Antiseizure Drugs

By Bohlooli S, PhD

School of Medicine, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences

Introduction Approximately 1% of the world's population has

epilepsy

Epilepsy is a chronic disorder characterized by recurrent seizures

Seizures are finite episodes of brain dysfunction resulting from abnormal discharge of cerebral neurons

The causes of seizures are many infection to neoplasm and head injury

Partial seizuresSimple partial seizuresComplex partial seizuresPartial seizures secondarily generalized

Generalized seizuresGeneralized tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizuresAbsence (petit mal) seizuresTonic seizuresAtonic seizuresClonic and myoclonic seizuresInfantile spasms1

1An epileptic syndrome rather than a specific seizure type; drugs useful in infantile spasms will be reviewed separately.

Classification of seizure types

Drug Development for Epilepsy threshold pentylenetetrazol clonic seizures

in mice Screening of drug for absence seizures

the maximal electroshock test (MES) for generalized tonic-clonic seizures and

complex partial seizures

Limbic seizures induced in rats by the process of electrical kindling screen for predicting efficacy in complex partial

seizures

Drug Development for Epilepsy

New antiseizure drugs are being sought by more rational approaches

Enhancement of GABAergic (inhibitory) transmission

Diminution of excitatory (usually glutamatergic) transmission

Modification of ionic conductances

Molecular targets for antiseizure drugs at the excitatory, glutamatergic synapse

Molecular targets for antiseizure drugs at the inhibitory, GABAergic synapse

BASIC PHARMACOLOGY OF ANTISEIZURE DRUGS Chemistry (five very similar chemical groups)

Barbiturates Hydantoins Oxazolidinediones Succinimides Acetylureas

carbamazepine, valproic acid, and the benzodiazepines

felbamate, gabapentin, lamotrigine, levetiracetam, oxcarbazepine, pregabalin, tiagabine, topiramate, vigabatrin, and zonisamide.

Chemistry

Figure 24-1. Antiseizure heterocyclic ring structure. The "X" varies as follows: hydantoin derivatives, -N-; barbiturates, -C-N-; oxazolidinediones, -O-; succinimides, -C-; acetylureas, -NH2 (N connected to C2). R1, R2, and R3 vary within each subgroup.

Pharmacokinetics The antiseizure drugs exhibit many similar pharmacokinetic

properties selected for oral activity all must enter the central nervous system

with 80-100% of the dose reaching the circulation

Most antiseizure drugs are not highly bound to plasma proteins

cleared chiefly by hepatic mechanisms

Many are converted to active metabolites that are also cleared by the liver

DRUGS USED IN PARTIAL SEIZURES & GENERALIZED TONIC-CLONIC SEIZURES

INTRODUCTION

The classic major drugs : Phenytoin (and congeners) Carbamazepine Valproate Barbiturates

Newer drugs: Lamotrigine, levetiracetam, gabapentin Oxcarbazepine, pregabalin, topiramate Vigabatrin, and zonisamide

PHENYTOIN

the oldest nonsedative antiseizure drug

known for decades as diphenylhydantoin.

PHENYTOIN: chemical A more soluble prodrug of phenytoin,

fosphenytoin, is available for parenteral use

PHENYTOIN; Mechanism of Action

to block sodium channels inhibiting the generation of rapidly

repetitive action potentials A reduction of calcium permeability:

may explain the ability of phenytoin to inhibit a variety of calcium-induced secretory processes

PHENYTOIN: Clinical Use

Effective against: Partial seizures Generalized tonic-clonic seizures

PHENYTOIN:Pharmacokinetics

Absorption is highly dependent on the formulation of the dosage form

Absorption after intramuscular injection is unpredictable

highly bound to plasma proteins Phenytoin accumulates in brain, liver, muscle, and fat. Phenytoin is metabolized to inactive metabolites that

are excreted in the urine The elimination of phenytoin is dose-dependent The half-life of phenytoin varies from 12 hours to 36

hours

Nonlinear relationship of phenytoin dosage and plasma concentrations

PHENYTOIN: Drug Interactions & Interference with Laboratory Tests

Drug interactions are primarily related to : protein binding metabolism

Hypoalbuminemia? has an affinity for thyroid-binding

globulin Inducer of microsomal enzymes

PHENYTOIN: Toxicity Dose-related adverse effects are similar to

other antiseizure drugs in this group Nystagmus occurs early Diplopia and ataxia Sedation Gingival hyperplasia and hirsutism Long-term use :

coarsening of facial features abnormalities of vitamin D metabolism

Idiosyncratic reactions are relatively rare

MEPHENYTOIN, ETHOTOIN No well-controlled clinical trials have

documented their effectiveness Mephenytoin: The incidence of severe

reactions such as Dermatitis Agranulocytosis hepatitis

is higher than for phenytoin Ethotoin: adverse effects and toxicity are

generally less severe than those associated with phenytoin, but the drug appears to be less effective

