Antiqueness and Coarseness_ Understanding Korean Aesthetics From the Perspective of Daoism

8/12/2019 Antiqueness and Coarseness_ Understanding Korean Aesthetics From the Perspective of Daoism

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ACTA KOR ZANA

VOL. 13, NO. 2 DECEMBER 2010: 101-122

AN TIQU ENE SS AN D COARSENESS

UNDERSTANDING KOREAN AESTHETICS

FROM TH E PERSPECTIVE OF DAOISM

By TSCHUNG-SUN KiM

During the last century, domestic and foreign scholars alike engaged in diverse

discourses on Korean aesthetics. However, the majority of these discussions did not

take place as part of specialized academic research, but rather consisted solely of

authors renderings of their intuitive judgment or individual impressions. Furthermore,

even when attempts were made to discuss theories relating to Korean aesthetics, themajority of these merely focused on the charactetistics of Korean arts, and in particular

craft items. As these discussions have been carded ou t within Hmited frameworks such

as those of the uniqueness or identity of Korean aesthetics, these have to some extent

becom e esoteric in nature.

As a result, the theory of Korean aesthetics could not overcome the existing

framework in which it emerged as a simple by-product in the study of Korean art

history. In this regard, there is a need to expand the sphere of the study of Korean

aesthetics by examining it from the standpoint of the wider culture known as

humanitarianism. Few examinations of Korean aesthetics as part of studies of ideo-

logical and religious notions such as those found in Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism,

or Shamanism, or even in everyday life, have been undertaken.

To this end this study intends to conduct a reanalysis from the standpoint ofDaoist philosophy, or more specifically, of the religious perspectives contained in

Daoism, so as to be able to relativize and generalize K orean aesthetics.

Keywords: Emptiness, Purity, Indifference, Virtuousness, Simplicity, Naivety, Antique-

ness and Coarseness, Daoism

INTRODUCTION

Although few studies have actuaHy bee n c on du cted , the majority have approac hed

Korean aesthetics from a unitary perspective. For example, while Yanagi



104 Acta Koreana Vol 13 No. 2 2010

Confucianism as being the result of the excessive emphasis on ren ( C , humanity),

which he contrasted, through acute satire, with the notion oi feiren ( ^ t , n on -

humanity), or the so-called non-artificial character of nature. As such, even

though it was devoid of any ascetic style, Laozi focused on this pristine culture as

the center of Daoist virtue. Viewed from the Daoist standpoint, refusal of the

traditional Confucian values of the time was a natural response.

To reach this rigid and 'revolutionary' goal of Daoism inevitably meant

excluding superficial knowledge and hypocritical morals, as weü as obscene

tendencies and artificial adornments. Laozi clearly understood how the values

which had been traditionally regarded as being sacred coexisted with othercontradictory values. Such coexistence was not able to be explained solely based

on linearly developed causality or temporal sequences. Laozi regarded the dyna-

mism of the latent power that existed in a detaüed fact as being composed of

phases that had mutual complicity between opposite values.

This can be Hkened to the fact that whüe pleasure and desire may conflict with

one another, they nevertheless simultaneously satisfy each other. One can find this

kind of example in simple handicraft works that do not harm anybody but are not

very useful in everyday life. Once they become works of art that exist outside of

the daüy realm, they are effectively transformed into things which provide joy tothe hum an senses. O nc e this pleasure has been awakened, on e starts to exp erience

an artistic impulse that can only be calmed down at a great cost, and thereafter

this process of awakening and attenuation is continuously repeated; therefore, the

possibuity of irregular forms such as artiess art, planning without planning,

coarseness, and asymmetry being regarded as aesthetics should be perceived as the

result of the harmonization of free wiü and the generation of spontaneousness.

In this regard, Ko's aesthetic expressions were created through the combination

of ironical and contradictory attributes such as those of desolate humor and

adult-Hke chüd that in turn ushered in new understandings of aesthetics.

1. PURITY AND IND IFFER EN CE

An analysis of the religious concept of purity from the standpoint of comparative

religion yields two interesting facts: the first is that purity is an attribute which,

whüe it can be found under the great stream of Dao, also represents the latter's

immutability. Furthermore, the purity can be perceived more actively based on

logical abstraction. The Dao De fing clearly states that Dao cannot be perceived

thro ug h th e hu m an senses alone, and can no t be caüed by a specific name.^ In fact.

^ The D ao that can be told is not the eternal Dao. Th e name that can be named is not the eternalName. ao De Jing Chapter 1.



