Annotated bibliography of optomechanical design - … bibliography of optomechanical... ·...

Annotated bibliography of optomechanical design

Donald C. O'Shea, FELLOW SPIE

Georgia Institute of TechnologySchool of PhysicsAtlanta, Georgia 30332

CONTENTS1. Introduction2. Texts3. Materials4. Tolerancing and specification5. Mounting

5.A. Lenses5.B. Mirrors5.C. Planar optics

6. Mechanical analysis7. Thermal analysis8. Positioning9. Stabilization

10. Baffling11. Assembly and alignment12. Scanning13. Acknowledgments

Abstract. Literature in the field of optomechanical design is reviewed, in-cluding selected papers and texts that should provide the opticalengineer with information needed in various phases of design. Thesereferences are accompanied by short annotations. Beyond citation ofgeneral texts in optics, the areas covered include materials, tolerancingand specification, mounting, mechanical and thermal analysis, position-ing, stabilization, baffling, assembly and alignment, and scanning.

Subject terms: optomechanical design; bibliography; materials; tolerancing andspecification; mounting; mechanical analysis; thermal analysis; positioning;stabilization; assembly and alignment; scanning.

Optical Engineering 25(10), 1160 -1170 (October 1986).

1. INTRODUCTIONIn the process of organizing a seminar course on opto-mechanical design, I found it difficult to locate manyreferences on the subject. When the course started, I hadonly an old one -page list compiled by someone in his sparetime and a volume of Optical Engineering that featuredpapers on optomechanical design. Since one of the re-quirements of the course was to review an article in the fieldeach week, while my course ran its course, the students inPaper 2255 received Dec. 6, 1985; revised manuscript received July 16,1986; accepted for publication July 16, 1986; received by Managing EditorJuly 23, 1986.©1986 Society of Photo -Optical Instrumentation Engineers.

1160 / OPTICAL ENGINEERING / October 1986 / Vol. 25 No. 10

mechanical engineering and physics dug up additionalreferences. By the end of the quarter I had the beginning ofa substantial bibliography on optomechanical design. Start-ing with these citations, I made several database searches.Although a number of comprehensive databases weresearched, the results were modest, despite many permuta-tions of search terms. The most useful resources in compil-ing this bibliography were reference lists given to me by twocolleagues. The best system is to find an expert who knowsthe field.

Since the field of optomechanical design encompasses somany disciplines, the literature that might be relevant ispotentially enormous. There was a need to be selective. Iwas looking for papers that presented equations, figures,tables, or examples that I would find useful in designingsystems or that extended the material available in the generaltexts in the field. As it was, I found about 600 titles. Ofthese, I examined about half in more detail and then copiedand read about half again, or 150 titles. Some of the papers,although interesting, were too general to be of much use,while others were so detailed that they would have been rele-vant to only a small segment of the optics community. Thispaper is an attempt to provide an annotated listing of theliterature available on optomechanical design. It follows aformat similar to one on lasers that I coauthored for theAmerican Association of Physics Teachers.*

*D. C. O'Shea and D. C. Peckham, Am. J. Phys. 49, 915 (1981). Alsoreprinted in LASERS: Selected Reprints, D. C. O'Shea and D. C.Peckham, eds., Am. Assoc. of Phys. Teachers, Stony Brook, N.Y. (1982).

Annotated bibliography of optomechanical design

Donald C. O'Shea, FELLOW SPIE Georgia Institute of Technology School of Physics Atlanta, Georgia 30332

Abstract. Literature in the field of optomechanical design is reviewed, in cluding selected papers and texts that should provide the optical engineer with information needed in various phases of design. These references are accompanied by short annotations. Beyond citation of general texts in optics, the areas covered include materials, tolerancing and specification, mounting, mechanical and thermal analysis, position ing, stabilization, baffling, assembly and alignment, and scanning.

Subject terms: optomechanical design; bibliography; materials; tolerancing and specification; mounting; mechanical analysis; thermal analysis; positioning; stabilization; assembly and alignment; scanning.

Optical Engineering 25(10}, 1160-1170 (October 1986).

CONTENTS1. Introduction2. Texts3. Materials4. Tolerancing and specification5. Mounting

5.A. Lenses 5.B. Mirrors 5.C. Planar optics

6. Mechanical analysis7. Thermal analysis8. Positioning9. Stabilization

10. Baffling11. Assembly and alignment12. Scanning13. Acknowledgments

1. INTRODUCTIONIn the process of organizing a seminar course on opto mechanical design, I found it difficult to locate many references on the subject. When the course started, I had only an old one-page list compiled by someone in his spare time and a volume of Optical Engineering that featured papers on optomechanical design. Since one of the re quirements of the course was to review an article in the field each week, while my course ran its course, the students inPaper 2255 received Dec. 6, 1985; revised manuscript received July 16, 1986; accepted for publication July 16, 1986; received by Managing Editor July 23, 1986. ©1986 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers.

mechanical engineering and physics dug up additional references. By the end of the quarter I had the beginning of a substantial bibliography on optomechanical design. Start ing with these citations, I made several database searches. Although a number of comprehensive databases were searched, the results were modest, despite many permuta tions of search terms. The most useful resources in compil ing this bibliography were reference lists given to me by two colleagues. The best system is to find an expert who knows the field.

Since the field of optomechanical design encompasses so many disciplines, the literature that might be relevant is potentially enormous. There was a need to be selective. I was looking for papers that presented equations, figures, tables, or examples that I would find useful in designing systems or that extended the material available in the general texts in the field. As it was, I found about 600 titles. Of these, I examined about half in more detail and then copied and read about half again, or 150 titles. Some of the papers, although interesting, were too general to be of much use, while others were so detailed that they would have been rele vant to only a small segment of the optics community. This paper is an attempt to provide an annotated listing of the literature available on optomechanical design. It follows a format similar to one on lasers that I coauthored for the American Association of Physics Teachers.*

*D. C. O'Shea and D. C. Peckham, Am. J. Phys. 49, 915 (1981). Also reprinted in LASERS: Selected Reprints, D. C. O'Shea and D. C. Peckham, eds., Am. Assoc. of Phys. Teachers, Stony Brook, N.Y. (1982).


Downloaded From: http://spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 02/14/2014 Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF OPTOMECHANICAL DESIGN

It will be noted that a large number of the references areto be found in Proceedings of SPIE - The InternationalSociety for Optical Engineering. These proceedings are therecords of conferences held by that organization and others.The papers published there are unrefereed and, therefore,do not represent the same level of publication as refereedpapers published in journals such as Applied Optics and Op-tical Engineering. Considering the nature of the opto-mechanical designer, who is usually in the middle of his orher current alligator -filled swamp, it is good luck if anythinggets written down; a proceedings paper may be all that isever recorded about his or her experiences. We'll take whatwe can get. However, the assertions in proceedings papersshould be read with the proper skepticism of any good scien-tist or engineer.

Note: This paper is the basis for an SPIE Milestone Seriesvolume on Optomechanical Design to be published in early1987. The asterisks ( *) preceding the citation numbers hereinindicate that those papers will be included in the Milestonevolume, subject to permission from the copyright holder.

2. TEXTSUntil recently there was no text in the field of opto-mechanical design. This has been remedied by a newpublication:2.1. Opto- Mechanical Systems Design, Yoder, Paul R.,

Jr. (Marcel Dekker, New York, 1986). A comprehen-sive review of the field by one of its foremost practi-tioners. The breadth of coverage, the large numberof illustrations, and the extensive list of referencesmake this book the major reference manual in thefield of optomechanical design.

Prior to this text, one of the few collections of papers in thisfield was2.2. Optical Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 2, Yoder, Paul R.,

Jr., guest editor (March /April 1981). Eleven paperson optomechanical systems design based on revisedversions of SPIE conference proceedings papers.

Other texts that contain basic information in the areas ofoptical design and optical engineering are2.3. Fundamentals of Optical Engineering, Jacobs,

Donald H. (McGraw -Hill, New York, 1943). Whilethe material in this book is not recent, the discussionson optical instrument design (Chap. XVII), bearings(Chap. XIX), gears, clutches, coupling (Chap. XX),and lens mountings, parallel displacements (Chap.XXI) are still useful.

2.4. Modern Optical Engineering, Smith, Warren J.(McGraw -Hill, New York, 1966). Basic reference inoptical engineering. Chapter 7 discusses opticalmaterials and coatings; Sec. 14.3 provides a briefoverview of optical mounting techniques.

2.5. Applied Optics -A Guide to Optical System Design,Vol. 1, Levi, L. (Wiley, New York, 1968); Vol 2.(Wiley, 1980).

2.6. Optical Design, MIL - Handbook - 141, U.S. Depart-ment of Defense (U.S. Government Printing Office,Washington, D.C., 1962). Available from the NavalPublications and Forms Center, Tabor Avenue,Philadelphia, PA 19120.

2.7. Applied Optics and Optical Engineering, Kingslake,Rudolph, or Shannon, Robert, and Wyant, James,eds. (Academic Press, New York, 1965). This seriesof monographs covers a wide range of topics in thefield of optical engineering. Separate papers relevantto optomechanical design are listed herein under in-dividual authors.

2.8. Lens Design Fundamentals, Kingslake, Rudolf(Academic Press, New York, 1978). The first chapterbriefly treats the materials, mounting, and tolerancesin an optical design.

A somewhat different paper that addresses other concernsof the optical engineer is*2.9. "Designing a durable system," Yoder, Paul R., Jr.,

Mach. Design, p. 190 (May 23, 1968). Nonopticalconsiderations in the design of optical systems, in-cluding protection against abuse, optical defects,radiation protection, estimation of service life,maintenance, and ergonomics. A qualitative, ratherthan quantitative, discussion of topics.

