne,WyomingTerritory,andthegoldminingcampsintheBlackHills.ContinualIndianattackswerereportedneartheHatCreek(WarbonnetCreek)stationinMay1876(Spring,TheCheyenneandBlackHillsStageandExpressRoutes,144).—RDM]

27f.Itissoindeed.[héchetuyeló!Neihardtaddedthenamesofthevariouschiefspresent.—RDM]28f.Rustlingtree,cottonwood.[wágachą.—RDM]29f.LittleBighorn.

30f.GeneralCrook.[WicháhpiYámni‘threestars’wastheLakotanamegiventoGen.Crook.SeethedepictioninShortMan’swintercountpictographfor1889(Walker,LakotaSociety).—RDM]

31f.June17,1876.32f.ThiswasReno’sdetachmentattackingfromthesouthernendofthevillage.33f.ProbablyCaptainFrench.[TheMinneconjouchiefRedHorse,whowitnessedthisevent,calledthissoldierthebravestmantheIndianshadeverfought.FromRedHorse’sdescription,Dr.CharlesE.McChesney,anarmysurgeonandlateranactingIndianagent,identifiedhimasCapt.ThomasH.French,whosurvivedthebattle.SeeMallery,Picture-WritingoftheAmericanIndians,564;Graham,TheCusterMyth,61,341.—RDM]

34f.Custerhadattackedthecampatthenorthernendaboutfourmilesaway.35f.HesawRenoadvancingtotheattackaboutfourmilesaway.36f.EvidentlyCuster’sdetachment,comingtoattackatthenorthernendofthevillage.37f.Custer’s.38f.TheReeswereenemiesoftheSiouxandCusterhadReescoutswithhim.[TheReesaremoreformallyknownasArikaras;theLakotascallthemPhaláni.ThedeadmanwasidentifiedasLameWhiteMan,chiefoftheElkhornScraperSocietyoftheNorthernCheyennes(Powell,PeopleoftheSacredMountain,2:1028).—RDM]

39f.AdetachmentofReno’scommandhadsetouttohelpCuster,andtherestofthecommandfollowed.Theyweredrivenbacktothehilltowhichtheyhadretreatedafterthedisastrousfightinthevalleyatthesouthernendofthevillage.[Thisistheso-calledWeiradvance,namedafterCapt.ThomasB.Weir.SeeGray,CentennialCampaign,180;Stewart,Custer’sLuck,396–407.—RDM]

40f.GeneralTerrywascominguprivertothesceneofthebattlefromthemouthoftheLittleBighorn.41f.Custer’s.42f.Custer.[Phehiháska‘longhair.’—RDM]43f.Steamboat.[Wátaphéta‘fireboat.’—RDM]44f.TheBattleofSlimButtes,September9,1876.[TheAmericanHorsewhosevillagewasattackedbyCrook’sforceswasaMinneconjouchiefwhowasalsoknownasIronPlume;hewasnotrelatedtotheOglalachiefAmericanHorse.BlackElkdidnotmentiontheSlimButtesbattleorthesubsequentretreatintheraintotheBlackHills,aneventthatwascalledtheHorsemeatMarch,sincethesoldierswereforcedtorelyontheirhorsesforfood.SeeUtley,FrontierRegulars,270–71;Greene,SlimButtes,1876.—RDM]

45f.Leftthewar-path.[Itwascustomaryformengoingtowartotieuptheirhorses’tails.SeeSixthGrandfather,203.—RDM]

46f.ThetreatywassignedinOctober,1876.[Again,Neihardtaddedthisparagraphaboutthe1876BlackHillsAgreement;BlackElkdidnotmentionit.FollowingCuster’sdefeat,thePresidentappointedacommission,headedbyformerCommissionerofIndianAffairsGeorgeW.Manypenny,tosecurethecessionoftheBlackHills.CouncilswereheldateachoftheSiouxagenciesandthechiefsandheadmenwereintimidatedintosigningtheagreementthatnotonlycededtheBlackHillsbutalsoallclaimstolandsoutsidetheGreatSiouxReservation.Indoingthis,thecommissionersignoredthestipulationinthe1868treatythatfuturelandcessionswouldrequirethesignaturesofthree-fourthsoftheadultLakotamales.SeeOlson,RedCloudandtheSiouxProblem,224–30.Forthetextoftheagreement,seeDeloriaandDeMallie,DocumentsofAmericanIndianDiplomacy,1:261–71.—RDM]

47f.ColonelMackenzieattackedtheCheyennevillageasstatedonNovember26,1876.[Col.RanaldS.Mackenziewithsome1,100cavalryandIndianalliessurprisedtheCheyennes,drovethemfromtheirvillage,capturedtheirponyherd,andburnedallthelodges.SeePowell,PeopleoftheSacredMountain,2:1056–71.—RDM]

48f.GeneralMilesattackedthevillageofCrazyHorseontheTongueRiver,January8,1877.[KnownastheBattleoftheWolfMountains,January8,1877.Col.Miles(hewasnotpromotedtobrigadiergeneraluntil1880)headedaninfantrycolumnof435officersandmen,accompaniedbyeightcivilianandIndianscouts.TheylefttheTongueRivercantonmenttowardtheendofDecember1876.InearlyJanuary1877

thesoldiersskirmishedwithsmallpartiesofIndians,andonJanuary7theycapturedasmallgroupofCheyennewomenandchildren.Thenextday,CrazyHorseandDullKnifeledsome500LakotaandCheyennewarriorsinanattackonMiles’sforce,attemptingunsuccessfullytorescuethecaptives.SeeUtley,FrontierRegulars,276–77;Greene,YellowstoneCommand,154–76.Neihardtsuppliedmuchofthedetailinthisandthefollowingparagraph;seeSixthGrandfather,201–2.—RDM]

49f.BlackElk’slogcabinissituatedabouttwomileswestofMandersonPostOffice,PineRidgeReservation,SouthDakota.

50f.Canada.51f.December,1881.52f.BlackElk’shomenearMandersonP.O.,SouthDakota.53f.LongHair,BuffaloBill.[TheLakotascalledbothGeorgeArmstrongCusterandWilliamF.Cody(BuffaloBill)bythesamename,Phehiháska.ThereisalargeliteratureonBuffaloBill’sWildWestShow.See,forexample,SellandWeybright,BuffaloBillandtheWildWest;Russell,TheLivesandLegendsofBuffaloBill;andWarren,BuffaloBill’sAmerica.StandingBear,MyPeople,theSioux,245–69,presentsagoodaccountofhisexperiencestravelingwiththeshow.—RDM]

54f.Omaha.55f.Chicago.56f.NewYork.57f.MadisonSquareGarden.[BuffaloBill’sWildWestopenedinMadisonSquareGardenonNovember24,1886,andclosedonFebruary22,1887.SeeYost,BuffaloBill:HisFamily,Friends,Fame,Failures,andFortunes,170–82;SellandWeybright,BuffaloBillandtheWildWest,155–56.—RDM]

58f.GeneralCrookheadedthecommissionthatarrangedthetreatyof1889.59f.MasonValley,Nevada.[LocatedfortymilesnorthwestofthePaiuteReservationatWalkerLake.SeeMooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,767.—RDM]

60f.“OneWhoMakesLive.”[Waníkhiya‘savior.’ThisistheonlynamethatBlackElkusesfortheMessiahinthetranscript.—RDM]

61f.ThiswasFatherCraft.[Šinásápa‘blackrobe’istheLakotadesignationforRomanCatholicpriests.Bundledinanarmyovercoatandcap,FatherFrancisM.CraftwasmistakenforasoldierandstabbedbyaLakotaduringtheWoundedKneefight.SeeMooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,872;Utley,LastDaysoftheSiouxNation,215.FatherCraft’sownaccountisinFoley,FatherFrancisM.Craft,90–91.ThelastsentenceofthisparagraphisNeihardt’s.—RDM]

62f.CunyTable,ahighplateauinthemidstoftheBadlands.[TheOglalasandBrulesbegantogatherintheBadlandsinlateNovember1890,astroopsarrivedatPineRidge(Mooney,TheGhost-DanceReligion,850).—RDM]

63f.Hewasveryillwithpneumonia.64f.Signifyingassent.[Hau!‘yes!’—RDM]65f.Shelteringplace,anelevatedplateauintheBadlands,withprecipitoussides,andinaccessiblesavebyonenarrowneckoflandeasilydefended.[Onákižiorónažica‘refuge.’—RDM]

66f.A“make-live,”savior.

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Index

Pagenumbersrefertotheprintedition.

Italicizedpagenumbersindicateillustrations.

adoptionceremony,187,243–44,248,287,301n7advisers,22,36,37,52,305n17Afraid-of-Hawk,152AfraidofHawk,Emil,300n3AfricanAmericans.SeeblackWasichusagencies:Indianssummonedto,55–56,58,87,256,310n25,316n2;forLakotas,81,82,91,314n2,317n1.See alsoCheyenneRiverAgency; PineRidgeAgency;RedCloudAgency; reservations; SpottedTailAgency;StandingRockAgency

akíchita.SeemessengersAlexie,Sherman,xxxiiiAlgonquianspeakers,317n1All-Gone-TreeCreek,xxxiv,97–98AllIsButaBeginning(Neihardt),280Allison,WilliamH.,50,56,309n13,310n25Americanflag,39,307n4AmericanHorse(Minneconjou),82AmericanHorse(Oglala),82,158–59TheAncientMemory(Neihardt),272–74Anderson,Dana,252animals:drawingsof,187,200; ingreatvision,16,21,23,26; andMessiahMovement,147;offering to,112;asrelatives,6,22,32,305n14;andsacredpipe,2,301n8;andwhites’intrusion,7.Seealsospecificanimals

April.SeeMoonoftheRedGrassAppearing(April)“AprilTheology”(Neihardt),273ArapahoIndians,7,50,59,136,145,323n12,325n3Archambault,MarieTherese,253ArikaraIndians.SeeReeIndiansarrows: of CrazyHorse, 52; and dog vision, 114, 119, 120; from grandfather, 12, 31–32, 198; in greatvision,19,22,26–27,111,194,200;andhorsedance,103,213;ofIronHawk,74,75;onLittleBighorn,77,208;asonlyweapon,110;shootingatWasichuinbush,78;atSunDanceonRosebud,61

art,xxxiii,185–237,241,250,256–57,330n1Ashley-Henrymen,277AtlanticOcean,136–37AttackingtheWagons.SeeWagonBoxFightAugust.SeeMoonWhentheCherriesTurnBlack(August)

awls,231axes,231

BadFacesband,39BadHeartBull,312nn1–2Badlands: andBlackElk, 120, 170, 241, 321n11; CrazyHorse in, 89, 90; gathering in (1890), 158–59,327n13;Neihardts’initialvisitto,181–83;RedCloudin,329n9;shelteringplacein,167,168.SeealsoSouthDakota

BaltimoreMD,324n3BancroftNE,270–73BattleCreek,161BattleofLittleBighorn.SeeLittleBighornRiverBattleofSlimButtes,82,315n11BattleoftheHundredSlain,5–9,40,50,51,191,240,255.SeealsoFetterman,W.J.;FortPhilKearnyBattleofWolfMountains,85bayhorse:ingreatvision,15,16,19,22,25,27,100,196,200,210,260;andhorsedance,102,104,105,107.Seealsohorses

BearCreek,89bears,66,167,187,188,287,312n3,318n2BearSings,101,102BearSociety,312n3BeaverCreek,51BelleFourcheRiver,38,307n2belt,spotted,74,75,314n14.SeealsoclothingBenteen,FrederickW.,208,312n1Bible,253,299n7bibleofalltribes,xiv–xv,xxxiBigFoot,5,156,158–60,163–64,231,232,327n15BighornMountains,65,73,79,81,82,84BigRoad,7,59,91,152,317n1BigRoad’sson,152birds:inBattleoftheHundredSlain,191;andcircles,121;andcuringpower,122;anddogvision,113–15,223;anddrought,196;exhortationof,99;ingreatvision,16,21,23,194,210,212,213;holinessof,48;offeringto,112;inrace,200;asrelatives,32;onsacredornaments,318n9;andsacredpipe,2;insacredtree,107,150,229;inStandingBear’shair,71,313n10;thunderbeingsas,300n2;ontitlepage,187.Seealsochickenhawks;crows;hawks;kingbirds;swallows;Thunderbirds

