Anti-diabetic medication Dari Wikipedia, ensiklopedia bebas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Langsung ke: navigasi , cari Jump to: navigation , search

Obat-obat anti-diabetes mengobati diabetes mellitus dengan menurunkan glukosa kadar dalam darah. Anti-diabetic medications treat diabetes mellitus by lowering glucose levels in the blood. Dengan pengecualian dari insulin , exenatide , dan pramlintide , semua diberikan secara lisan dan dengan demikian juga disebut agen hipoglikemik oral atau agen antihyperglycemic lisan. With the exceptions of insulin , exenatide , and pramlintide , all are administered orally and are thus also called oral hypoglycemic agents or oral antihyperglycemic agents . Ada kelas yang berbeda dari obat anti-diabetes, dan pemilihan mereka tergantung pada sifat dari usia, diabetes dan keadaan orang tersebut, serta faktor lainnya. There are different classes of anti-diabetic drugs, and their selection depends on the nature of the diabetes, age and situation of the person, as well as other factors.

Diabetes mellitus tipe 1 adalah penyakit yang disebabkan oleh kekurangan insulin. Diabetes mellitus type 1 is a disease caused by the lack of insulin. Insulin harus digunakan dalam Tipe I, yang harus disuntikkan. Insulin must be used in Type I, which must be injected.

Diabetes mellitus tipe 2 adalah penyakit resistensi insulin oleh sel. Diabetes mellitus type 2 is a disease of insulin resistance by cells. Pengobatan meliputi (1) agen yang meningkatkan jumlah insulin yang disekresikan oleh pankreas, (2) agen yang meningkatkan sensitivitas target organ terhadap insulin, dan (3) agen yang mengurangi tingkat di mana glukosa diserap dari saluran pencernaan. Treatments include (1) agents which increase the amount of insulin secreted by the pancreas, (2) agents which increase the sensitivity of target organs to insulin, and (3) agents which decrease the rate at which glucose is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract.

Beberapa kelompok obat-obatan, sebagian besar diberikan melalui mulut, efektif dalam Tipe II, sering dalam kombinasi. Several groups of drugs, mostly given by mouth, are effective in Type II, often in combination. Kombinasi terapi dalam Tipe II dapat mencakup insulin, belum tentu karena agen oral telah gagal sepenuhnya, tetapi dalam mencari kombinasi efek yang diinginkan. The therapeutic combination in Type II may include insulin, not necessarily because oral agents have failed completely, but in search of a desired combination of effects. Keuntungan besar insulin disuntikkan dalam Tipe II adalah bahwa pasien terdidik dapat menyesuaikan dosis, atau bahkan mengambil dosis tambahan, saat kadar glukosa darah diukur oleh pasien, biasanya dengan meter yang sederhana, sesuai kebutuhan dengan jumlah gula yang diukur dalam darah. The great advantage of injected insulin in Type II is that a well-educated patient can adjust the dose, or even take additional doses, when blood glucose levels measured by the patient, usually with a simple meter, as needed by the measured amount of sugar in the blood.

Isi Contents

1 Insulin 1 Insulin 2 sekretagog 2 Secretagogues

o 2.1 Sulfonylureas 2.1 Sulfonylureas o 2.2 Nonsulfonylurea sekretagog 2.2 Nonsulfonylurea secretagogues

2.2.1 meglitinides 2.2.1 Meglitinides 3 sensitizers 3 Sensitizers

o 3.1 Biguanides 3.1 Biguanides o 3.2 thiazolidinediones 3.2 Thiazolidinediones

4 Alpha-glukosidase inhibitor 4 Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors 5 Peptida analog 5 Peptide analogs

o 5.1 Incretin mimetics 5.1 Incretin mimetics 5.1.1 seperti Glukagon peptida (GLP) analog dan agonis 5.1.1 Glucagon-

like peptide (GLP) analogs and agonists 5.1.2 Lambung hambat peptida (GIP) analog 5.1.2 Gastric inhibitory

peptide (GIP) analogs 5.1.3 analog peptida injeksi 5.1.3 Injectable peptide analogs

o 5.2 amylin analog 5.2 Amylin analogues 6 Eksperimental agen 6 Experimental agents 7 Pengobatan alternatif 7 Alternative medicine

o 7.1 Cassia 7.1 Cassia o 7.2 Kromium dan suplemen vanadium 7.2 Chromium and vanadium

supplementation o 7.3 pengobatan tradisional berbasis tanaman 7.3 Traditional plant-based treatments o 7.4 Obat jamur 7.4 Medicinal fungi

8 Catatan 8 Notes 9 Referensi 9 References

[ sunting ] Insulin [ edit ] Insulin

Artikel utama: insulin Main article: insulin

Insulin biasanya diberikan subkutan , baik dengan suntikan atau dengan suatu pompa insulin . Insulin is usually given subcutaneously , either by injections or by an insulin pump . Penelitian sedang berlangsung rute lainnya administrasi. Research is underway of other routes of administration. Dalam pengaturan perawatan akut, insulin mungkin juga diberikan infus. In acute care settings, insulin may also be given intravenously. Ada beberapa jenis insulin, ditandai dengan laju yang mereka dimetabolisme oleh tubuh. There are several types of insulin, characterized by the rate which they are metabolized by the body.

[ sunting ] sekretagog [ edit ] Secretagogues

[ sunting ] Sulfonylureas [ edit ] Sulfonylureas

Artikel utama: sulfonilurea Main article: Sulfonylurea

Sulfonilurea adalah yang digunakan pertama kali secara luas obat-obat anti-hyperglycaemic oral. Sulfonylureas were the first widely used oral anti-hyperglycaemic medications. Mereka adalah insulin sekretagog , memicu pelepasan insulin dengan aksi langsung pada saluran ATP K dari pankreas sel beta . They are insulin secretagogues , triggering insulin release by direct action on the K ATP channel of the pancreatic beta cells . Delapan jenis pil ini telah dipasarkan di Amerika Utara, namun tidak semua tetap tersedia. Eight types of these pills have been marketed in North America, but not all remain available. The "generasi kedua" obat sekarang lebih umum digunakan. The "second-generation" drugs are now more commonly used. Mereka lebih efektif dibandingkan obat generasi pertama dan memiliki efek samping yang lebih sedikit. They are more effective than first-generation drugs and have fewer side effects. Semua dapat menyebabkan kenaikan berat badan. All may cause weight gain.

Sulfonylureas mengikat kuat untuk protein plasma . Sulfonylureas bind strongly to plasma proteins . Sulfonilurea hanya berguna pada diabetes Tipe II, karena mereka bekerja dengan merangsang pelepasan insulin endogen. Sulfonylureas are only useful in Type II diabetes, as they work by stimulating endogenous release of insulin. Mereka bekerja terbaik dengan pasien lebih dari 40 tahun, yang memiliki diabetes mellitus untuk di bawah sepuluh tahun. They work best with patients over 40 years old, who have had diabetes mellitus for under ten years. Mereka tidak dapat digunakan dengan diabetes tipe I, atau diabetes kehamilan. They can not be used with type I diabetes, or diabetes of pregnancy. Mereka dapat dengan aman digunakan dengan metformin atau-glitazones. They can be safely used with metformin or -glitazones. Efek samping utama adalah hipoglikemia . The primary side effect is hypoglycemia .

pengurangan Khas di A1C nilai untuk sulfonilurea generasi kedua adalah 1,0-2,0%. Typical reductions in A1C values for second generation sulfonylureas are 1.0-2.0%.

Generasi pertama agen First-generation agents o tolbutamid (Orinase) tolbutamide (Orinase) o acetohexamide (Dymelor) acetohexamide (Dymelor) o tolazamide (Tolinase) tolazamide (Tolinase) o klorpropamid (Diabinese) chlorpropamide (Diabinese)

Generasi kedua agen Second-generation agents o Glipizide (Glucotrol) glipizide (Glucotrol) o glyburide (Diabeta, Micronase, Glynase) glyburide (Diabeta, Micronase, Glynase) o glimepiride (Amaryl) glimepiride (Amaryl) o gliklazid (Diamicron) gliclazide (Diamicron)

[ sunting ] Nonsulfonylurea sekretagog [ edit ] Nonsulfonylurea secretagogues

[ sunting ] meglitinides [ edit ] Meglitinides

Artikel utama: Meglitinide Main article: Meglitinide

Meglitinides membantu pankreas memproduksi insulin dan sering disebut "-akting sekretagog pendek." Meglitinides help the pancreas produce insulin and are often called "short-acting secretagogues." Mereka bekerja pada saluran kalium sama dengan sulfonilurea, tetapi pada situs

pengikatan yang berbeda. [1] Dengan menutup saluran kalium dari sel beta pankreas, mereka membuka saluran kalsium, maka meningkatkan sekresi insulin. [2] They act on the same potassium channels as sulfonylureas, but at a different binding site. [ 1 ] By closing the potassium channels of the pancreatic beta cells, they open the calcium channels, hence enhancing insulin secretion. [ 2 ]

Mereka diambil dengan atau segera sebelum makan untuk meningkatkan respon insulin setiap kali makan. They are taken with or shortly before meals to boost the insulin response to each meal. Jika makan akan dilewati, obat juga dilewati. If a meal is skipped, the medication is also skipped.

pengurangan Khas di A1C nilai adalah 0,5-1,0%. Typical reductions in A1C values are 0.5-1.0%.

repaglinide (Prandin) repaglinide (Prandin) Nateglinide (Starlix) nateglinide (Starlix)

Efek samping termasuk berat badan dan hipoglikemia. Adverse reactions include weight gain and hypoglycemia.

[ sunting ] sensitizers [ edit ] Sensitizers

Insulin sensitizers mengatasi masalah inti dalam tipe-II diabetes resistensi insulin . Insulin sensitizers address the core problem in Type II diabetes— insulin resistance .

[ sunting ] Biguanides [ edit ] Biguanides

Artikel utama: biguanide Main article: Biguanide

Biguanides mengurangi hati output glukosa dan meningkatkan uptake glukosa oleh pinggiran, termasuk otot rangka. Biguanides reduce hepatic glucose output and increase uptake of glucose by the periphery, including skeletal muscle. Meskipun harus digunakan dengan hati-hati pada pasien dengan gangguan hati atau ginjal fungsi, metformin , biguanide, telah menjadi agen yang paling umum digunakan untuk diabetes tipe 2 pada anak-anak dan remaja. Although it must be used with caution in patients with impaired liver or kidney function, metformin , a biguanide, has become the most commonly used agent for type 2 diabetes in children and teenagers. Di antara obat diabetes umum, metformin adalah obat oral hanya digunakan secara luas yang tidak menyebabkan kenaikan berat badan. Amongst common diabetic drugs, metformin is the only widely used oral drug that does not cause weight gain.

pengurangan Khas di A1C nilai untuk metformin adalah 1,5-2,0%. Typical reductions in A1C values for metformin is 1.5-2.0%.

metformin (Glucophage). metformin (Glucophage). Metformin mungkin menjadi pilihan terbaik bagi pasien yang juga memiliki gagal jantung . [3] Harus sementara dihentikan sebelum prosedur radiografi yang melibatkan intravena iodinasi kontras sebagai pasien

berada pada peningkatan risiko asidosis laktik . Metformin may be the best choice for patients who also have heart failure . [ 3 ] Should be temporarily discontinued before any radiographic procedure involving intravenous iodinated contrast as patients are at an increased risk of lactic acidosis .

phenformin (DBI): dari tahun 1960 sampai 1980, ditarik karena laktat. risiko asidosis digunakan [4] phenformin (DBI): used from 1960s through 1980s, withdrawn due to lactic acidosis risk. [ 4 ]

buformin : juga ditarik karena risiko asidosis laktik. [5] buformin : also withdrawn due to lactic acidosis risk. [ 5 ]

Metformin biasanya merupakan obat lini pertama digunakan untuk pengobatan diabetes tipe-2. Metformin is usually the first-line medication used for treatment of type-2 diabetes. Hal ini umumnya diresepkan pada diagnosis awal dalam hubungannya dengan olah raga dan penurunan berat badan sebagai lawan di masa lalu, di mana Metformin ditentukan setelah diet dan olahraga telah gagal. It is generally prescribed at initial diagnosis in conjunction with exercise and weight loss as opposed to in the past, where Metformin was prescribed after diet and exercise had failed. dosis awal adalah 500 mg sekali sehari, maka jika perlu ditingkatkan sampai 500 mg dua kali sehari sampai 1000 mg dua kali sehari. Initial dosing is 500 mg once daily, then if need be increased to 500 mg twice daily up to 1000 mg twice daily. Hal ini juga tersedia dalam kombinasi dengan lain obat diabetes oral. It is also available in combination with other oral diabetic medications.

Ada formulasi rilis diperpanjang tersedia, tapi biasanya dicadangkan untuk pasien yang mengalami GI efek samping. There is an extended release formulation available, but it is typically reserved for patients experiencing GI side effects.