Kim: Antiqueness and Coarseness 10 5

dao not only transcends all the human senses but also becomes the basis of beings

which cannot be objectified. This is different from Confucianism, in which tian

{^ heaven) is both objectified and personified as a visible being which is

perceived as a god. Dao can be envisioned as a higher and m ore p ure co nce pt than

tian. In other w ords, dao is perceived as nothingness (iS) or nonexistence (##? :) .

Here, we can see that Daoism has the capabiUty to make notions abstract. The

very soundness of the rituaUstic meaning of purity stems from the denial of the

notio ns associated with Confucianism and the refusal of aU no rm s and frame-

works.

Secondly, the clear definition of the moraUstic aspect of purity in daoeffectively prevents any misunderstanding. Victor von Strauss defined dao which

he identified as the e pit om e of purity, as 'loving aU beings in an unselfish

manner.'^ Nevertheless, it would be a misunderstanding to equate the unselfish-

ness of dao with the no tion of divine love found in Christianity. Whue the

Christian notion of divine love appUes to mankind, Laozi extends the appUcation

of unselfishness to 'aU bein gs'. T he Dao De Jing clearly objects to die fact that

heaven and earth stand for Menschenliebe (goodwill toward mankind), or ren {iZ

humanity) (Chapter 5). Rather, dao is wüUessness {Willenlosigkeil and impersonal. It

is a principle which is situated at the core of aU nature. Ens uring the com plete

purity of the meaning of dao as purity or 'unselfish love' only becomes possible

when dao emerges as something that is 'indifferent' to humans. Simultaneously, the

purity of dao only becomes possible when human's a ttachment to love is rem oved.

Zhuangzi beUeved that dao exists everywhere: It exists in crickets and ants; it exists

in common weeds; it exists in tiles and bricks; it exists in feces and urine.^ The

conclusion can also be reached that Zhuangzi refused even the ultimate fantasy,

namely that the universe exists only for the happin ess of man kind.

This 'indifference' of dao differs from the sensual pleasure or usefulness that

draws us to focus on the very existence of a being, and from a judgment that is

based on a moral good. The existence of a being is not important. What isimportant is how the being can be judged based on simple contemplations. Beauty

can be differentiated from on e's attach m ent to a certain object or one's desires vis-

à-vis the said object. It is an 'indifferent' and unintended satisfaction that arises

when a person can judge an object or expression method without any interest in

^ Kwok-ying LAU, To What Extent Can Phen omenology Do Justice to Chinese Philosophy?

http://www.google.co.kr/search?complete=l&hl=ko&newwindow=l&rlz=lT4ADBR_koKR267

KR272&q=Victor+Strauss-l-Dao&lr=&aq=f

•̂ Zbuang^d Chapter 22:5.



106 Acta Koreana Vol 13 No. 2 2010

the object in and of itself As such, the object of satisfaction is simply regarded as

'beautiful'.^ Strau ss said th at dao was not only divine but also solemn.'

WhHe I do not deny that the notion of dao is one that has long been known to

Asians, including adherents of Confucianism, let us assume that the phHosophical

actuaHty of Laozi's teaching was related to rational thought, which in turn is based

on human awareness of the universe. Such limits are important given that dao also

'humanizes' nature in its own way, and as such cannot be fuHy separated from the

notion of personification. Of course, dao to som e extent encom passes bo th a

psychological and physical character, and as a result, people may perceive this

nature as a personified projection. However, there is a one clear difference.According to Laozi, human's conscious behavior cannot aspire to reach the level

attained by the unconscious processes of nature. As such, nature and dao always

exist beyond the realm of the hu m an wHl.

Ko Yusöp's introduction of the main concept of modern aesthetics of

'indifference' from the West into the dialogue raised the possibiHty of exploring

the Korean aesthetic consciousness and its characteristics. In this regards. Ko can

be said to have sought to draw Korean aesthetics into the universal language

(aesthetic universaHty) by trying to bring about a global consensus on the Korean

aesthetic consciousness.'

2. VIRTUOUSNESS A ND SIMPLICITY

Let us take a look at the term te (iê, virtue) that appears second in the title of

Laozi's work Dao De fing Dao e fing can be said to deal not only with the dao of

nature, but also with the virtue of nature (í^'lí, dexin^. The concept of the

unconscious and spontaneous character of nature's virtuous processes may be

hard to understand for modern Westerners accustomed to the notion of Kantian

ethics. Although the interests of these two philosophers would on the surface

app ear t o be different, a closer look reveals several sknHarities. Laozi's beHef thatthe principle of dao m ust inevitably b e foHowed is, in man y regard s, c ons isten t

with Kant's philosophy that moral 'obHgations' should be unconditionaHy obeyed.