Finally, in the way of texts, no optical engineer should bewithout the best current reference on the testing of optics:2.10. Optical Shop Testing, Malacara, Daniel, ed. (Wiley,

New York, 1978).

3. MATERIALSAlthough many of the texts cited above provide some dataon the properties of optical materials, the amount of infor-mation they convey on this subject is limited. Some morespecialized papers that may aid the optomechanical designerin his or her efforts to understand the range and limits of thematerials available for refractive and reflective optics are3.1. "Optical materials - refractive," Parker, Charles

J., Applied Optics and Optical Engineering 7, 47(1979). Describes the properties of refractivematerials, glasses, crystals, and plastics. Includes in-formation on materials for the infrared. Thereference list supplies additional sources.

3.2. "Optical materials - reflective," Barnes, WilliamP., Applied Optics and Optical Engineering 7, 97(1979). Describes the properties of materials used assubstrates for reflectors. Contains a useful table ofproperties of a dozen materials.

As opposed to the reflective optics of the past that weremetallized glass substrates, metal optics have come into wideuse with the advances in diamond -point turning:

*3.3. "Selection of materials and processes for metal op-tics," Paquin, Roger A., in Design, Manufacture &Application of Metal Optics, W. P. Barnes, Jr., ed.,Proc. SPIE 65, 12 -19 (1975). A laundry -list paperthat provides a complete listing of the materials usedin metal optics and the properties that must be con-sidered (but only a few actual values). This is a goodpaper if you want to make sure you touched all basesin a metal optic design.

Another field of materials that has had an impact is that ofcomposite materials:*3.4. "Graphite /epoxy material characteristics and design

techniques for airborne instrument application,"

OPTICAL ENGINEERING / October 1986 / Vol. 25 No. 10 / 1161


It will be noted that a large number of the references are to be found in Proceedings of SPIE The International Society for Optical Engineering. These proceedings are the records of conferences held by that organization and others. The papers published there are unrefereed and, therefore, do not represent the same level of publication as refereed papers published in journals such as Applied Optics and Op- tical Engineering. Considering the nature of the opto mechanical designer, who is usually in the middle of his or her current alligator-filled swamp, it is good luck if anything gets written down; a proceedings paper may be all that is ever recorded about his or her experiences. We'll take what we can get. However, the assertions in proceedings papers should be read with the proper skepticism of any good scien tist or engineer.

Note: This paper is the basis for an SPIE Milestone Series volume on Optomechanical Design to be published in early 1987. The asterisks (*) preceding the citation numbers herein indicate that those papers will be included in the Milestone volume, subject to permission from the copyright holder.

2. TEXTS

Until recently there was no text in the field of opto mechanical design. This has been remedied by a new publication:2.1. Opto-Mechanical Systems Design, Yoder, Paul R.,

Jr. (Marcel Dekker, New York, 1986). A comprehen sive review of the field by one of its foremost practi tioners. The breadth of coverage, the large number of illustrations, and the extensive list of references make this book the major reference manual in the field of optomechanical design.

Prior to this text, one of the few collections of papers in this field was2.2. Optical Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 2, Yoder, Paul R.,

Jr., guest editor (March/April 1981). Eleven papers on optomechanical systems design based on revised versions of SPIE conference proceedings papers.

Other texts that contain basic information in the areas of optical design and optical engineering are2.3. Fundamentals of Optical Engineering, Jacobs,

Donald H. (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1943). While the material in this book is not recent, the discussions on optical instrument design (Chap. XVII), bearings (Chap. XIX), gears, clutches, coupling (Chap. XX), and lens mountings, parallel displacements (Chap. XXI) are still useful.

2.4. Modern Optical Engineering, Smith, Warren J. (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1966). Basic reference in optical engineering. Chapter 7 discusses optical materials and coatings; Sec. 14.3 provides a brief overview of optical mounting techniques.

2.5. Applied Optics A Guide to Optical System Design, Vol. 1, Levi, L. (Wiley, New York, 1968); Vol 2. (Wiley, 1980).

2.6. Optical Design, MIL - Handbook - 141, U.S. Depart ment of Defense (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1962). Available from the Naval Publications and Forms Center, Tabor Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19120.

2.7. Applied Optics and Optical Engineering, Kingslake, Rudolph, or Shannon, Robert, and Wyant, James, eds. (Academic Press, New York, 1965). This series of monographs covers a wide range of topics in the field of optical engineering. Separate papers relevant to optomechanical design are listed herein under in dividual authors.

2.8. Lens Design Fundamentals, Kingslake, Rudolf (Academic Press, New York, 1978). The first chapter briefly treats the materials, mounting, and tolerances in an optical design.

A somewhat different paper that addresses other concerns of the optical engineer is*2.9. "Designing a durable system," Yoder, Paul R., Jr.,

Mach. Design, p. 190 (May 23, 1968). Nonoptical considerations in the design of optical systems, in cluding protection against abuse, optical defects, radiation protection, estimation of service life, maintenance, and ergonomics. A qualitative, rather than quantitative, discussion of topics.

Finally, in the way of texts, no optical engineer should be without the best current reference on the testing of optics: 2.10. Optical Shop Testing, Malacara, Daniel, ed. (Wiley,

New York, 1978).

3. MATERIALS

Although many of the texts cited above provide some data on the properties of optical materials, the amount of infor mation they convey on this subject is limited. Some more specialized papers that may aid the optomechanical designer in his or her efforts to understand the range and limits of the materials available for refractive and reflective optics are3.1. "Optical materials refractive," Parker, Charles

J., Applied Optics and Optical Engineering 7, 47 (1979). Describes the properties of refractive materials, glasses, crystals, and plastics. Includes in formation on materials for the infrared. The reference list supplies additional sources.

3.2. "Optical materials reflective," Barnes, William P., Applied Optics and Optical Engineering 7, 97 (1979). Describes the properties of materials used as substrates for reflectors. Contains a useful table of properties of a dozen materials.

As opposed to the reflective optics of the past that were metallized glass substrates, metal optics have come into wide use with the advances in diamond-point turning:

*3.3. "Selection of materials and processes for metal op tics," Paquin, Roger A., in Design, Manufacture & Application of Metal Optics, W. P. Barnes, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE 65, 12-19 (1975). A laundry-list paper that provides a complete listing of the materials used in metal optics and the properties that must be con sidered (but only a few actual values). This is a good paper if you want to make sure you touched all bases in a metal optic design.

Another field of materials that has had an impact is that of composite materials:*3.4. "Graphite/epoxy material characteristics and design

techniques for airborne instrument application,"



O'SHEA

Stumm, J. E., Pynchon, G. E., and Krumweide,G. C., in Airborne Reconnaissance V, R. J. Bannach,ed., Proc. SPIE 309, 188 -198 (1981). Discussesmaterial selection, thermal expansion coefficientmatching, moisture suppression, and orientation ofgraphite /epoxy (G /E) directions in an opticalsystem. Includes comparison of G /Es to othermaterials. Integration and transitions betweenmaterials are explored.

Plastics have also changed the manner in which opticalsystems are designed. This is particularly true if the system isgoing to be made in large numbers. The following threereferences provide information on overall use of plastic op-tics and specific data on two of the most used plastics:3.5. "Optical materials - plastic," Welham, Brian, Ap-

plied Optics and Optical Engineering 7, 79 (1979).Describes the properties of plastics. Includes infor-mation on design and manufacturing of plastic op-tics.

*3.6. "Plastic optics for opto- electronics," Pasco, I. K.,and Everest, J. H., Optics and Laser Tech. 10, 71(1978). Listing the most useful types of plastics andsome of their properties. Contains descriptions ofsome designs, but no insights into the design processor calculations.

*3.7. "Optical and physical parameters of Plexiglass 55and Lexan," Waxler, R. M., Horowitz, D., andFeldman, A., Appl. Opt. 18, 101 (1979). One of thefew places that you can find most of the parametersneeded to design with methyl methacrylate (Plexi-glass) and polycarbonate (Lexan).

Because many of the parameters of plastics have larger ther-mal coefficients than glasses, they must be designed withthis in mind. In Sec. 7 there are a number of references deal-ing with athermal design of such systems.

At the other end of the materials spectrum are the highstability metals that can be used to reduce or eliminate sen-sitivity of optical systems to thermal variations:3.8. "Dimensional stability of Invars," Jacobs, Stephen

F., Shough, Dean, and Connors, Cliff, Appl. Opt.23, 3500 (1984). For high precision optical systems itis necessary to maintain extremely stable separationsbetween certain components over extended periodsof time. The results reported in this paper providestability data on a number of low expansion steels(Invars).

4. TOLERANCING AND SPECIFICATIONOne of the least understood aspects of the field of op-tomechanical design is that of specifying an optical design.Closely allied to this is the effect that tolerancing a designhas on costs. Part of the design of a system includes thedimensioning of the various parts so they fit together prop-erly and, in the case of sliding or rotating parts, choosing theproper materials to eliminate or reduce wear over thelifetime of the system:*4.1. "Dimensioning parts so they fit," Spahr, R. H., and

Tibbets, E. D., Mach. Design, p. 157 (Sept. 20,1973). A review of a number of dimensioningstrategies that ensure fitting of mating parts without


assigning tolerances that are too restrictive or costly.Positional, natural, variable, and profile tolerancingare discussed, along with phantom gaging and datumfeature dimensioning.

4.2. "Designing for zero wear," Bayer, R. G., Shalkey,A. T., and Wayson, A. R., Mach. Design, p. 143(Jan. 9, 1969). An engineering model is describedthat predicts conditions for "zero wear," wear thatdoes not exceed the surface finish of the contact sur-faces. A large number of geometries and materials-lubrication conditions are considered.