[ sunting ] thiazolidinediones [ edit ] Thiazolidinediones

Artikel utama: Thiazolidinedione Main article: Thiazolidinedione

Thiazolidinediones ( TZDs ), juga dikenal sebagai "glitazones," mengikat PPARγ , sejenis protein peraturan nuklir yang terlibat dalam transkripsi gen mengatur glukosa dan metabolisme lemak. Thiazolidinediones ( TZDs ), also known as "glitazones," bind to PPARγ , a type of nuclear regulatory protein involved in transcription of genes regulating glucose and fat metabolism. Ini bertindak PPARs pada Responsif Proliferator Elemen Peroxysome (PPRE [1] ). These PPARs act on Peroxysome Proliferator Responsive Elements (PPRE [1] ). The PPREs gen insulin pengaruh sensitif, yang meningkatkan produksi mRNA enzim insulin dependent. The PPREs influence insulin sensitive genes, which enhance production of mRNAs of insulin dependent enzymes. Hasil akhir adalah lebih baik menggunakan glukosa oleh sel. The final result is better use of glucose by the cells.

pengurangan Khas di A1C nilai adalah 1,5-2,0%. Typical reductions in A1C values are 1.5-2.0%.

rosiglitazone (Avandia) rosiglitazone (Avandia) pioglitazone (Actos) pioglitazone (Actos)

troglitazone (Rezulin): digunakan tahun 1990-an, ditarik karena hepatitis risiko. kerusakan hati dan [6] troglitazone (Rezulin): used in 1990s, withdrawn due to hepatitis and liver damage risk. [ 6 ]

Sebagai hasil dari studi retrospektif ganda, ada kekhawatiran tentang keamanan rosiglitazone, meskipun itu didirikan bahwa kelompok, secara keseluruhan, memiliki efek menguntungkan pada diabetes. As a result of multiple retrospective studies, there is a concern about rosiglitazone's safety, although it is established that the group, as a whole, has beneficial effects on diabetes. Kekhawatiran terbesar adalah peningkatan jumlah kejadian penyakit jantung yang parah pada pasien yang memakai itu. The greatest concern is an increase in the number of severe cardiac events in patients taking it. Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terapi MENERAPKAN awal dengan obat-obatan jenis ini dapat mencegah perkembangan penyakit, [7] seperti yang dilakukan persidangan DREAM. [8] The ADOPT study showed that initial therapy with drugs of this type may prevent the progression of disease, [ 7 ] as did the DREAM trial. [ 8 ]

Keprihatinan mengenai keamanan rosiglitazone muncul ketika analisis retrospektif-meta diterbitkan dalam New England Journal of Medicine. [9] Ada sejumlah besar publikasi sejak itu, dan Food and Drug Administration panel [10] suara, dengan kontroversi, 20:03 bahwa studi yang tersedia "mendukung sinyal membahayakan," tetapi memilih untuk menjaga 22:01 obat di pasar. Concerns about the safety of rosiglitazone arose when a retrospective meta-analysis was published in the New England Journal of Medicine . [ 9 ] There have been a significant number of publications since then, and a Food and Drug Administration panel [ 10 ] voted, with some controversy, 20:3 that available studies "supported a signal of harm," but voted 22:1 to keep the drug on the market. Meta-analisis ini tidak didukung oleh analisis sementara dari uji coba yang dirancang untuk mengevaluasi masalah ini, dan beberapa laporan lainnya telah gagal untuk menyimpulkan kontroversi. The meta-analysis was not supported by an interim analysis of the trial designed to evaluate the issue, and several other reports have failed to conclude the controversy. Bukti lemah untuk efek samping telah mengurangi penggunaan rosiglitazone, meskipun penting dan berkelanjutan dampaknya pada kontrol glikemik . [11] Keselamatan studi masih berlangsung. This weak evidence for adverse effects has reduced the use of rosiglitazone, despite its important and sustained effects on glycemic control . [ 11 ] Safety studies are continuing.

Sebaliknya, setidaknya satu studi prospektif besar, Proaktif 05, telah menunjukkan bahwa pioglitazone dapat menurunkan kejadian secara keseluruhan kejadian jantung pada penderita diabetes tipe II yang telah mengalami serangan jantung. [12] In contrast, at least one large prospective study, PROactive 05, has shown that pioglitazone may decrease the overall incidence of cardiac events in people with type II diabetes who have already had a heart attack. [ 12 ]

[ sunting ]-glukosidase inhibitor Alpha [ edit ] Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors

Artikel utama: -glukosidase inhibitor Alpha Main article: Alpha-glucosidase inhibitor

Alpha-glukosidase inhibitor adalah "pil diabetes" tapi tidak secara teknis agen hipoglikemik karena mereka tidak memiliki pengaruh langsung terhadap sekresi insulin atau sensitivitas. Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors are "diabetes pills" but not technically hypoglycemic agents because they do not have a direct effect on insulin secretion or sensitivity. Agen ini memperlambat pencernaan pati dalam usus kecil, sehingga glukosa dari pati makanan memasuki aliran darah lebih lambat, dan dapat dicocokkan lebih efektif dengan respon insulin gangguan atau sensitivitas. These agents slow the digestion of starch in the small intestine, so that glucose from the starch of a meal enters the bloodstream more slowly, and can be matched more effectively by an impaired insulin response or sensitivity. Agen ini efektif sendiri hanya dalam tahap awal toleransi glukosa , tetapi dapat membantu dalam kombinasi dengan agen lainnya dalam diabetes tipe 2 . These agents are effective by themselves only in the earliest stages of impaired glucose tolerance , but can be helpful in combination with other agents in type 2 diabetes .

pengurangan Khas di A1C nilai adalah 0,5-1,0%. Typical reductions in A1C values are 0.5-1.0%.

miglitol (Glyset) miglitol (Glyset) acarbose (Precose / Glucobay) acarbose (Precose/Glucobay)

Obat-obat ini jarang digunakan di Amerika Serikat karena parahnya efek samping mereka (perut kembung dan kembung). These medications are rarely used in the United States because of the severity of their side effects (flatulence and bloating). Mereka lebih sering diresepkan di Eropa. They are more commonly prescribed in Europe. Mereka memiliki potensi untuk menyebabkan penurunan berat badan dengan menurunkan jumlah gula dimetabolisme. They do have the potential to cause weight loss by lowering the amount of sugar metabolized.

Penelitian telah menunjukkan kuliner jamur Maitake (Grifola frondosa) memiliki hipoglikemik efek, [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] mungkin karena fakta jamur secara alami bertindak sebagai inhibitor alfa-glukosidase . [19] Research has shown the culinary mushroom Maitake ( Grifola frondosa ) has a hypoglycemic effect, [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] possibly due to the fact the mushroom naturally acts as an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor . [ 19 ]

[ sunting ] analog Peptida [ edit ] Peptide analogs

Gambaran sekresi insulin Overview of insulin secretion

[ sunting ] mimetics Incretin [ edit ] Incretin mimetics

Incretins adalah insulin sekretagog . Incretins are insulin secretagogues . Dua molekul calon utama yang memenuhi kriteria untuk menjadi incretin sebuah adalah Glukagon-seperti peptide-1 (GLP-1) dan penghambat peptida Lambung (alias glukosa-tergantung Insulinotropic peptida atau GIP). The two main candidate molecules that fulfill criteria for being an incretin are Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and Gastric inhibitory peptide (aka glucose-dependent Insulinotropic peptide or GIP). Kedua-GLP 1 dan GIP yang cepat tidak aktif oleh enzim peptidase dipeptidyl-4 (DPP-4). Both GLP-1 and GIP are rapidly inactivated by the enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4).

[ sunting ]-seperti peptida Glukagon (GLP) analog dan agonis [ edit ] Glucagon-like peptide (GLP) analogs and agonists

agonis GLP mengikat reseptor GLP membran. [2] Sebagai konsekuensi dari ini, pelepasan insulin dari sel beta pankreas meningkat. GLP agonists bind to a membrane GLP receptor. [ 2 ] As a consequence of this, insulin release from the pancreatic beta cells is increased. Endogen GLP memiliki kehidupan setengah hanya beberapa menit, sehingga analog GLP tidak akan praktis. Endogenous GLP has a half life of only a few minutes; thus an analogue of GLP would not be practical.

Exenatide (juga Exendin-4, dipasarkan sebagai Byetta) adalah yang pertama GLP-1 agonist disetujui untuk pengobatan diabetes tipe 2 . Exenatide (also Exendin-4, marketed as Byetta) is the first GLP-1 agonist approved for the treatment of type 2 diabetes . Exenatide bukan analog GLP, melainkan agonis GLP. [20] [21] exenatide hanya memiliki homologi 53% dengan GLP, yang meningkatkan ketahanan terhadap degradasi oleh DPP-4 dan meluas setengah-hidup. [22] Khas penurunan A1C nilai adalah 0,5-1,0%. Exenatide is not an analogue of GLP, but rather a GLP agonist. [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Exenatide has

only 53% homology with GLP, which increases its resistance to degradation by DPP-4 and extends its half-life. [ 22 ] Typical reductions in A1C values are 0.5-1.0%.

Liraglutide , analog manusia sehari-hari sekali (97 homologi%), sedang dikembangkan oleh Novo Nordisk bawah merek nama Victoza . Liraglutide , a once daily human analogue (97% homology), is being developed by Novo Nordisk under the brand name Victoza . Produk ini telah disetujui oleh Badan Obat-obatan Eropa (EMEA) pada tanggal 3 Juli 2009, dan oleh US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) pada tanggal 25 Januari 2010. [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] The product was approved by the European Medicines Agency (EMEA) on July 3, 2009, and by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on January 25, 2010. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 28 ]

Taspoglutide saat ini pada Tahap III Clinical Trials dengan Hoffman-La Roche . Taspoglutide is presently in Phase III Clinical Trials with Hoffman-La Roche .

Agen-agen ini juga dapat menyebabkan penurunan motilitas lambung, bertanggung jawab atas efek samping yang umum dari mual, dan mungkin merupakan mekanisme yang terjadi penurunan berat badan. These agents may also cause a decrease in gastric motility, responsible for the common side effect of nausea, and is probably the mechanism by which weight loss occurs.

[ sunting ] Lambung penghambat peptida (GIP) analog [ edit ] Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) analogs

Tidak ada yang disetujui FDA None are FDA approved

[ sunting ] analog peptida injeksi [ edit ] Injectable peptide analogs

Artikel utama: Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor Main article: Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors

DPP-4 inhibitor (juga dikenal sebagai glyptins) menurunkan HbA1c sebesar 0,74% (poin), dibandingkan dengan obat antidiabetes lain. [29] GLP-1 analog mengakibatkan penurunan berat badan dan memiliki efek samping gastrointestinal lebih, sedangkan DPP-4 inhibitor umumnya bobot risiko netral dan meningkatnya infeksi dan sakit kepala, tetapi kedua kelas muncul untuk menyajikan alternatif untuk obat antidiabetes lain. DPP-4 inhibitors (also known as glyptins) lowered HbA1c by 0.74% (points), comparable to other antidiabetic drugs. [ 29 ] GLP-1 analogs resulted in weight loss and had more gastrointestinal side effects, while DPP-4 inhibitors were generally weight neutral and increased risk for infection and headache, but both classes appear to present an alternative to other antidiabetic drugs. Namun, berat badan dan / atau hipoglikemia telah diamati ketika DPP-4 inhibitor digunakan dengan sulfonilurea; pada jangka panjang kesehatan dan-morbiditas merupakan harga masih belum diketahui. Dampak [30] However, weight gain and/or hypoglycaemia have been observed when DPP-4 inhibitors were used with sulfonylureas; effect on long-term health and morbidity rates are still unknown. [ 30 ]

Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor meningkatkan konsentrasi darah incretin GLP-1 ( -seperti peptida glukagon-1 ) dengan perusahaan degradasi menghambat oleh dipeptidyl-peptidase 4 (DPP-4). Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors increase blood concentration of

the incretin GLP-1 ( glucagon-like peptide-1 ) by inhibiting its degradation by dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4).

pengurangan Khas di A1C nilai adalah 0,5-1,0%. Typical reductions in A1C values are 0.5-1.0%.

Contohnya adalah: Examples are:

Vildagliptin (Galvus) UE Disetujui 2008. vildagliptin (Galvus) EU Approved 2008. sitagliptin (Januvia) disetujui FDA Oktober 2006. sitagliptin (Januvia) FDA approved

Oct 2006. saxagliptin (Onglyza) Disetujui FDA Juli 2009. saxagliptin (Onglyza) FDA Approved

July 2009.

[ sunting ] analog amylin [ edit ] Amylin analogues

Amylin analog agonis lambat pengosongan lambung dan menekan glukagon . Amylin agonist analogues slow gastric emptying and suppress glucagon . Mereka memiliki semua tindakan incretins kecuali stimulasi sekresi insulin. They have all the incretins actions except stimulation of insulin secretion. Pada tahun 2007 , pramlintide adalah tersedia amylin analog klinis saja. As of 2007 , pramlintide is the only clinically available amylin analogue. Seperti insulin, hal ini dikelola oleh injeksi subkutan . Like insulin, it is administered by subcutaneous injection . Dan parah efek samping yang paling sering dari pramlintide adalah mual , yang terjadi terutama pada awal pengobatan dan secara bertahap mengurangi. The most frequent and severe adverse effect of pramlintide is nausea , which occurs mostly at the beginning of treatment and gradually reduces. pengurangan Khas di A1C nilai adalah 0,5-1,0%. Typical reductions in A1C values are 0.5-1.0%.