Birmingham,England,140,324n1BismarckND,308n5bison:ceremonyfor,127–29,130;coyote’sdirectionto,94–95;divisionofherd,13;anddogvision,116;enroutetoagencies,91,92;exterminationof,133,144,256,259,323n1; feast on during fight, 63; ingreat vision, 18, 23, 24, 134, 155,230; hunting of, 32–36,202; ocean crossing of, 137; origin of, 7,302n8;inrace,200;restorationof,145,146;sacrednatureof,34;andsacredpipe,3,291–96;onsacredtepee,101;atTaking-The-Crow-HorsesCreek,51; term forherds,302n5; tonguesof,133;wallowof,128,322n5;andwhites’intrusion,6.Seealsobuffalohides;meat;redman

BisonBookseditions,xxx–xxxivBlackBuffaloWoman,53,310n21BlackButte,70Black Elk (father of Black Elk): on ammunition supply, 85; broken leg of, 5, 9, 40; in Canada, 94; oncouncil with Wasichus, 50; on Crazy Horse’s behavior, 84; and curing, 123; death of, 146; familyrelationsof,53,77,306n1;atGhostDance,152;andgreatvision,14,29–32,193;andhorsedance,101–

2;huntingfordeer,40;andkillingofCrazyHorse,88–90;onLittleBighorn,67,81;memoriesof,5–6;near FortRobinson, 39; recognition of son’s power, 94, 100; sacred ornament of, xxiii, 268; in spiritjourney,141; andSpottedTail, 86,87; surrenderof,86; onWashington delegation, 87–88; onwhites’intrusion,7

BlackElk(grandfatherofBlackElk):onwhites’intrusion,6,7,302n5BlackElk,Benjamin,174;atHarneyPeak,170,330n9;knowledgeofgreatvision,128;schoolingof,xxiv,300n6;translationby,xix,xxiv–xxv,244,245,250–51,257,268–69,285,286;andWorldWarI,23

BlackElk,Nicholas,173–76,178,179;ageof,129–30,171,259–61,322n6, 330n8, 331n12; birth of, 5;blindnessof,xix,xxii,299n6;asclown,118–20;employmentof,147,148,325n5;firstfightof,58; atHarneyPeak,xxviii,170–72;homeof,xvii,xxi,xxii,89,121,252,267,323n10;homesicknessof,140–42; humility of, 128, 182, 257–58, 322n4; illness of, 14, 29, 30, 32, 39, 100; images of, xxix–xxxii;interviewsof,244,247,248,255,263–64,268–69,276,285,287;interviewsofacquaintancesof,252–253; JohnNeihardt’s firstmeetingwith,xvii,xxi–xxii,181–83, 242–43, 267–70, 282–85, 289, 331n1;lifeexperiencesof,xiv,xvii–xviii,1,2,237–38,240–43,255,263–65,282,284,301n4;literacyof,xix,23,299n7;literatureabout,247–63;mistakeof,157,265;moodandmannerof,xviii–xix,xxii,xxvii,2,181–82,243,246,267,301n4;onpeacepipe,291–96;powerlessnessof,112,134,245,247,259, 286;powersof,xxii,92–93,98,109,125,144–45,150;aspreacher,xxi–xxii,241,300n2; relationshipwithJohn Neihardt, 242–66, 283, 285–86, 288–90; revenge for Wounded Knee, 163; signature of, 187;swimminginLittleBighorn,66,67;teachingof,xxiii–xxv,101,243,249,252–53,257–58,263–65,268;threattoarrest,158,327n11;woundof,166–68

BlackElkandFlamingRainbow(Neihardt),284,331n1BlackElk:ColonialismandLakotaCatholicism(Costello),253BlackElk:HolyManoftheOglala(Steltenkamp),252–53TheBlackElkReader(Holler),250BlackElkSpeaks(Neihardt):coverartof,xxix–xxxiii;ethnographicalvalueof,249,260;historyin,xxxi,xxxiii–xxxv,49,247–48,255–56,260,263–64,308n6;intentionof,237–41,278,282–83;omissionsandadditionsin,251,255–57,260–63,291–96;PhilipDeloriaon,xxix–xxxv; receptionof,xiii–xv, xxvii–xxviii,xxx–xxxiii,239,242,246–48,250, 280–81, 289–90; scholarship on, xiv, xxvii, xxxiii, 247–66;sourcefor,183,239,246,249–52,255,269,282–83,292–93; titleof,187, 246; tone of, 244–45, 272,284–85

BlackElk’sReligion(Holler),253BlackElk’sStory(Rice),253BlackFeather,168Blackfeet(Piegan)Indians,97–98,317n1BlackfootSioux,38,59,65,301n1,312n2,314n2.SeealsoSiouxIndiansBlackFox,Lizzie,150,325n3BlackHills:BlackElk’s comment about, 120, 321n11;BlackElk’s duty to save, 51, 262, 309n15; goldminingcampsin,57–58;ingreatvision,26,200;Indiancampsin,39–41,48;Indianshowin,264;lossof,54,81;negotiationfor,50,309n13;Neihardts’initialvisitto,181–83;originofbuffalonear,302n8;soldiersin,49–51,82,110,256,308n5;inspiritjourney,141.Seealsoland;SouthDakota

BlackHillsAgreement(1876),83,87,316n2blackhorses,15–17,19–22,25–26,102–8,196,210.SeealsohorsesBlackKettlesIndians,38blackmedicine,38,39,51BlackMoon,59blackpaint:afterattackatPowderRiver,56;onCrowNose,55;andcuringofRattlingHawk,66;anddogvision,114;anddrought,196; andelkceremony,130; ingreatvision,27,200; and heyoka ceremony,119;onHighHorse,45,46;andhorsedance,102,213,216,218,318n3;meaningof,310n24,310n29;andpowerofwest,24;andwarfare,260.Seealsobodypaint

blackribbon,2

BlackRoad,100–102,109blackroad,18–20,23,91–92,103,109,134,171,305n10BlackRobe.SeeCraft,FatherFrancisM.blackWasichus,64,77,80,167,311n14,329n6.SeealsowhitesBlackwell’sIsland,136,323n11blankets,64,74,175,231,232,236blue(color):anddrought,196;andelkceremony,130;ingreatvision,198,200,210;andhorsedance,102,216,218;onsacredherb,24,27,123;onsacredornament,300n4

BlueClouds.SeeArapahoIndiansblueman,20,196,261,305n12,306n25bodypaint:inBattleoftheHundredSlain,191;forbisonceremony,129;andcuringofRattlingHawk,66,67;anddogvision,223;ingreatvision,27,306n24;forheyokaceremony,118–19;andhorsedance,102,103,318n3;ofSixGrandfathers,194;ofspiritmessengers,192;atSunDanceonRosebud,60.Seealsoblackpaint;redpaint;ritualaction(s);whitepaint

BookofRevelation,253.SeealsoBiblebow(s):ofCrazyHorse,52;anddogvision,114;fromgrandfather,12,31–32;andheyokaceremony,119;and horse dance, 101, 103; of Iron Hawk, 74, 75; at Little Bighorn, 204; as only weapon, 110; andshootingatWasichuinbush,78;atSunDanceonRosebud,61

bow,sacred:ingreatvision,17,19,20,22,27,171,194,198,200,213;atWoundedKnee,161,162,166,236,328n2

BozemanTrail:abandonmentofarmypostson,12,303n23;closingof,57;crossingof,51;GeorgeCrookon,56,311n12;oppositionto,6,7,12,302n6;protectionoftravelerson,302n9

braids,74,103,112,130,319n10.Seealsohairbranch,slender,213,214BransonMO,174,280BraveBear,145–47bravedeeds:afterbisonhunt,36;inCanada,93;ofCrazyHorse,52;danceof,55,310n23;anddeath,137;onLittleBighorn,67,72;ofsoldiers,69;atSunDanceonRosebud,59–60;asvirtue,307n14

BraveWolf,93breechcloths,170,300n1,329n3.Seealsoclothing;warrior(s),dressandpaintofBrennan,JohnR.,159,327n16BringsPlenty,76Brooke,JohnR.,327n7Brown,Elenita,264Brown,JosephEpes,xv,xxix,248–49,264–65,310n24BruleIndians:agencyfor,91,315n2,317n1;dancingof,156,157;gatheringinBadlands(1890),158–59,327n12;andLakotanation,38;Loafersbandof,49,309n8;toPineRidge,157,326n6;onRosebud,59,110,111;surrenderof,85–86;and treatyof1868,12,303n23; asWesternSioux,301n1; onWoundedKneeCreek,158.SeealsoLowerBruleReservation

buckskinhorses:ingreatvision,15,16,18–22,25,210;andhorsedance,102,104,105,107,108,218;onLittleBighorn,67–68;OneSideon,196.Seealsohorses

Buddhism,xvBuffaloBill’sWildWest Show:BlackElk in, 134–39,173, 259, 264, 265, 282, 323n7; correspondencefrom,299n7;inEurope,xxxi,140;JohnNeihardt’swritingabout,248;inParis,142,324n5;performersin,136,323n12.SeealsoCody,WilliamF.;Shelly,MexicanJoe;whites

BuffaloGap,40buffalohides,xxiii,2,51,101,133,183,300n4,318n9,329n3.SeealsobisonBullock’soriole,313n10ABundleofMyrrh(Neihardt),272,273BureauofAmericanEthnology,249

BureauofIndianAffairs,247,279,280,325n5Bushotter,George,302n14,311n9butterflies,114,221

Caddoanspeakers,301n2CampbellCountyWY,38,307n2camps,xv,22,305n17.SeealsospecificlocationsCanada.SeeGrandmother’sLand(Canada)cane(sagyé),304n9cannons,85,160,161,163,164,232,234,328n1,328n6.Seealsogun(s)CarlisleIndianSchool,xxiv,300n6Castro,Michael,251CatholicChurch,158,243,248,250,252–54,261,265,282,299n1,300n2,331n12.SeealsoChristianity;Drexel(HolyRosary)Mission;Jesuitmissionaries;religion

Cavett,Dick,xxviiiCentralPacificrailroad,13ceremonies,sacred: forbisonandelk,128–32;andcuring,66,127,312n3; JosephEpesBrownon, 248;naming, 285–86; ornament in, xxiii, 268; prohibition of, 156–57, 325n5; and visions, 241. See alsospecificceremonies

chacunshasha.Seeredwillowbarkchappedbreastdance,36–37.SeealsodancingChase-in-the-Morning,77,178CheyenneCreek,148,159Cheyenne Indians: after Little Bighorn, 82; attack on General Miles, 85; attacks on, 61, 65, 84, 256,311n12, 312n1; capture of, 85; courting by, 41–46, 255, 308n1; onLittleBighorn, 65, 74–75, 312n2,314n20; prophecy of Hundred Slain, 5; on Rosebud River, 59, 63; scalping of, 72; summoning toagencies,56,310n25;surrenderof,84,315n14;inWagonBoxFight,10,11;waragainstsoldiers,7; atWarBonnetCreek,57;andWasichus,50,58,86;inWildWestShow,136,323n12

CheyenneRiver.SeeGoodRiverCheyenneRiverAgency,314n2.SeealsoagenciesCheyenneRiverReservation,143,159,324n6,327n15.SeealsoreservationsCheyenneWY,13,51,57ChicagoIL,135,279chickenhawks,113,114,122.Seealsobirdschiefs,22,53,60,305n16children: attacked inCheyennevillage, 84; inBigFoot’sband,159; and bison ceremony, 129; on bisonhunt,33;captureofCheyenne,85;careatMission,167;andCrazyHorse,54;anddogvision,115;ingreatvision,21,22,26,258;hairof,299n1;illnessesof,112,145;killedatPowderRiver,56;onLittleBighorn,68,69,74–76,240;maturityof,122;peaceforsakeof,169;atPineRidge,165,166;pranksof,39,50,61,256,307n4,309n11,311n9;onRabbitCreek,82;atrabbitdance,240;onRosebudRiver,59–61,63;onTongueRiver,85;andweedofdestruction,261;atWoundedKnee,161–66,232,234,236,263,328nn4–5

Chips(medicineman),48–49,308n2Christ,153,326nn10–11ChristianHerald,xxviiiChristianity,xv,2,250,252–54,300n1,310n24,323n10.SeealsoCatholicChurch;religioncircles:inbisonceremony,128;anddogvision,115;fightingin,58;inGhostDance,148,151,152,228,230;ingreatvision,253,258;ofhorsedancetepee,109,319n12;oflife,124;powerof,121–22,321n1;atSunDanceonRosebud,59,60.Seealsohoop,nation’ssacred;hoopoftheworld