4.3. "Designing for measurable wear," Bayer, R. G., andWayson, A. R., Mach. Design, p. 118 (Aug. 7, 1969).Extension of material discussed in "Designing forzero wear."

One of the contributions of SPIE's series of proceedings isthe rapid distribution of information in fast -moving fields.Two conferences on specifications have been organized:4.4. Contemporary Optical Systems and Component

Specifications, Fischer, Robert E., ed., Proc. SPIE181 (1979). This proceedings encompasses four ses-sions: System Specification and Tolerances, OpticalComponent Specification, Specification of Scatter-ing, Materials, and Coatings, and Optical Standards.Particularly interesting is the panel discussion at theend of the volume.

4.5. Optical Specifications: Components and Systems,Smith, Warren J., and Fischer, Robert E., eds.,Proc. SPIE 406 (1983). This proceedings consists of14 invited papers on optical specifications and apanel discussion. Although most of the papers ad-dress specifications, some review the standards usedto specify certain optical parameters.

Individual papers from these proceedings are cited herein.

Trying to gain a handle on the effects of tolerancing on costshas occupied a number of fabricators. The following papersrepresent their attempts:*4.6. "Optical component specifications," Parks, Robert

E., in 1980 International Lens Design Conference,R. E. Fischer, ed., Proc. SPIE 237, 455 -463 (1980)."Three areas of optical component specification arediscussed . . . : (1) purely optical, (2) opto-mechanical, and (3) . . . scattering specifications.Emphasis is placed on the level of tolerancing as it af-fects the function of the final optical system.Numerous graphs and tables ...." (from abstract).

*4.7. "Trends and limits in the production of opticalelements and optical systems," Kuttner, Paul, in In-ternational Seminar on Advances in Optical Produc-tion Technology, Proc. SPIE 163, 24 -30 (1979). Liststolerances achievable today, estimates of attainablefuture tolerances, and methods of testing for suchtolerances. A series of tables is given on tolerancesfor glasses, lens fabrication, barrel fabrication, in-dividual element mounting, and entire opticalsystems.

*4.8. "Tolerancing for economies in mass production ofoptics," Plummer, John L., in Contemporary Op-tical Systems & Component Specifications, R. E.Fischer, ed., Proc. SPIE 181, 90 -92 (1979). A short

O'SHEA

Stumm, J. E., Pynchon, G. E., and Krumweide, G.C., in Airborne Reconnaissance V, R. J. Bannach, ed., Proc. SPIE 309, 188-198 (1981). Discusses material selection, thermal expansion coefficient matching, moisture suppression, and orientation of graphite/epoxy (G/E) directions in an optical system. Includes comparison of G/Es to other materials. Integration and transitions between materials are explored.

Plastics have also changed the manner in which optical systems are designed. This is particularly true if the system is going to be made in large numbers. The following three references provide information on overall use of plastic op tics and specific data on two of the most used plastics: 3.5. "Optical materials plastic," Welham, Brian, Ap

plied Optics and Optical Engineering 7, 79 (1979). Describes the properties of plastics. Includes infor mation on design and manufacturing of plastic op tics.

*3.6. "Plastic optics for opto-electronics," Pasco, I. K., and Everest, J. H., Optics and Laser Tech. 10, 71 (1978). Listing the most useful types of plastics and some of their properties. Contains descriptions of some designs, but no insights into the design process or calculations.

*3.7. "Optical and physical parameters of Plexiglass 55 and Lexan," Waxier, R. M., Horowitz, D., and Feldman, A., Appl. Opt. 18, 101 (1979). One of the few places that you can find most of the parameters needed to design with methyl methacrylate (Plexi glass) and polycarbonate (Lexan).

Because many of the parameters of plastics have larger ther mal coefficients than glasses, they must be designed with this in mind. In Sec. 7 there are a number of references deal ing with athermal design of such systems.

At the other end of the materials spectrum are the high stability metals that can be used to reduce or eliminate sen sitivity of optical systems to thermal variations: 3.8. "Dimensional stability of Invars," Jacobs, Stephen

F., Shough, Dean, and Connors, Cliff, Appl. Opt. 23, 3500 (1984). For high precision optical systems it is necessary to maintain extremely stable separations between certain components over extended periods of time. The results reported in this paper provide stability data on a number of low expansion steels (Invars).

4. TOLERANCING AND SPECIFICATIONOne of the least understood aspects of the field of op tomechanical design is that of specifying an optical design. Closely allied to this is the effect that tolerancing a design has on costs. Part of the design of a system includes the dimensioning of the various parts so they fit together prop erly and, in the case of sliding or rotating parts, choosing the proper materials to eliminate or reduce wear over the lifetime of the system:*4.1. "Dimensioning parts so they fit," Spahr, R. H., and

Tibbets, E. D., Mach. Design, p. 157 (Sept. 20, 1973). A review of a number of dimensioning strategies that ensure fitting of mating parts without

assigning tolerances that are too restrictive or costly. Positional, natural, variable, and profile tolerancing are discussed, along with phantom gaging and datum feature dimensioning.

4.2. "Designing for zero wear," Bayer, R. G., Shalkey, A. T., and Wayson, A. R., Mach. Design, p. 143 (Jan. 9, 1969). An engineering model is described that predicts conditions for "zero wear," wear that does not exceed the surface finish of the contact sur faces. A large number of geometries and materials- lubrication conditions are considered.

4.3. "Designing for measurable wear," Bayer, R. G., and Wayson, A. R., Mach. Design, p. 118 (Aug. 7, 1969). Extension of material discussed in "Designing for zero wear."

One of the contributions of SPIE's series of proceedings is the rapid distribution of information in fast-moving fields. Two conferences on specifications have been organized:4.4. Contemporary Optical Systems and Component

Specifications, Fischer, Robert E., ed., Proc. SPIE 181 (1979). This proceedings encompasses four ses sions: System Specification and Tolerances, Optical Component Specification, Specification of Scatter ing, Materials, and Coatings, and Optical Standards. Particularly interesting is the panel discussion at the end of the volume.

4.5. Optical Specifications: Components and Systems, Smith, Warren J., and Fischer, Robert E., eds., Proc. SPIE 406 (1983). This proceedings consists of 14 invited papers on optical specifications and a panel discussion. Although most of the papers ad dress specifications, some review the standards used to specify certain optical parameters.

Individual papers from these proceedings are cited herein.

Trying to gain a handle on the effects of tolerancing on costs has occupied a number of fabricators. The following papers represent their attempts:*4.6. "Optical component specifications," Parks, Robert

E., in 1980 International Lens Design Conference, R. E. Fischer, ed., Proc. SPIE 237, 455-463 (1980). "Three areas of optical component specification are discussed . . . : (1) purely optical, (2) opto mechanical, and (3) ... scattering specifications. Emphasis is placed on the level of tolerancing as it af fects the function of the final optical system. Numerous graphs and tables . . . ." (fromabstract).

*4.7. "Trends and limits in the production of optical elements and optical systems," Kuttner, Paul, in In ternational Seminar on Advances in Optical Produc tion Technology, Proc. SPIE 163, 24-30 (1979). Lists tolerances achievable today, estimates of attainable future tolerances, and methods of testing for such tolerances. A series of tables is given on tolerances for glasses, lens fabrication, barrel fabrication, in dividual element mounting, and entire optical systems.

*4.8. "Tolerancing for economies in mass production of optics," Plummer, John L., in Contemporary Op tical Systems & Component Specifications, R. E. Fischer, ed., Proc. SPIE 181, 90-92 (1979). A short




review of tolerancing optics by a fabricator of optics.Contains a number of guidelines for individualtolerances and cost multipliers for imposing tightertolerances.

*4.9. "The impact of tight tolerances and other factors onthe cost of optical components," Willey, Ronald R.,in Optical Systems Engineering IV, P. R. Yoder, Jr.,ed., Proc. SPIE 518, 106 -111 (1985). Within thisdescription of an optical fabrication estimationsystem are included a number of estimationalgorithms that show agreement among independentobservers. These algorithms can serve as a startingpoint for those doing their own estimations. Thepaper includes additional references.

*4.10. "Techniques for characterizing optical systemfabrication," Thompson, Kevin P., in Optical Align-ment II, M. C. Ruda, ed., Proc. SPIE 483, 16 -23(1984). The rationale and approaches for describingthe optical errors in a series of optical elements andspaces are presented. Although intended for use insensitivity analysis, equations are not given. How-ever, a description is given of how the parameters aremeasured after fabrication.

Documentation of specifications and tolerances issomething that excites very few people in the field, but it isabsolutely necessary for reliable and efficient production.The two papers listed here describe how some divisions ofHughes Aircraft Company and the Perkin -Elmer Corpora-tion, respectively, carry out this task.*4.11. "Outline of tolerancing (from performance

specification to toleranced drawings)," Ginsberg,Robert H., Opt. Eng. 20(2), 175 -180 (1981). Thedocuments and methods needed to establish a pro-cedure for tolerancing an optical system are de-scribed. Includes flowchart of procedures and ex-amples of a sensitivity table, an error budget, an op-tical schematic, and an optomechanical layout.

*4.12. "Specifying the optical system with an optical designdata sheet," Yoder, Paul R., Jr., and Casas, R. E.,in 1980 International Lens Design Conference, R. E.Fischer, ed., Proc. SPIE 237, 516 -523 (1980). Thespecification system used at Perkin -Elmer is de-scribed. Consisting of five or more sheets ofspecifications and tolerances, the system is flexibleand extendible to any number of surfaces. A com-pletely filled out example is given.