Ho we ver, whHe the fulfillment o f K ant 's definition o f g oo d wiH is de term ine d by

the logical and spontaneous determination of the thinker, Laozi's concept of

virtue can only be achieved when human wHl has been done away with as a whole.

8 Immanuel Kant, Kritik der Urteilskrafi Koenemarm. 1999. p. 17.

' This inspiration is not necessarily unfounded if we perceive 'god' or 'divinity' as appendages ofDao. It was based on this distinction that Strauss accepted the concept of ao desctibed in C hapter

25 of the ao e

Jing One of Strauss' main oversights, however, is that he effectively personifieddao by elevating it to the status of main actor.10 K im Im su, ibid., p. 95.



Kim: ntiqueness and Coarseness 107

As such, the narrowing down of the profound gap that exists between the

posidons of these two phüosophers is no simple task.

In Daoism, the highest level of virtue is caUed ivmvei ( ^ ^ , a cdon w i thou t

acdon or effordess doing). Although wuim is usuaUy translated as 'acdon without

acdon, ' i t should in fact be understood to mean a 'complete action. ' Such

complete acdons do not involve any conscious efforts. A complete acdon in the

truest sense of the word is only possible within dao. Regardless of ho w perfect

one's acdons may seem, they can only be said to have achieved a certain degree of

virtuousness. Laozi used human characterisdcs such as 'removal of desire ' ,

'simpUcity', 'humbleness', and 'chüdUkeness' to explain dao and its fundamentalnature . Whue dao is sometimes described as the emodonal abiUty to 'feel happy'

(Chapter 23), this can in fact be regarded as moraUzadon through the use of

me tapho rs, and should n ot be perceived as being in any way related to th e p erso n-

ificadon of dao. The simpUcity that animates dao can be regarded as an exceUent

embodiment of dao as a wh ole. Th is is beca use this simpUcity can b e fo un d in

different forms and patterns in everything, whether it be chüdren, sages, or ardsdc

works.

M uch as is the case with the origins of aU civüizadons, the perc ep do n of the

world in Asia was formed based on ritual frameworks. Here, it is necessary tomake clear that the aesthedc experiences of Asia were based on percepdons of

the world. The formadon of the frameworks for nature and the world naturally

resulted in some elements being regarded as sacred and others as taboo. Much as

was the case with the ancient Greeks, ancient Asians did not possess a pure

aesthedc atdtude, or the mind set of viewing the beauty of an item for wh at it was.

The beauty of nature was not distinguished from nature itself for the mere

purpose of aesthedc appreciadon. Simüarly, the beauty of an ardstic work was

regarded as an element of that pardcular item's usefulness or efficiency. The

usefulness of this art was subjugated to a sacred, natural, and holy order. The

reladonship between the natural order and art is one that must inevitably be fiUedwith tension. Laozi regarded the essence of art as originating from man's unjust

interference with nature.

The story of Prometheus found in Greek mythology provides interesting

insight into the origins of art. An cient G reek s regarded a rt as being part of the

nodon o f techne or technical knowledge. In other words, they perceived art as an

inclusive producdon acdvity that can be labeled as craft or skül (cunning). R. G.

CoUingwood's definido n of art is on e that is clear eno ugh to be un de rsto od by aU.

CoUingwood defined the Greek idea of techne as the pow er to prod uce a



108 Acta oreana Vol 13 No. 2 2010

preconceived result by means of consciously controUed and directed action.

Directiy relating this notion of techne to the mythical asp ect reveals man y

simüarities with the origins of the Daoist notion of art, and provides us with a

better understanding of the ritual background thereof The details and refinement

associated with the myth of Prometheus inescapably leads us to focus on its very

plasticity. However, in Daoism, one cannot find any heroic images which can be

evoked by die mere mention of names. Whüe there are no such adornments

based on imagination in Daoism, a look at ancient texts makes amply evident the

simple clarity that exists in terms of the tension between the Daoist order and

human wül. In this regard, the Dao De Jing clearly states:

When a block of wood is carved, it becomes useful.'^

An unrefined block of wood can be regarded as another expression of dao. This

unrefined block of wood can be regarded as being endowed with such

characteristics as coarseness, simpUcity, artiessness, and unselfishness. On the

other hand, the Chinese character, qi (H) is used to refer to a tool, instrument,

utensü, or apparatus. This character also connotes a certain talent, abüit}', or

capacity, and an object or person that possesses such abüity or capacity. Whüe ablock of wood can be compared to dao and the divine ord er, a utensü can be

compared to artificial production and the technical intrusion of nature. Thus, the

block of wood and the utensü, and dao an d artificial skills, can be re ga rde d as

forming clearly contradictory notions.