“TheCityofDust”(Neihardt),273

Clark,W.P.,316n24clothing:American-style,299n1;inbattle,10;inBattleoftheHundredSlain,191;onbisonhunt,202;ofCheyenne,74,75,314n14;fordeath,137;anddogvision,221,223;drawingsof,187;atfeast,240;forGhostDance,150,157,228,325n1;ingreatvision,192,193,194;atHarneyPeak,170,329n3;inhorsedance,102,212–14,216,218;for lamenting,112,115;atLittleBighorn,204; ofmen’s societies,187,204;ofpeopleindespair,226;ofsoldiers,77,79;inspiritjourney,224;ofWanekia,230;ofwarriors,55,56,198,200,204,208,310n29;atWoundedKnee,160,236.Seealsobreechcloths;GhostDanceshirts;headornaments;masks;warbonnet(s)

clouds:ingreatvision,14–16,21,23,24,26–28,105,157,194,200,210,304n5,326n4;andhorsedance,105,106,108,109;andMessiahMovement,146,229;one-sided,12,304n25;andpeacepipe,294,295;inspiritjourney,141–43,224;andthunderbeings,98,99,300n2.Seealsorain;storms;thunder

clowns,ceremonial.SeeheyokaceremonyCody,WilliamF.,134,140,142,324n2.SeealsoBuffaloBill’sWildWestShowcoffee.SeeblackmedicineCollier,John,279ColumbiaMO,280CompanyE,75,314n15.SeealsoU.S.Armyconsciousness,Indian,xvii,xix,181,183,243,246,251,258,268,269,285–86,289corn,82Costello,Damian,253cottonwood,11,21,54,59–60,83,95,96,130.Seealsotree(s)countingcoup:onCrowhorsethief,55;ingreatvision,20;athorsedance,108,319n11;andkilltalks,36,307n12;onLittleBighorn,72,204;atSunDanceonRosebud,59–60;byWildWestperformers,135

coupsticks,curved,187CourtofIndianOffenses,PineRidge,325n4Courtright,B.G.,xix,xxi,267coyote(s),94,99Crab,58Craft,FatherFrancisM.,158,167,329n7CrawfordNE,38,39,307n3CrazyHorse:ageof,52,309n19;attitudetowardWasichus,38;bandtoCanada,317n1;behaviorof,53–54,84;BlackElk’sadmirationof,39,114,307n5;BlackElk’srelationshipwith,xvii,xxii, 5, 53–54, 182,241, 267, 282; death of, 53, 54, 87–90, 256, 262, 277, 310n3; fight for country, 57–59, 61, 65, 144;invited toWashington,87–88; JohnNeihardton,283;onLittleBighorn,68,208;Minneconjouswith,315n11;motherof,85;nameof,53,309n20;inPowderRiverCountry,49–52,56;onRabbitCreek,82;remainsof,89–90,263,317n5;rescueofbrother,52,309n18;sacredornamentof,48;sacredpowerof,52,53;SpottedTailtocampof,85–86,315n21;stealingofBlackBuffaloWoman,53,310n21;surrenderof,86,256,316nn23–24;onTongueRiver,85;waragainstsoldiers,7;warmedicineof,308n2

Creeping(medicineman),9CreightonUniversity,279crescentmoon,130,212.Seealsomoonscriers,33–34,61,67,73,306n4Crook,George:attackonCrazyHorse’svillage,56;depositionofRedCloud,87,316n3;atGooseCreek,81,314n1;onRosebudRiver,61–65,67,311n12;atSlimButtes,82;treatywith,144

CrowDog,159,327n13CrowIndians: inCanada,92,93; andCrazyHorse,52;withGeorgeCrook,61–63,311n12;HighHorsewith,46–47;horsetheftof,54–55;JohnNeihardt’srelationshipswith,244;onLittleBighorn,204,208;mistakenforBlackfeet,97;withWasichus,86

CrowKing,59CrowNose,54–55

CrowReservation,169,329n9.Seealsoreservationscrows,99,122,303n24.SeealsobirdsCunyTable,158–59,170curingpowers:andbisonceremony,129;ingreatvision,20,24,305n12,305n19;sourceof,66,312n3;useof,121–26,134,145,147,256,261.Seealsoillness;medicinemen

Custer,GeorgeArmstrong:inBlackHills,49,308n5;foretellingofdefeat,261–62;killdancesongsabout,79–80;onLittleBighorn,49,65–80,182–83,204,206,208,240,312n1,314n20;namefor,134

CutMeatCreek,157Cuts-to-Pieces,123–26ACycleoftheWest(Neihardt),xxi,242,267,270,275–80,282

dancing:afterbisonhunt,36–37;clothingfor,329n3;condemnationof,151,325n5;andCrazyHorse,53,54;inelkceremony,131,322n10;atfeast,240;andgreatvision,26,240,288–89;andLittleBighorn,67,80;andWildWestShow,135,138.SeealsoGhostDance;horsedance;killdances;scalpdance;SunDance

daybreakstar.Seemorningstardeath: description at Wounded Knee, 162, 328n4, 328n6; giveaways after, 325n5; and hats, 206; andknowledgeofgreatvision,128,322n4;andMessiahMovement,145,148,150,151,327n6;thoughtsof,114,163;travelsouthafter,304n8;andvisionperformance,99,318n3

deathsongs,56,136–37,165,310n28December.SeeMoonofthePoppingTrees(December)deer,40,116DeerRocks,81,261–62,315n4Deloria,PhilipJ.,xxix–xxxvDeloria,Vine,Jr.,xiii–xvi,xxix–xxxi,254,263DeMallie,RaymondJ.,xxxi–xxxiii,242–66,287,288despair,171,330n6.Seealsosadnessdestruction,powerof,17,18,27,28,251,260–62,306n25dirt,166,329n4TheDivineEnchantment(Neihardt),271,332n6Dodge,RichardI.,50DogChief,163–64dogs,8,22,118,223,258–60,306n25,321n8.SeealsodogvisionDog’sBackbone,73,313n13dogvision,110–16,122,127,221,223,258–59,320n17.Seealsodogs;heyokaceremony;vision(s)dragonflies,9,221,303n16Drexel(HolyRosary)Mission,166–67,329n3,329n7.SeealsoCatholicChurchDriftwoodCreek,39,51DrinksWater,7,302n7drought,21,144–47,196,305n12drums and drumming, 175, 180; and bison ceremony, 129; and curing, 123–25; and dog vision, 115,320n15;atfeast,240;athorsedance,104–7;atSunDanceonRosebud,60;withvoices,12

Duhamel’sCrystalCaverns,264DullKnife,59,82,84,85Durrin,“Professor,”271

eaglebonewhistles,68,124,208,313n7EagleElk,248eaglefeathers:andbisonceremony,129;andcuring,66,123,313n4;indogvision,223;anddrought,196;andelkceremony,130;inGhostDance,148,151–53,228–30;ingreatvision,192–94;atHarneyPeak,

170,200,329n3;andhorsedance,102,103,212–14,216,218,318n4;inIronHawk’shair,74;atLittleBighorn,204,208;andMessiahMovement,146;onsacredornament,xxiii,183,300n4;onsacredpipe,2,3,198,294–96;atWoundedKnee,160,231,232,236.Seealsofeathers,redandwhite

eaglerelic,106eagles,headdressesoflive,260eagles,spotted:andcuring,122,124;inGhostDance,151–53,228,229;ingreatvision,17–19,21,23,24,28–29,157,194,200,210,212;andhorsedance,102,214,216;andlamenting,113,114;onsacredshirt,160;whistleof,40

EagleVoice,279EagleVoice(Brown),248–49EagleWingStretches,17,20,21,28Earl’sCourt,England,137,138,323n13,324n14earpiercing,60,311n6earth:BlackElk’scommentabout,120,321n11;BlackElk’sdutyon,26–28,305n20;burningplaceof,140,324n4; and curing, 125; in elk ceremony, 130; and great vision, 20, 21, 99, 155, 194; and heyokaceremony,118;inhorsedancesong,102,318n2;andhorses,305n20;asmother,136;powerfrom,16–19,21,25,166;renewalthroughMessiahMovement,145–47,153,156,158;retreatofanimalsinto,7,302n8;roundnessof,121,258,321n1;andsacredpipe,2,3,34,295,300n3

earth,centerof:BlackElkat,16,26,28,51,125,134,148,151,170,171,200,260;andhorsedance,105;inspiritjourney,141

east (direction): andbisonceremony,130; and curing, 121, 124, 125; and dog vision, 113, 115; and elkceremony,131;gift from,171,198,330n7; ingreatvision,15,16–19,22, 25–27, 134,200,210,230,305n10;andheyokaceremony,118;andhorsedance,101–5,107,109,212,216;andsacredpipe,2,294.Seealsofourdirections

EastRiver(NewYorkCity),136,323n11Elk,173elk,9,18,23,101,129–32,137,187,256ElkHornandHerbs(Howell),xxxiiElkhornScraperSociety,72ElkNation,75elmleaves,50,309n11,311n9TheEndoftheDreamandOtherStories(Neihardt),269,272endurance,37,50,59,61,121,128,307n14enemies,115,320n14England,136–40,323nn12–13,324n14,324n1.SeealsoEuropeEnglishlanguage,xxiii,140,183,251,257,267–69“L’Envoi”(Neihardt),273Erdrich,Louise,xxxiiiEurope,xxviii,xxxi,145,259,282,323n7,324n2.SeealsoEngland;Germany;Italy;Paris;SwitzerlandExpositionUniverselle,142,324n5

falsemallow,321n10FarWest(steamboat),82,315n6FastBull,59fasting,60,101,112FastThunder,158–59Fat(man),51fat,302n5fear:absenceatGhostDance,151;inCanada,92–93;compelling,97–100,127;andCrazyHorse,53–54,88;ofcuringpower,123;anddogvision,115;ingreatvision,19–20,23,305n18;andhorsedance,100,

109; of Indian ceremonies, 156; in JohnNeihardt’swriting, 245; on Little Bighorn, 66, 67; of oceancrossing,136–37;andspiritjourney,141;ofthunderbeings,210;onTongueRiver,85;beforeWoundedKneebattle,160

feasts,36,38,39,60,63,79,95,176,177,240feathers,redandwhite,74,314n14.Seealsoeaglefeathers;redpaint;white(color)February.SeeMoonoftheDarkRedCalves(February)Fetterman,W.J.,5,191,240.SeealsoBattleoftheHundredSlainFewTails,112,113,116FifthCavalry,81,314n1.SeealsoU.S.ArmyFifthInfantry,81,314n1.SeealsoU.S.Armyfire,swift,114–15FireThunder,7–11,157fish,261fishing,41Fitzgerald,MichaelO.,264Fitzpatrick,Thomas,283flagpoleincident,39,307n4flames: in dog vision, 223; and drought, 196; inGhostDance, 153; in great vision, 28,194,200, 210,306n25,321n8;symbolismof,192

FlamingRainbow.SeeNeihardt,JohnG.flowers,59flycatchers.SeekingbirdsFlyingHawk,xxii,xxiii,183,267,300n3fools,sacred.SeeheyokasFoolsCrow,Frank,253–54ForestButte,92Forsyth,JamesW.,327n15FortAbrahamLincoln,308n5,311n12FortC.F.Smith,12,303n23FortEllis,311n12FortFetterman,56,311n12FortKeogh,84,98–99,315n16,318n2FortLaramie,12,50,303n23,309n8FortPhilKearny,5,7,10,12,302n9,303n23.SeealsoBattleoftheHundredSlainFortReno,12,303n23FortRice,12,303n23Fort Robinson: avoidance of, 49; Cheyennes’ surrender at, 84, 315n14; Crazy Horse killed at, 87, 256,316n1;depositionofRedCloudat,87,316n3;Oglalasto,38–41,49,52,86,262,316n23;soldiersfrom,50

FortYates,110four(number),15,18,22,60,304n4fourascents,22–23,260–61,305n20fourdirections: inbisonceremony,128;anddogvision,221; inelkceremony,130; ingreatvision,170,196,198,200,330n3;pipeofferedto,34;powersfrom,2,3,24,25,121,171,300n3, 330n7.See alsoeast(direction);fourquarters;north(direction);SixGrandfathers;south(direction);west(direction)

fourquarters,196,198.SeealsofourdirectionsFoxBelly,128,129France,272–73,275,277.SeealsoParisFrench,ThomasH.,69FrenchmanRiver.SeeWhiteClayCreek

friends,75,314n16Fultz,Jay,269

Gall,59,68,82,86,91,92,110,313n6,317n1Garnett,William,316n24geese:ingreatvision,15,17,27,166–67,192,304n7;andhorsedance,101–13,214; asmessengers,12,14,192,304n1,304n26

generations,18,22–23,198,247,258,268,289–90,294,330n9.Seealsooldpeople;youngpeoplegenerosity,307n14Germany,xxvii,140.SeealsoEuropeGhost Dance: Black Elk’s first, 149, 150; Black Elk’s leading of, 153–54; description of, 148, 325n8;informationabout,325n3;JohnNeihardt’swritingabout,248,267,277,282;misinterpretationofvisionfrom,157,265;originof,256;pictographic recordof,228,229,237, 330n1; at PineRidge, 148, 157,326n6;rulingsover,157–58,327nn10–11;songsof,150–51,154,325n3,325n4; teachingof,146.Seealsodancing;MessiahMovement

