ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism
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Separatism and ethnic violence
Gerard McCarthy- PhD Candidate, International, Political, Strategic Studies (IPS), ANU
April 28th 2014
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Outline
• First hour – separatism and ethnic violence:– Definition of key terms– How do separatism and ethnic violence
challenge nation-states?– Case studies: (Bougainville; South Sudan)– R2P & Intervention
• Second hour – counterinsurgency:– Guest lecturer, Dr Russell Glenn, SDSC
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What is ‘societal security’?
• Middle ground between state and human security
• A society relies on its members sharing an identity
• The most important unit of society is the nation-state
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What is the ‘nation-state’?
• Two separate ideas:– State: eg. China, Spain
– Nation: eg. Tibet, Basque
• What is a ‘nation’?– A type of society characterised by:
• A common (often cultural or ethnic) identity;
• Self-awareness and self-differentiation; and
• A continuity of existence over time.
• Why link ‘nation’ and ‘state’?– Idea that strong states need a united society
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What is ‘nationalism’?
• Ideology that links nation to state• Three themes:
– Autonomy– Unity– Identity
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What is ‘ethnicity’?• A perception of commonality and belonging
• Perception based on:– Language– Religion– Culture– History – Physical appearance– Ancestry
• Visual ethnicity especially ‘sticky’/durable
– jk
• Ethnicity is different to nationalism
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How do ethnicity & nationalism interact?• Ethnicity is different to nationalism
• Rarely clear cut, especially in AP w/ large ethnic minorities.
• Related to processes/symbols of ‘nation-making’ (flag, official language, curriculum).
•
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• Highly contentious when linked:
• (eg. Burma & Burman Buddhist nationalism)
• Potential for competing ‘nationalisms’ within single state: eg. Burma, Indonesia (West Papua).
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What is ‘self-determination’?• Post-colonial borders (often arbitrary)
created multi-nation states• 1960 UN General Assembly Resolution 1514
(Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial countries and Peoples):– Principle: right of national groups to freely choose their
sovereignty and international political status with no external compulsion or interference
• 3 expressions of self-determination: – 1) free association w/ independent State (NZ & Cook Is)
– 2) integration into independent State (Crimea);
– 3) independence/separation (South Sudan).
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Decolonisation in the Asia-Pacific• ‘States without
nations’:– Culturally and
ethnically diverse– State borders divided
pre-existing social, cultural and ethnic groups
• ‘Second wave’ of colonisation
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Patterns of ethnic grievances• Ethnic conflict:
– Ethnic groups compete for primacy within a state (ethnic security dilemma); and/or
– Ethnic groups rebel against state/for control of state.
• Ethnic separatism:– Ethnic minorities develop a political consciousness, identify as a
nation and demand self-determination
• Can involve:• Cultural cleansing and homongenisation (govt & rebels)
• Insurgency
• Genocide/ ethnic cleansing (govt & rebels)
• Separatism
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How does separatism challenge nation-states?• Separatism = creation of new, separate states:
(Balkanisation?); or legitimate secession (East Timor?)
• A challenge because:– Threatens societal security
– Call into question existing state boundaries
– Loss of state revenue (resources)
– Proliferation of new states – 26 since 1990
– 70+ separatist movements around globe
• Asia-Pacific examples:– East Timor; Aceh (Indonesia)
– Moro (Philippines)
– Tamils (Sri Lanka)
– Tibet and Xinjiang (China)
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How do separatism and ethnic violence end?
• Stalemate • Counterinsurgency • Peace agreement• Nation-building• Autonomy arrangements• Referendum on independence
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Case study 1: Bougainville
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Case study 1: Bougainville cont.• History:
– 1880s – Colonised by Germany (German New Guinea)
– 1921 – Australia granted mandate over German New Guinea
– 1947 – Australia merged New Guinea and Papua
• Differences between Bougainville and the rest of PNG:– Matrilineal vs. patrilineal language and culture groups
– Catholics vs. Protestants
– Physical appearance
– Geographical remoteness
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Case study 1: Bougainville cont.• Bougainvillean ethnic identity → national
identity:– 1972 – Panguna mine opened
• No consultation and strong opposition
• Environmental and social costs of mine
• Sentiment in favour of separatism
• 45% of PNGs GDP
– 1975 – first unilateral declaration of independence– 1988 – demand for US$10 billion compensation– 1989 – Bougainville ‘crisis’ began– 1990 – Blockade imposed; second unilateral
declaration of independence14
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Case study 1: Bougainville cont.
• Bougainville crisis – two dimensions:– Separatist struggle; and– Internal conflict (factionalism)
• Impact of crisis:– 20,000 Bougainvillean deaths– 60,000 Bougainvilleans internally
displaced– Infrastructure and private sector assets
destroyed– Massive economic impact on PNG– Challenged legitimacy of PNG state
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Case study 1: Bougainville cont.• Solving separatist struggle:
– 1997: Sandline affair– 1997-2001: Peace talks (NZ, Aus)– 2001: Bougainville Peace Agreement:
• Referendum on independence
• Autonomy
• Demilitarisation
• Foreign Peacekeeping
– 2005: Autonomous Bougainville Government & Int. capacity building/state-building
– 2015-2020?: Independence Referendum?
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Case study 2: South Sudan
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Case study 2: South Sudan cont.• History:
– 1869: colonised by the British
– 1954: Sudanese independence
– 1955: First Sudan Civil War
– 1972: Addis Ababa Agreement (Southern Autonomy)
– 1983: Declaration of Shari’a law/end of Southern Autonomy.
– 1983-2005: Second Sudan Civil War (against north and in south)
• Differences between South Sudan and the rest of Sudan:– Religion: Christian/Animist vs. Muslim– Appearance: Black African vs Arab – Geography: wetlands vs desert– Governance: Limited autonomy ever provided to South 13
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Case study 2: South Sudan cont.• Separatist struggle:
– 1983-2005: Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) and warring southern factions
– 2 million dead (direct & indirect)
– 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement + UN PKO
– 2011 Referendum on South Sudan’s Independence
– July 2011: South Sudan Independence
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Case study 2: South Sudan cont.
• 2011-2014:
– UN Peace keeping operation and state building support
– Divisions in military and Government of South Sudan re control of major political party.
– Coup attempt December 2013
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– Civil war and ethnic violence
– Raises question of sovereignty and preventative intervention or R2P (Responsibility to Protect)?
– Challenge of addressing roots of conflict (Sudan & South Sudan)
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Summary• Societal security useful to understanding role of identity
in conflict.
• Criticism: fails to consider degree of fluidity/volatility in feelings of belonging and identity (individual, collective and national).
• Nation-making is highly dialectic process: ie interaction between state and it’s constituent parts, influenced by history (Bougainville, South Sudan, West Papua).
• Degradation to ethnic violence/cleansing raises q. of sovereignty and R2P.
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