When wisdom and intelligence are born, the great pretense begins.'^It is more im portant to see the simpUcity, to reaUze one's true nature .

To cast off selfishness and temper desire.'''

Let us compare this with the notion of taboo found in the Hebrew world as it isdescribed in the Old Testament.

If you make me an altar of stone, you shall not build it of hewn stones, forif you wield your tool on it you profane it.'5

» B. G. Collingwood, Th e Prindptes of Art Oxford , 1939, p. 15.

12 Dao De Jing Chapter 28.

'3 Dao De Jing Chapter 18. * DöoD e/ /«g, Chapter 19.

'5 Otd Testament Exodus 20:25.



Kim: ntiqueness a nd Coarseness 1 9

A notion of taboo simüar to the one found above is evident in another Daoistbook, namely Zhuangzi 's Nan Hua Zhen fing (^¥Ä,@, True Classic of SouthernFlorescence). Here, we find a story of a farmer touing away in his garden. Afterhaving dug a weü, he proceeded to carry the water back in a smaü jar so that hecould irrigate his garden. Whüe he was working hard, he had littie to show for hisefforts. A Confucian scholar (Zi Gong) who was passing by the garden showedhim how to use a machine (weü-bucket) which aüowed him to effectively waterthe garden, required littie effort, but provided great results. The farmer gave him adirt)' look and said:

I've heard from my master that those who possess machines must end upbecoming mechanical in their affairs. Those who are mechanical in theiraffairs must end up becoming mechanical in their hearts and minds. If amechanical heart is situated in one's chest, then one can't prepare oneselfto receive pure simplicity. If one can't be prepared to receive pure sim-plicity then the spirit becomes unsettled, and Dao has no place to enter. It'snot that I wasn't aware of such machines, but that it would be disgracefulto end up that way. '

This Daoist fable is concerned with the purity of the human mind. Meanwhüe,the above-mentioned entry from the Old Testament does not directiy mention thehuman soul, but rather refers to the profaning of an altar of stone. Both cases,nonetheless, are based on the assumption of the purity of the human soul and thedivinity of nature. The machine referred to in the Nan Hua Zhen Jing and the toolmentioned in the Old Testament represent artificial and unnatural apparatus. Theuse of such apparatus is revealed to be negative both in term s of the hum an mindand an external phenomenon. However, there is a difference between these twobooks; more to the point, whüe the tool in the Old Testament passage refers to aspecific object sacrificed to God, the machine in the Nan Hua Zhen fing is meant

to symbolize the position of au natural beings. Laozi continuously raisedobjections to what he regarded as the damage being done to nature. That beingthe case, how can true artistic actuality survive in a world where all things areregarded as taboo?

Laozi's criticism of civilization emerged at a time when human knowledge andethics had already reached a certain level of development. Viewed from the stand-point of the Daoist School, the more knowledge and ethics develop, the furtheraway from dao man becomes. It is highly unlikely that the farmer who refused touse the 'machine (weü-bucket) ' was a country bumpkin who had never heard



/10 Acta oreana Vol 13 No. 2 2010

about such 'new' machines before. Likewise, although Laozi admired a desireless

Utopia, it was not because he perceived the people who populated this utopia as

being perm anen dy ignorant, bu t rather that, Th oug h they have boats and

carriages, no one uses them. '^ This should not be regarded as caUs for a return

to the primitive stage, but rather movement towards a state in which the circle of

development has completed one full turn. Based on this maturity, Laozi tried to

highUght his admiration for the richness of simpUcity.

3 . REMO V AL O F SELF- C O N SC I O U SN ESS

According to Plato, techne or civiUzation was not something that had been taken

from the gods through violence or other machinations, but rather a gift from

'nature' that had been granted to human beings. Based on this interpretation,

Plato can be perceived as having accepted the notion that the human wiU

controUed nature. Viewed from Plato's stand-point, the origins of the secular-

ization of nature could be traced back to human's arrogan ce, but this did no t p ose

any serious problem s.

O n the other han d, Laozi steadily refused to accept the carving of a block of

wood, and this even when such a block had already been carved. The foüowing

universal ethical theory is also taken from Chapter 28 of the Dao De Jing.

When the sage uses it, he becomes the ruler. Thus , a great tailor cuts Uttle.'̂

Harmful results can be expected when any implement, regardless of whether it is

a tool, object, or personal ability, faUs into the hands of a fool who uses them to

fulfill his own personal desires. Here, implement can also be taken to mean laws,

regulations, and ruUng structure. A virtuous ruler does not appear to be using

such implements even when he actuaUy is. Along the same Unes, although he may

have m astered aU the technical principles, a truly capable ma n or tru e artist ne ver

leaves behind any hint that he personaUy interfered in his action or art work.