[ sunting ] agen Eksperimental [ edit ] Experimental agents

Banyak obat potensial lainnya saat ini dalam penyelidikan oleh perusahaan farmasi. Many other potential drugs are currently in investigation by pharmaceutical companies. Beberapa ini adalah anggota hanya baru dari salah satu kelas di atas, tetapi beberapa pekerjaan oleh mekanisme novel. Some of these are simply newer members of one of the above classes, but some work by novel mechanisms. Sebagai contoh, setidaknya satu senyawa yang meningkatkan sensitivitas glukokinase menjadi glukosa meningkat dalam tahap penelitian hewan. For example, at least one compound that enhances the sensitivity of glucokinase to rising glucose is in the stage of animal research. Lain menjalani tahap I / II studi. Others are undergoing phase I/II studies.

PPARα / γ ligan ( muraglitazar dan tesaglitazar - pembangunan berhenti karena profil risiko yang merugikan, aleglitazar - dalam pengembangan klinis) PPARα/γ ligands ( muraglitazar and tesaglitazar - development stopped due to adverse risk profile, aleglitazar - under clinical development)

SGLT2 (sodium-tergantung glukosa transporter 2) inhibitor meningkatkan glukosa kemih. SGLT2 (sodium-dependent glucose transporter 2) inhibitors increase urinary glucose.

FBPase (fruktosa 1,6-bisphosphatase) inhibitor penurunan glukoneogenesis di hati. FBPase (fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase) inhibitors decrease gluconeogenesis in the liver.

Imeglimin akan menjadi yang pertama dari sebuah kelas baru jika disetujui. Imeglimin will be the first of a new class if approved.

[ sunting ] Obat Alternatif [ edit ] Alternative medicine

Sebuah artikel yang baru-baru ini menyajikan profil tanaman dengan sifat hipoglikemik, dilaporkan dalam literatur 1990-2000 dan menyatakan bahwa "tanaman Medis memainkan peran penting dalam pengelolaan diabetes mellitus khususnya di negara-negara berkembang dimana sumber daya yang sedikit." [31] A recent review article presents the profiles of plants with hypoglycaemic properties, reported in the literature from 1990 to 2000 and states that "Medical plants play an important role in the management of diabetes mellitus especially in developing countries where resources are meager." [ 31 ]

Penggunaan terdaftar pertama-obat anti diabetes adalah sebagai ekstrak herbal yang digunakan oleh India di Basin Amazon untuk pengobatan diabetes tipe 2, dan hari ini dipromosikan sebagai insulin sayur meskipun tidak secara formal suatu analog insulin . [32] Perkembangan terakhir utama dilakukan di Brasil sekitar sphaerocarpa Myrcia dan lainnya Myrcia spesies. [33] Perlakuan yang biasa adalah dengan terkonsentrasi (root) Myrcia ekstrak, dikomersialisasikan sebagai "Hume Pedra de KAA". The first registered use of anti-diabetic drugs was as herbal extracts used by Indians in the Amazon Basin for the treatment of type 2 diabetes, and today promoted as vegetable insulin although not formally an insulin analog . [ 32 ] The major recent development was done in Brazil around Myrcia sphaerocarpa and other Myrcia species. [ 33 ] The usual treatment is with concentrated (root) Myrcia extracts, commercialized as "Pedra hume de kaá". Analisis fitokimia dari ekstrak Myrcia melaporkan jenis glucosides flavanon (myrciacitrins) dan glucosides asetofenon (myrciaphenones), dan kegiatan hambat pada reduktase aldosa dan alpha-glukosidase. [34] Phytochemical analysis of the Myrcia extracts reported kinds of flavanone glucosides (myrciacitrins) and acetophenone glucosides (myrciaphenones), and inhibitory activities on aldose reductase and alpha-glucosidase. [ 34 ]

Walnut daun dapat secara signifikan mengurangi kadar glukosa darah puasa pada tikus dengan aloksan -diabetes diinduksi, dan tikus sehingga treates menunjukkan beberapa bukti regenerasi sel beta . [35] Bawang putih juga secara signifikan mengurangi puasa kadar glukosa darah pada tikus diabetes dengan aloksan-diinduksi. [36] Walnut leaf can significantly reduce fasting blood glucose levels in rats with alloxan -induced diabetes, and rats thus treates show some evidence of regeneration of the beta cells . [ 35 ] Garlic also significantly reduces fasting blood glucose levels in rats with alloxan-induced diabetes. [ 36 ]

Setidaknya dua penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa kayu manis dapat bertindak secara signifikan mengurangi beberapa efek dari diabetes. At least two studies have shown that cinnamon can act significantly reducing some effects of diabetes. Satu studi pada orang yang digunakan kasia tanah halus ( Cinnamomum aromaticum ) untuk konsumsi oral. One study on people used fine ground cassia ( Cinnamomum aromaticum ) for oral consumption. Studi lain menggunakan ekstrak (MHCP) pada tikus laboratorium. Another study used an extract (MHCP) on laboratory rats. Penelitian pada orang-orang yang diterbitkan pada tahun 2003 dilakukan di

Departemen Gizi Manusia, Universitas Pertanian NWFP, Peshawar, Pakistan menyimpulkan "bahwa dimasukkannya kayu manis dalam diet penderita diabetes tipe 2 akan mengurangi faktor risiko yang berkaitan dengan diabetes dan penyakit jantung." [37] Penelitian pada tikus laboratorium di Departemen Biokimia, Biofisika dan Biologi Molekuler, Iowa State University diterbitkan pada tahun 2001 digunakan dimurnikan hydroxychalcone ( MHCP ) dari kayu manis. The study on people published in 2003 conducted in the Department of Human Nutrition, NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar, Pakistan concluded "that the inclusion of cinnamon in the diet of people with type 2 diabetes will reduce risk factors associated with diabetes and cardiovascular diseases." [ 37 ] The study on laboratory rats at Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University published in 2001 used purified hydroxychalcone ( MHCP ) from cinnamon. Bagian dari studi ini kesimpulan menyatakan bahwa "MHCP sepenuhnya mampu meniru insulin" dan direkomendasikan studi lanjut. [38] [39] The Administrasi Makanan dan Obat belum mengevaluasi penggunaan kayu manis untuk pengelolaan diabetes. Part of the study's conclusion stated that "the MHCP is fully capable of mimicking insulin" and recommended further studies. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] The Food and Drug Administration has not yet evaluated the use of cinnamon for the management of diabetes. Perlu dicatat bahwa rempah-rempah dijual sebagai kayu manis sering diperoleh dari C. It should be noted that the spice sold as cinnamon is often obtained from C. Verum (kayu manis benar), bukan C. verum (true cinnamon), not C. aromaticum (kasia). aromaticum (cassia).

Penelitian telah menunjukkan Maitake jamur (Grifola frondosa) memiliki hipoglikemik efek, dan mungkin bermanfaat bagi pengelolaan diabetes . [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] Alasan Maitake menurunkan gula darah karena fakta jamur secara alami bertindak sebagai inhibitor glukosidase alfa . [2] jamur lain seperti Reishi , [40] [41] Agaricus Blazei , [42] [43] [44] [45] cylindracea Agrocybe [46] dan Cordyceps [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] telah tercatat gula darah tingkat yang lebih rendah sampai batas tertentu, walaupun mekanisme itu saat ini tidak diketahui. Research has shown the Maitake mushroom ( Grifola frondosa ) has a hypoglycemic effect, and may be beneficial for the management of diabetes . [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] The reason Maitake lowers blood sugar is due to the fact the mushroom naturally acts as an alpha glucosidase inhibitor . [2] Other mushrooms like Reishi , [ 40 ] [ 41 ] Agaricus blazei , [ 42 ] [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ] Agrocybe cylindracea [ 46 ] and Cordyceps [ 47 ] [ 48 ]

[ 49 ] [ 50 ] [ 51 ] have been noted to lower blood sugar levels to a certain extent, although the mechanism is currently unknown.

[ sunting ] Cassia [ edit ] Cassia

Meskipun belum dievaluasi oleh Administrasi Makanan dan Obat , setidaknya dua penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa kayu manis dapat bertindak secara signifikan mengurangi beberapa efek dari diabetes. Though not yet evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration , at least two studies have shown that cinnamon can act significantly reducing some effects of diabetes. Satu studi pada orang-orang menggunakan bubuk kayu manis halus ( Cinnamomum cassia ) untuk konsumsi oral. One study on people used fine ground cinnamon ( Cinnamomum cassia ) for oral consumption. Studi lain menggunakan ekstrak (MHCP) pada tikus laboratorium. Another study used an extract (MHCP) on laboratory rats.

Penelitian pada orang-orang yang diterbitkan pada tahun 2003 dilakukan di Departemen Gizi Manusia, Universitas Pertanian NWFP, Peshawar, Pakistan menyimpulkan: The study on people

published in 2003 conducted in the Department of Human Nutrition, NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar, Pakistan concluded:

Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa asupan 1, 3, atau 6 g kayu manis per hari mengurangi glukosa serum, trigliserida, kolesterol LDL, dan kolesterol total pada orang dengan diabetes tipe 2 dan menunjukkan bahwa masuknya kayu manis dalam diet orang dengan tipe 2 diabetes akan mengurangi faktor risiko yang berkaitan dengan diabetes dan penyakit jantung. [52] The results of this study demonstrate that intake of 1, 3, or 6 g of cinnamon per day reduces serum glucose, triglyceride, LDL cholesterol, and total cholesterol in people with type 2 diabetes and suggest that the inclusion of cinnamon in the diet of people with type 2 diabetes will reduce risk factors associated with diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. [ 52 ]

Penelitian pada tikus laboratorium di Departemen Biokimia, Biofisika dan Biologi Molekuler, Iowa State University diterbitkan pada tahun 2001 digunakan dimurnikan hydroxychalcone dari kayu manis. The study on laboratory rats at Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University published in 2001 used purified hydroxychalcone from cinnamon. Ekstrak bernama "MHCP". The extract was named "MHCP". Bagian dari studi ini kesimpulan menyatakan bahwa "MHCP sepenuhnya mampu meniru insulin" dan direkomendasikan studi lanjut. [53] [54] Part of the study's conclusion stated that "the MHCP is fully capable of mimicking insulin" and recommended further studies. [ 53 ] [ 54 ]

Studi-studi lain telah gagal untuk mereproduksi hasil ini, dan, karena dosis besar kayu manis tidak berbahaya, beberapa ahli menyarankan agar pengobatan diabetes dengan kayu manis. [55] Other studies have failed to reproduce these results, and, because large doses of cinnamon are not innocuous, some experts advise against treatment of diabetes with cinnamon. [ 55 ]

[ sunting ] Kromium dan suplemen vanadium [ edit ] Chromium and vanadium supplementation

Kromium - Kolesterol dan trigliserida merupakan faktor risiko penyakit jantung dan diabetes, dan penelitian menunjukkan kromium yang menurunkan kadar total kolesterol , kolesterol LDL , dan trigliserida . [56] [57] [58] [59] Kromium suplemen seperti kromium picolinate memiliki telah terbukti meningkatkan toleransi glukosa pada orang dengan diabetes tipe 2, [60] [61] [62] meskipun penelitian lain belum direplikasi hasil ini. [63] A meta analisis uji coba ini menyimpulkan bahwa suplemen kromium tidak memiliki efek menguntungkan pada sehat orang, tetapi bahwa mungkin ada perbaikan dalam metabolisme glukosa pada penderita diabetes, meskipun penulis menyatakan bahwa bukti efek ini masih lemah. [64] Chromium - Cholesterol and triglycerides are risk factors in heart disease and diabetes, and studies show that chromium lowers levels of total cholesterol , LDL cholesterol , and triglycerides . [ 56 ] [ 57 ] [ 58 ] [ 59 ] Chromium supplements such as chromium picolinate have been shown to improve glucose tolerance in people with type 2 diabetes, [ 60 ] [ 61 ] [ 62 ] although other studies have not replicated this result. [ 63 ] A meta analysis of these trials concluded that chromium supplements had no beneficial effect on healthy people, but that there might be an improvement in glucose metabolism in diabetics, although the authors stated that the evidence for this effect remains weak. [ 64 ]

Vanadium - Sebuah bentuk vanadium , sulfat vanadyl, tampaknya untuk meningkatkan kontrol glukosa pada penderita diabetes tipe 2. [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] Vanadium - A form of vanadium , vanadyl sulfate, seems to improve glucose control in people with type 2 diabetes. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] [ 67 ] [ 68 ] [ 69 ]

Sebuah penelitian juga menemukan bukti bahwa Tai Chi dan Chikung mengurangi keparahan diabetes tipe 2. [70] A pilot study has also found evidence that Tai Chi and Qigong reduce the severity of type 2 diabetes. [ 70 ]