An example of tolerancing is*4.13. "Influence of specification on tolerancing of high -

volume optics," Koval, Edward J., in ContemporaryOptical Systems & Component Specifications, R. E.Fischer, ed., Proc. SPIE 181, 30 -32 (1979). A short,effective demonstration of tolerancing using a singleplastic camera lens as an example. The example isneither trivial nor unwieldy.

Two special kinds of specifications are those for opticalsystems that include the human eye as a detector and thosefor systems incorporating plastic in the design:*4.14. "Specifying the visual optical system," Walker, B.

H., in Contemporary Optical Systems & ComponentSpecifications, R. E. Fischer, ed., Proc. SPIE 181,

48 -54 (1979). "This paper presents a cursory discus-sion of the visual optical system .... A typical visualsystem will be discussed in detail, illustrating the re-quired breakdown of its specification into two majorareas, basic optical characteristics and system imagequality" (from abstract).

*4.15. "Specifying glass and plastic optics - what's the dif-ference?" Lytle, John D., in Contemporary OpticalSystems & Component Specifications, R. E. Fischer,ed., Proc. SPIE 181, 93 -102 (1979). Describes thefreedom offered and the constraints imposed by us-ing plastic optics in a design. The tolerancing ofplastic optics differs radically from glass opticsbecause of the uniformity of molding.

5. MOUNTINGOnce an optical design is finished, there remains the prob-lem of holding the elements in the correct locations withrespect to one another. The mounting of lenses, mirrors,and other optical components poses a challenge to the mostskilled of designers. While there are certain broad prin-ciples, almost every design has its exceptions.

The first three papers give simple illustrations of mount-ing optical components:*5.1. "Aerospace mounts for down -to -earth optics,"

Richey, Charles A., Mach. Design, p. 121 (Dec. 12,1974). A rapid tour of many types of optical mounts,graphically presented with little or no discussion orcalculation. Still, the paper represents a wide rangeof mounting ideas, including some simple ones youmay not find anywhere else.

*5.2. "Stability of optical mounts," Durk, D. S. L., Mach.Design, p. 184 (May 23, 1968). Brief overview of themechanical properties of glass and mounting of mir-rors, prisms, and lenses. Some simple examples aregiven, but no extensive calculations are done. Shortdiscussions of thermal stabilization and vibrationminimization.

*5.3. "Mounting optical elements," Cade, J. Weldon,Mach. Design, p. 133 (July 8, 1965). A three -pagepictorial summary of techniques for mounting smalloptical components (lenses, mirrors, and prisms).Compared to other papers, a highly oversimplifiedlook at mounting.

5.A. LensesThe next series of papers provides substantially more quan-titative guidance in lens mounting. The first paper, byBayar, is a particularly useful introduction to the basics ofthe field:*5.4. "Lens barrel optomechanical design principles,"

Bayar, Mete, Opt. Eng. 20(2), 181 -186 (1981). Selec-tion of materials for lens barrels, techniques for con-straining a lens radially and axially (including simpleequations for calculating stresses on components),and short discussions on cementing and sealing lensassemblies. Earlier version in Optical SystemsEngineering, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE 193,92 -100 (1979).

*5.5. "Lens mounting techniques," Yoder, Paul R., Jr., inOptical Systems Engineering III, W. H. Taylor, ed.,



review of tolerancing optics by a fabricator of optics. Contains a number of guidelines for individual tolerances and cost multipliers for imposing tighter tolerances.

*4.9. 'The impact of tight tolerances and other factors on the cost of optical components," Willey, Ronald R., in Optical Systems Engineering IV, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE 518, 106-111 (1985). Within this description of an optical fabrication estimation system are included a number of estimation algorithms that show agreement among independent observers. These algorithms can serve as a starting point for those doing their own estimations. The paper includes additional references.

*4.10. "Techniques for characterizing optical system fabrication," Thompson, Kevin P., in Optical Align ment II, M. C. Ruda, ed., Proc. SPIE 483, 16-23 (1984). The rationale and approaches for describing the optical errors in a series of optical elements and spaces are presented. Although intended for use in sensitivity analysis, equations are not given. How ever, a description is given of how the parameters are measured after fabrication.

Documentation of specifications and tolerances is something that excites very few people in the field, but it is absolutely necessary for reliable and efficient production. The two papers listed here describe how some divisions of Hughes Aircraft Company and the Perkin-Elmer Corpora tion, respectively, carry out this task.*4.11. "Outline of tolerancing (from performance

specification to toleranced drawings)," Ginsberg, Robert H., Opt. Eng. 20(2), 175-180 (1981). The documents and methods needed to establish a pro cedure for tolerancing an optical system are de scribed. Includes flowchart of procedures and ex amples of a sensitivity table, an error budget, an op tical schematic, and an optomechanical layout.

*4.12. "Specifying the optical system with an optical design data sheet," Yoder, Paul R., Jr., and Casas, R. E., in 1980 International Lens Design Conference, R. E. Fischer, ed., Proc. SPIE 237, 516-523 (1980). The specification system used at Perkin-Elmer is de scribed. Consisting of five or more sheets of specifications and tolerances, the system is flexible and extendible to any number of surfaces. A com pletely filled out example is given.

An example of tolerancing is*4.13. "Influence of specification on tolerancing of high-

volume optics," Koval, Edward J., in Contemporary Optical Systems & Component Specifications, R. E. Fischer, ed., Proc. SPIE 181, 30-32 (1979). A short, effective demonstration of tolerancing using a single plastic camera lens as an example. The example is neither trivial nor unwieldy.

Two special kinds of specifications are those for optical systems that include the human eye as a detector and those for systems incorporating plastic in the design:*4.14. "Specifying the visual optical system," Walker, B.

H., in Contemporary Optical Systems & Component Specifications, R. E. Fischer, ed., Proc. SPIE 181,

48-54 (1979). "This paper presents a cursory discus sion of the visual optical system .... A typical visual system will be discussed in detail, illustrating the re quired breakdown of its specification into two major areas, basic optical characteristics and system image quality" (from abstract).

*4.15. "Specifying glass and plastic optics what's the dif ference?" Lytle, John D., in Contemporary Optical Systems & Component Specifications, R. E. Fischer, ed., Proc. SPIE 181, 93-102 (1979). Describes the freedom offered and the constraints imposed by us ing plastic optics in a design. The tolerancing of plastic optics differs radically from glass optics because of the uniformity of molding.

5. MOUNTING

Once an optical design is finished, there remains the prob lem of holding the elements in the correct locations with respect to one another. The mounting of lenses, mirrors, and other optical components poses a challenge to the most skilled of designers. While there are certain broad prin ciples, almost every design has its exceptions.

The first three papers give simple illustrations of mount ing optical components:*5.1. "Aerospace mounts for down-to-earth optics,"

Richey, Charles A., Mach. Design, p. 121 (Dec. 12, 1974). A rapid tour of many types of optical mounts, graphically presented with little or no discussion or calculation. Still, the paper represents a wide range of mounting ideas, including some simple ones you may not find anywhere else.

*5.2. "Stability of optical mounts," Durie, D. S. L., Mach. Design, p. 184 (May 23, 1968). Brief overview of the mechanical properties of glass and mounting of mir rors, prisms, and lenses. Some simple examples are given, but no extensive calculations are done. Short discussions of thermal stabilization and vibration minimization.

*5.3. "Mounting optical elements," Cade, J. Weldon, Mach. Design, p. 133 (July 8, 1965). A three-page pictorial summary of techniques for mounting small optical components (lenses, mirrors, and prisms). Compared to other papers, a highly oversimplified look at mounting.

5.A. Lenses

The next series of papers provides substantially more quan titative guidance in lens mounting. The first paper, by Bayar, is a particularly useful introduction to the basics of the field:*5.4. "Lens barrel optomechanical design principles,"

Bayar, Mete, Opt. Eng. 20(2), 181-186 (1981). Selec tion of materials for lens barrels, techniques for con straining a lens radially and axially (including simple equations for calculating stresses on components), and short discussions on cementing and sealing lens assemblies. Earlier version in Optical Systems Engineering, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE 193, 92-100 (1979).

*5.5. "Lens mounting techniques," Yoder, Paul R., Jr., in Optical Systems Engineering HI, W. H. Taylor, ed.,



O'S H EA

Proc. SPIE 389, 2 -11 (1983). Review of a number ofmounting techniques with numerous examples.Equations are given for stress created by variousmounting geometries. Lathe assembly of opticalelements in their mounts is described.

5.6. "Lens mounting and centering," Hopkins, R. E.,Applied Optics and Optical Engineering 8, 31 (1980).After discussing the basic principles of lens mount-ing, the author describes the components of a lensmount and the techniques and tests used in centeringa lens. A section on tolerancing a lens and its mountand an example round out the paper.

*5.7. "Étude bibliographique des méthodes de centragedes lentilles a surfaces sphérique," Jaunet, G., andMarioge, J. P., Nouv. Rev. Optique 6, 353 (1975). Adescriptive review of a number of mechanical, op-tical, and interferometric methods for centeringlenses. The automation of some of these methods isdiscussed. (In French.)

*5.8. "Mounting of lens elements," Delgado, RaymondF., and Hallinan, Mark, Opt. Eng. 14(1), S -11 toS -12 (1975). A short paper giving equations forestimating the compressive and tensile stress due tothe mounting of lens against a spacer in both sharp -edge and tangent geometries. An equation for spacerthickness also is given.