A good walker leaves no tracks;

A good speaker makes no slips;

A good reckoner needs no tally.

A good door needs no lock.

Yet no one can open it.

Good binding requires no knots.

Yet no one can loosen it.i'

Dao De Jing Chapter 80.

Dao De Jing Chapter 28 .



Kim: ntiqueness and Coarseness / / /

Here, Laozi can be regarded as discussing the mastery of a skiH, or what we can

refer to as technical abHity. Even tiien, Laozi did not regard such 'skHls' as being a

sort of cunning ' technical ' craftiness that must be stamped out because it cannot

be reconcHed with a pure mkid. Rather, technical abHity was highly admired, and

even raised to the status of virtue. WhHe virtue (fê) was originaHy defined as

'usefukiess' or 'exceHence,' it subsequentiy acquired an ethical meaning. What is

more Hnportant here is the behavior that should be abandoned. This behavior can

be identified as the remo val of aH traces of p erso nal interv entio n in the crea tion

of an art work by excluding a artificial interferences added to the work.

As such, a good artist does not attach his signature to his works. In other

words, he must not leave behind any traces of die sweat and strenuous efforts he

made to create his work. The tools and methods used to achieve the results are

neither subjectively controHed, nor objectively analyzed. This secret creates an

unsolvable riddle. Let us take a closer look at this issue through the story of Pao

Ding, who butchered cattie for King Wen Hui, found ki the Zhuang^i

Pao Ding butchered catde for King Wen-hui. Every time his hands madecontact, every dme his shoulder leaned against something, every dme hisfeet moved, every dme his knees touched down, the sounds hua hua, the

swish of his knife—none failed to fit the notes and all were synchrotiizedwith the Sang-Hn dance and hit the meter on the Jing-shou music. KingWen Hui said: "Wonderful Th at is good How could skiH possibly reachthis level?"

Pao Ding pu t down his knife and responded: "Th e Way is what I love, andso I have approached being skillful. In the beginning, when I was butcher-ing a cow, a I saw was the complete cow. After three years, I no longer sawthe whole cow. And in more recent times your servant uses his spirit toencounter the cow rather than using his eyes to look at it. Sense awarenessceases, and the spirit drives itself forward. It depends on natural patterns to

cleave the great gaps and junctures. It is guided by the great gaps. It basesitself on w hat is soHdly there. Given that, the smaH and large blood vessels,muscle attachments, and joints aH are never even the sHghtest hindrance,how much the less could the large skeletal parts be a hindrance?

A good butcher switches knifes ever year because he slices. A run of themill butcher changes knives ever month because he hacks. As of now Ihave used this knife for nineteen years and have butchered several thousandcows, but the edge of this knife is just as though it had been newly takenfrom the whetstone. In the joints between bones there are interstices, andthe leading edge of the knife has no thickness. When something with no

1» Dao De Jing Chapter 27 .



/12 Arta oreana Vol 13 No. 2 2010

thickness in inserted into an interstice, there must be leeway for tbe

maneuvering knife edge. Tbat is tbe reason that after nineteen years this

edge is as though it had just come off tbe whetstone.

Even so, every time I come to a dgbt spot, I see that this will be bard to

do, and I apprehensively guard against dangers. My vision ceases and my

motions slow. I move my knife in minute increments and then with a

wboosh it falls in to two pieces, yet it faUs to earth like a clod of dirt. I raise

my knife and stand up. Having accompUshed this task I look around in all

four direcdons. Having done this, I self-assuredly feel a sense of accom-

pUsbment. I clean my knife and put it away. 20

The story presented above clearly iUustrates the difference between technical skiUs

and Daoist mastery Whue the butcher was not a dieorist , his story moved from a

subjecdve prem ise to an objective descrip tion of the state of his skuls. T h e true

meaning of this story could not have been grasped had die butcher 'consciously'

used scientifically objectified perceptions of anatomy. Likewise, treating cattie in a

cold, selfish, and self-conscious manner would have become a hindrance for the

butcher in his attempts to develop an internal approach. That being said, die

butcher's comprehensive understanding of the anatomy of catde should be per-

ceived as not having originated from his studies, but rather from his open mind.The years that were required to reach this state should be regarded as having been

spent bringing about the removal of self-consciousness rather dian attempting to

master the skül of wielding a knife. For, once he reached die state of self

effacement, the butcher was able to unconsciously use his knife in the interstices

between the bones and muscles.

This can be considered as an exceUent picturesque expression of dao.