Benfotiamine , pro vitamin-vitamin B 1 yang telah digunakan di Eropa sebagai-the-counter obat di atas untuk neuropati alkohol untuk setengah abad terakhir tanpa efek samping atau toksisitas yang signifikan, baru-baru ini ditemukan untuk memblokir utama jalur metabolik dimana kelebihan glukosa darah dalam tubuh diubah menjadi endproducts glikasi lanjut (AGEs) yang menyebabkan komplikasi diabetes. [71] Penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa mengambil benfotiamine oral dapat mencegah retinopati diabetes, [72] neuropati diabetes, [73] dan nefropati diabetes [74] terlepas dari apapun tidak mempengaruhi pada kadar gula darah pasien. Benfotiamine , a pro-vitamin of vitamin B 1 which has been in use in Europe as an over-the-counter medicine for alcoholic neuropathy for the past half century with no significant side-effects or toxicity, has recently been found to block the major metabolic pathways by which excess blood glucose in the body is transformed into the advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) which cause diabetic complications. [ 71 ] Studies have shown that taking oral benfotiamine can prevent diabetic retinopathy, [ 72 ] diabetic neuropathy, [ 73 ] and diabetic nephropathy [ 74 ] independently of any affect on the blood sugar levels of the patient. Secara teori, benfotiamine mungkin mengambil memungkinkan pasien menjadi kurang teliti dalam mencoba untuk menormalkan kadar gula darah dan dengan demikian membebaskan mereka dari bahaya hipoglikemia dan stres pemantauan gula darah yang ketat, sementara masih melindungi mereka terhadap dampak negatif dari hiperglikemia. In theory, taking benfotiamine might allow patients to be less scrupulous in trying to normalize blood sugar levels and thus free them from the danger of hypoglycemia and the stress of stringent blood sugar monitoring, while still protecting them against the negative effects of hyperglycemia. Penelitian ini sedang berlangsung untuk menetapkan signifikansi penuh benfotiamine dalam pengobatan diabetes. Research is ongoing to establish the full significance of benfotiamine in the treatment of diabetes.

[ sunting ] perlakuan tanaman berbasis Tradisional [ edit ] Traditional plant-based treatments

Penelitian dilakukan dari efek pada homeostasis glukosa dalam normal dan streptozotocin (induced) mencit diabetes tanaman sebelas yang telah digunakan sebagai pengobatan tradisional untuk diabetes. A study was made of the effects on glucose homeostasis in normal and streptozotocin (induced) diabetic mice of eleven plants that have been used as traditional treatments for diabetes. Tikus diberi diet yang mengandung daun kering dari tanaman berikut: agrimony (pilosa eupatoria), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), Blackberry (Rubus fructicosus), Celandine (Chelidonium majus), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), wanita mantel (Alchemilla vulgaris), dan lily lembah (Convallaria majalis); biji ketumbar (Coriandrum sativum), buah kering dari juniper (Juniperus communis); umbi bawang putih (Allium sativum) dan akar manis (Glycyrhizza glabra). The mice were given diets containing dried leaves from the following plants: agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), blackberry (Rubus

fructicosus), celandine (Chelidonium majus), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), lady's mantle (Alchemilla vulgaris), and lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis); seeds of coriander (Coriandrum sativum); dried berries of juniper (Juniperus communis); bulbs of garlic (Allium sativum) and roots of liquorice (Glycyrhizza glabra). Studi menyimpulkan bahwa "Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa tanaman pengobatan tradisional tertentu untuk diabetes, yaitu agrimony, alfalfa, ketumbar, kayu putih dan juniper, bisa menghambat perkembangan diabetes streptozotocin pada tikus". [75] The study concluded that "The results suggest that certain traditional plant treatments for diabetes, namely agrimony, alfalfa, coriander, eucalyptus and juniper, can retard the development of streptozotocin diabetes in mice". [ 75 ]

[ sunting ] Obat jamur [ edit ] Medicinal fungi

Penelitian telah menunjukkan Maitake jamur (Grifola frondosa) memiliki hipoglikemik efek, dan mungkin bermanfaat bagi pengelolaan diabetes . [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] Alasan Maitake menurunkan gula darah karena fakta jamur secara alami bertindak sebagai inhibitor glukosidase alfa . [76] jamur lain seperti Reishi , [40] [41] Agaricus Blazei , [42] [43] [44] [77] cylindracea Agrocybe [78] dan Cordyceps [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] telah tercatat gula darah tingkat yang lebih rendah sampai batas tertentu, walaupun mekanisme itu saat ini tidak diketahui. Research has shown the Maitake mushroom ( Grifola frondosa ) has a hypoglycemic effect, and may be beneficial for the management of diabetes . [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] The reason Maitake lowers blood sugar is due to the fact the mushroom naturally acts as an alpha glucosidase inhibitor . [ 76 ] Other mushrooms like Reishi , [ 40 ] [ 41 ] Agaricus blazei , [ 42 ] [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 77 ] Agrocybe cylindracea [ 78 ] and Cordyceps [ 47 ] [ 48 ] [ 49 ] [ 50 ] [ 51 ] have been noted to lower blood sugar levels to a certain extent, although the mechanism is currently unknown.

[ sunting ] Catatan [ edit ] Notes

1. ̂ Rendell (2004). "muka pada diabetes untuk milenium: terapi obat diabetes tipe 2." :. MedGenMed Medscape kedokteran umum 6 (3 Suppl): 9. PMID 15647714 . ^ Rendell (2004). "Advances in diabetes for the millennium: drug therapy of type 2 diabetes." . MedGenMed : Medscape general medicine 6 (3 Suppl): 9. PMID 15647714 .

2. ^ a b "Membantu pankreas memproduksi insulin" . ^ a b "Helping the pancreas produce insulin" . HealthValue. http://www.healthvalue.net/diabetespancreasbeta.html . HealthValue . http://www.healthvalue.net/diabetespancreasbeta.html . Diperoleh 2007/09/21. Retrieved 2007-09-21 .

3. ̂ Eurich; McAlister, FA, Blackburn, DF; Majumdar, SR; Tsuyuki, RT, Varney, J, Johnson, JA (2007). "Manfaat dan bahaya agen antidiabetes pada pasien dengan diabetes dan gagal jantung: review sistematis." . BMJ (penelitian klinis ed.) 335 (7618): 497. DOI : 10.1136/bmj.39314.620174.80 . PMID 17761999 . ^ Eurich; McAlister, FA; Blackburn, DF; Majumdar, SR; Tsuyuki, RT; Varney, J; Johnson, JA (2007). "Benefits and harms of antidiabetic agents in patients with diabetes and heart failure: systematic review." . BMJ (Clinical research ed.) 335 (7618): 497. doi : 10.1136/bmj.39314.620174.80 . PMID 17761999 .

4. ̂ Fimognari; Pastorelli, R; Incalzi, RA (2006). "Phenformin-induced laktat asidosis pada pasien diabetes lebih tua: sebuah drama berulang (phenformin dan asidosis laktat)." 950-

1. Diabetes perawatan 29 (4):. doi : 10.2337/diacare.29.04.06.dc06-0012 . PMID 16567854 . http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16567854 . ^ Fimognari; Pastorelli, R; Incalzi, RA (2006). "Phenformin-induced lactic acidosis in an older diabetic patient: a recurrent drama (phenformin and lactic acidosis)." . Diabetes care 29 (4): 950–1. doi : 10.2337/diacare.29.04.06.dc06-0012 . PMID 16567854 . http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16567854 .

5. ̂ Verdonck; Sangster, B; Heijst Van, AN; Groot De, G; Maes, RA (1981). ^ Verdonck; Sangster, B; Van Heijst, AN; De Groot, G; Maes, RA (1981). "Buformin konsentrasi dalam kasus asidosis laktik fatal.":. Diabetologia 20 (1) 45-6. DOI : 10.1007/BF01789112 . PMID 7202882 . "Buformin concentrations in a case of fatal lactic acidosis.". Diabetologia 20 (1): 45–6. doi : 10.1007/BF01789112 . PMID 7202882 .

6. ̂ Hinterthuer, Adam (2008). "Pensiunan Obat: Blockbusters Gagal, pembunuh Merusak, Fatal kelalaian" . Wired News . http://www.wired.com/medtech/drugs/multimedia/2008/10/gallery_retired_drugs?slide=6&slideView = 6 . ^ Hinterthuer, Adam (2008). "Retired Drugs: Failed Blockbusters, Homicidal Tampering, Fatal Oversights" . Wired News . http://www.wired.com/medtech/drugs/multimedia/2008/10/gallery_retired_drugs?slide=6&slideView=6 . Diperoleh 2009/06/21. Retrieved 2009-06-21 .

7. ̂ Haffner, Steven M. (2007). "Ahli Kolom - Sebuah Hasil Diabetes Progresi Trial (MENERAPKAN)" . ^ Haffner, Steven M. (2007). "Expert Column - A Diabetes Outcome Progression Trial (ADOPT)" . Medscape. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/552484 . Medscape . http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/552484 . Diperoleh 2007/09/21. Retrieved 2007-09-21 .

8. ̂ Gagnon, Louise (2007). "DREAM: Efektif rosiglitazone dalam Mencegah Diabetes" . ^ Gagnon, Louise (2007). "DREAM: Rosiglitazone Effective in Preventing Diabetes" . Medscape. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/546503 . Medscape . http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/546503 . Diperoleh 2007/09/21. Retrieved 2007-09-21 .

9. ̂ Nissen; Wolski, K (2007). ^ Nissen; Wolski, K (2007). "Pengaruh rosiglitazone terhadap risiko infark miokard dan kematian akibat kardiovaskuler." 2457-71. The New England jurnal obat 356 (24):. DOI : 10.1056/NEJMoa072761 . PMID 17517853 . Lay ringkasan - Associated Press (21 Mei 2007). "Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes.". The New England journal of medicine 356 (24): 2457–71. doi : 10.1056/NEJMoa072761 . PMID 17517853 . Lay summary – Associated Press (21 May 2007).

10. ̂ Kayu, Shelley (2007/07/31). "Penasehat Akui Panel FDA Sinyal Risiko Dengan rosiglitazone, tapi Berhenti Pendek Merekomendasikan Penarikan Its" . ^ Wood, Shelley (2007-07-31). "FDA Advisory Panels Acknowledge Signal of Risk With Rosiglitazone, but Stop Short of Recommending Its Withdrawal" . Heartwire. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/560709 . Heartwire . http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/560709 . Diperoleh 2007/09/21. Retrieved 2007-09-21 .

11. ̂ Ajjan; Grant, PJ (2008). ^ Ajjan; Grant, PJ (2008). "Keamanan jantung dari rosiglitazone.":. Ahli pendapat obat pada keselamatan 7 (4) 367-76. DOI :

10.1517/14740338.7.4.367 . PMID 18613801 . "The cardiovascular safety of rosiglitazone.". Expert opinion on drug safety 7 (4): 367–76. doi : 10.1517/14740338.7.4.367 . PMID 18613801 .

12. ̂ Erdmann; Dormandy, JA; Charbonnel, B; Messi-Benedetti, M; Moules, IK; Skene, AM; Proaktif, Penyidik (2007). ^ Erdmann; Dormandy, JA; Charbonnel, B; Massi-Benedetti, M; Moules, IK; Skene, AM; Proactive, Investigators (2007). "Pengaruh pioglitazone terhadap infark miokard berulang dalam 2.445 pasien dengan diabetes tipe 2 dan infark miokard sebelumnya: hasil dari studi (Proaktif 05) Proaktif.":. Journal of American College of Cardiology 49 (17). 1772-80 doi : 10.1016/j.jacc.2006.12.048 . PMID 17466227 . "The effect of pioglitazone on recurrent myocardial infarction in 2,445 patients with type 2 diabetes and previous myocardial infarction: results from the PROactive (PROactive 05) Study.". Journal of the American College of Cardiology 49 (17): 1772–80. doi : 10.1016/j.jacc.2006.12.048 . PMID 17466227 .

13. ^ a b c Konno; Tortorelis, DG; Fullerton, SA, Samadi, AA; Hettiarachchi, J; Tazaki, H (2001). ^ a b c Konno; Tortorelis, DG; Fullerton, SA; Samadi, AA; Hettiarachchi, J; Tazaki, H (2001). "Efek hipoglikemik kemungkinan jamur maitake pada pasien diabetes tipe 2.": Diabetes. Obat jurnal dari British Diabetic Association 18 (12):. 1010 DOI : 10.1046/j.1464-5491.2001.00532-5.x . PMID 11903406 . "A possible hypoglycaemic effect of maitake mushroom on Type 2 diabetic patients.". Diabetic medicine : a journal of the British Diabetic Association 18 (12): 1010. doi : 10.1046/j.1464-5491.2001.00532-5.x . PMID 11903406 .