CARBAMAZEPINE Closely related to imipramine and other

antidepressants Effective in treatment of bipolar depression

CARBAMAZEPINE :Mechanism of Action

similar to that of phenytoin blocks sodium channels inhibits high-frequency repetitive

firing in neurons in culture It also acts presynaptically to

decrease synaptic transmission

CARBAMAZEPINE: Clinical Use

has long been considered a drug of choice for partial seizures generalized tonic-clonic seizures

is not sedative in its usual therapeutic range

very effective in some patients with trigeminal neuralgia

useful in some patients with mania

CARBAMAZEPINE:Pharmacokinetics

The rate of absorption varies widely among patients

Distribution is slow, and the volume of distribution is roughly 1 L/kg

has a very low systemic clearance of approximately 1 L/kg/d

initial half-life of 36 hours observed, decreases to as short as 8-12 hours.

Carbamazepine is completely metabolized in humans to several derivatives

CARBAMAZEPINE: Therapeutic Levels & Dosage

Carbamazepine is available only in oral form

the therapeutic level is usually 4-8 mcg/mL

CARBAMAZEPINE:Drug Interactions

exclusively related to the drug's enzyme-inducing properties: an increased rate of metabolism of other drugs

primidone, phenytoin, ethosuximide, valproic acid, and clonazepam

Other drugs such as propoxyphene, troleandomycin, and valproic acid may inhibit carbamazepine clearance

Anticonvulsants such as phenytoin and phenobarbital decrease steady-state concentrations of

carbamazepine through enzyme induction

CARBAMAZEPINE: Toxicity The most common dose-related adverse effects are

diplopia and ataxia Mild gastrointestinal upsets Unsteadiness Drowsiness : at much higher doses Hyponatremia and water intoxication idiosyncratic blood dyscrasias

fatal cases of aplastic anemia and agranulocytosis The most common idiosyncratic reaction is an

erythematous skin rash

OXCARBAZEPINE closely related to carbamazepine have an improved toxicity profile Its activity resides almost exclusively in the

10-hydroxy metabolite hyponatremia may occur

more commonly with oxcarbazepine than with carbamazepine

PHENOBARBITAL Many consider the barbiturates the drugs of

choice for seizures only in infants clinically useful as antiseizure drugs are :

phenobarbital, mephobarbital, metharbital, and primidone

PHENOBARBITAL : Mechanism of Action

The exact mechanism of action of phenobarbital is unknown enhancement of inhibitory processes diminution of excitatory transmission

selectively suppress abnormal neurons Block sNa+ conductance blocks some Ca2+ currents (L , N type) enhances the GABA receptor-mediated current

blocks excitatory responses induced by glutamate (AMPA)

PHENOBARBITAL : Clinical Use

useful in the treatment of partial seizures generalized tonic-clonic seizures

There is little evidence for its effectiveness in generalized seizures such as absence, atonic attacks, and infantile

spasms it may worsen certain patients with these

seizure types

PRIMIDONE

PRIMIDONE

the mechanism of action is more like that of phenytoin

effective against partial seizures and generalized tonic-clonic seizures

PRIMIDONE :

is completely absorbed Primidone is metabolized

by oxidation to phenobarbital by scission of the heterocyclic ring to form PEMA

efficacious when plasma levels are in the range of 8-12 mcg/mL

The dose-related adverse effects of primidone are similar to those of its metabolite, phenobarbital except drowsiness occurs early

VIGABATRIN irreversible inhibitor of GABA aminotransferase

(GABA-T) useful in the treatment of partial seizures and

West's syndrome Typical toxicities include drowsiness, dizziness,

and weight gain long-term therapy with vigabatrin has been

associated with development of visual field

defects

LAMOTRIGINE a voltage- and use-dependent inactivation of

sodium channels. Blocking actions on voltage-activated Ca2+

channels decreases the synaptic release of glutamate

LAMOTRIGINE: Clinical Use effective for partial seizures

As add on or monotherapy

There is evidence that the drug is also active against: absence and myoclonic seizures in children

Adverse effects include: dizziness, headache, diplopia, nausea,

somnolence, and skin rash

a potentially life-threatening dermatitis will develop in 1-2% of pediatric patients

FELBAMATE

effective in some patients with partial seizures

causes aplastic anemia and severe hepatitis at unexpectedly high rates

a third-line drug for refractory cases a use-dependent block of the NMDA

receptor potentiates GABAA receptor responses effective against the seizures that occur in