Operating under the state of wuwei (MM , action withou t action or effordess

doing) the butcher was thus able to accompUsh his job using refined skuls, and

with minimal usage of his knife edge. Furthermore, although he may have

externaUy appeared to be using his knife in an anatomical manner, the butcher was

actuaUy mak ing use of 'natural patte rn s' that were based on the secretive law of

dao. Pu t differendy, diese 'natur al pa tter ns ' can be identified as an anatomicaUy

perceivable form of dao.

As the technique mean ing great abiUty in Dao ism eman ates from experience,

the only way it can be learned is through the accumtüation of experience. This

cannot be achieved simply dirough die soul; radier it occurs when physical

mechanisms are harmonized with the law of technique. The condition that had to

be reached in order for the butcher to go beyond simple 'skuls' and reach dao was



Kim: ntiqueness and Coarseness / 1 3

the sublation of the ego. Th is should no t be perceived as mysticism, but rather as

the first stage towards thoroughly excluding subjective prejudices based on rigid

principles. The foundation for the move towards becoming an objective being

can be identified as Laozi s U beration of dao from the symboUsm of the

personified tian (heaven).

Expanding on this issue first raised by Laozi, Zhuangzi stated that aesthetic

judgment was nothing more than human prejudice, and that as a result , such

aesthetic judgment was inherentiy relative in that different reactions would occur

when an item was viewed through other eyes or with different senses. Artists, in

the Daoist sense of the word, are not interested in fabricated works created based

on human arbitrariness. Rather, creativity is regarded as having been achieved

when an artist seeks to mimic nature as it exists whue he is in a state in which the

human wül has been overcome. Daoism promotes an affinity towards clumsy and

unrefined-looking works, and does not perceive luxuriously adorned items as

being beautiful. Nature is simple; it is never excessive or wanting. However,

viewed from the standpoint of Daoist aesthetics, an artwork can be differentiated

from such natural things. In odier words, such artworks would at die very least be

characterized by vestiges of technical perfection . Th e beaut)^ of art from the

standpoint of aesthetics can be defined as being rooted in simpUcity and coarse-ness. Technical refinement should not be understood as being the defining

element in terms of Daoist art. Rather, the focus should be on die reUgious and

ritual values that can found in such simpUcity and coarseness. However, the

intentional pursuit of imperfectness must be regarded as a corruptive and

diseased art form. As the senses in Daoist phüosophy should be geared towards

the sublimity of nature, such an intentional pursuit can be equated to the

asymmetrical transformation of nature through the placing of unnatural make-up.

4. UNIVERSAL CYCLE AN D NAIVETY

The concept of imperfection does not indicate an absence of form, or the passive

acceptance of nature as it is. Instead, it is as an element that can be transformed

into a possibüity, and noth ingn ess and em ptiness into potential Gestaltungs

elemente. In order to clarify this active function of imperfection, it is necessary to

clearly define the me aning of the con tent and relationship inheren t in the

notion of simpUcity. Whüe nothingness and emptiness can be taken to mean

simp le whe n viewed from the standpoin t of co ntent, they should be un ders tood

to mean openness when viewed from the vantage point of relationships.

However, pure aesthetic separation cannot be appUed in Daoism. As is

evidenced in the case of the block of wood, simpUcity, which is one of the main

characteristics of aesthetics, is difficult to perceive. The ethical attributes of



/14 Acta Koreana Vol 13 , No. 2,2010

simplicity, like humbleness and non-avarice, coexist with characteristics such asthe aüusiveness of colors and the wa rm th of the material. D aoism is bo th abstractin a sensory manner and, much like a block of wood or water (another symbol ofdao , contextuaüy m on oto no us in terms of color and structure. The refore, thesematerials remain neutral as long as their inherent characters are not activated in anethical man ner. Th is is no t a question of com fort, or the lack thereof Rather,much as is the case with musical intervals, the issue becomes more complex whenone asks that figures and time be perceived based on the simpUcity that stands atthe core of pure relationships. The same line of reasoning can also be applied to

the blank spaces on a painting, or to the story line of a novel which ends withoutany proper conclusion. However, the task becomes much more complicated whenwe attempt to analyze feelings or logical thinking in this manner.