14. ^ a b c Hong; Xun, M; Wutong, W (2007). ^ a b c Hong; Xun, M; Wutong, W (2007). "Anti-diabetes efek dari glukan-alpha dari tubuh buah maitake (Grifola frondosa) on-Ay tikus KK.":. The Journal of farmasi dan farmakologi 59 (4) 575-82. DOI : 10.1211/jpp.59.4. 0013 . PMID 17430642 . "Anti-diabetic effect of an alpha-glucan from fruit body of maitake (Grifola frondosa) on KK-Ay mice.". The Journal of pharmacy and pharmacology 59 (4): 575–82. doi : 10.1211/jpp.59.4.0013 . PMID 17430642 .

15. ^ a b c Kubo; Aoki, H, Nanba, H (1994). ^ a b c Kubo; Aoki, H; Nanba, H (1994). "Anti-diabetes kegiatan hadir dalam tubuh buah Grifola frondosa (Maitake) I..":. Biological farmasi & buletin 17 (8) 1106-1110. PMID 7820117 . "Anti-diabetic activity present in the fruit body of Grifola frondosa (Maitake). I.". Biological & pharmaceutical bulletin 17 (8): 1106–10. PMID 7820117 .

16. ^ a b c Lo, HC; Hsu, TH, Chen, CY (2008). ^ a b c Lo, HC; Hsu, TH; Chen, CY (2008). "Miselium Terendam budaya dan kaldu dari Grifola frondosa meningkatkan respon glisemik pada tikus diabetes.":. Amerika jurnal Cina obat 36 (2). 265-85 DOI : 10.1142/S0192415X0800576X . PMID 18457360 . "Submerged culture mycelium and broth of Grifola frondosa improve glycemic responses in diabetic rats.". The American journal of Chinese medicine 36 (2): 265–85. doi : 10.1142/S0192415X0800576X . PMID 18457360 .

17. ^ a b c Manohar; Talpur, NA; Echard, BB; Lieberman, S; Preuss, HG (2002). ^ a b c Manohar; Talpur, NA; Echard, BW; Lieberman, S; Preuss, HG (2002). "Efek dari air larut ekstrak jamur maitake pada beredar glukosa / konsentrasi insulin pada tikus KK.":. Diabetes, obesitas & metabolisme 4 (1) 43-8. DOI : 10.1046/j.1463-1326.2002.00180.x . PMID 11874441 . "Effects of a water-soluble extract of maitake mushroom on circulating glucose/insulin concentrations in KK mice.". Diabetes, obesity & metabolism 4 (1): 43–8. doi : 10.1046/j.1463-1326.2002.00180.x . PMID 11874441 .

18. ^ a b c Horio; Ohtsuru, M (2001). ^ a b c Horio; Ohtsuru, M (2001). "Maitake (Grifola frondosa) meningkatkan toleransi glukosa tikus diabetes eksperimental.":. Jurnal gizi ilmu vitaminology dan 47 (1) 57-63. PMID 11349892 . "Maitake (Grifola frondosa) improve glucose tolerance of experimental diabetic rats.". Journal of nutritional science and vitaminology 47 (1): 57–63. PMID 11349892 .

19. ̂ Matsuur; Jadi Gila, C; Kurimoto, M; Mizutani, J (2002). ^ Matsuur; Asakawa, C; Kurimoto, M; Mizutani, J (2002). pir Momordica charantia) (dan buah badan Grifola dari frondosa. ". Bioscience, bioteknologi, dan 66 biokimia (7:" Alpha-glukosidase inhibitor dari biji balsam) 1576-8. DOI : 10.1271/bbb.66.1576 . PMID 12224646 . "Alpha-glucosidase inhibitor from the seeds of balsam pear (Momordica charantia) and the fruit bodies of Grifola frondosa.". Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry 66 (7): 1576–8. doi : 10.1271/bbb.66.1576 . PMID 12224646 .

20. ̂ Briones, Bajaj, M (2006). ^ Briones; Bajaj, M (2006). "Exenatide: GLP-1 reseptor agonis sebagai terapi baru untuk diabetes tipe 2. Mellitus sebuah":. Ahli pendapat atas farmakoterapi 7 (8) 1055-1064. DOI : 10.1517/14656566.7.8.1055 . PMID 16722815 . "Exenatide: a GLP-1 receptor agonist as novel therapy for Type 2 diabetes mellitus.". Expert opinion on pharmacotherapy 7 (8): 1055–64. doi : 10.1517/14656566.7.8.1055 . PMID 16722815 .

21. ̂ Gallwitz (2006). ^ Gallwitz (2006). "Exenatide pada diabetes tipe 2: efek di klinis dan studi hewan. Data penelitian pengobatan":. International jurnal klinis praktek 60 (12) 1654-1661. DOI : 10.1111/j.1742-1241.2006.01196.x . PMID 17109672 . "Exenatide in type 2 diabetes: treatment effects in clinical studies and animal study data.". International journal of clinical practice 60 (12): 1654–61. doi : 10.1111/j.1742-1241.2006.01196.x . PMID 17109672 .

22. ̂ Cvetković; Plosker, GL (2007). ^ Cvetković; Plosker, GL (2007). "Exenatide: review penggunaannya pada pasien dengan diabetes mellitus tipe 2 (sebagai tambahan pada metformin dan / atau sulfonilurea).":. Obat 67 (6) 935-54. DOI : 10.2165/00003495-200767060-00008 . PMID 17428109 . "Exenatide: a review of its use in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (as an adjunct to metformin and/or a sulfonylurea).". Drugs 67 (6): 935–54. doi : 10.2165/00003495-200767060-00008 . PMID 17428109 .

23. ̂ http://www.drugs.com/nda/liraglutide_080530.html Mei 2008 ^ http://www.drugs.com/nda/liraglutide_080530.html May 2008

24. ̂ http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/74913.php "Liraglutide Menyediakan signifikan Better Than Pengendalian Glukosa Insulin Glargine Pada Tahap 3 Pelajari" Juni 2007 ^ http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/74913.php "Liraglutide Provides Significantly Better Glucose Control Than Insulin Glargine In Phase 3 Study" June 2007

25. ̂ http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/110349.php "Clinical Studi Menunjukkan Liraglutide Mengurangi Gula, Berat, Darah Dan Tekanan Darah Pada Pasien Dengan Tipe 2 Diabetes" Juni 2008 ^ http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/110349.php "Clinical Study Shows Liraglutide Reduced Blood Sugar, Weight, And Blood Pressure In Patients With Type 2 Diabetes" June 2008

26. ̂ http://www.drugdevelopment-technology.com/projects/liraglutide/ ^ http://www.drugdevelopment-technology.com/projects/liraglutide/

27. ̂ http://www.novonordisk.com/science/about_rd/quarterly_rd_update.asp Oktober 2008 Inc hasil LEAD 6 ekstensi ^

http://www.novonordisk.com/science/about_rd/quarterly_rd_update.asp Oct 2008 Inc results of LEAD 6 extension

28. ̂ http://money.cnn.com/news/newsfeeds/articles/marketwire/0580389.htm Januari 2009 ^ http://money.cnn.com/news/newsfeeds/articles/marketwire/0580389.htm January 2009

29. ̂ Amori RE, Lau J, dimaksud dengan paok AG (2007). "Efektifitas dan keamanan terapi incretin pada diabetes tipe 2: review sistematis dan meta-analisis" :. JAMA 298 (2) 194-206. DOI : 10.1001/jama.298.2 0,194 . PMID 17622601 . http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17622601 . ^ Amori RE, Lau J, Pittas AG (2007). "Efficacy and safety of incretin therapy in type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis" . JAMA 298 (2): 194–206. doi : 10.1001/jama.298.2.194 . PMID 17622601 . http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17622601 .

30. ̂ Peresepan Nasional Jasa (Agustus 1 Januari 2010). "Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor ('gliptins') untuk diabetes mellitus tipe 2" . http://www.nps.org.au/health_professionals/publications/nps_radar/2008/august_2008 / gliptins . ^ National Prescribing Service (August 1, 2010). "Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors ('gliptins') for type 2 diabetes mellitus" . http://www.nps.org.au/health_professionals/publications/nps_radar/2008/august_2008/gliptins .

31. ̂ Bnouham M et al. ^ Bnouham M et al. (2006). "Tanaman obat dengan aktivitas antidiabetes potensial - Sebuah tinjauan sepuluh tahun penelitian obat herbal (1990-2000)" (PDF):. Int J Diabetes & Metabolism 14. 1-25 http://ijod.uaeu. ac.ae/iss_1401/a.pdf . (2006). "Medicinal plants with potential antidiabetic activity - A review of ten years of herbal medicine research (1990-2000)" (PDF). Int J Diabetes & Metabolism 14 : 1–25 . http://ijod.uaeu.ac.ae/iss_1401/a.pdf .

32. ̂ Soumyanath, Amala (ed.) (2005/11/01) Times Tradisional. Obat Modern untuk (1st ed.). ^ Soumyanath, Amala(ed.) (2005-11-01). Traditional Medicines for Modern Times (1st ed.). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-33464-0 . Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-33464-0 .

33. ̂ McNeill, John H. (1999/02/01). Model Eksperimen Diabetes (1st ed.). ^ McNeill, John H. (1999-02-01). Experimental Models of Diabetes (1st ed.). CRC Press. CRC Press. 208 hlm. ISBN 0-8493-1667-7 . pp. 208. ISBN 0-8493-1667-7 .

34. ̂ Matsuda, Hisashi; Nishida, Norihisa; Yoshikawa, Masayuki (2002). ^ Matsuda, Hisashi; Nishida, Norihisa; Yoshikawa, Masayuki (2002). "Prinsip antidiabetes Obat Alam:. V. aldosa Reduktase Inhibitor Myrcia dari multiflora) DC. (2 Struktur Myrciacitrins III, IV, dan V":. Kimia & Farmasi Buletin 50 429. DOI : 10.1248/cpb.50.429 . "Antidiabetic Principles of Natural Medicines. V. Aldose Reductase Inhibitors from Myrcia multiflora DC. (2): Structures of Myrciacitrins III, IV, and V". Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 50 : 429. doi : 10.1248/cpb.50.429 .

35. ̂ Jelodar G, Sirus Sh, Mohsen M (2007). "Pengaruh daun Walnut, ketumbar dan delima pada glukosa darah dan histopatologi dari pankreas tikus diabetes diinduksi aloksan" ). African Journal of Tradisional, gratis dan Alternatif Obat 4 (3: 299-305. http://www.bioline.org.br/request?tc07044 . ^ Jelodar G, Sirus Sh, Mohsen M (2007). "Effect of Walnut leaf, coriander and pomegranate on blood glucose and histopathology of pancreas of alloxan induced diabetic rats" . African Journal of Traditional, Complimentary and Alternative Medicines 4 (3): 299–305 .

http://www.bioline.org.br/request?tc07044 . Diperoleh 2008/05/10. Retrieved 2008-05-10 .

36. ̂ Jelodar;, M Maleki; Motadayen, MH; Sirus, S (2005). ^ Jelodar; Maleki, M; Motadayen, MH; Sirus, S (2005). "Pengaruh fenugreek, bawang merah dan bawang putih pada glukosa darah dan histopatologi dari pankreas tikus diinduksi aloksan-diabetes.": India. Jurnal kedokteran ilmu 59 (2) 64-9. DOI : 10.4103/0019-5359.13905 . PMID 15738612 . "Effect of fenugreek, onion and garlic on blood glucose and histopathology of pancreas of alloxan-induced diabetic rats.". Indian journal of medical sciences 59 (2): 64–9. doi : 10.4103/0019-5359.13905 . PMID 15738612 .

37. ̂ Khan, A.; Safdar, M.; Ali Khan, MM; Khattak, KN; Anderson, RA (2003). ^ Khan, A.; Safdar, M.; Ali Khan, MM; Khattak, KN; Anderson, RA (2003). "Cinnamon Meningkatkan Glukosa dan Lipid Rakyat Dengan Tipe 2 Diabetes". Diabetes. Care 26 (12): 3215-8 DOI : 10.2337/diacare.26.12.3215 . PMID 14633804 . "Cinnamon Improves Glucose and Lipids of People With Type 2 Diabetes". Diabetes Care 26 (12): 3215–8. doi : 10.2337/diacare.26.12.3215 . PMID 14633804 .

38. ̂ Jarvill-Taylor, Karalee J.; Anderson, R,, D (2001). Graves "Sebuah Hydroxychalcone Berasal dari Cinnamon Fungsi sebagai mimesis untuk Insulin di-L1 adipocytes 3T3" ). Journal of American College of Nutrition 20 (4 : 327-36. PMID 11506060 . http://www.jacn.org/cgi/content/full/20/4/327 . ^ Jarvill-Taylor, Karalee J.; Anderson, R; Graves, D (2001). "A Hydroxychalcone Derived from Cinnamon Functions as a Mimetic for Insulin in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes" . Journal of the American College of Nutrition 20 (4): 327–36. PMID 11506060 . http://www.jacn.org/cgi/content/full/20/4/327 .