GhostDanceshirts,150,152–53,157,210,228–30,236,325n1,326n7.Seealsoclothing“TheGhostlyBrother”(Neihardt),245,273–74Gibbon,John,78,81,311n12,312n1,314n1,314n21gifts,24,30,34,36,60,306n2.SeealsoPowersoftheWorldgiveaways,325n5Glass,Hugh,283gold,6,49,50–51,57,133,256,259,302n6,308n5GoldenJubilee,137–39,323n13,324n16GoodRiver,38,49,143,144,156,159,324n6GoodThunder,145–48,150,153,156,158,325n4,325n2,327n11GooseCreek,61,63,64,81,311n12,314n1GordonPress,271,332n6Grandfathers.SeeSixGrandfathersGrandfatheratWashington.SeeU.S.presidentsGrandmother’sLand(Canada),82,86,91–96,110,137,315n8,317n7GrandRiver,82,159,287–88GrassCreek,113,121–23,157,168grasses,2,3,82,83,294,295,311n9,315n7Gravesend,England,137,323n13grayhorses,260.SeealsohorsesGreasyGrassRiver.SeeLittleBighornRiverGreatDepression,xiii,263“AGreatIndianPoet”(Neihardt),239–41GreatSiouxReservation,12,83,91,143,256,303n23,317n1,324n6.Seealsoreservations;SiouxIndiansGreat Spirit: and circles, 121; Crazy Horse’s devotion to, 87–88; and lamenting, 113; and MessiahMovement,145–47,150,151,153,154,326n11;andsacredpipe,3–4,294,300n1,301n7;term,258

greatvision:BlackElk’sinterpretationof,30–33,266,306n2;BlackElk’srecallingof,1,40,48,51,58,66,68,78,86,91–92,99,114,134,141,144–45,150,157,170–72,245,262,316n22,323n6;BlackRoad’sknowledge of, 100; burden of, 111–12, 127, 243, 245–47, 257, 290; Christian elements in, 253; andcuring, 124–25, 261; description of, xxiii–xxiv, 13–29, 240; drawings and paintings of, 101,192–94,196,198,200,210,212,213,223;geesein,166;herbin,122;andheyokaceremony,118,321n8; andhorsedance,105–6,109;JohnNeihardton,xix,26,28,134,260,285,304n2,306n23,306n27,323n6;andJohnNeihardt’sname,244; literary treatmentof,246,251,256, 258–59; andMessiahMovement,146,148–49,151–55,230,326n8,326n13;performanceof,128–32,256,288–89,322n4;PhilipDeloriaon,xxix–xxx;atPineRidge,169;sceneof,172,330n9;songsof,111;tellingothersabout,31,128,245–

46,258,268,282–86,288–90;andWoundedKneebattle,160–61.Seealsovision(s)Greekclassics,271,277growth,powerof,2,130gun(s):fromaunt/sister,57,58,67–68,310n2;ofbrother,67–68;inCanada,95;confiscationofIndians’,87,99,110,163,164,231,232,316n2;drawingsof,204;andflagpoleincident,39;Lakotawordfor,80,314n22;ofNelsonMiles,85,315n18;atprison,136;ofRattlingHawk,69;inWagonBoxFight,11;inWildWestShow,138.Seealsocannons

hail,102,106,108,115,214,320n15hair: inBattleof theHundredSlain,191;onbisonhunt,202;ofBlackElk inParis,141;cuttingof,xxi,299n1;anddogvision,221,223;andelkceremony,130;inGhostDance,228,229;ingreatvision,192,194,200; for heyoka ceremony, 119; and horse dance, 103,214,216, 318n4; of Iron Hawk, 74; andlamenting, 112, 319n10; at Little Bighorn, 204, 208; and peace pipe, 294; red bird in, 71; in spiritjourney,224;white,124;atWoundedKnee,160,232,236.Seealsobraids;long-hairs

HairyChin,66–67,312n3Hang-Around-The-Fortpeople,49–52,55,57,81,87,309n8Hard-to-Hit,93“HarktheMusic”(Neihardt),273HarneyPeak,xxviii,26,28,170–72,200,247,285,330n9Harrison,Benjamin,327n7hásapa.SeeblackWasichushat(s),147,206,208,231,325n7HatCreek.SeeWarBonnetCreekhawks,113,114,122,210,303n24.SeealsobirdsHayes,RutherfordB.,317n1headofdog,118,120headornaments,71,313n10.Seealsoclothinghealingpowers.Seecuringpowers;medicinemenheartofdog,118,120Henry,GuyV.,167,329n6herb:andbisonceremony,129;andcuring,66,122–26;anddogvision,115,221;andelkceremony,131,132;ingreatvision,17,22,24–27,134,155,171,194,198,210,260,262;andhorsedance,101,103,106,107,212;searchfor,122–23

heyoka ceremony: description of, 117–20, 122; literary treatment of, 256; power from, 123, 127; andthunderbeings,116,320n18.Seealsodogvision;humor

heyokas:appearanceandactionsof,118–20,263,321n10;anddogvision,116;numberof,118,321n7.Seealsohumor

HighBackbone.SeeHump,olderHighHollowHorn,294HighHorse,41–46,255,308n1HighPockets.SeeCunyTableHighShirt,11Hinduism,271HipsHill,39holiness,26,257.Seealsoholymen;religion;sacredmanner;spiritualityHoller,Clyde,250,253Holloway,Brian,251–52holymen,xxi–xxii,53,59,60.Seealsoholinessholywater.Seewhiskeyhoop,nation’s sacred: inbisonceremony,128;breakingandscatteringof,23,24, 91–92, 133, 134, 169,

226, 247, 259–60; and elk ceremony, 130–32, 322n8; and Ghost Dance, 148, 152; as gift, 171, 198,330n7;ingreatvision,18,19,21–25,146,210;andhorsedance,101,103,106,107,109,212,218;andinterest in Black Elk Speaks, xv; and lamenting, 113–14; powers from, 121, 171, 321n1; universalsignificanceof,258.Seealsocircles;nation

hoopandspeargame,178hoopoftheworld,26,170,198,258,306n23.SeealsocirclesHornCloud,Joseph,163,328n6horns,103,196,200,210,213,214,218,260,318n4horsedance:descriptionof,101–9,212–14,216,218,262;knowledgeof,111;performanceof,100, 127,240,289;powerfrom,123.Seealsodancing

HorseheadCreek,49Horse-Head-CuttingCreek,39HorsemeatMarch,82horses: inCanada, 95, 96; confiscation from soldiers, 168; confiscation of Indians’, 56, 99, 110, 316n3,319n3;cornforsoldiers’,82;andcourting,42,43,46–47,308n2;ofCrazyHorse,53;forcuring,30,31,100,126;anddogvision,114–16;anddrought,196;eatingof,83–85,315n13; ingreatvision,15–26,210,305n22; inLakota culture, 305n20; onLittleBighorn, 66, 67, 70, 73–75, 77, 78,204,206,208,314n15;inotherworld,152;protectionfromtheft,54–55;racingof,51;onRosebudRiver,59,60, 63;onsacredtepee,101;untyingtailsof,83.Seealsobayhorse;blackhorses;buckskinhorses;grayhorses;sorrelhorses;whitehorses

HorseshoeCreek,51Hotchkissguns.SeecannonsHouse,JuliusT.,181–83,268,285houses,7,121,122,133,137Howell,Frank,xxxiihųkáceremony.Seeadoptionceremonyhumans:andholiness,257;kinshipof,305n14; in ritual language,102,318n2; and sacred pipe offering,301n8;symbolistson,273;unityof,258,263,278

humility,112,119,128,182,257–58,319n10,322n4humor,50,54,61,69,117,135,263,313n8.Seealsoheyokaceremony;heyokasHump,older,52,309n19Hump,younger,59HunkpapaIndians,38,59,62,65,67–68,73,78,301n1,314n2

IceBear,59Illinois,135,279illness:ofBigFoot,159,163–64;andbisonceremony,129;ofBlackElk,14,29,30,32,39,100,141–42;BlackElk’scuringof,112,123–26;causesof,261; anddogvision,115; during drought, 145, 146; inEurope,141;duringoceancrossing,136–37;offeringsfor,106,108,109;visionsduring,245.See alsocuringpowers

Indianaffairscommissioner:andBlackHillsAgreement,83;onceremonialdances,151,325n5;onIndianstoagencies,56,310n25;reductionofrations,144,324n1.SeealsoOfficeofIndianAffairs

IndianaUniversity,249Indianpolice,86,88,158,159,327n12,328n1IndianTalesandOthers(Neihardt),272IndianWars,277industrialism,xiii,xiv,xv,247,270Inkpaduta,59innerworld,xvii,299n1.Seealsoouterworldintegrity,307n14

InterpretingtheLegacy(Holloway),251–52IronBull,40IronHawk,61–63,73–76,314n14IronPlume.SeeAmericanHorse(Minneconjou)IronTail,92–93IronWasichu,161Italy,140,324n3.SeealsoEurope

Jeneny(camp),79Jenny,WalterP.,50Jesuitmissionaries,252,253.SeealsoCatholicChurchjoints,27,306n24.SeealsobodypaintJuly.SeeMoonofRedCherries(July)JumpingHorse,58June.SeeMoonofMakingFat(June)Jung,Carl,xxviiJutz,FatherJohn,167,329n7

Kansas,270KansasCityJournal-Post,275KansasCityMO,284KeepsHisTipi.SeeRefuse-to-Go(maternalgrandfatherofBlackElk)KickingBear,147,148,150–51,153,156,159,327n13,328n1killdances,55,79,310n23,312n15.Seealsodancingkilling:BlackElk’sattitudetoward,32,40,48,166–68,260–61; and face paint, 310n24; in great vision,20–21,306n25;ofIndiansatPowderRiver,56;Wasichus’fondnessfor,133

Kills-HimselfCreek,51KillstheEnemy.SeeOneSidekilltalks,36,67,239,307n12kingbirds,12,303n24.Seealsobirdskinship,22,61,69–70,75,243–44,287,289,305n14,311n11,313n9,314n16KiowaIndians,136,323n12KitFoxsociety,70,313n9knives,76,88–89,163,164,231KnowledgeandOpinion(Utecht),275–76

Lakotaculture:hairstylesin,299n1;horsesin,305n20; inJohnNeihardt’swriting,248,255–56, 263–64,286–87; kinship in, 61, 243–44, 287, 289, 305n14, 311n11; preservation of, 243–47, 253, 264–65;scholarshipon,249;showabout,264

LakotaIndians:accountsofWoundedKnee,328n8;agenciesfor,81,82,314n2;attackedonLittleBighorn,65,312n1;attackonGeneralMiles,85;BlackElk’s teachingabout,182; andBlackfeet (Piegans),97,317n1; and Black Hills Agreement, 83; calendar of, 321n7; on Christians, 2, 300n1; conception ofdirections, 196; continuity of generations, 330n9; divisions of, 38; duty to widows, 93, 317n4; earpiercingof,60,311n6;fictionabout,279; fourvirtuesof,37,307n14;headornamentsof,71, 313n10;historyof,247–48,255–56;huntinggroundsof,6,302n6;JohnNeihardt’srelationshipswith,244;killedonLittleBighorn,314n20;marriagepracticesof,43,93,150,308n2,317n4,325n2,325n5;tonorthwestafterWoundedKnee,165,328n1;toPineRidge,159,327n13;plantoattackonRosebud,61,311n12;asprisonersofwar,110,319n4;reservationsfor,110;ritualnumberof,304n4;sacredhoopof,xv;socialnormsduringSunDance,50,309n11;soldierbandof,34,307n7;andspiritjourney,143;SpottedTailaschiefof,87,316n3;summoningtoagencies,55,56,310n25;surrenderof,84,86,99,169,262,318n2,