Lennox-Gastaut syndrome

GABAPENTIN & PREGABALIN

GABAPENTIN & PREGABALIN modify the synaptic or nonsynaptic release of GABA act presynaptically to decrease the release of

glutamate as an adjunct against:

partial seizures and generalized tonic-clonic seizures

effective in the treatment of neuropathic pain The most common adverse effects are:

somnolence, dizziness, ataxia, headache, and tremor

the drugs are excreted unchanged

LEVETIRACETAM binds selectively to a

synaptic vesicular protein SV2A

modifies the synaptic release of glutamate and GABA

The drug is for the treatment of partial seizures

Two thirds of the drug is excreted unchanged in the urine

TIAGABINE

was "rationally designed" as an inhibitor of GABA uptake

TIAGABINE inhibitor of GABA uptake in both neurons

and glia adjunctive treatment of partial seizures Minor adverse events are dose-related and

include: nervousness, dizziness, tremor, difficulty in

concentrating, and depression Rash is an uncommon idiosyncratic Food decreases the peak plasma

concentration The drug is oxidized in the liver by CYP3A

TOPIRAMATE

a substituted monosaccharide

TOPIRAMATE blocking of voltage-gated sodium channels potentiate the inhibitory effect of GABA depresses the excitatory action of kainate on glutamate

receptors effective against partial and generalized tonic-clonic

seizures has a broader spectrum, with effectiveness against:

Lennox-Gestaut syndrome West's syndrome absence seizures. approved for the treatment of migraine headaches

dose-related adverse effects include somnolence, fatigue, dizziness, cognitive slowing,

paresthesias, nervousness, and confusion Acute myopia and glaucoma Urolithiasis

ZONISAMIDE

a sulfonamide derivative site of action appears to be the

sodium channel act on voltage-gated calcium

channels

ZONISAMIDE

effective against partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures

useful against infantile spasms Adverse effects include:

drowsiness, cognitive impairment, and potentially serious skin rashes

DRUGS USED IN GENERALIZED SEIZURES

ETHOSUXIMIDE

Ethosuximide has an important effect on Ca2+ currents, reducing the low-threshold (T-type) current

ETHOSUXIMIDE is particularly effective against absence

seizures completely metabolized dose-related adverse effect of ethosuximide

is gastric distress including: pain, nausea, and vomiting

idiosyncratic adverse effects of ethosuximide are extremely uncommon

VALPROIC ACID & SODIUM VALPROATE

was found to have antiseizure properties when it was used as a solvent

VALPROATE: Mechanism of Action

Has an effect on Na+ currents Blockade of NMDA receptor-mediated

excitation is important the effects of valproate on GABA

facilitate glutamic acid decarboxylase inhibitory effect on the GABA transporter GAT-1 inhibits GABA transaminase

is a potent inhibitor of histone deacetylase

VALPROATE: Clinical Use

Very effective against absence seizures

The drug is effective in generalized tonic-clonic seizures

Effective in partial seizures Effective in management of bipolar

disorder and migraine prophylaxis

VALPROATE: Pharmacokinetics

Food may delay absorption 90% bound to plasma proteins Valproate also displaces phenytoin

from plasma proteins the metabolism of several drugs,

including: phenobarbital, phenytoin, and

carbamazepine

VALPROATE: Toxicity The most common dose-related

adverse effects are: nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and

heartburn weight gain, increased appetite, and

hair loss The idiosyncratic toxicity of valproate

is largely limited to hepatotoxicity thrombocytopenia

OTHER DRUGS USED IN MANAGEMENT OF EPILEPSY

BENZODIAZEPINES Diazepam

Effective against generalized tonic-clonic status epilepticus

Lorazepam appears to be more effective and longer-acting

Clonazepam effetive against absence seizures effective in some cases of myoclonic seizures

Limitations: sedative effect tolerance

ACETAZOLAMIDE inhibition of carbonic anhydrase Mild acidosis in the brain has been used for all types of seizures limited by the rapid development of

tolerance have a special role in epileptic women who

experience seizure exacerbations at the time of menses

CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY OF ANTISEIZURE DRUGS

Drug Effective Level (mcg/mL)

High Effective Level1(mcg/m

L)

Toxic Level (mcg/mL)

Carbamazepine 4-12 7 > 8

Primidone 5-15 10 < 12

Phenytoin 10-20 18 > 20

Phenobarbital 10-40 35 > 40

Ethosuximide 50-100 80 > 100

Valproate 50-100 80 > 100

Effective plasma levels of six antiseizure drugs

Special Aspects of the Toxicology of Antiseizure Drugs

Teratogenicity Withdrawal Overdose