39. ̂ Richard A. Anderson, Ph.D., CNS, Cinnamon, Toleransi Glukosa dan Diabetes , www.ars.usda.gov, 23 Agustus 2005, diambil 4 Agustus 2008 ^ Richard A. Anderson, Ph.D., CNS, Cinnamon, Glucose Tolerance and Diabetes , www.ars.usda.gov , August 23, 2005, retrieved August 4, 2008

40. ^ a b Zhang, Lin, ZB (2004). ^ a b Zhang; Lin, ZB (2004). "Efek hipoglikemik polisakarida Ganoderma lucidum.":. Acta pharmacologica Sinica 25 (2). 191-5 PMID 14769208 . "Hypoglycemic effect of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides.". Acta pharmacologica Sinica 25 (2): 191–5. PMID 14769208 .

41. ^ a b Yang, Jung, YS, Song, CH (2007). ^ a b Yang; Jung, YS; Song, CH (2007). "Efek hipoglikemik dari applanatum Ganoderma dan confluens Collybia exo-polimer di streptozotocin-tikus diabetes diinduksi.":. Phytotherapy penelitian PTR 21 (11): 1066-9. DOI : 10.1002/ptr.2214 . PMID 17600864 . "Hypoglycemic effects of Ganoderma applanatum and Collybia confluens exo-polymers in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.". Phytotherapy research : PTR 21 (11): 1066–9. doi : 10.1002/ptr.2214 . PMID 17600864 .

42. ^ a b Liu; Fukuwatari, Y; Okumura, K; Takeda, K, Ishibashi, KI, Furukawa, M; Ohno, N; Mori, K et al. ^ a b Liu; Fukuwatari, Y; Okumura, K; Takeda, K; Ishibashi, KI; Furukawa, M; Ohno, N; Mori, K et al . (2008). "Kegiatan Agaricus brasiliensis imunomodulasi KA21 pada Mencit dan Relawan Manusia." : komplementer dan alternatif berbasis bukti. obat ECAM 5 (2): 205-219. DOI : 10.1093/ecam/nem016 . PMID 18604247 . (2008). "Immunomodulating Activity of Agaricus brasiliensis KA21 in Mice and in Human Volunteers." . Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM 5 (2): 205–219. doi : 10.1093/ecam/nem016 . PMID 18604247 .

43. ^ a b Kim, Kim, KH, Choi, HJ, Lee, DS (2005). ^ a b Kim; Kim, KH; Choi, HJ; Lee, DS (2005). "Anti-diabetes aktivitas beta-glukan dan dihidrolisis secara enzimatis oligosakarida mereka dari Agaricus Blazei.": Bioteknologi. Surat 27 (7) 483-7. DOI : 10.1007/s10529-005-2225-8 . PMID 15928854 . "Anti-diabetic activity of beta-glucans and their enzymatically hydrolyzed oligosaccharides from Agaricus blazei.". Biotechnology letters 27 (7): 483–7. doi : 10.1007/s10529-005-2225-8 . PMID 15928854 .

44. ^ a b Hsu, Liao, YL; Lin, SC; Hwang, KC, Chou, P (2007). ^ a b Hsu; Liao, YL; Lin, SC; Hwang, KC; Chou, P (2007). "The jamur Agaricus Blazei Murill dalam kombinasi dengan metformin dan gliklazid meningkatkan resistensi insulin pada diabetes tipe 2: double-blinded, dan terkontrol plasebo uji klinik, acak." (. Jurnal alternatif dan komplementer obat (New York, NY) 13 1): 97-102. DOI : 10.1089/acm.2006.6054 . PMID 17309383 . "The mushroom Agaricus Blazei Murill in combination with metformin and gliclazide improves insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-blinded, and placebo-controlled clinical trial.". Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, NY) 13 (1): 97–102. doi : 10.1089/acm.2006.6054 . PMID 17309383 .

45. ̂ Fortes; Novaes, MR; Recôva, VL; Melo, AL (2009). ^ Fortes; Novaes, MR; Recôva, VL; Melo, AL (2009). sylvaticus pada pasien 'kolorektal ". kanker. biologi eksperimental dan (obat Maywood) NJ 234, (1." imunologi, hematologi, dan glycemia efek suplementasi diet dengan Agaricus): 53-62 DOI : 10.3181/0806-RM-193 . PMID 18997106 . "Immunological, hematological, and glycemia effects of dietary supplementation with Agaricus sylvaticus on patients' colorectal cancer.". Experimental biology and medicine (Maywood, NJ) 234 (1): 53–62. doi : 10.3181/0806-RM-193 . PMID 18997106 .

46. ̂ Kiho; Sobue, S; Ukai, S (1994). ^ Kiho; Sobue, S; Ukai, S (1994). "Fitur Struktural dan aktivitas hipoglikemik dua polisakarida dari air panas ekstrak cylindracea Agrocybe.":. Karbohidrat penelitian 251 81-7. DOI : 10.1016/0008-6215 (94) 84277-9 . PMID 8149381 . "Structural features and hypoglycemic activities of two polysaccharides from a hot-water extract of Agrocybe cylindracea.". Carbohydrate research 251 : 81–7. doi : 10.1016/0008-6215(94)84277-9 . PMID 8149381 .

47. ^ a b Kiho; Hui, J; Yamane A,; Ukai, S (1993). ^ a b Kiho; Hui, J; Yamane, A; Ukai, S (1993). "Polisakarida dalam jamur.. Cordyceps XXXII. Hipoglikemik dan aktivitas kimia sifat suatu polisakarida dari budaya miselium sinensis":. Biological & farmasi buletin 16 (12) 1291-3. PMID 8130781 . "Polysaccharides in fungi. XXXII. Hypoglycemic activity and chemical properties of a polysaccharide from the cultural mycelium of Cordyceps sinensis.". Biological & pharmaceutical bulletin 16 (12): 1291–3. PMID 8130781 .

48. ^ a b Kiho; Yamane, A; Hui, J; Usui, S; Ukai, S (1996). ^ a b Kiho; Yamane, A; Hui, J; Usui, S; Ukai, S (1996). "Polisakarida dalam jamur.. Mouse XXXVI. Hipoglikemik kegiatan dari polisakarida (CS-F30) dari budaya dan miselium Cordyceps sinensis pada efek metabolisme glukosa dalam hati":. Biological farmasi & buletin 19 (2). 294-6 PMID 8850325 . "Polysaccharides in fungi. XXXVI. Hypoglycemic activity of a polysaccharide (CS-F30) from the cultural mycelium of Cordyceps sinensis and its effect on glucose metabolism in mouse liver.". Biological & pharmaceutical bulletin 19 (2): 294–6. PMID 8850325 .

49. ^ a b Zhao; Yin, WT; Wang, JY; Zhang, Y; Yu, H, Cooper, R; Smidt, C; Zhu, JS (2002). ^ a b Zhao; Yin, WT; Wang, JY; Zhang, Y; Yu, H; Cooper, R; Smidt, C; Zhu, JS (2002). "CordyMax Cs-4 memperbaiki metabolisme glukosa dan meningkatkan sensitivitas insulin pada tikus normal.":. Jurnal alternatif dan komplementer obat (New York, NY) 8 (3). 309-14 DOI : 10.1089/10755530260127998 . PMID 12165188 . "CordyMax Cs-4 improves glucose metabolism and increases insulin sensitivity in normal rats.". Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, NY) 8 (3): 309–14. doi : 10.1089/10755530260127998 . PMID 12165188 .

50. ^ a b Lo, Tu, ST, Lin, KC, Lin, SC (2004). ^ a b Lo; Tu, ST; Lin, KC; Lin, SC (2004). dari tubuh Cordyceps berbuah tikus diabetes diinduksi oleh nicotinamide dan. streptozotocin ". Life ilmu 74 (23:" The anti-hiperglikemia aktivitas) 2897-908. DOI : 10.1016/j.lfs.2003.11.003 . PMID 15050427 . "The anti-hyperglycemic activity of the fruiting body of Cordyceps in diabetic rats induced by nicotinamide and streptozotocin.". Life sciences 74 (23): 2897–908. doi : 10.1016/j.lfs.2003.11.003 . PMID 15050427 .

51. ^ a b Li, Zhang, GH; Zeng, Q; Huang, ZG; Wang, YT; Dong, TT, Tsim, KW (2006). ^ a b Li; Zhang, GH; Zeng, Q; Huang, ZG; Wang, YT; Dong, TT; Tsim, KW (2006). "Aktivitas hipoglikemik dari polisakarida, dengan antioxidation, terisolasi dari miselia Cordyceps berbudaya.".. Phytomedicine internasional: jurnal Phytotherapy dan phytopharmacology 13 (6): 428-33 DOI : 10.1016/j.phymed.2005.02.002 . PMID 16716913 . "Hypoglycemic activity of polysaccharide, with antioxidation, isolated from cultured Cordyceps mycelia.". Phytomedicine : international journal of phytotherapy and phytopharmacology 13 (6): 428–33. doi : 10.1016/j.phymed.2005.02.002 . PMID 16716913 .

52. ̂ Khan, A.; Safdar, M; Khan Ali, MM; Khattak, KN; Anderson, RA (2003). ^ Khan, A.; Safdar, M; Ali Khan, MM; Khattak, KN; Anderson, RA (2003). "Cinnamon Meningkatkan Glukosa dan Lipid Rakyat Dengan Tipe 2 Diabetes". Diabetes. Care 26 (12): 3215-8 DOI : 10.2337/diacare.26.12.3215 . PMID 14633804 . "Cinnamon Improves Glucose and Lipids of People With Type 2 Diabetes". Diabetes Care 26 (12): 3215–8. doi : 10.2337/diacare.26.12.3215 . PMID 14633804 .

53. ̂ Jarvill-taylor, Karalee J; Anderson, Richard A;, Donald J (2001). Graves "Sebuah Hydroxychalcone Berasal dari Cinnamon Fungsi sebagai mimesis untuk Insulin di-L1 adipocytes 3T3" 4. Journal of American College of Nutrition 20 ( ): 327-36. PMID 11506060 . http://www.jacn.org/cgi/content/full/20/4/327 . ^ Jarvill-taylor, Karalee J; Anderson, Richard A; Graves, Donald J (2001). "A Hydroxychalcone Derived from Cinnamon Functions as a Mimetic for Insulin in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes" . Journal of the American College of Nutrition 20 (4): 327–36. PMID 11506060 . http://www.jacn.org/cgi/content/full/20/4/327 .

54. ̂ Anderson, Richard A. (23 Agustus 2005). "Cinnamon, Toleransi Glukosa dan Diabetes" . Agricultural Research Service . http://www.ars.usda.gov/Research/docs.htm?docid=8877 . ^ Anderson, Richard A. (23 August 2005). "Cinnamon, Glucose Tolerance and Diabetes" . Agricultural Research Service . http://www.ars.usda.gov/Research/docs.htm?docid=8877 . Diakses 2 Oktober 2009. Retrieved 2 October 2009 .

55. ̂ White, John R. (25 Desember 2008). "Cinnamon: Haruskah It Be Taken sebagai Obat Diabetes?" Kesehatan. Diabetes. http://www.diabeteshealth.com/read/2008/12/25/5703/cinnamon -harus-it-be-diambil-as-

a-diabetes-obat / . ^ White, John R. (25 December 2008). "Cinnamon: Should It Be Taken as a Diabetes Medication?" . Diabetes Health . http://www.diabeteshealth.com/read/2008/12/25/5703/cinnamon-should-it-be-taken-as-a-diabetes-medication/ . Diakses 2 Oktober 2009. Retrieved 2 October 2009 .

56. ̂ Sherman, L; Glennon, JA; Brech, WJ; Klomberg, GH; Gordon, ES (1968). ^ Sherman, L; Glennon, JA; Brech, WJ; Klomberg, GH; Gordon, ES (1968). "Kegagalan kromium trivalen untuk memperbaiki hiperglikemia pada diabetes mellitus".. Metabolisme 17 (5): 439-42 DOI : 10.1016/0026-0495 (68) 90066-8 . PMID 4869710 . "Failure of trivalent chromium to improve hyperglycemia in diabetes mellitus". Metabolism 17 (5): 439–42. doi : 10.1016/0026-0495(68)90066-8 . PMID 4869710 .

57. ̂ Lee, NA; Reasner, CA (1994). ^ Lee, NA; Reasner, CA (1994). "Menguntungkan pengaruh penambahan kromium pada tingkat trigliserida serum di NIDDM".. Diabetes perawatan 17 (12): 1449-52 DOI : 10.2337/diacare.17.12.1449 . PMID 7882815 . "Beneficial effect of chromium supplementation on serum triglyceride levels in NIDDM". Diabetes care 17 (12): 1449–52. doi : 10.2337/diacare.17.12.1449 . PMID 7882815 .

58. ̂ Herman, Janice; Chung, Hyunhee; Arquitt, Andrea; kusa, Carla; Burns, Michelle; Chan, Benjamin (1999). ^ Hermann, Janice; Chung, Hyunhee; Arquitt, Andrea; Goad, Carla; Burns, Michelle; Chan, Benjamin (1999). "Dampak Suplementasi Kromium atau tembaga pada Lipid Plasma, Glukosa Plasma dan Insulin Serum dalam Dewasa Selama Lima puluh Umur":. Journal of Nutrition untuk Lansia 18 27. DOI : 10.1300/J052v18n01_03 . "Effects of Chromium or Copper Supplementation on Plasma Lipids, Plasma Glucose and Serum Insulin in Adults Over Age Fifty". Journal of Nutrition for the Elderly 18 : 27. doi : 10.1300/J052v18n01_03 .