That being said, au discussions of the structural role played by empty spacesin Asian paintings that have been carried out in the modern era have includedmention of the teachings of Laozi. Here, attention should be paid to the foüow-ing frequently cited passages:

Thirty spokes share the wheel's hub ;

It is the center hole that makes it useful.Shape clay into a vessel;It is the space within that makes it useful.^i

Empty spaces should not be perceived as the absence of perfection, but radier asplaying a decisive role that aüows the remaining parts to function. This can belikened to Laozi 's concept of the center hole of the wheel. The absence of a partof a mosaic does not mean that the mosaic is actuaüy missing a piece, but ratherthat room which complements the mosaic as a whole has been created. This canbe compared to the concept of hwaryong chömjöng (StIiÄB f), which can be

defined as putting the final touches needed to give life to a dragon in a picture,thereby enlivening it to the point that it almost appears as if it were ready to flyoff into the sky The closed nature of the completed form known as a circlemakes it mechanical and cold, and prevents the possibuity of any contiguity.However, an incomplete circle can create the impression of motion, animpression that is created because the overaü circle has been rendered unsteady bythe imperfection. Daoist phüosophy does not regard being and nothingness, andemptiness and fullness as a fixed contradiction.



K i m : ntiqueness a nd Coarseness 11 5

Bend and be straight; Empty and be full;22

Th ro ug h selfless acdo n, he attains fulfillment.23

Imperfection can be regarded as an expression of the intricate mutual compUcit}

that exists between fuUness and emptiness. This can be Ukened to the discovery by

ancient people of the mutual relationship between the principles oí yin a n d yang

SimpUcity should not be construed as meaning a sense of Ufelessness that has

been created by its fixed nature. Rather, simpUcity is partitioned so that it can

appear in various forms. This can be understood as the basic universal insight that

prevailed in ancient Asia. Based on this universal insight, simpUcity, as viewedfrom the standpoint of Daoist aesthetics, effectively becomes an endless source

of artistic creativit} . Th is impUes tha t an imp erfect wo rk has m or e and greater

potential than a perfect, great work, in that the former has not yet reached its fuU

capacity. For exam ple, one feels a greater sense of attach m ent to M ichelangelo s

incom plete Pieta than to his completed paintings.

How ever, should one assume that the aesthetic notion of imperfection found

in Daoism constitutes the ultimate goal of art? Of course not. Daoism is not

concerned with the question of whether history can develop indefinitely based on

the principle of hope. Rather, Daoism revolves around the beUef that everything

within the universe has a cycle. In Daoism, simpUcity impUes something dynamic

and the possibility for further development, but the task of estabUshing goals, and

then includ ing aU oth er thing s within that framework, is regarded as being an

impossible one. This is because the abiUty to go back to the original state, or that

of nature, is regarded as one of the basic principles of the Daoist theory of the

universe. The notion that humans can freely estabUsh goals infers that they can

also set up the rules for creating arts and visually produce the essence of beauty.

Bu t this is only possible when the artist is a true genius. Furth erm ore , this conc ept

also runs contrary to nature. Nature does not need to estabUsh goals; it is already

end ow ed with it own me aning and is organicaUy related to aU Ufe forms.If we assum e the universal cycle as a basis, the n th e ritual values of simpUcity

can easily be transferred to aesthetic values. Longevity can be regarded as the key

reason why certain things found in nature have been regarded as being divine or

have been worshiped. However, such longevity is not automaticaUy bestowed

upon elements of nature such as trees or humans. Rather, something made it

possible for them to survive the ups and downs of Ufe. A specific skul or wisdom

is n ot required to reach such longevit} . Alth ou gh longevit} is som ethin g th at is

subconsciously enjoyed, it should also be regarded as a value or ability. Rather

2 2 D a o D e J i n g C h a p t e r 2 2

2 3 D a o D e Jing Chapter 7.



/16 Acta oreana Vol 13 , No. 2, 2010

than regarding the achievement of longevity as a virtue in an active sense, Daoism

envisions this longevity as the result of the presence of a certain deficiency, or put

differentiy, needlessness or uselessness.

A tree which has no usefulness for anything is able to grow w itho ut ever be ing

cut by an axe. This can be Hkened to an ordinary man who is able to Hve out his

natural Hfe span by avoiding the risks associated w ith war or poHtics. View ed from

the standpoint of these shifts and changes of Hfe, it becomes evident that another

aesthetic value can be obtained when we ignore the ethical impHcations of

longevity. This value arises when we apply the above-mentioned cycle to the scope

of sknpHcity. More to the point, it is necessary to relate coarseness and unrefine-ment, which is contrary to the concept of beauty, to the longevity of man. This

notion of coarseness and unrefinement can be appHed not only to old men, but

also to chHdren. Infants are in actuaHty the ones who are best suited to preserve

naivety and simpHcity. The process of growth can be regarded as the process of

graduaHy losing one's naivety. However, Laozi describes 'a Httie chHd with dao

(chapter 28) as an old man who has returned to his primal self A man who

obtains advanced wisdom and true freedom as he gets old can in effect be said to

have regained the innocence and naivety he possessed as a chHd. As such, the start

and end are connected through the cycle of Hfe.