329nn9–10;inWagonBoxFight,10–11;andwesternbeliefs,121,321n1;atWhiteClayCreek,166–67;withwhites,50,86,327n15;onwhitesasbogeymen,9,302n14;onwhites’intrusion,6–9;inWildWestShow,136,140,323n12;atWoundedKnee,161–62.Seealsonation;SiouxIndians

Lakotalanguage:forangry,156,326n3;BlackElk’sliteracyin,xxiii,299n7,323n10;forelectricity,135,323n9;ofgirlinParis,140;transcriptionof,244,255;WhiteRiverin,38

lamenting,112–16,122.SeealsomourningLameWhiteMan,72lance(s):inBattleoftheHundredSlain,191;indogvision,223;oflightning,196;atLittleBighorn,204;ofliving serpent, 260; ofmen’s societies, 187, 313n9; of spirit messengers, 192,193,200; at WoundedKnee,236

land:confinementon,6,144;JohnNeihardt’sdescriptionofGrandRiver,287–88;treatiesfor,12,49,57,83,143,144,256,259,263,303n23,308n5,315n11,324n1,324n6.SeealsoBlackHills; otherworld;reservations

LaramieRiver,50LastStandHill,206Lemly,Major,277“LetDownYourHair”(Neihardt),273“LetMeLiveOutMyYears”(Neihardt),273life,124,130light,2,115,121,124,135,153–54,323n9lightning:deathby,99,116,318n3,320n18;anddogvision,114,223;ingreatvision,20,27,194,196,200,210, 305n12; and heyoka ceremony, 118, 119; and horse dance, 102, 105, 106, 213, 214, 216, 218;protectionby,98;onsacredshirt,160;andwarfare,260

LittleBear,74,75LittleBighornRiver:accountsoffighton,65–81,182–83,204,206,208,239,240,312n1;attackplanon,65,312n1;BlackElk’sfearon,88;campson,13,32,61,64,65,67–71,73,74,78,312n2;casualtieson,77,314n20

LittleBigMan,58,89,310n3LittlePowderRiver,5,85LittleRiverCreek,92,94LittleSoldier,167LittleWound,157,327n8liver,eatingofraw,239London,137–40,324n1LongBear,168LongElk,71LongHair.SeeCuster,GeorgeArmstronglong-hairs,xxi–xxiv,239,243,299n1.SeealsohairLongPine,135LongRoad,72,313n11LooksTwice,Lucy,252LovesWar,161LowerBruleReservation,143,324n6.SeealsoBruleIndians;reservations

Mackenzie,RanaldS.,84MadisonFork,6MadisonSquareGarden,135magpies,122.SeealsobirdsManchester,England,140,324n1MandersonSD:BlackElkascatechistin,252;BlackElk’shomenear,xvii,xxi,xxii,89,267;Brulesnear,

158;clothingfrom,329n3;GhostDancenear,148;JohnNeihardt’svisitto,237;lamentingnear,112–13;storein,147,325n5

ManHip,13–14Man-Song(Neihardt),272Manypenny,GeorgeW.,83March.SeeMoonoftheSnowblind(March)Maryland,324n3masks,103,213,218,318n4.SeealsoclothingMasonValleyNV,146May.SeeMoonWhenthePoniesShed(May)McChesney,CharlesE.,69,314n20McCluskey,Sally,250,257McDowell,Malcolm,xixMcGaa,Ed,253measles,145.Seealsoillnessmeat:boilingof,320n4;inCanada,93–96;dryingof,36,38;enroutetoagencies,91;inheyokaceremony,120,321n10;atLittleBighornfeast,79;andMessiahMovement,146,152;reductionofrationed,144,156,324n1;ofsoldier,77;atTaking-The-Crow-HorsesCreek,51;theftof,82.Seealsobison;rations

medicine,101,120,318n1.Seealsowarmedicinemedicinemen:andbears,167;inBlackElk’sfamily,5,127,182,240,261;andBlackElk’spower,299n6;ofCrazyHorse, 48–49, 308n2; curing ofBlack Elk, 30, 31; curing ofRattlingHawk, 66–67, 312n3;curing of snowblindness, 9; and great vision, 100, 109, 128; and lamenting, 112; at Sun Dance onRosebud,59;suppressionof,325n5;tepeefor,48.Seealsocuringpowers

MedicineRootCreek,158,159MeditationswithBlackElk(Archambault),253men:OrderofthePipefor,265;inotherworld,153–55,157,229;powersof,130,131,322n7,322n10;atWoundedKnee,231.SeealsoLakotaIndians,marriagepracticesof

men’ssocietyregalia,187,204.SeealsoclothingMerritt,Wesley,81,314n1messengers:Brulepoliceas,159,327n12;anddogvision,114–15,119,120,223;dragonfliesas,303n16;geeseas,12,14,192,304n1,304n26;ingreatvision,14–15,24,26–27,111,112,134,192,200,304n1,305n11,305n18;soldierbandas,34,307n7;swallowsas,106,318n8.Seealsospirit(s)

“‘Messiah’IsontheWay”(Neihardt),181MessiahMovement:BlackElkin,xxi–xxii,182,237,240,267;JohnNeihardt’swritingabout,282–83;andkilling,166;newsof,145–49,325n3.SeealsoGhostDance;otherworld;religion;Wanekia

MidlandLutheranCollege,279Miles,NelsonA.:fightwith,84–85,110,256,315n16,315n18,319n1;atPineRidge,169,327n7,329n9;reinforcementby,81,314n1

MilesCityMT,315n16MilkyWay,304n8MinneapolisJournal,275MinneconjouIndians:agencyfor,314n2;campwith,98;withCrazyHorse,315n11;Humpwith,309n19;and Lakota nation, 38; on Little Bighorn, 65, 69, 70, 73, 74, 313n13, 314n20; to Pine Ridge, 159,327n15;onRosebudRiver,59;atSlimButtes,82;StandingBearwith,32;asWesternSioux,301n1

Missouri,174,279,280,284MissouriRiver:agencieson,91,317n1;Ashley-Henrymenon,277;bisontongueson,133;crossingof,98;fortnear,308n5;GreatSiouxReservationnear,12,303n23; ingreatvision,20,21,196, 306n25; JohnNeihardt’s knowledge of, 283, 284; in spirit journey, 141; transport of prisoners on, 110, 319n4;Wasichusacross,49

Montana:Blackfeetof,97,317n1;goldin,6,302n6;GreatSiouxReservationin,12,303n23;JohnGibbon

from,311n12;NelsonMilesin,315n16;rockbluffin,81,315n4;YoungManAfraidofHisHorsesin,169,329n9

months,118,119,301n3,321n7,321n9MoonofFallingLeaves(November),12,84MoonofFrostintheTepee(January),84–85,167–68MoonofMakingFat(June),50,59,92,99,110,122,126MoonofRedCherries(July),35,38MoonoftheBlackCalf(September).SeeMoonWhentheCalvesGrowHair(September)MoonoftheChangingSeasons(October),7MoonoftheDarkRedCalves(February),56,85–86MoonoftheFallingLeaves(November)(Octoberonp.91),83,91MoonoftheGrassAppearing(April).SeeMoonoftheRedGrassAppearing(April)MoonofthePoppingTrees(December),5,7–9,111,159,301n3MoonoftheRedGrassAppearing(April),39–40,86MoonoftheSnowblind(March),56,65,85–86,303n16moons,3,119,121,155,295,301n3,321n6,321n9.SeealsocrescentmoonMoonWhentheCalvesGrowHair(September),50,82,87,110MoonWhentheCherriesareRipe(July).SeeMoonofRedCherries(July)MoonWhentheCherriesTurnBlack(August),10,82,156MoonWhenthePlumsAreScarlet(September).SeeMoonWhentheCalvesGrowHair(September)MoonWhenthePoniesShed(May),12,57,86,122morning star: and bison ceremony, 129; and dog vision, 115, 320n16; and elk ceremony, 130; in greatvision,19,20,22,26–27,134,155,171,200,305n14;andhorsedance,101,103,109,212,213,216;onsacredornament,xxiii,183;andsacredpipe,2,198;onsacredshirt,160;songof,99,318n4

Morrow,William,243,246,286MotherEarthSpirituality(McGaa),253mourning,11,21,89,93.SeealsolamentingMuddyCreek,93MuskratCreek,70,71mysticism,xxix,xxx,xxxii,243,251,271,284–85,287,289,290

namesigns,184–89Naples,Italy,140,324n3Napoleonguns,85,315n18.Seealsogun(s)nation:appearanceingreatvision,21,28–29,33;bisonasgiftto,24;happinessof,151–52;medicinefor,120;andsacredpipe,294–96,301n8;savingof,18,19,24,91–92,110–16,127,130,134,145,146,148,150,154,246–48,259–63,319n8; in spirit journey, 141; symbol ofLakota, 18,221, 304n9; throwingawaypowerof,137.Seealsohoop,nation’ssacred;LakotaIndians

NativeAmericanidentity,xiv–xv,xxxi,269,270,279NativeAmericanliterature,xxxiiiNebraska,13,38,39,51,57,135,270–73,278,279,301n2,307n3NebraskaNormalCollege,270–71Neihardt,Enid:atHarneyPeak,330n9;Indiannameof,244;notesof,xviii–xix,xxiv–xxv,237,244,246,250–52,276,285,287,291–96,300n7,319n7;visitstoBlackElk,174,239,268

Neihardt, Hilda: on father’s work habits, 276; atHarney Peak, 330n9; Indian name of, 244; on OmahaIndians,271–72;onOtherness,273–74;visitstoBlackElk,xviii–xix,xxiv,178,239,268,284,331n1

Neihardt,Hilda:andpublicationoftranscript,249Neihardt,JohnG.,174,178–80;backgroundof,270–71;correspondenceof,237–41,242,249, 268, 273,285,286;deathof,280;asfamilyman,275; feastgivenby,176,177; flyingdreamof,151, 245, 257,274,288,325n6;ongiftsfromfourdirections,171,330n7;atHarneyPeak,330n9;honorsof,278–79;

Indiannameof,244,285–86;onIndianpoet,239–41;initialmeetingwithBlackElk,xvii,xxi–xxii,181–83,242–43,267–70,282–85,289,331n1;interviewsby,244,247,255,263–64, 268–69, 276–77, 285,287;legacyof,280–81;literaryinterventionof,xv–xvi,xxix–xxxi,xxxiv,2,13,23,25,49,51,52,54,56,59,65,70,76,81–83,85–87,90,91,96,112,114,115,117,118,121,127,130,131,133,134,136,138,144, 145, 147, 148, 156, 159, 162, 171, 242, 246–48, 250–52, 254–63, 266, 291, 301n4, 304n2,304n25, 305n20, 307n5, 308n6, 309n18, 309nn15–16, 309nn19–20, 310n5, 310n22, 310n25, 310n29,312n1, 313n6, 313n9, 314n18, 315n3, 315n7, 315n11, 315n21, 316n1, 316n24, 317n1, 317n6, 317n7,319n8,320n1,320n5,320n12,320n15,321n1,321n8,322n1,322n7,322n9,322n10,323nn1–2,323n6,323n10,324nn1–2,324n15,325n3,325n7,325n9,326n3,327n14,328n4,330n8;onpeacepipe,291–96;poetry and short stories of, 242, 245, 267–69, 280, 283; reading habits of, 271, 275–76, 331n5;relationshipwithBlackElk,242–66,283,285–86,288–90; researchof,xiii, 242–43, 267–70, 276–77,279,282–84;sentbyspirits,170,245,329n1;writingstyleof,239,251,272–75,277

Neihardt,MonaMartinsen,246,273,275,279Neihardt,Sigurd,xxi,xxii,181–83,267,276Nevada,146NewYorkCity,135,136,140,279,323n11,323n12,324n2NewYorkTimes,275NinthCavalry(African-American),167,329n6.SeealsoU.S.ArmyNoBowsIndians,301n1NoEarswintercount,11,303n20NorthDakota,308n5north(direction):andcuring,121,124–26,261;geesefrom,12,192,304n26;giftfrom,171,198,330n7;ingreatvision,15–19,24–26,28,200,210, 304n1, 304n7, 305n12, 306n25; and heyoka ceremony, 118;andhorsedance,101–5,107,212,214;andlamenting,113;andsacredpipe,2.Seealsofourdirections

NorthernCheyenneIndians.SeeHighHorse;LameWhiteManNorthernCheyenneReservation,81,315n4.SeealsoreservationsNorthernPacificRailroad,308n5.SeealsorailroadNorthPlatteRiver,302n6November.SeeMoonofFallingLeaves(November)NoWater,53,156,310n21,328n1