59. ̂ , RI; Geller, J; Evans, GW (1990). Tekan "Pengaruh kromium picolinate pada kolesterol serum dan apolipoprotein fraksi pada subyek manusia" 41-5. Barat jurnal obat 152 (1):. PMID 2408233 . ^ Press, RI; Geller, J; Evans, GW (1990). "The effect of chromium picolinate on serum cholesterol and apolipoprotein fractions in human subjects" . The Western journal of medicine 152 (1): 41–5. PMID 2408233 .

60. ̂ Evans, GW (1989). ^ Evans, GW (1989). "Pengaruh kromium picolinate pada parameter dikendalikan insulin pada manusia":. International Journal of Biosocial dan Penelitian Medis 11 163-80. "The effect of chromium picolinate on insulin controlled parameters in humans". International Journal of Biosocial and Medical Research 11 : 163–80.

61. ̂ Anderson, RA (1998). ^ Anderson, RA (1998). "Chromium, intoleransi glukosa dan diabetes":. Journal of American College of Nutrition 17 (6) 548-55. PMID 9853533 . "Chromium, glucose intolerance and diabetes". Journal of the American College of Nutrition 17 (6): 548–55. PMID 9853533 .

62. ̂ Anderson, RA (2000). ^ Anderson, RA (2000). "Kromium dalam pencegahan dan pengendalian diabetes":. Diabetes & metabolisme 26 (1) 22-7. PMID 10705100 . "Chromium in the prevention and control of diabetes". Diabetes & metabolism 26 (1): 22–7. PMID 10705100 .

63. ̂ Kleefstra, N; Houweling, ST, Bakker, SJ; Verhoeven, S; Gans, RO; Meyboom-De Jong, B; Bilo, HJ (2007). ^ Kleefstra, N; Houweling, ST; Bakker, SJ; Verhoeven, S; Gans, RO; Meyboom-De Jong, B; Bilo, HJ (2007). "Pengobatan Kromium tidak memiliki efek pada pasien dengan diabetes tipe 2 pada populasi Barat: secara acak, double blind,

terkontrol plasebo":. Diabetes perawatan 30 (5) 1092-6. DOI : 10.2337/dc06-2192 . PMID 17303791 . "Chromium treatment has no effect in patients with type 2 diabetes in a Western population: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial". Diabetes care 30 (5): 1092–6. doi : 10.2337/dc06-2192 . PMID 17303791 .

64. ̂ balk, EM; Tatsioni, A; Lichtenstein, AH; Lau, J; dimaksud dengan paok, AG (2007). ^ Balk, EM; Tatsioni, A; Lichtenstein, AH; Lau, J; Pittas, AG (2007). "Pengaruh suplementasi kromium pada metabolisme glukosa dan lipid: peninjauan secara sistematis terhadap uji coba terkontrol secara acak" 2154-63. Diabetes perawatan 30 (8).: DOI : 10.2337/dc06-0996 . PMID 17519436 . "Effect of chromium supplementation on glucose metabolism and lipids: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials". Diabetes care 30 (8): 2154–63. doi : 10.2337/dc06-0996 . PMID 17519436 .

65. ̂ Halberstam, M; Cohen, N; Shlimovich, P; Rossetti, L; Shamoon, H (1996). ^ Halberstam, M; Cohen, N; Shlimovich, P; Rossetti, L; Shamoon, H (1996). "Sulfat vanadyl Lisan meningkatkan sensitivitas insulin pada NIDDM tetapi tidak dalam mata pelajaran nondiabetes obesitas":. Diabetes 45 (5) 659-66. DOI : 10.2337/diabetes.45.5.659 . PMID 8621019 . "Oral vanadyl sulfate improves insulin sensitivity in NIDDM but not in obese nondiabetic subjects". Diabetes 45 (5): 659–66. doi : 10.2337/diabetes.45.5.659 . PMID 8621019 .

66. ̂ Boden, G, Chen, X; Ruiz, J, Van Rossum, GD; Turco, S (1996). ^ Boden, G; Chen, X; Ruiz, J; Van Rossum, GD; Turco, S (1996). "Dari vanadyl pada sulfat karbohidrat dan lemak dalam metabolisme pasien dengan non? Efek dependent diabetes mellitus-insulin * 1" 1130-5. Metabolisme 45 (9).: DOI : 10.1016/S0026-0495 (96) 90013-X . PMID 8781301 . "Effects of vanadyl sulfate on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in patients with non?insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus*1". Metabolism 45 (9): 1130–5. doi : 10.1016/S0026-0495(96)90013-X . PMID 8781301 .

67. ̂ Goldfine, A; Patti, ME; Zuberi, L; Goldstein, BJ; Leblanc, R; Landaker, EJ; Jiang, ZY, Willsky, GR et al. ^ Goldfine, A; Patti, ME; Zuberi, L; Goldstein, BJ; Leblanc, R; Landaker, EJ; Jiang, ZY; Willsky, GR et al . (2000). (2000). "Efek metabolik sulfat vanadyl pada manusia dengan insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus-non: Dalam vivo dan in vitro":. Metabolisme 49 (3) 400-10. DOI : 10.1016/S0026-0495 (00) 90418-9 . PMID 10726921 . "Metabolic effects of vanadyl sulfate in humans with non—insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: In vivo and in vitro studies". Metabolism 49 (3): 400–10. doi : 10.1016/S0026-0495(00)90418-9 . PMID 10726921 .

68. ̂ Badmaev, Vladimir; Prakash, S; Majeed, M (1999). ^ Badmaev, Vladimir; Prakash, S; Majeed, M (1999). "Vanadium: Sebuah Tinjauan Potensi Peran dalam Fight Against Diabetes":. The Journal Alternatif dan Pelengkap Kedokteran 5 (3) 273-91. DOI : 10.1089/acm.1999.5.273 . PMID 10381252 . "Vanadium: A Review of its Potential Role in the Fight Against Diabetes". The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 5 (3): 273–91. doi : 10.1089/acm.1999.5.273 . PMID 10381252 .

69. ̂ Goldwaser, aku, Li, J; Gershonov, E; Armoni, M; Karnieli, E; Fridkin, M; Shechter, Y (1999). ^ Goldwaser, I; Li, J; Gershonov, E; Armoni, M; Karnieli, E; Fridkin, M; Shechter, Y (1999). "Asam L-glutamat gamma-monohydroxamate vivo. A potentiator-membangkitkan metabolisme glukosa vanadium in vitro dan in":. The Journal biologi kimia 274 (37) 26617-24. DOI : 10.1074/jbc.274.37.26617 . PMID 10473627 . "L-Glutamic acid gamma-monohydroxamate. A potentiator of vanadium-evoked glucose

metabolism in vitro and in vivo". The Journal of biological chemistry 274 (37): 26617–24. doi : 10.1074/jbc.274.37.26617 . PMID 10473627 .

70. ̂ Christiansen, Melanie (20 Desember 2005). "Tai Chi obat menjanjikan untuk diabetes" . ^ Christiansen, Melanie (20 December 2005). "Tai Chi a promising remedy for diabetes" . Australian Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2005/s1535304.htm . Australian Broadcasting Corporation . http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2005/s1535304.htm . - Pilot studi qigong dan T'ai Chi pada penderita diabetes. - Pilot study of qigong and T'ai Chi in diabetes sufferers.

71. ̂ Du, X; Edelstein, D; Brownlee, M (2008). ^ Du, X; Edelstein, D; Brownlee, M (2008). "Benfotiamine Oral plus-lipoic asam alfa akan normal komplikasi-menyebabkan jalur pada diabetes tipe 1":. Diabetologia 51 (10) 1930-2. DOI : 10.1007/s00125-008-1100-2 . PMID 18663426 . "Oral benfotiamine plus alpha-lipoic acid normalises complication-causing pathways in type 1 diabetes". Diabetologia 51 (10): 1930–2. doi : 10.1007/s00125-008-1100-2 . PMID 18663426 .

72. ̂ Hammes, HP; Du, X; Edelstein, D, Taguchi, T; Matsumura, T; Ju, Q; Lin, J; Bierhaus, A et al. ^ Hammes, HP; Du, X; Edelstein, D; Taguchi, T; Matsumura, T; Ju, Q; Lin, J; Bierhaus, A et al . (2003). (2003). "Benfotiamine blok tiga jalur utama dari kerusakan hiperglikemia dan mencegah retinopati diabetes eksperimental" 294-9. Sifat obat 9 (3).: DOI : 10.1038/nm834 . PMID 12592403 . "Benfotiamine blocks three major pathways of hyperglycemic damage and prevents experimental diabetic retinopathy". Nature medicine 9 (3): 294–9. doi : 10.1038/nm834 . PMID 12592403 .

73. ̂ Stracke, H, Gaus, W; Achenbach, U; Federlin, K; Bretzel, RG (2008). ^ Stracke, H; Gaus, W; Achenbach, U; Federlin, K; Bretzel, RG (2008). "Benfotiamine dalam polineuropati diabetik (BENDIP): hasil ganda, buta, placebo controlled klinis studi-acak":. Eksperimental klinis dan endokrinologi & 10 diabetes 116 () 600-5. DOI : 10.1055/s-2008-1065351 . PMID 18473286 . "Benfotiamine in diabetic polyneuropathy (BENDIP): results of a randomised, double blind, placebo-controlled clinical study". Experimental and clinical endocrinology & diabetes 116 (10): 600–5. doi : 10.1055/s-2008-1065351 . PMID 18473286 .

74. ̂ Babaei Jadidi, R-; Karachalias, N; Ahmed, N; Battah, S; Thornalley, PJ (2003). ^ Babaei-Jadidi, R; Karachalias, N; Ahmed, N; Battah, S; Thornalley, PJ (2003). "Pencegahan diabetes nefropati baru jadi oleh-tiamin dosis tinggi dan benfotiamine":. Diabetes 52 (8) 2110-20. DOI : 10.2337/diabetes.52.8.2110 . PMID 12882930 . "Prevention of incipient diabetic nephropathy by high-dose thiamine and benfotiamine". Diabetes 52 (8): 2110–20. doi : 10.2337/diabetes.52.8.2110 . PMID 12882930 .

75. ̂ Swanston-Flatt, SK, Hari, C; Bailey, CJ; Flatt, PR (1990). ^ Swanston-Flatt, SK; Day, C; Bailey, CJ; Flatt, PR (1990). "Perlakuan tanaman tradisional untuk diabetes tikus. Studi dan streptozotocin diabetes normal dalam":. Diabetologia 33 (8) 462-4. DOI : 10.1007/BF00405106 . PMID 2210118 . "Traditional plant treatments for diabetes. Studies in normal and streptozotocin diabetic mice". Diabetologia 33 (8): 462–4. doi : 10.1007/BF00405106 . PMID 2210118 .

76. ̂ Matsuur, H, Jadi Gila, C; Kurimoto, M; Mizutani, J (2002). ^ Matsuur, H; Asakawa, C; Kurimoto, M; Mizutani, J (2002). "-Glukosidase inhibitor Alpha dari biji pir balsam (Momordica charantia) dan tubuh buah dari frondosa Grifola":. Bioscience, bioteknologi, dan biokimia 66 (7) 1576-8. DOI : 10.1271/bbb.66.1576 . PMID 12224646 . "Alpha-

glucosidase inhibitor from the seeds of balsam pear (Momordica charantia) and the fruit bodies of Grifola frondosa". Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry 66 (7): 1576–8. doi : 10.1271/bbb.66.1576 . PMID 12224646 .

77. ̂ Fortes, RC; Novaes, MR; Recôva, VL; Melo, AL (2009). ^ Fortes, RC; Novaes, MR; Recôva, VL; Melo, AL (2009). "Imunologi, hematologi, efek glycemia dan suplemen makanan dengan sylvaticus Agaricus pada kanker kolorektal 'pasien": Eksperimental. Biologi dan kedokteran 234 (1) 53-62. DOI : 10.3181/0806-RM-193 . PMID 18997106 . "Immunological, hematological, and glycemia effects of dietary supplementation with Agaricus sylvaticus on patients' colorectal cancer". Experimental biology and medicine 234 (1): 53–62. doi : 10.3181/0806-RM-193 . PMID 18997106 .

78. ̂ Kiho, T; Sobue, S; Ukai, S (1994). ^ Kiho, T; Sobue, S; Ukai, S (1994). "Fitur Struktural dan aktivitas hipoglikemik dua polisakarida dari air panas ekstrak cylindracea Agrocybe": Karbohidrat. Penelitian 251. 81-7 DOI : 10.1016/0008-6215 (94) 84277-9 . PMID 8149381 . "Structural features and hypoglycemic activities of two polysaccharides from a hot-water extract of Agrocybe cylindracea". Carbohydrate research 251 : 81–7. doi : 10.1016/0008-6215(94)84277-9 . PMID 8149381 .