5. KOJOLM I {^^^): BEAUTY OF AN TIQUEN ESSAND COARSENESS

We have so far indentified incompleteness as a structural function of 'emptiness'

and 'nothingness,' and perceived it as something which has the 'possibiHty of

being fHled.' Nevertheless, such possibiHty is in reaHty nothing more than an

impHcation. Let us now analyze Ko Yusöp's definition of 'incompleteness', or

what can be referred to as coarseness and unrefinement. He introduced a unique

concept caHed kojolmi, which can be defined as the beauty of antiqueness andunsophistication.^' ' How ever, K o does no t mentio n wh ethe r his definition of this

concept was influenced by Daoism. Although it is clear that Daoism influenced

his thought, it is impossible to separate Daoism from other thoughts. This is

because Daoism has over the course of history been meshed with other schools

of thought.

In this sense, we can compare the Korean concept of kojol which is based on

the Daois t experience, to Japane se Budd hist aesthetics. O ne of the mos t frequent-

2 * Ko Yusöp, 1993, Han 'guk misulsa kùp mihak non'go (Analysis of the History of the

Aesthetics of Korean Art) Ko Yusöp sönjip (Collection of Ko Yusöp's works). Book 3 of 4,

T'ongmun'gwan.



/18 Arta Koreana Vol 13 No. 2 2010

Whüe beUeving that the facial expressions of Chinese Buddhist statues were

depicted in a manner meant to create a sense of the sublime and loftiness. Ko

Yusöp described Korean Buddhist statues as foUows:

The simplicity, naivety, and generous dose of coarseness evident in the

facial expressions on Korean Buddhist statues are intricately related to

clumsy postures and imperfect shapes. It is through such means that the

sense of desolate humor associated with Korean Buddhist statues is created.

Using such methods, Buddhist statues are able to express the characterisdcs

of a child or adultUke

The harmony that exists between the maturity of the elderly and chüdUke naivety

can be regarded as a key example of the concept of kojol. The features of a chüd

awash in a smüe and the imperfect features that exist at the other extreme can be

understood as playing the role of props where the concept of incompleteness is

concerned. On the other hand, the concept of sabi is one that evokes a sense of

perfect purity. Although it contains elements of resignation, it is nevertheless

laden with a certain haughty attitude.

This haughty attitude is evident in the stillness and tranquüity found in

Japanese gardens. Japanese garden s almo st look as if wh üe covered with w hite

sand, concentrated efforts have been made to carefully erase the footprints that

have emerged on this white sand. Whüe Chinese gardens are artificially created

and Japanese gardens can be said to drag nature into the backyard of a house as

part of prétentions of the ownership of nature, the ideal Korean garden is one

which returns to simpUcity and naivety.(^liíS'í^: Dao De Jing Chapter 28)^^

Ko Yusöp identified the sUghdy hesitant posture and contorted features of

Korean Buddhist statues as being typical characteristics of the concept of kojolmi.

These characteristics are also on display in Korean pottery, as weU as tiger

paintings. Whüe Japanese painters depicted tigers in a refmed and realistic manner,Korean painters portrayed the tiger using chüdlike expressions and even a smüe.

WTiüe beauty is generally associated with a completed shape, Korean aesthetics are

based on a transfor ma tion. Nevertheless, the transform ation evident in Ko rean

Buddhist statues and pottery pieces is never intentionaUy created. Rather, the zest

of Korean aesthetics is created when a vague and sUght accent is added to the

possibiUty of 'such a unique' shape.

Ko Yusöp, ibid.



120 Ada oreana Vol 13 No. 2 2010

schematized in the mo de rn era. Viewed from the standp oint .of Dao ist aesthetics,a frank and immediate reaction to this era can be either a sense of sorrow or awarm smue. In this sense, naivety can be regarded as the abiUty to return fromseriousness to naturalness. This level is one that can also be experienced by anenlightened child. An art work which pursues naivety should not be quibbled overusing artistic perfection as the standard. This is because such a piece has alreadymoved beyond artistic perfection to take on reUgious characteristics. Such anassertion can be Unked to K o Yusöp's claim that, Trad itional Ko rea n art wasbased on a folkloric style in which no separation existed between reUgion, every

day Ufe, and art. ^°

Submitted: August 1, 2010Sent for revision: August 10, 2010Accepted: Novem ber 15, 2010

TSCHUNG-SUN K I M ( t [email protected] .k r ) is an associate professor in the Depa rtment of

Korean Studies Keimyun g University

Tran slated by M ICHAEL BUJOLD and YOUÑG-KI YOU

Kim Imsu, ibid., re-quoted.



Kim: Antiqueness and Coarseness 12 1

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