One source not available through the standard journalliterature or proceedings can be obtained through the Na-tional Technical Information Service (NTIS):

5.9. A User's Guide to Designing and Mounting Lensesand Mirrors, Kowalskie, Bryan J. (Lawrence Liver-more Laboratory, Livermore, CA, 1978). "Thisguidebook is a practitioner- oriented supplement tostandard texts in optics and mechanical engineering... intended as a primer for engineers, designers,and draftsmen already familiar with some of theproblems encountered in mounting optical corn -ponents ... " (from abstract).

Information on the costs of microfiche and paper copies ofthe above reference can be obtained by writing NTIS, U.S.Dept. of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield,VA 22161. The document number, UCRL -52411, should beincluded in your request for information.

Once the basics of lens mounting are mastered, the pro-cedure can be improved by using precision methods forcentering the elements and their receiving barrels. Bothmechanical and interferometric centering techniques aredescribed in these papers:*5.10. "Some thoughts on lens mounting," Hopkins,

Robert E., Opt. Eng. 15(5), 428 -430 (1976). Discus-sion of alternative methods to centering lenses byshifting precision centering requirements from grind-ing edges in an optical shop to precision machiningand precision assembly using collimated laser light.

*5.11. "High performance lens mounting," Jones, G. E., inQuality Assurance in Optical and Electro- OpticalEngineering, L. R. Baker, ed., Proc. SPIE 73, 9 -17(1975). A description of cell -based lens mounting andassembly is given, and three examples of such designsare illustrated. No numbers are presented, but an


analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of theprocedures is given.

*5.12. "Procédés de centrage des surfaces optiques,"Jaunet, G., Marioge, J. P., et al., J. Optics (Paris) 9,31 (1977). "This article describes two high accuracylens centering devices adapted to various [techniques]of centration. One of them can be used in anautomatic system" (from abstract). (In French.)

*5.13. "Design and fabrication of high performance relaylenses," Westort, Kenneth K., in Optical SystemsEngineering IV, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE518, 40 -47 (1985). A comprehensive discussion of thetolerances in edge- mounting two- and three -elementlenses in a lens barrel. Current and future fabricationtechniques are explored. An excellent paper.

5.14. "High- precision, strain -free mounting of large lenselements," Deterding, Leo G., Appl. Opt. 1, 403(1962). A method is given that uses a precision rotarytable, a dial indicator, a microscope, and a small reti-cle. An element's optic axis is located, and the ele-ment is mounted using a potting compound in strain -free mounts. The mounts are assembled and solderedin the main lens cell.

*5.15. "Some experiments on precision lens centring andmounting," Carnell, K. H., et al., Opt. Acta 21, 615(1974). "Centring was done by interferometricmeasurement of surface height and the lens cells wereassembled in plain diamond turned barrels; im-provements in symmetry of about an order ofmagnitude over results previously reported werefound" (from abstract).

Another paper, from the same group as the last reference,describes redesigning a system as the actual values of theassembled parts are measured. This obviously is not in-tended for large volume optics, but it might prove usefulwhen only a few systems are to be built or a design is beingprototyped.

*5.16. "Precision construction of optical systems,"Reavell, F. C., and Welford, W. T., in Optical Align-ment, R. N. Shagam and W. C. Sweatt, eds., Proc.SPIE 251, 2 -4 (1980). A method of mounting a seriesof lenses is described. The unique feature of thispaper is the measurement of component parametersat various points in the process, thereby providingreoptimized designs. Centering, mounting, andchoice of materials are also described.

In some situations lenses can be subjected to considerablemechanical shock:

*5.17. "Maintaining optical integrity in a high -shock en-vironment," Lecuyer, John G., in OptomechanicalSystems Design, M. Bayar, ed., Proc. SPIE 250,45 -49 (1980). Consideration of the techniques usedto ensure performance in systems subjected to shock.Most degradation was found to be due to vibrationand not to shock. Effect of optical errors on systemperformance is discussed, and some solutions are of-fered.

Vibrational analysis references are listed in Sec. 6 in thispaper.

O'SHEA

Proc. SPIE 389, 2-11 (1983). Review of a number of mounting techniques with numerous examples. Equations are given for stress created by various mounting geometries. Lathe assembly of optical elements in their mounts is described.

5.6. "Lens mounting and centering," Hopkins, R. E., Applied Optics and Optical Engineering 8, 31 (1980). After discussing the basic principles of lens mount ing, the author describes the components of a lens mount and the techniques and tests used in centering a lens. A section on tolerancing a lens and its mount and an example round out the paper.

*5.7. "Etude bibliographique des methodes de centrage des lentilles a surfaces spherique," Jaunet, G., and Marioge, J. P., Nouv. Rev. Optique 6, 353 (1975). A descriptive review of a number of mechanical, op tical, and interferometric methods for centering lenses. The automation of some of these methods is discussed. (In French.)

*5.8. "Mounting of lens elements," Delgado, Raymond F., and Hallinan, Mark, Opt. Eng. 14(1), S-ll to S-12 (1975). A short paper giving equations for estimating the compressive and tensile stress due to the mounting of lens against a spacer in both sharp- edge and tangent geometries. An equation for spacer thickness also is given.

One source not available through the standard journal literature or proceedings can be obtained through the Na tional Technical Information Service (NTIS):

5.9. A User's Guide to Designing and Mounting Lenses and Mirrors, Kowalskie, Bryan J. (Lawrence Liver- more Laboratory, Livermore, CA, 1978). "This guidebook is a practitioner-oriented supplement to standard texts in optics and mechanical engineering . .. intended as a primer for engineers, designers, and draftsmen already familiar with some of the problems encountered in mounting optical com ponents ..." (from abstract).

Information on the costs of microfiche and paper copies of the above reference can be obtained by writing NTIS, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161. The document number, UCRL-52411, should be included in your request for information.

Once the basics of lens mounting are mastered, the pro- cedtire can be improved by using precision methods for centering the elements and their receiving barrels. Both mechanical and interferometric centering techniques are described in these papers:*5.10. "Some thoughts on lens mounting," Hopkins,

Robert E., Opt. Eng. 15(5), 428-430 (1976). Discus sion of alternative methods to centering lenses by shifting precision centering requirements from grind ing edges in an optical shop to precision machining and precision assembly using collimated laser light.

*5.11. "High performance lens mounting," Jones, G. E., in Quality Assurance in Optical and Electro-Optical Engineering, L. R. Baker, ed., Proc. SPIE 73, 9-17 (1975). A description of cell-based lens mounting and assembly is given, and three examples of such designs are illustrated. No numbers are presented, but an

analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of the procedures is given.

*5.12. "Precedes de centrage des surfaces optiques," Jaunet, G., Marioge, J. P., et al., J. Optics (Paris) 9, 31 (1977). "This article describes two high accuracy lens centering devices adapted to various [techniques] of centration. One of them can be used in an automatic system" (from abstract). (In French.)

*5.13. "Design and fabrication of high performance relay lenses," Westort, Kenneth K., in Optical Systems Engineering IV, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE 518, 40-47 (1985). A comprehensive discussion of the tolerances in edge-mounting two- and three-element lenses in a lens barrel. Current and future fabrication techniques are explored. An excellent paper.

5.14. "High-precision, strain-free mounting of large lens elements," Deterding, Leo G., Appl. Opt. 1, 403 (1962). A method is given that uses a precision rotary table, a dial indicator, a microscope, and a small reti cle. An element's optic axis is located, and the ele ment is mounted using a potting compound in strain- free mounts. The mounts are assembled and soldered in the main lens cell.

*5.15. "Some experiments on precision lens centring and mounting," Carnell, K. H., et al., Opt. Acta 21, 615 (1974). "Centring was done by interferometric measurement of surface height and the lens cells were assembled in plain diamond turned barrels; im provements in symmetry of about an order of magnitude over results previously reported were found" (from abstract).

Another paper, from the same group as the last reference, describes redesigning a system as the actual values of the assembled parts are measured. This obviously is not in tended for large volume optics, but it might prove useful when only a few systems are to be built or a design is being prototyped.

*5.16. "Precision construction of optical systems," Reavell, F. C., and Welford, W. T., in Optical Align- ment, R. N. Shagam and W. C. Sweatt, eds., Proc. SPIE 251, 2-4 (1980). A method of mounting a series of lenses is described. The unique feature of this paper is the measurement of component parameters at various points in the process, thereby providing reoptimized designs. Centering, mounting, and choice of materials are also described.

In some situations lenses can be subjected to considerable mechanical shock:

*5.17. "Maintaining optical integrity in a high-shock en vironment," Lecuyer, John G., in Optomechanical Systems Design, M. Bayar, ed., Proc. SPIE 250, 45-49 (1980). Consideration of the techniques used to ensure performance in systems subjected to shock. Most degradation was found to be due to vibration and not to shock. Effect of optical errors on system performance is discussed, and some solutions are of fered.

Vibrational analysis references are listed in Sec. 6 in this paper.




5.B. MirrorsAs optical systems increase in size, there is a tendency toshift the burden of providing optical power from lenses tomirrors. For small optics the same mounting techniquesused with lenses would apply to mirrors. But for large mir-rors the solutions tend to be more diverse than for lenses.*5.18. "Strain -free mounting techniques for metal

mirrors," Zimmerman, Jerrold, Opt. Eng. 20(2),187 -189 (1981). Properties of metal mirrors andfigures of merit for four metals. List of design prin-ciples for strain -free mounting. Five examples aregiven, but the descriptions are so brief that theirusefulness is limited.

5.19. "Optical mirror -mount design and philosophy,"Chin, David, Appl. Opt. 3, 895 (1964). Describes anumber of mirror -mounting techniques. Certain sec-tions require an understanding of mechanicalengineering concepts.