October.SeeMoonoftheChangingSeasons(October)OfficeofIndianAffairs,247,279,280,325n5OglalaSioux:agencyfor,81,91,314n2,317n1;BlackElkasmemberof,5,252;BlackElk’sdutyto,110,111;atCrazyHorse’svillage,56;dancingonWoundedKneeCreek,157;gatheringinBadlands(1890),158–59, 327n12; horses of, 316n3; interest in, xiii–xv, xvii, xix, xxi, 237–38; John Neihardt’s booksabout,247–48;lifeatPineRidge,264;onLittleBighorn,65,67,69,312n2;

Oglala Sioux (cont.)Loafers band of, 49, 309n8; andMessiahMovement, 145; name of small band of,306n3;Neihardtswith,239–41,286;permissionforGhostDance,157–58,327n10;RedCloudaschiefof,39;onRosebudRiver,59; scattering of, 38; and treaty of 1868, 12, 303n23; asWesternSioux, 5,301n1.SeealsoSiouxIndians

Oklahoma,301n2OldHollowHorn,167oldpeople,22,159.Seealsogenerations;SixGrandfathersOmahaIndians,xxii,135,244,269–72,284,323n8OmahaNE,13,135OneSide,118–20,122–24,129,196O-ona-gazhee,167–69OrderoftheIndianWars,279OrderofthePipe,265

OregonTrail,302n6ornament,sacred,xxiii,48,183,238,268,300n4.Seealsorelics,sacredOtherness,272–74otherworld:BlackElkin,228,229;BlackElk’swishfor,163;anddogvision,115;expectationof,122;JohnNeihardt’sinterestin,xxiii,xxiv,182,243,247,257,265,284;andMessiahMovement,146,151–55,158,230;term,299n5.Seealsoland;MessiahMovement

Otis,ElwellS.,81,314n1outerworld,xviii,111,112,114,121,127,257,299n5.Seealsoinnerworldoyáte,301n8.Seealsonation

Pahuska.SeeCody,WilliamF.;Custer,GeorgeArmstrongpahuskas.Seelong-hairsPaintedRocks.SeeDeerRocksPaiuteIndians,145,256,325n3Paris,140–42,224,273,324n5.SeealsoEurope;FranceParker,Mrs.Z.A.,325n8,326n7PassCreek,327n6PatternsandCoincidence(Neihardt),280PawneeIndians,5,135,136,301n2,323n8,323n12peace,17–19,21–22,121PenoCreek,5,7,9PepperCreek,89–90,158Petri,AlexisN.,267–81Petri,HildaNeihardt.SeeNeihardt,HildaPhaláni,72pictographicrecords,61,81,237,252–53,261,314n20,315n4,330n1PineRidgeAgency:buildingof,111;DanielRoyerat,156,326n2;andheyokaceremony,117–18;Lakotasto,159,327n13;andlamenting,112–13;namesfor,111,319n7;soldierandLakotacampnear,327n15;surrenderat,169,329n10;W.B.Courtrightat,267;WoundedKneesurvivorsat,165,328n1.See alsoagencies

PineRidgeReservation:armyoccupationof,169,329n9;arrestofdancersat,158,327n11;BigFoot to,159,327n15;BlackElk’shomeon,89,252,267,323n10;conditionsat,145, 324n2; creation of, 143,324n6;dailylifeon,264;endofdreamat,169;GhostDancenear,148,157,326n6; JohnNeihardt at,xix,xxi, 282–83;MessiahMovement at, 145, 147, 325n4;missionaries from, 167, 329n7;Oglalas at,159, 160, 327n12; Red Cloud at, 169; soldiers at, 157–59, 327n7; and spirit journey, 141, 143, 224;Victorycelebrationat,179;andWoundedKneebattle,162,165.Seealsoreservations

PineyFork,7–8,239pipe(s):atCrazyHorse’ssurrender,316n24;forcuring,123–25;anddogvision,221;inGhostDance,148,228–30;andhorsedance,212;atWoundedKnee,231,232.Seealsosmoking;tobacco

pipe,sacred:andbisonceremony,128–30;andbisonhunt,34;BlackElkwith,175;andelkceremony,130–32;ingreatvision,17–19,21,22,25,27,198;atHarneyPeak,170,171,200,330n3,330n9;andhorsedance,101,103,106,109;JosephBrown’sbookon,264–65;offeringof,1–4,112,115,116,294;storyof,2–3,291–96;symbolismof,257.Seealsosmoking;tobacco

pipeceremonies,xiv,118,320n5PlainofPineTrees,39,51PlainsIndians,xiv,xviii–xix,244PlatteRiver,13PlentyEagleFeathers(maternalgrandmotherofBlackElk),5PlumCreek,39plums,39,110

pneumonia,159.SeealsoillnessPocketBooksedition,xxix–xxxPompeii,140,324n4ponydrag(s),9,14,33,39,49,79,93,159,303n15popguns,61,311n9PoplarRiver,98PorcupineButte,159PorcupineCreek,158porcupines,96PowderRiver:BigRoadon, 317n1;campon,38;CrazyHorsenear,49, 51, 52, 54, 56, 65; en route toagencies,91;soldiers’arrivalon,7–9;supplydepotnear,82,315n6;womankilledbytreeat,11

Powell,JamesW.,11Powers,WilliamK.,254PowersoftheWorld:andbisonceremony,129;andcircles,121,258,321n1;andcuring,123,125;andelkceremony,130,132,322n8;andgreatvision,16–22,24,304n10,305n12; help from, 166; and heyokaceremony,118;andlamenting,112,116;andMessiahMovement,148,325n9;andsacredpipe,3, 109,300n3.Seealsogifts;SixGrandfathers

power-vision.Seegreatvisionprayers:andBlackfeetattack,98;andcuringpower,123;anddogvision,113,115,118, 320n5; atGhostDance,150,151,153;andgreatvision,28,306n27;onHarneyPeak,xxviii,170–72,330n6, 330n9; athorsedance,106;interjectionin,25,305n21;andrelationshipswithspirits,22,305n14;andsacredpipe,3–4,301n10;atSunDanceonRosebud,60

prison,136,323n11prisonerofwarcamp,99,318n2prisonersofwar,110,122,319n4PromontoryPointUT,13protection:BlackElk’sdutyof,93;frombullets,75,162,236;ofCrazyHorse,53,308n2;bysacredshirt,160;byscouts,34;bythunderbeings,98;ofwomenbymen,131,322n10.Seealsowarmedicine

Protector(oldman),167PumpkinButtes,38,307n2purification,59,60,101,112,131,318n1

RabbitCreek,82rabbitdance,239.Seealsodancingrabbits,94race,239–41,246,269.SeealsowhitesRaceTrack,200railroad,13,134–35,137,140,142–43,256,308n5,323n13rain:atAll-Gone-TreeCreek,98;inCanada,92–93;anddogvision,112,115;rain(cont.)enroutetoagencies,82,315n7;GeorgeCrook’sretreatin,82;asgiftfromwest,121; ingreatvision,21,26,194;atHarneyPeak,170,172,330n9;andheyokaceremony,117; athorsedance,106;andsacredpipe,2.Seealsoclouds;storms

rainbows:ingreatvision,16,19,26–28,105,154–55,157,194,244,304n5,326n4;andhorsedance,212;onsacredshirt,160;onsacredtepee,101

RapidCitySD,264RapidCreek,48rations,91,111,144,317n1,319n7,324n1.SeealsomeatRattlingHawk,66–70,313n9RedCloud:atagency,39,58,91;depositionaschief,87,316n3;JohnNeihardton,283;peacewithAfraid-of-His-Horses,169;peopleof,49–50;atPineRidge,328n1,329n9;sonof,58,310n4; treatywith,12,

39,49,83,303n23,315n11;waragainstsoldiers,7;toWashington,88;andWasichus,57Red Cloud Agency: camp near, 86–89; establishment of, 38, 314n2; flagpole incident at, 39, 307n4;negotiation forBlackHillsnear,50,309n13;SpottedTail as chief at, 87,316n3; SunDance near, 50,309n10.Seealsoagencies

RedCloud,Jack,58,310n4RedCloud’sWar,302n6,303n23RedCrow,165,166RedDeer,43–47RedEagleWoman(paternalgrandmother),5RedHornBuffalo,76RedHorse,69,312n1,314n20redman,18,24,127,129,134,155,230,326n13.Seealsobisonredosierdogwood,307n6redpaint:forbisonceremony,129;andcuringofRattlingHawk,66;anddogvision,223;anddrought,196;andelkceremony,130;inGhostDance,148,153,154,229,326n8; ingreatvision,27,192,194,200;andheyokaceremony,119;andhorsedance,102–4,214,216;onIronHawk,74;onLittleBighorn,208;ofmen’ssocieties,187;andMessiahMovement,146,154,230,326n12;simulationof,170,329n3;andWoundedKneebattle,160.Seealsobodypaint;feathers,redandwhite;scarlet(color);stick,sacredredflowering

redribbon,2RedRiverMétis,92,317n3redroad:andbisonceremony,127–29,322n4;andcuring,125;andelkceremony,131;ingreatvision,18–20,22,23,33,148,171,304n10;andhorsedance,103,109;andMessiahMovement,146;regainingof,92,134

RedWillow,168redwillowbark,34,108,109,113,123,124,221,307n6RedWound.SeeLittleWoundReeIndians,72Refuse-to-Go(maternalgrandfatherofBlackElk),5,31–32,306n3Refuse-to-Go(maternalgrandfatherofBlackElk),39relics,sacred,106,318n9.Seealsoornament,sacredreligion:inBlackElkSpeaks,xiii,xv,xvi,xix,xxxi,242,244–45,247–48,251,258;ChristianinfluenceonLakota, 250, 252–54; conceptualization ofBlackElk’s, xvii, 265–66, 299n1; condemnation of Indian,151, 325n5; JohnNeihardt’s interest in, 271; knowledge of, 121, 251, 264–65; prohibition of Indian,156–57.See also Catholic Church; Christianity; holiness; holy men;MessiahMovement; spirituality;Wanekia

Reno,Marcus,68,70,77,204,208,239,312n1,313n13,314n20reservations:confinementto,144,259;courtson,325n5;creationof,143,256,324n6; forLakotas, 110;societal influences on, 264, 265.See also agencies; Cheyenne River Reservation; Crow Reservation;GreatSiouxReservation; land;LowerBruleReservation;NorthernCheyenneReservation;PineRidgeReservation;RosebudReservation;StandingRockReservation

ReturnsfromScout,wifeof,326n7Reynolds,JosephJ.,56,256ribbons,2,170,330n3Rice,Julian,253ritualaction(s):beforebisonhunt,34;booksabout,247–48;countingcoupas,108,319n11;ofcuring,261;anddespair, 171, 330n6; expressions of, 301n7; in Indian show, 264; numbers in, 304n4; painting ofjointsas,27,306n24;sagein,101,318n1;scarletofferingsas,106,319n10;sevenfundamentalsof,264–65;andsixdirections,2,300n3.Seealsobodypaint

TheRiverandI(Neihardt),284

roadsofgoodanddifficulty.Seeblackroad;redroadrobe,spotted,74.SeealsoclothingRockyMountains,13Rodmanrifles,85,315n18.Seealsogun(s)Root-of-the-Tail,52,55RosebudCountyMT,81,315n4RosebudCreek,110,111RosebudReservation,143,324n6.SeealsoreservationsRosebudRiver,9,58–59,61–67,81,144,311n12,314n1RoundFool,78Royer,DanielF.,156–58,326n2,327n7,327nn10–11RunningElk,130,131RunningHorse,92RushvilleNE,134–35,143

sacredmanner,28,31,33,99,125,128,129,148,309n11.SeealsoholinessTheSacredPipe(Brown),xv,248–49,264sacrifice,xv,60,311n7sadness: and dog vision, 115; during drought, 145–47; and knowledge of great vision, 245, 288, 289;offeringsfor,106,108;overbrokennation,134–36,148,150,151,153,154,156,226, 259; over deadbisonandelk,137;overkilling,32;inspiritjourney,142;oftruth,117,263.Seealsodespair

sage,101,103,108,112,113,123,212,291–93,318n1SageCreek,51SansArcIndians,38,59,65,72,312n2,313n11,314n2SanteeIndians,59,65,67,69–71,312n2sashes,society,187Saskatchewan,92,317n3.SeealsoGrandmother’sLand(Canada)Sayre,Robert,250–51scalpdance,310n23.Seealsodancingscalping,64,69,70,72,76,78,183,310n24,312n15scarlet(color):dressesof,25,103,130,212;offeringsof,106,108,113,129,148,319n10;onsacredherb,24,27,123.Seealsoredpaint

scouts:andattackonCrazyHorse’svillage,56;andbisonhunt,33–34;withGeorgeCrook,311n12;withGeorgeCuster,72,204,208;andsacredpipe,2–3,291–95;onsoldiersinBlackHills,49,61;onwhites’intrusion,6

screechowlhoot.Seetremoloseasons,121.SeealsoLakotaIndians,calendarof;summer;winter(s)SeatofRedCloud.SeePineRidgeAgencySeptember.SeeMoonWhentheCalvesGrowHair(September)seven(number),248SeventhCavalry,160,231,312n1,327n15,328n1.SeealsoU.S.ArmySeymour,FloraWarren,xixShelly,MexicanJoe,140–43,324n3–4.SeealsoBuffaloBill’sWildWestShowSheridanWY,311n12ShortBull,147,157,159,326n6,327n13,328n1ShortMan,61ShoshoneIndians,61,86,145,311n12,325n3Shyela.SeeCheyenneIndiansSierraMountains,145,146Silko,LeslieMarmon,xxxiii