[ sunting ] Referensi [ edit ] References

Lebovitz, Harold E. (2004)). Terapi Diabetes Mellitus Untuk Terkait dan Gangguan (4 th ed.. Lebovitz, Harold E. (2004). Therapy For Diabetes Mellitus and Related Disorders (4 th ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Diabetes Association . ISBN 1-58040-187-2 . Alexandria, VA: American Diabetes Association . ISBN 1-58040-187-2 .

Adams, Ian Michael, Belanda, Norwood Norman (2003) Farmakologi Core. Konsep dalam. Adams, Michael Ian; Holland, Norman Norwood (2003). Core Concepts in Pharmacology . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-089329-3 . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-089329-3 .

v · d · e Oral obat anti-diabetes dan insulin analog ( A10 ) v · d · e Oral anti-diabetic drugs and Insulin analogs ( A10 )

Insulin Insulin

Sensitizers Sensitizers

Biguanides Biguanides

Metformin # • Buformin ‡ • Phenformin ‡ Metformin # • Buformin ‡ • Phenformin ‡

TZDs ( PPAR ) TZDs ( PPAR )

Pioglitazone • Rivoglitazone † • rosiglitazone • troglitazone ‡ Pioglitazone • Rivoglitazone † • Rosiglitazone • Troglitazone ‡

Dual PPAR agonis Dual PPAR agonist

Aleglitazar † • Muraglitazar § • Tesaglitazar § Aleglitazar † • Muraglitazar § • Tesaglitazar §

Sekretagog Secretagogues

K + ATP K+ ATP

Sulfonylureas Sulfonylureas

1 generasi : Acetohexamide • Carbutamide • klorpropamid • gliklazid • tolbutamid • Tolazamide 1st generation : Acetohexamide • Carbutamide • Chlorpropamide • Gliclazide • Tolbutamide • Tolazamide

2 generasi : glibenclamide (glyburide) # • Glipizide • Gliquidone • Glyclopyramide 2nd generation : Glibenclamide (Glyburide) # • Glipizide • Gliquidone • Glyclopyramide

3 generasi : glimepiride 3rd generation : Glimepiride

Meglitinides / "glinides" Meglitinides /"glinides"

Nateglinide • repaglinide • Mitiglinide Nateglinide • Repaglinide • Mitiglinide

GLP-1 analog GLP-1 analogs

Exenatide • Liraglutide • Taspoglutide † • Albiglutide † • Lixisenatide Exenatide • Liraglutide • Taspoglutide † • Albiglutide † • Lixisenatide

DPP-4 inhibitor DPP-4 inhibitors

Alogliptin † • Linagliptin † • Saxagliptin • sitagliptin • Vildagliptin Alogliptin † • Linagliptin † • Saxagliptin • Sitagliptin • Vildagliptin

Analog / insulins lain Analogs /other insulins

cepat bertindak ( insulin lispro • Insulin aspart • glulisine Insulin ) short acting • ( insulin Reguler ) • long acting ( glargine insulin • Insulin detemir • insulin NPH ) • ultralong bertindak ( insulin degludec †) • Inhalable Insulin Exubera ‡ fast acting ( Insulin lispro • Insulin aspart • Insulin glulisine ) • short acting ( Regular insulin ) • long acting ( Insulin glargine • Insulin detemir • NPH insulin ) • ultralong acting ( Insulin degludec † ) • Inhalable Insulin Exubera ‡

Lainnya Other

Alpha-glukosidase inhibitor Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors

Acarbose • Miglitol • voglibose Acarbose • Miglitol • Voglibose

Amylin analog Amylin analog

Pramlintide Pramlintide

SGLT2 inhibitor

Canagliflozin † • Dapagliflozin † • Remogliflozin § • Sergliflozin § Canagliflozin † • Dapagliflozin † • Remogliflozin § • Sergliflozin §

SGLT2 inhibitors

Lainnya Other

Benfluorex • Tolrestat ‡ Benfluorex • Tolrestat ‡

# WHO-EM ‡. Ditarik dari pasar. Uji klinis : † Tahap III . § Jangan ke tahap III # WHO-EM . ‡ Withdrawn from market. Clinical trials : † Phase III . § Never to phase III

M : AKHIR M : END Anat / Phys / devp / horm / sel anat / phys /

devp / horm / cell

noco ( d ) / cong / tumr , sysi / Epon noco ( d )/ cong / tumr , sysi /

epon

proc , obat ( A10 / H1 / H2 / H3 / H5 ) proc ,

drug ( A10 / H1 / H2 / H3 / H5 )

v · d · e Farmakologi : kelompok obat utama v · d · e Pharmacology : major drug groups

Saluran gastrointestinal / metabolisme ( A ) Gastrointestinal tract / metabolism ( A )

asam lambung ( Antasida , H 2 antagonis , Proton pump inhibitor ) • antiemetik • Pencahar • Antidiarrhoeals / Antipropulsives • Anti-obesitas obat • Anti-diabetes • Vitamin • Dietary mineral stomach acid ( Antacids , H 2 antagonists , Proton pump inhibitors ) • Antiemetics • Laxatives • Antidiarrhoeals / Antipropulsives • Anti-obesity drugs • Anti-diabetics • Vitamins • Dietary minerals

Darah dan membentuk organ darah ( B ) Blood and blood forming organs ( B )

Antithrombotics ( Antitrombosit , Antikoagulan , Trombolitik / fibrinolytics ) • Antihemorrhagics ( Trombosit , koagulan , Antifibrinolytics ) Antithrombotics ( Antiplatelets , Anticoagulants , Thrombolytics/fibrinolytics ) • Antihemorrhagics ( Platelets , Coagulants , Antifibrinolytics )

Sistem kardiovaskular ( C ) Cardiovascular system ( C )

jantung terapi / antianginals ( Jantung glikosida , antiarrhythmics , stimulan Cardiac ) cardiac therapy/ antianginals ( Cardiac glycosides , Antiarrhythmics , Cardiac stimulants )

Antihipertensi • Diuretik • vasodilator • Beta blockers • Kalsium channel bloker • sistem renin-angiotensin ( ACE inhibitors , Angiotensin II antagonis reseptor , Renin inhibitor ) Antihypertensives • Diuretics • Vasodilators • Beta blockers • Calcium channel blockers • renin-angiotensin system ( ACE inhibitors , Angiotensin II receptor antagonists , Renin inhibitors )

Antihyperlipidemics ( Statin , fibrate , Empedu sequestrants asam ) Antihyperlipidemics ( Statins , Fibrates , Bile acid sequestrants )

Kulit ( D ) Skin ( D )

Emollients • Cicatrizants • Antipruritics • Antipsoriatics • obat dressing Emollients • Cicatrizants • Antipruritics • Antipsoriatics • Medicated dressings

Genitourinari sistem ( G ) Genitourinary system ( G )

Kontrasepsi hormonal • agen Fertilitas • SERMs • Sex hormon Hormonal contraception • Fertility agents • SERMs • Sex hormones

Sistem endokrin ( H ) Endocrine system ( H )

Hipotalamus-hipofisis hormon • Kortikosteroid ( Glukokortikoid , Mineralocorticoids ) • Jenis Kelamin hormon • Hormon tiroid / agen antitiroid Hypothalamic-pituitary hormones • Corticosteroids ( Glucocorticoids , Mineralocorticoids ) • Sex hormones • Thyroid hormones / Antithyroid agents

Infeksi dan infestasi ( J , P , QI ) Infections and infestations ( J , P , QI )

Antimikroba : Antibakteri ( Antimycobacterials ) • antijamur • Antivirus • Antiparasitics ( Antiprotozoals , Anthelmintics , Ectoparasiticides ) • IVIG • Vaksin Antimicrobials : Antibacterials ( Antimycobacterials ) • Antifungals • Antivirals • Antiparasitics ( Antiprotozoals , Anthelmintics , Ectoparasiticides ) • IVIG • Vaccines

Ganas penyakit ( L01-L02 ) Malignant disease ( L01-L02 )

Agen antikanker ( Antimetabolites , alkylating , racun Spindle , antineoplastik , topoisomerase inhibitor ) Anticancer agents ( Antimetabolites , Alkylating , Spindle poisons , Antineoplastic , Topoisomerase inhibitors )

Immune penyakit ( L03-L04 ) Immune disease ( L03-L04 )

Immunomodulators ( imunostimulan , imunosupresan ) Immunomodulators ( Immunostimulants , Immunosuppressants )

Otot , tulang , dan sendi ( M ) Muscles , bones , and joints ( M )

steroid anabolik • Anti-inflamasi ( OAINS ) • Antirheumatics • Kortikosteroid • relaksan otot • Bifosfonat Anabolic steroids • Anti-inflammatories ( NSAIDs ) • Antirheumatics • Corticosteroids • Muscle relaxants • Bisphosphonates

Otak dan sistem saraf ( N ) Brain and nervous system ( N )

Analgesik • Anestesia ( Umum , Lokal ) • Anorectics • -ADHD Agen Anti • Antiaddictives • Antikonvulsan • Agen Antidementia • Antidepresan • Agen Antimigraine • 's Agen antiparkinson • antipsikotik • Anxiolytics • depressants • Entactogens • Entheogens • Euphoriants • halusinogen ( Psychedelics , Dissociatives , Deliriants ) • hipnotik / Sedatif • Mood stabilizer • Neuroprotectives • Nootropics • Neurotoxins • Orexigenics • Serenics • Stimulan • terjaga-Mempromosikan Agen Analgesics • Anesthetics ( General , Local ) • Anorectics • Anti-ADHD Agents • Antiaddictives • Anticonvulsants • Antidementia Agents • Antidepressants • Antimigraine Agents • Antiparkinson's Agents • Antipsychotics • Anxiolytics • Depressants • Entactogens • Entheogens • Euphoriants • Hallucinogens ( Psychedelics , Dissociatives , Deliriants ) • Hypnotics / Sedatives • Mood Stabilizers • Neuroprotectives • Nootropics • Neurotoxins • Orexigenics • Serenics • Stimulants • Wakefulness-Promoting Agents

Sistem pernapasan ( R ) Respiratory system ( R )

Dekongestan • Bronchodilators • Batuk obat-obatan • H 1 antagonis Decongestants • Bronchodilators • Cough medicines • H 1 antagonists

Sensorik organ ( S ) Sensory

Ophthalmologicals • Otologicals Ophthalmologicals • Otologicals

organs ( S )

Lain ATC ( V ) Other ATC ( V )

Penangkal • Media Kontras • Sediaan Penyidik • dressing Antidotes • Contrast media • Radiopharmaceuticals • Dressings

v · d · e Diabetes ( E10-E14 , 250 ) v · d · e Diabetes ( E10–E14 , 250 )

Jenis diabetes Types of diabetes

Pradiabetes ( Gangguan glukosa puasa , toleransi glukosa Gangguan ) Prediabetes ( Impaired fasting glucose , Impaired glucose tolerance ) Tipe 1 · Tipe 1,5 · tipe 2 · Mody · NDM ( transien , Tetap ) Type 1 · Type 1.5 · Type 2 · MODY · NDM ( Transient , Permanent ) Diabetes dan kehamilan : diabetes Gestational Diabetes and pregnancy : Gestational diabetes

Tes darah Blood tests

Gula darah · glikosilasi hemoglobin · Glukosa toleransi test · fruktosamin Blood sugar · Glycosylated hemoglobin · Glucose tolerance test · Fructosamine

Diabetes manajemen Diabetes management

Diabetes diet · Anti-diabetes obat · Insulin terapi · Istilah diabetes Diabetic diet · Anti-diabetic drugs · Insulin therapy · Glossary of diabetes

Komplikasi / prognosis Complications / prognosis

Diabetik koma ( Diabetic hipoglikemia , diabetik ketoasidosis , hiperosmolar Nonketotic ) · diabetes angiopathy · diabetes myonecrosis · diabetes nefropati · Diabetik neuropati · Diabetic retinopathy · Diabetic cardiomyopathy · Diabetic dermadrome ( Diabetic dermopathy , Diabetes bulla , Diabetes cheiroarthropathy , ulkus neuropatik ) Diabetic comas ( Diabetic hypoglycemia , Diabetic ketoacidosis , Nonketotic hyperosmolar ) · Diabetic angiopathy · Diabetic myonecrosis · Diabetic nephropathy · Diabetic neuropathy · Diabetic retinopathy · Diabetic cardiomyopathy · Diabetic dermadrome ( Diabetic dermopathy , Diabetic bulla , Diabetic cheiroarthropathy , Neuropathic ulcer )

M : AKHIR M : END Anat / Phys / devp / horm / sel anat / phys /

devp / horm / cell

noco ( d ) / cong / tumr , sysi / Epon noco ( d )/ cong / tumr , sysi /

epon

proc , obat ( A10 / H1 / H2 / H3 / H5 ) proc ,

drug ( A10 / H1 / H2 / H3 / H5 )