Three examples of mirror mounting are given in the follow-ing papers:5.20. "Improved mirror mounting for optical in-

terferometers," Embleton, T. F. W., J. Opt. Soc. Am.45, 152 (1955). Description of a mirror mounting inwhich rotational adjustments of the mirror are madeabout axes through the center of the surface. Sincephotographs rather than diagrams were used, theconstruction is somewhat difficult to discern.

5.21. "Design of Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS)primary mirror mounts," Schreibman, Martin, andYoung, Philip, Opt. Eng. 20(2), 190 -194 (1981). Acomparison between a hard mount design for a metalmirror and a flexure mount. Lists trade -offs betweendifferent approaches. Illustrates a cruciform sectionplus blade section flexure mount.

5.22. "Optical effect of flexure in vertically mountedprecision mirrors," Schwesinger, Gerhard, J. Opt.Soc. Am. 44, 417 (1954). An analysis of distortionsproduced by gravity in vertically mounted mirrors,using analytical rather than finite element analysistechniques.

S.C. Planar opticsThe mounting of flat surfaces, mirrors, prisms, andbeamsplitters is as important as that of image- forming op-tics. The first of these references is a good overview on thesubject:*5.23. "Non- image- forming optical components," Yoder,

Paul R., Jr., in Geometrical Optics, R. E. Fischer,W. H. Price, and W. J. Smith, eds., Proc. SPIE 531,206 -220 (1985). "In this paper we review thegeometrical characteristics of optical componentsthat do not form images themselves .... Represen-tative configurations for these components andtypical designs for mounting into common types ofinstruments are also described" (from abstract).

*5.24. "Optomechanical considerations for optical beamsplitters," Lipshutz, Marvin L., Appl. Opt. 7, 2326(1968). A short note on mounting beamsplitters.Three examples are illustrated.

5.25. "Keeping light beams on target," Durie, D. S. L.,

Mach. Design, p. 128 (Sept. 28, 1967). Mounting andadjustment of reflecting prisms and plane mirrors.Two examples are given. A mirror mount for preciseadjustment is described.

5.26. "Floating optical mount," Rayside, John S., andFletcher, William H., Appl. Opt. 14, 2334 (1975).Details of an optical component mount for precisionadjustment.

The final reference here fits none of the above categories butshould be included in this section on mounting. Since the in-tegration of a laser into a system poses some special prob-lems and solves others, the mounting of a laser in a systemshould be treated differently from the passive optical com-ponents listed above.*5.27. "Integrating Nd:YAG lasers into optical systems,"

Roberts, D. Allan, in Optical Systems Engineering,P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE 193, 121 -128(1979). This is an excellent paper on the factors to beconsidered in the design of a laser -based opticalsystem. Two examples, a laser rangefinder and alaser machine tool, are used. Optomechanical design,damage problems, and alignment are discussed aftera description of the layout.

6. MECHANICAL ANALYSISFinite element analysis is a computer -based technique that isused to analyze the response of material masses tomechanical and heat stresses. It is most useful in those prob-lems where a complicated geometry makes a straightforwardanalytical solution impossible. Programs like NASTRANand STRUDL are commonly used with this method. Thefollowing references provide some information as to howoptical information can be derived from such programs.The first reference provides some idea on current practice;the second describes a simple application and gives someidea of the power of the method.

*6.1. "Finite element methods for evaluating opticalsystem performance," in Optical Systems Engineer-ing IV, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE 518,145 -149 (1985). This paper attempts to give someidea of how the incorporation of ray -trace informa-tion in a standard finite -element program(MSC /NASTRAN) can yield performance data thatare readily interpretable in optics terms.

6.2. "Elastic deformation of lightweight mirrors,"Richard, R. M., and Malvick, A. J., Appl. Opt. 12,1220 (1973). Report of a finite -element analysis oflightweight mirrors with ribbed structures. An earlyreport on what has become a standard technique inoptomechanical analysis.

One can put the subject of vibration isolation within thecategory of mechanical analysis. In many cases, particularlyin a laboratory setting, the problem is "solved" by puttingthe system on a vibration -isolation table. However, becauseof cost, weight, and /or volume restrictions, it is not alwayspossible to ship an optical system with a commercial isola-tion system. A relatively easy to understand text in the field is6.3. Seismic Mountings for Vibration Isolation,

Macinante, Joseph A. (Wiley, New York, 1984). Anintroductory text on vibration isolation that covers



5.B. MirrorsAs optical systems increase in size, there is a tendency to shift the burden of providing optical power from lenses to mirrors. For small optics the same mounting techniques used with lenses would apply to mirrors. But for large mir rors the solutions tend to be more diverse than for lenses.*5.18. "Strain-free mounting techniques for metal

mirrors," Zimmerman, Jerrold, Opt. Eng. 20(2), 187-189 (1981). Properties of metal mirrors and figures of merit for four metals. List of design prin ciples for strain-free mounting. Five examples are given, but the descriptions are so brief that their usefulness is limited.

5.19. "Optical mirror-mount design and philosophy," Chin, David, Appl. Opt. 3, 895 (1964). Describes a number of mirror-mounting techniques. Certain sec tions require an understanding of mechanical engineering concepts.

Three examples of mirror mounting are given in the follow ing papers:5.20. "Improved mirror mounting for optical in

terferometers," Embleton, T. F. W., J. Opt. Soc. Am. 45, 152 (1955). Description of a mirror mounting in which rotational adjustments of the mirror are made about axes through the center of the surface. Since photographs rather than diagrams were used, the construction is somewhat difficult to discern.

5.21. "Design of Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) primary mirror mounts," Schreibman, Martin, and Young, Philip, Opt. Eng. 20(2), 190-194 (1981). A comparison between a hard mount design for a metal mirror and a flexure mount. Lists trade-offs between different approaches. Illustrates a cruciform section plus blade section flexure mount.

5.22. "Optical effect of flexure in vertically mounted precision mirrors," Schwesinger, Gerhard, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 44, 417 (1954). An analysis of distortions produced by gravity in vertically mounted mirrors, using analytical rather than finite element analysis techniques.

5.C. Planar optics

The mounting of flat surfaces, mirrors, prisms, and beamsplitters is as important as that of image-forming op tics. The first of these references is a good overview on the subject:*5.23. "Non-image-forming optical components," Yoder,

Paul R., Jr., in Geometrical Optics, R. E. Fischer, W. H. Price, and W. J. Smith, eds., Proc. SPIE 531, 206-220 (1985). "In this paper we review the geometrical characteristics of optical components that do not form images themselves... . Represen tative configurations for these components and typical designs for mounting into common types of instruments are also described" (from abstract).

*5.24. "Optomechanical considerations for optical beam splitters," Lipshutz, Marvin L., Appl. Opt. 7, 2326 (1968). A short note on mounting beamsplitters. Three examples are illustrated.

5.25. "Keeping light beams on target," Durie, D. S. L.,

Mach. Design, p. 128 (Sept. 28, 1967). Mounting and adjustment of reflecting prisms and plane mirrors. Two examples are given. A mirror mount for precise adjustment is described.

5.26. "Floating optical mount," Rayside, John S., and Fletcher, William H., Appl. Opt. 14, 2334 (1975). Details of an optical component mount for precision adjustment.

The final reference here fits none of the above categories but should be included in this section on mounting. Since the in tegration of a laser into a system poses some special prob lems and solves others, the mounting of a laser in a system should be treated differently from the passive optical com ponents listed above.*5.27. "Integrating Nd:YAG lasers into optical systems,"

Roberts, D. Allan, in Optical Systems Engineering, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE 193, 121-128 (1979). This is an excellent paper on the factors to be considered in the design of a laser-based optical system. Two examples, a laser rangefinder and a laser machine tool, are used. Optomechanical design, damage problems, and alignment are discussed after a description of the layout.

6. MECHANICAL ANALYSISFinite element analysis is a computer-based technique that is used to analyze the response of material masses to mechanical and heat stresses. It is most useful in those prob lems where a complicated geometry makes a straightforward analytical solution impossible. Programs like NASTRAN and STRUDL are commonly used with this method. The following references provide some information as to how optical information can be derived from such programs. The first reference provides some idea on current practice; the second describes a simple application and gives some idea of the power of the method.

*6.1. "Finite element methods for evaluating optical system performance," in Optical Systems Engineer ing IV, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE 518, 145-149 (1985). This paper attempts to give some idea of how the incorporation of ray-trace informa tion in a standard finite-element program (MSC/NASTRAN) can yield performance data that are readily interpretable in optics terms.

6.2. "Elastic deformation of lightweight mirrors," Richard, R. M., and Malvick, A. J., Appl. Opt. 12, 1220 (1973). Report of a finite-element analysis of lightweight mirrors with ribbed structures. An early report on what has become a standard technique in optomechanical analysis.

One can put the subject of vibration isolation within the category of mechanical analysis. In many cases, particularly in a laboratory setting, the problem is "solved" by putting the system on a vibration-isolation table. However, because of cost, weight, and/or volume restrictions, it is not always possible to ship an optical system with a commercial isola tion system. A relatively easy to understand text in the field is6.3. Seismic Mountings for Vibration Isolation,

Macinante, Joseph A. (Wiley, New York, 1984). An introductory text on vibration isolation that covers



O'SHEA

basic principles, seismic mountings, and mountingsfor sensitive equipment.

The following paper is hard to categorize since it describes awhole host of problems and their solutions. It is placed heresince it includes a solution to the very nasty problem ofisolating a laser optical system from a high velocity nozzle.*6.4. "Optical bench for chemical laser testing," Durie,

D. S. L., Opt. Eng. 20(4), 625 -628 (1981). Althoughthis paper describes a specific optical system, theanalysis and techniques to provide vibrational isola-tion and mechanical adjustment of heavy mirrors areexcellent examples of optomechanical design.