SimonandSchuster,xxixsinging:afterbisonhunt,95;andCrazyHorse,54;forlamenting,112;onLittleBighorn,69–70,76,313n8;atrabbitdance,239;atSunDanceonRosebud,59–60;atWagonBoxFight,11;inWildWestShow,138,139.Seealsosongs

SiouxIndians: interest inBlackElkSpeaks,xiv; JohnNeihardt’s familiaritywith, 269; JosephReynold’sattackon,56,256;andnegotiation forBlackHills,50,83,309n13;peacepipeof,294; andRees, 72;tribes of, 5, 301n1; Victory celebration of, 179.See also Blackfoot Sioux; Great Sioux Reservation;LakotaIndians;OglalaSioux

Sits-With-Young-Onebutte,38,307n2SittingBull:toCanada,82,86,91,110,317n1;andcouncilwithWasichus,50;deathof,159,256,327n14;JohnNeihardton,283;northofBlackHills,49;onRosebudRiver,59;SunDanceof,92,317n3

SittingEagle,63six(number),248SixGrandfathers:BlackElk’srecallingof,51,148;bowandarrowsfrom,32;andcuring,30,261;dutyto,14, 19, 112, 115, 305n11; and great vision, 15, 16–23, 27–28, 192–94, 198, 244, 260, 304n7; andhappiness,120;help from,98,99; andhorsedance,102–9; inotherworldvision, 154–55; prayers to,xxviii,98,170–72,330n9.Seealsofourdirections;oldpeople;PowersoftheWorld

SixthCavalry,168,329n8.SeealsoU.S.ArmySixthGrandfather.SeeearthTheSixthGrandfather(DeMallie),xxv,xxxi–xxxii,249,255,260,287,300n7sky:incupofwater,66;inelkceremony,130;andgreatvision,99;andheyokaceremony,118;andhorses,305n20;powerfrom,16–19;roundnessof,121,258;andsacredpipe,3,34,295–96,300n3;travelsouthacross,304n8

Skyrim(farm),280SlimButtes,82,315n11Smith,Jedidiah,283SmithsonianInstitution,249,302n4smoking,xxiii,4,34,301n12.Seealsopipe(s);pipe,sacred;tobaccoSmokyEarthRiver:campson,49,110,158,159;councilon,50,309n13;CrazyHorsemurdered at, 53;Oglalas to forton,38; soldierson,53,55,84,159,167–68;Wasichus’ purchase of land on, 143, 144,324n6

snow,93–96,164,202,302n4.Seealsowinter(s)snowblindness,9,303n16Soldier’sTown.SeeFortRobinsonTheSongofHughGlass(Neihardt),287TheSongoftheIndianWars(Neihardt),xxi,xxii,86,238,255–56,283,316n24TheSongoftheMessiah(Neihardt),xxi,242,263–64,267,269,282–83songs:authenticityoflyrics,250;andbisonceremony,129;andchappedbreastdance,37;andcuring,66,125;ofCycle,278, 282; of death, 56, 136–37, 165, 310n28; and elk ceremony, 131; atGhostDance,150–51, 154, 325nn3–4; and great vision, 12, 17, 24–26, 28, 101, 111, 240, 304n7, 306nn26–27; andheyokaceremony,118–20,122,320n5;andhorsedance,101–7,318n7;atkilldance,79–80;ofKitFoxsociety,69–70,313n9;ofmorningstar,99,318n4;andpeacepipe,294–96;atWoundedKnee,161–62.Seealsosinging

sorrel horses: and dog vision, 114; and drought, 196; in great vision, 15, 16, 18–22, 25, 210, 260; andheyokaceremony,119; and horse dance, 102, 104, 105, 108,216; onLittleBighorn, 67–68.See alsohorses

Sotkáyuhá(barelanceowners)society,187south(direction):alwaysfacing,18,304n8;andcuring,121,124,125;anddogvision,113,221; and elkceremony,130, 131; gift from, 171,198, 330n7; in great vision, 15–19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28,200,210,306n26;andheyokaceremony,118,119;andhorsedance,101–5,107,212,218;andsacredpipe,2.See

alsofourdirectionsSouthDakota,12,89,264,268,285,303n23.SeealsospecificplacesinSpearfishSD,285spirit(s):attentionof,25,305n21;bisonasgiftfrom,24;andbraveryinfaceofdeath,137;andcuring,261;ingreatvision,17,148;HighHorsepaintedas,45–46;andhorsedance,109,262,319n12;JohnNeihardtsentby,170,243,274,284,288,329n1;andlamenting,112,113,319n10;andMessiahMovement,147–48,151, 325n4; powers bestowed by, 99, 318n3; relationshipswith, 22, 305n14; supplication to, 171,330n6;worldof,53,245,299n5.Seealsomessengers

spiritjourney,141–43,224.Seealsovision(s)SpiritoftheWorld,2,123–25,258,300n1spirituality,245,246,253–54,269–71,278,283,284,286,290.Seealsoholiness;religionSplit-toeCreek,48SpottedEagle(SansArc),59SpottedTail,57,85–88,91,315n21,316n3SpottedTailAgency,50,85,87,309n10,315n2,315n21,316n3.SeealsoagenciesSpringCreek,48,49,61,64Springfieldrifles,11.Seealsogun(s)StandingBear,174,175,177; onbisonhunt,35;onBlackElk’s illness, 32; inBuffaloBill’sWildWestShow,134;andcuring,123;drawingsof,xxxiii,185–237,304n1,318n4,330n1;andelkceremony,130;knowledgeofgreatvision,128;onLittleBighorn,70–73,208,312n2;onpranksatSunDance,61,256,311n9;representationofdeath,206;onRosebudRiverfight,64;onsacredpipeprayer,301n10;signatureof,187,188;uncleof,30,306n1;warmedicineof,71,313n10;onwomankilledbytree,11

StandingRockAgency,110,314n2,319n4.SeealsoagenciesStandingRockReservation,143,159,324n6.Seealsoreservationsstars,115,121,135,258,320n16,321n1starvation: inCanada,93–95;dreamabout,7;effectonWasichus,259; ingreatvision,23–24;andpeacepipe,294;ofsoldiers’horses,82;timesof,83,84,86,133,144–45,156,159,256

StateofNebraska(steamship),136,323n12StealsHorses,52steamboats:acrossAtlantic,136–37,140,142–43;attackon,82,315n6;onMissouriRiver,98,110,133;inspiritjourney,141;onYellowstoneRiver,81–82,110,319n4

Steltenkamp,MichaelF.,252–53stick,sacredredflowering:andcuring,66,124;andelkceremony,130–32;ingreatvision,18,19,21,22,27, 198, 200, 304n9; and horse dance, 101, 103, 106, 107, 212, 218; and lamenting, 113, 114; atWoundedKnee,161,328n2.Seealsoredpaint;tree,sacred

sticks(GhostDance),153,154,157,230,326n8St.LouisPost-Dispatch,239,269,275,286St.Nicholas,feastof,261,331n12stone,sacred,53storms:BlackElk’sattitudetoward,38,99;inCanada,92–94,96;anddogvision,112,115,223; ingreatvision,15,21,200,210;andheyokaceremony,117;soldiers’attackduring,56;and thunderbeings,2,300n2;atWoundedKnee,164.Seealsoclouds;rain;thunder

TheStrangerattheGate(Neihardt),272,273summer,2.Seealsoseasonssun,28,59,85,103–4,118,121,130,315n19,321n6SunDance:betweenagencies,50,309n10;inCanada,92,317n3;condemnationof,325n5;countingcoupat,319n11; description of, 59, 310n5; in Indian show, 264; literary treatment of, 256; ornament from,183,300n4;onRosebudRiver,59–61;socialnormsduring,50,309n11;onTongueRiver,99.See alsodancing

sunflowerseeds,37

SUNYPressPremierEdition,xxxiiiswallows:anddogvision,113,114,223;anddrought,196;ingreatvision,24,48,200,210,213,305n18;asmessengers,106,308n1,318n8;inotherworld,229.Seealsobirds

sweatlodge,48–49,60,101,112,116,131,320n17sweetgrass,118Switzerland,xxvii.SeealsoEuropeSword,George,145,325n4,325n3symbolists,French,272–73,277

Taking-The-Crow-HorsesCreek,51té,76,314n18“TheTentiad”(Neihardt),271tepees:burnedbysoldiers,56;forChips,48;andcircles,121,230;cuttingpolesfor,39–40;anddogvision,115;ingreatvision,16,27–29,105,157,192–94,210,304n5,326n4;ashoopofnation,226;inIndianshow,264;inNeihardts’yard,272;andsacredpipe,2–3,294,295;soldiers’searchingatWoundedKnee,163;inspiritjourney,141–43,224;womankilledin,11

tepee, sacred: for bison ceremony, 128, 129; of Black Elk, xxiv; for elk ceremony, 130–32; for heyokaceremony,117–19;forhorsedance,101–4,108–9,262,319n12

Terry,AlfredH.,73,78,81,311n12,312n1,314n1,314n21,315n6ThamesRiver,137,323n13ThreeBears,79ThreeStars.SeeCrook,GeorgeThrowing-Them-Off-Their-Horses(game),10thunder:inCanada,92–93;andcitylights,135,323n9;communicationof,98,99;andcuring,123–25;andgreatvision,17,27,48,304n7;atHarneyPeak,170,172.Seealsostorms

thunderbeings:andBlackElk’sduty,112,319n8;onblackroad,18;andelkceremony,131;fearof,210;and heyoka ceremony, 116, 117, 119, 320n18; and horse dance, 101, 103, 105, 106, 109; on LittleBighorn,68,78;messengersof,106,318n8;protectionby,98,99;asrelatives,111,112,114;andsacredpipe,2,300n2;songabout,161–62

Thunderbirds,303n16.Seealsobirdstobacco,106,221,307n6,319n10.Seealsopipe(s);pipe,sacred;smokingTongueRiver,7,52,54,81,83–85,99,101,110,127treaty(1868),12,49,57,303n23,308n5.Seealsoland,treatiesfortree(s): and dog vision,221; inGhostDance, 148, 150, 152–54,228–30; spotted eagle in, 113;womankilledby,11.Seealsocottonwood

tree, sacred: and breaking of nation’s hoop, 133, 134,226; counting coup on, 319n11; and curing, 125;floweringof,107,121,152,218,247,286,288–90,327n6;ingreatvision,19,21,23,26,148–51,198,200,258;andlamenting,113–14;andMessiahMovement,146,152;powersfrom,171,172;revivalof,329n1,330n9;andsacredpipe,1,2;atSunDanceonRosebud,59–60;assymbol,18,304n9, 304n10;and title ofBlack Elk Speaks, 246; withering of, 23–24, 91–92, 169, 260. See also stick, sacred redflowering

tremolo:afterbisonhunt,35,307n9;atfeast,239;ingreatvision,21;atkilldance,55;onLittleBighorn,68,70,72,76;atWildWestShow,139

truth,34,117,254,263,265–66,280,286–88,320n1turnips,33,67,70,307n5turtle,20,196,305n12Twenty-SecondInfantry,81,314n1.SeealsoU.S.Armytwofaces,117,320n1TwoKettlesIndians,38,65,301n1,312n2,315n2TwoRoadsMap,252–53