7. THERMAL ANALYSISEventually, an optical engineer must worry about thechanges in temperature that his or her system will be sub-jected to. The first question that is asked is, Will tempera-ture affect my system to the point that it will no longer bewithin specifications? If the answer is yes, then the secondquestion is, How can I compensate for these changes? Thenext two entries provide basic guidance for the case ofuniform temperature changes:

*7.1. "Thermal effects in optical systems," Jamieson,Thomas H., Opt. Eng. 20(2), 156 -160 (1981).Describes variations of optical system parameterswith temperature. Provides examples of the effects ofuniform temperature increase in seven types of lenssystems. Brief discussion of thermal gradients in asingle element lens. Earlier version in OpticalSystems Engineering, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc.SPIE 193, 101 -107 (1979).

7.2. "Athermalization of optical systems," Grey, D. S.,J. Opt. Soc. Am. 38, 543 (1948). "Equations aregiven for the condition that a focal surface of a lenssystem remain at a predetermined position for arange of ambient temperatures. Simple methods ofsatisfying these equations for lens systems composed. . . of plastic components are described" (fromabstract).

Perhaps one of the more difficult calculations in the thermalanalysis of optical systems is that of computing the effect ofradial gradients in the temperature profile of an opticalsystem:

*7.3. "Design of athermal lens systems," Köhler, H., andSträhle, F. (Proc. 9th Int. Comm. on Optics,Washington, D.C., 1974), p. 116. The problem ofradial gradients in a series of lenses is analyzed after ashort review of the effects of temperature changes ona system with no thermal gradients. Design of anathermal achromatic doublet for both cases ispresented.

*7.4. "On thermal -optical distortions of glass disks,"Mehltretter, J. P., J. Optics (Paris) 10, 93 (1979).Calculations on the thermal deformation of a largelens or window. Although a direct comparison wasnot made, the calculations were used to estimate aradial temperature difference for a lens in an actualoperating environment.

One example of passive thermal compensation by choosing


materials and geometries is given in the next reference:7.5. "Thermo- optical analysis of two long -focal -length

aerial reconnaissance lenses," Friedman, Irwin, Opt.Eng. 20(2), 161 -165 (1981). Description of the per-formance of two long focal length lenses at 20 °C and60 °C. Design of a thermal compensating lens mountto eliminate focus shift by constructing a holder ofaluminum and stainless steel between a lens flangeand the film plane.

Because of the high thermal expansion coefficients ofplastics compared to glasses, special concern must be givento temperature effects upon the design of an optical systemcontaining plastic elements:*7.6. "Third -order theory of thermally controlled plastic

and glass triplets," Estelle, Lee R., in 1980 Interna-tional Lens Design Conference, R. E. Fischer, ed.,Proc. SPIE 237, 392 -401 (1980). "A paraxialmathematical expression for directly controlling ther-mal shifts ... is used to achieve ... families of ther-mally controlled triplet solutions. The solutions,depending on the aberration requirements, becomefinished designs or optimum starting points . . ."(from abstract).

7.7. "Control of thermal focus in plastic -glass lenses,"Straw, Kimball, in 1980 International Lens DesignConference, R. E. Fischer, ed., Proc. SPIE 237,386 -391 (1980). Presents a method of reducing ther-mal focus shifts in a plastic optical system by incor-porating a glass lens in the design and treating ther-mal shifts as chromatic aberrations by using artificialrefractive indices. Two examples, an f/8 triplet and afour -element lens, are analyzed.

The three papers listed below present reports on differentproblems that can be encountered with mirror systems, fromrapid cooling to modest laser power fluxes to overall systemprediction:

7.8. "Design and fabrication of aluminum mirrors for alarge aperture precision collimator operating atcryogenic temperatures," Fuller, Joseph B. C., Jr.,Forney, Paul, and Klug, Carl M., in Proceedings ofthe Los Alamos Conference on Optics, D. H.Liebenberg, ed., Proc. SPIE 288, 104 -110 (1981).Description of the design of an optical system with alow thermal mass and rapid cooldown times. Thechoice of materials, the optomechanical design, andthe test of the completed system are given.

7.9. "Balanced thermal deflection approach for beamhandling in medium power optical systems," Miller,T. L., and Grigg, R. D., in Optical SystemsEngineering IV, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE518, 150 -154 (1985). Powers between 100 mW and 3W can induce significant distortion of mirrors in anoptical system. Several types of mirror designs areanalyzed by closed form and finite -element methodsto determine the best design to control curvaturechange and overall temperature rise.

*7.10. "Predicting performance of optical systems under-going thermal /mechanical loadings using integratedthermal /structural /optical numerical methods,"Miller, Jacob, Hatch, Marcus, and Green, Kenneth,

O'SHEA

basic principles, seismic mountings, and mountings for sensitive equipment.

The following paper is hard to categorize since it describes a whole host of problems and their solutions. It is placed here since it includes a solution to the very nasty problem of isolating a laser optical system from a high velocity nozzle.*6.4. "Optical bench for chemical laser testing," Durie,

D. S. L., Opt. Eng. 20(4), 625-628 (1981). Although this paper describes a specific optical system, the analysis and techniques to provide vibrational isola tion and mechanical adjustment of heavy mirrors are excellent examples of optomechanical design.

7. THERMAL ANALYSIS

Eventually, an optical engineer must worry about the changes in temperature that his or her system will be sub jected to. The first question that is asked is, Will tempera ture affect my system to the point that it will no longer be within specifications? If the answer is yes, then the second question is, How can I compensate for these changes? The next two entries provide basic guidance for the case of uniform temperature changes:

*7.1. "Thermal effects in optical systems," Jamieson, Thomas H., Opt. Eng. 20(2), 156-160 (1981). Describes variations of optical system parameters with temperature. Provides examples of the effects of uniform temperature increase in seven types of lens systems. Brief discussion of thermal gradients in a single element lens. Earlier version in Optical Systems Engineering, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE 193, 101-107 (1979).

7.2. "Athermalization of optical systems," Grey, D. S., J. Opt. Soc. Am. 38, 543 (1948). "Equations are given for the condition that a focal surface of a lens system remain at a predetermined position for a range of ambient temperatures. Simple methods of satisfying these equations for lens systems composed ... of plastic components are described" (from abstract).

Perhaps one of the more difficult calculations in the thermal analysis of optical systems is that of computing the effect of radial gradients in the temperature profile of an optical system:

*7.3. "Design of athermal lens systems," Kohler, H., and Strahle, F. (Proc. 9th Int. Comm. on Optics, Washington, D.C., 1974), p. 116. The problem of radial gradients in a series of lenses is analyzed after a short review of the effects of temperature changes on a system with no thermal gradients. Design of an athermal achromatic doublet for both cases is presented.

*7.4. "On thermal-optical distortions of glass disks," Mehltretter, J. P., J. Optics (Paris) 10, 93 (1979). Calculations on the thermal deformation of a large lens or window. Although a direct comparison was not made, the calculations were used to estimate a radial temperature difference for a lens in an actual operating environment.

One example of passive thermal compensation by choosing

materials and geometries is given in the next reference: 7.5. "Thermo-optical analysis of two long-focal-length

aerial reconnaissance lenses," Friedman, Irwin, Opt. Eng. 20(2), 161-165 (1981). Description of the per formance of two long focal length lenses at 20 °C and 60 °C. Design of a thermal compensating lens mount to eliminate focus shift by constructing a holder of aluminum and stainless steel between a lens flange and the film plane.

Because of the high thermal expansion coefficients of plastics compared to glasses, special concern must be given to temperature effects upon the design of an optical system containing plastic elements:*7.6. "Third-order theory of thermally controlled plastic

and glass triplets," Estelle, Lee R., in 1980 Interna tional Lens Design Conference, R. E. Fischer, ed., Proc. SPIE 237, 392-401 (1980). "A paraxial mathematical expression for directly controlling ther mal shifts ... is used to achieve . . . families of ther mally controlled triplet solutions. The solutions, depending on the aberration requirements, become finished designs or optimum starting points ..." (from abstract).

7.7. "Control of thermal focus in plastic-glass lenses," Straw, Kimball, in 1980 International Lens Design Conference, R. E. Fischer, ed., Proc. SPIE 237, 386-391 (1980). Presents a method of reducing ther mal focus shifts in a plastic optical system by incor porating a glass lens in the design and treating ther mal shifts as chromatic aberrations by using artificial refractive indices. Two examples, an f/8 triplet and a four-element lens, are analyzed.

The three papers listed below present reports on different problems that can be encountered with mirror systems, from rapid cooling to modest laser power fluxes to overall system prediction:

7.8. "Design and fabrication of aluminum mirrors for a large aperture precision collimator operating at cryogenic temperatures," Fuller, Joseph B. C., Jr., Forney, Paul, and Klug, Carl M., in Proceedings of the Los Alamos Conference on Optics, D. H. Liebenberg, ed., Proc. SPIE 288, 104-110 (1981). Description of the design of an optical system with a low thermal mass and rapid cooldown times. The choice of materials, the optomechanical design, and the test of the completed system are given.

7.9. "Balanced thermal deflection approach for beam handling in medium power optical systems," Miller, T. L., and Grigg, R. D., in Optical Systems Engineering IV, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE 518, 150-154 (1985). Powers between 100 mW and 3 W can induce significant distortion of mirrors in an optical system. Several types of mirror designs are analyzed by closed form and finite-element methods to determine the best design to control curvature change and overall temperature rise.