TwoStrike,159,327n13,328n1

undergroundworld,302n8UnionPacificRailway/Railroad,13,256universe,2,26,258,300n3,305n22,306n23UniversityofColorado,xxxiUniversityofMissouri,xxv,249,279,280UniversityofNebraska,279,289–90,332n6U.S.Army:abandonmentofBozemanTrailposts,12,303n23;arrivalinLakotacountry,7–9,50, 302n9;attackonCheyennevillage,84;attackplanonRosebud,61,311n12;inBattleoftheHundredSlain,5–6,239;BigFoot’ssurrenderto,159,160;BlackElk’ssurrenderto,99,318n2;campwithLakotas,327n15;confiscation of guns, 163; Congressional Medals of Honor for, 73, 313n12; corn for horses of, 82;drawingsof,204;establishmentofFortKearny,7,302n9;fightinBlackHills,58;andflagpoleincident,39; on Indians to agencies, 55–56, 87, 91, 316n2; and John Neihardt, 255–56, 277; killing of CrazyHorse,53,54,88–90;onleaseofBlackHills,50–51,110;onLittleBighorn,68–81,206,208,313n12,314n15; and marriages to Indian women, 309n8; Oglalas in, 264; at O-ona-gazhee, 167–68; at PineRidge,157–58,165,169,327n7,329n9;postinBlackHills,49,308n5;onRosebudRiver,61–65;threatifno surrender,86; toTongueRivercamp,84–85;atWhiteClayCreek,166, 167; atWoundedKnee,161–64,231,232,234,236.SeealsoCompanyE;FifthCavalry;FifthInfantry;NinthCavalry(African-American);SeventhCavalry;SixthCavalry;Twenty-SecondInfantry;whites

U.S.Congress,91,110,317n1,319n3UsesforBait.SeeWatanyeU.S.government,xix,50,56,256,309nn13–14,310n25U.S. presidents: on agencies, 317n1; and Black Hills, 50, 83; compensation to Indians, 110, 133, 259;delegationto,87–88;namefor,50,309n14;preventionofoutbreak,327n7.SeealsoWashingtonDC

U.S.SecretaryoftheInterior,151,325n5U.S.SecretaryofWar,327n7Utah,13Utecht,Lori,275–76,282–90

Victoria,Queen,137–39,315n8,323n13,324nn15–16victorydance.Seekilldancesvirgins,25–26,102–4,106–9,124–26,130–32,212.Seealsowomenvision(s): ofBlackElk, 12, 51, 53, 182, 240, 245, 309n15; andBlackElk’s duty, 112, 319n8;Christianelementsin,252;cloudsin,304n5;comparisontoJohnNeihardt’sdream,274;followingof,157,265;andGhostDanceshirt,152,326n7;atHarneyPeak,170;humilityofseekers,112,319n10; interest inBlackElk’s,xiv,xv,265;JohnNeihardt’sinterpretationof,xvi,xix,247,257;andlamenting,114–15;ofotherworld, 151–55, 157, 158, 325n6, 326nn7–8; performance of, 99, 116, 127, 128, 318n3; powersbestowedin,30,66,99,117,127,256,306n2,312n3,318n3;songsofGhostDance,151,325n4;thunderbeingsin,116,320n18;andwhites’intrusion,7;ofWovoka,146,147.Seealsodogvision;greatvision;spiritjourney

visionquest,112,319n9voices:BlackElk’shearingof,12,14,92–93,97,99,105,106,108,114,115,122;forcuring,124–25

wachékiya,305n14Wachpanne(Poor),117–19wagachun.Seecottonwood;tree,sacredWagonBoxFight,10–11,50Wakhátháka,258WakonTonka(GreatMysteriousOne),xxiii

WalkerLake,146walking,sacredmannerof,99,125,128,129,148Wanekia:BlackElkas,168;GoodThunderandKickingBearto,156;newsof,146–48;andotherworldvision, 151, 153–55, 158, 229, 326n13; in song, 150, 325n3; under tree, 230. See also MessiahMovement;religion;Wovoka

waphíya,305n19war,18,240,251,260–61warbonnet(s),74,86,208,314n14,316n24.SeealsoclothingWarBonnetCreek,39,51,57,89warclub,76warmedicine,71,308n2,313n10.Seealsomedicine;protectionwarrior(s):inBigFoot’sband,159;boypretendingtobe,10;countingcoup,319n11;danceof,55,310n23;indogvision,223;anddragonflies,303n16;dressandpaintof,55,56,198,200,204,208,310n29;andflagpoleincident,307n4;HighHorseas,46;onLittleBighorn,68,71,74–76,78,313n7;quittingof,83;onRabbitCreek,82;onRosebudRiver,59–64;WildWestperformersas,135;atWoundedKnee,164

wasé,194WashingtonDC,87–88,280,309n13,317n1.SeealsoU.S.presidentsWasichus.SeewhitesWatanye,xxxiv,41,308n7water,112,117–20,320n4,321n10water,cupofliving:inbisonceremony,128,129;andcuring,66,124–26;asgift,171,198,330n7;ingreatvision,16–17,19,20,22,25,27,171,194,261,305n12;andhorsedance,101,103,212

WayneNE,270–71,278Wazíya.SeeWhiteGiantWeatherly,MarinaBrown,264Weir,ThomasB.,72Weiradvance,72,76,314n19West,American,xiii,247,276–78,280,283–84west(direction):andbisonceremony,128;andcuring,121–25;andelkceremony,131;andGhostDance,153,154; ingreatvision,15,16–19,24–26,200,210, 304n7, 305n10, 305n18; and heyoka ceremony,116,118–20,320n18;andhorsedance,101–8,212,213;andlamenting,113–15;MessiahMovementin,145–47;powersfrom,2,171,198,300n2,303n16,330n7.Seealsofourdirections

“WhenIHaveGoneWeirdWays”(Neihardt),273WhentheTreeFlowered(Neihardt),xv,247–48,279WhirlwindChaser,30,31,100,306n1whiskey,83,315n12white(color),24,27,123.Seealsofeathers,redandwhite;whitepaint;wind,whitecleansingWhiteBuffaloCowWoman,264,291–95WhiteBull,5,10,11,312n1,313n11,313n13,314n20WhiteButte,39,307n3WhiteClayCreek:campson,157,159;councilon,50;danceat,156; en route to agencies, 91; fightat,166–67, 240;GhostDance on, 325n8; Lakotas fleeing along, 328n1, 329n10;meeting aboutMessiahMovementat,145;PineRidgeAgencyon,111;refugeesto,165

WhiteCliffs.SeeWhiteButteWhiteCowSees(motherofBlackElk):andcactusstickers,10;concernforson,100,168;andcuring,123;deathsongof,165;dreamofBlackElk’sreturn,143;andgreatvision,14,29–31,193;andhorsedance,101–2; on Little Bighorn, 78, 79;marriage toGoodThunder, 150, 325n2;memories of, 5; near FortRobinson, 39; scalp for, 69–70, 76; in spirit journey, 141–43,224; surrender of, 86; warnings aboutWasichus,9,302n14;aswidow,147

whitefeathers.Seefeathers,redandwhite

WhiteGiant,3,17,21,104,125,171,301n9WhiteHorse,272WhiteHorseCreek,90,158whitehorses,15,16,19–22,25,102,104,105,107,108,260.SeealsohorsesWhiteMudRiver.SeeWhiteClayCreekwhitepaint:anddrought,196;ingreatvision,27,200;onHighHorse,45;andhorsedance,102,213,214;andMessiahMovement,154,230,326n12.Seealsobodypaint;feathers,redandwhite;white(color)

WhiteRiver.SeeSmokyEarthRiverwhites:bitternesstoward,6,133,258–59;BlackElk’sconnectionto,xxvii,xxxiv;BlackElkwithinParis,140–42;buildingofPineRidgeAgency,111;continuityofgenerations,330n9;councilonSmokyEarthRiver,50–51;andCrazyHorse,38,53,54,88–89;indogvision,115,320n14;inEngland,138–39;firstseeingof,39;fleeingfrom,48–56;andIndians’ lossofpower,122; Indianswith,50,52,83, 86; JohnNeihardt’swritingfor,251,254,261,283;

whites (cont.)knowledge of Indians, 238, 239, 240, 244–45, 254, 255, 267; Lakota acceptance of, 265,299n1;andMessiahMovement,145–47,151,154;peacewith,12;prohibitionof ceremonies,156–58,325n5; promises of, 133, 144, 156, 158, 263; purchase of land, 57–58, 81, 83, 143; railroad of, 13;slaughterofbison,133;surrenderto,84,86;inWagonBoxFight,10–11;warningsabout,6–7,9,302n5,302n14;ways of, 134–36, 259, 263, 286–87, 323n6, 323n10.See also blackWasichus;BuffaloBill’sWildWestShow;race;U.S.Army

Whitman,Walt,272Whitside,SamuelM.,327n15whoopingcough,145.Seealsoillnesswichashawakon.SeeholymenWilbur,RayLyman,xixWillowCreek,32–33,38,82,84Wilson,Jack.SeeWovokawind,whitecleansing:inbisonceremony,128;andcuring,125,126,261;andelkceremony,131;ingreatvision,17,21,22,25,27,51,171,198,200,305n15,330n7;andhorsedance,103,107;andsacredpipe,2,300n3.Seealsowhite(color)

WindCave,302n8winds:asfourdirections,2,300n3;asgiftfromnorth,121;ingreatvision,21,23,24,48;inotherworld,154

winter(s),84–85,93–96,111–12,159,202,302n4.Seealsoseasons;snowwintercounts,11,61,302n4,303n20WinterWhentheFourCrowsWereKilled(1863),5wisdom,2,22,305n14Without-a-Tepee,62women:onAll-Gone-TreeCreek,97;attackandcaptureofCheyenne,84,85;inBigFoot’sband,159;andbisonhunt,35–36,307n9;boyscallingeachother,37;buyingandstealingof,43–45,53,308n2,310n21;choppingofcottonwood,54;curingof,112;indespair,226;anddogvision,115;atfeast,239;inGhostDance,148;ingreatvision,21,22,25,26,258;killedatPowderRiver,56;onLittleBighorn,67–70,72,75–78,239,313n8;marriagetosoldiers,309n8;duringoceancrossing,136–37;inotherworld,154,155,157;peaceforsakeof,169;protectionof,93,130–31,317n4,322n10;onRabbitCreek,82;onRosebudRiver,59–61,63;andsacredpipe,2–3,291–95;andscalpings,310n23,312n15;onTongueRiver,85;andWagonBoxFight,11;andweedofdestruction,261; inWildWestShow,139; atWoundedKnee,161–64,231,232,234,236,263.SeealsoLakotaIndians,marriagepracticesof;virgins

WoodenLeg,312n2WoodLouseCreek,79WoodMountain,92WorldWarI,23

WorldWarII,264WoundedKneeCreek,148,157,158,159,163,232,234WoundedKneeSD:battleat,5,160–65,231,232,234,236,237,239,240,255,256,263,277,282,328n1,328n8;BlackElk’sresidencenear,121;cannonsat,160,328n1;effectonBlackElk,168, 265; FatherCraftat,158;andMessianicdream,xxi;monumentat,163,328n6;sacredbowto,166;andsacredpipe,1;soldierandLakotacampat,327n15;tradingpostat,159,327n16;woundedandrefugeesfrom,167,329n7

Wovoka,145–48,229,325n3,325n7.SeealsoWanekiaWyoming:BlackElk’s people in, 51, 57;BozemanTrail in, 302n6; buttes in, 38, 307n2;GeorgeCrookfrom,311n12;GreatSiouxReservationin,12,303n23;railroadin,13;YoungManAfraidofHisHorsesin,329n9

YanktonaiIndians,59,65,67,312n2,314n2years,302n4.SeealsoLakotaIndians,calendarofyellow(color),19,20,24,27,66,102,104,123,130,218YellowBird,163,164,328n7YellowBreast,145–47yellowribbon,2YellowShirt,55,82YellowstoneRiver,81–82,84,315n6,315n16YoungAmericanHorse,157YoungManAfraidofHisHorses,168–69,329n9Young-Man-Afraid-of-Lakotas.SeeRoyer,DanielF.youngpeople,xiv–xv,xxviii,xxix,xxxii,247.Seealsogenerations

Zurich,Switzerland,xxvii

AbouttheAuthor

JohnG.Neihardt (1881–1973) is the author of several classics, includingACycleof theWestandEagleVoiceRemembers, both available inBisonBookseditions.HewasnamedNebraska’sfirstpoetlaureateandforemostpoetofthenationbytheNationalPoetryCenterin1936.

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