*7.10. "Predicting performance of optical systems under going thermal/mechanical loadings using integrated thermal/structural/optical numerical methods,'' Miller, Jacob, Hatch, Marcus, and Green, Kenneth,




Opt. Eng. 20(2), 166 -174 (1981). A number ofdesign /analysis programs are interfaced to provideoverall performance prediction of optical systems.The most useful part of this paper is the set of il-lustrations of error budgeting for four opticalsystems.

Another field of materials that has had an impact on thedesign of athermal optical systems is that of compositematerials:*7.11. "Design of highly stable optical support structure,"

Krim, Michael H., Opt. Eng. 14(6), 552 -558 (1975).Describes the approach and calculations used todesign a graphite -epoxy mirror support structurewith temperature compensation to provide less than1 µm focus change in a telescope with 193 inch mirrorseparation.

8. POSITIONINGAlthough not directed to the optical engineer, the first threetexts here represent sources of information on locating andmoving optical components within a system:

8.1. Fine Mechanisms and Precision Instruments (Prin-ciples of Design), Trylinski, W. (translated from thePolish by A. Vollnagel), (Pergamon Press, Oxford,1971). Description and equations for precision designcovering housings, joints, elastic elements, supports,guides, pins, shafts, couplings, gears, drives, and in-dicators.

8.2. Mechanical Engineering Design, Shigley, Joseph Ed-ward (McGraw -Hill, New York, Third Edition,1977). A basic text on mechanical engineering inwhich certain subjects are provided with alternativediscussions for the practicing engineer. A few sec-tions include material for the programmablecalculator (or, now, the microcomputer).

8.3. Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Shigley,Joseph Edward, and Uicker, John Joseph, Jr.(McGraw -Hill, New York, 1980). After a standardexposition of kinematic analysis, this text describes indetail cams, gears, trains, and linkages that mightprove useful to an optical engineer with a difficultscanning or component motion problem.

A short gloss on the above texts is*8.4. "How to achieve precise adjustment," Tuttle,

Stanley B., Mach. Design, p. 227 (Feb. 16, 1967).Four examples of precise rectilinear positioning andfour examples of precise angular positioning are il-lustrated.

In addition to the precision motion that can be provided bymechanical means, piezoelectric methods are available tothe engineer.

8.5. "Advances in submicron positioning," Spanner,Karl, and Marth, Harry, in Advances in Laser Scan-ning and Recording, L. Beiser, ed., Proc. SPIE 396,80.-84 (1983). A brief overview of piezoelectrictranslators for submicrometer positioning. Discus-sion of design using these elements is not given.Problems of hysteresis and nonlinearity are not dis-cussed.

Another technique for achieving precise positioning is theuse of flexures. These devices are based on shaped materialsthat use their elasticity to permit controlled deflections. Oneof the best sources of papers on flexures with equations andexamples has been Machine Design:*8.6. "Flexures," Billig, Victor, Mach. Design, p. 114

(Feb. 4, 1960). A number of different types of flex-ures are described and illustrated. The design pro-cedure for a transverse circular flexure is outlined,and three graphical solutions to necessary equationsare plotted.

*8.7. "Flexure -pivot bearings (Part 1)," Weinstein, War-ren D., Mach. Design, p. 149 (June 10, 1965). Firstof a two -part paper on flexure pivots. Describes one -,two -, and three -strip bearings. Single -strip bearingequations are given along with an example.

*8.8. "Flexure -pivot bearings (Part 2)," Weinstein, War-ren D., Mach. Design, p. 136 (July 8, 1965). Secondof a two -part paper on flexure pivots. Equations anddesign examples are given for two- and three -stripbearings. Although graphs are given, these are thekind of computations one can now easily programinto a microcomputer.

*8.9. "How to design flexure hinges," Paros, J. M., andWeisbord, L., Mach. Design, p. 151 (Nov. 25, 1965).Describes a number of flexure hinge geometries andthe equations that describe the motion. No examplesare given.

*8.10. "Designing springs for parallel motion,"Neugebauer, George H., Mach. Design, p. 119 (Aug.7, 1980). A description of the several types of flex-ures designed for parallel motion. Equations for theamount of flexure for an applied load are given.

A short note on positioning of an optical instrument is8.11. "Adjustable instrument mount," Brooks, LeRoy S.,

J. Opt. Soc. Am. 44, 87 (1954). A half -page descrip-tion with three figures of a kinematic mount with ad-justments.

Small mirror movements and path length changes can bemeasured using various standard interferometric geome-tries. One such technique particularly suited to lock -intechniques is analyzed in the following paper:8.12. "The optical screw as a path difference measurement

and control device: analysis of periodic errors,"Hopkinson, G. R., J. Optics (Paris) 9, 151 (1978). Adiagram of the optical arrangement is given alongwith an analysis of the sources of periodic errors thatcrop up in this device.

9. STABILIZATION

A problem optical engineers sometimes face is that after anoptical system has been aligned, someone moves it. Thestabilization of an image on a detector plane and the steeringof a laser beam to keep it on target are problems addressedby these four references:*9.1. "Line -of -sight steering and stabilization," Netzer,

Yishay, Opt. Eng. 21(1), 96 -104 (1982). "This articlediscusses various methods for steering the line -of-sight of an optical system based on controlling a sub-system or a single optical element. The applicability



Opt. Eng. 20(2), 166-174 (1981). A number of design/analysis programs are interfaced to provide overall performance prediction of optical systems. The most useful part of this paper is the set of il lustrations of error budgeting for four optical systems.

Another field of materials that has had an impact on the design of athermal optical systems is that of composite materials:*7.11. "Design of highly stable optical support structure,"

Krim, Michael H., Opt. Eng. 14(6), 552-558 (1975). Describes the approach and calculations used to design a graphite-epoxy mirror support structure with temperature compensation to provide less than 1 /xm focus change in a telescope with 193 inch mirror separation.

8. POSITIONING

Although not directed to the optical engineer, the first three texts here represent sources of information on locating and moving optical components within a system:

8.1. Fine Mechanisms and Precision Instruments (Prin ciples of Design), Trylinski, W. (translated from the Polish by A. Vollnagel), (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1971). Description and equations for precision design covering housings, joints, elastic elements, supports, guides, pins, shafts, couplings, gears, drives, and in dicators.

8.2. Mechanical Engineering Design, Shigley, Joseph Ed ward (McGraw-Hill, New York, Third Edition, 1977). A basic text on mechanical engineering in which certain subjects are provided with alternative discussions for the practicing engineer. A few sec tions include material for the programmable calculator (or, now, the microcomputer).

8.3. Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Shigley, Joseph Edward, and Uicker, John Joseph, Jr. (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1980). After a standard exposition of kinematic analysis, this text describes in detail cams, gears, trains, and linkages that might prove useful to an optical engineer with a difficult scanning or component motion problem.

A short gloss on the above texts is*8.4. "How to achieve precise adjustment," Tuttle,

Stanley B., Mach. Design, p. 227 (Feb. 16, 1967). Four examples of precise rectilinear positioning and four examples of precise angular positioning are il lustrated.

In addition to the precision motion that can be provided by mechanical means, piezoelectric methods are available to the engineer.

8.5. "Advances in submicron positioning," Spanner, Karl, and Marth, Harry, in Advances in Laser Scan ning and Recording, L. Beiser, ed., Proc. SPIE 396, 80-84 (1983). A brief overview of piezoelectric translators for submicrometer positioning. Discus sion of design using these elements is not given. Problems of hysteresis and nonlinearity are not dis cussed.

Another technique for achieving precise positioning is the use of flexures. These devices are based on shaped materials that use their elasticity to permit controlled deflections. One of the best sources of papers on flexures with equations and examples has been Machine Design:*8.6. "Flexures," Billig, Victor, Mach. Design, p. 114

(Feb. 4, 1960). A number of different types of flex ures are described and illustrated. The design pro cedure for a transverse circular flexure is outlined, and three graphical solutions to necessary equations are plotted.

*8.7. "Flexure-pivot bearings (Part 1)," Weinstein, War ren D., Mach. Design, p. 149 (June 10, 1965). First of a two-part paper on flexure pivots. Describes one-, two-, and three-strip bearings. Single-strip bearing equations are given along with an example.

*8.8. "Flexure-pivot bearings (Part 2)," Weinstein, War ren D., Mach. Design, p. 136 (July 8, 1965). Second of a two-part paper on flexure pivots. Equations and design examples are given for two- and three-strip bearings. Although graphs are given, these are the kind of computations one can now easily program into a microcomputer.

*8.9. "How to design flexure hinges," Paros, J. M., and Weisbord, L., Mach. Design, p. 151 (Nov. 25, 1965). Describes a number of flexure hinge geometries and the equations that describe the motion. No examples are given.

*8.10i "Designing springs for parallel motion," Neugebauer, George H., Mach. Design, p. 119 (Aug. 7, 1980). A description of the several types of flex ures designed for parallel motion. Equations for the amount of flexure for an applied load are given.

A short note on positioning of an optical instrument is8.11. "Adjustable instrument mount," Brooks, LeRoy S.,

J. Opt. Soc. Am. 44, 87 (1954). A half-page descrip tion with three figures of a kinematic mount with ad justments.

Small mirror movements and path length changes can be measured using various standard interferometric geome tries. One such technique particularly suited to lock-in techniques is analyzed in the following paper:8.12. "The optical screw as a path difference measurement

and control device: analysis of periodic errors," Hopkinson, G. R., J. Optics (Paris) 9, 151 (1978). A diagram of the optical arrangement is given along with an analysis of the sources of periodic errors that crop up in this device.

9. STABILIZATION

A problem optical engineers sometimes face is that after an optical system has been aligned, someone moves it. The stabilization of an image on a detector plane and the steering of a laser beam to keep it on target are problems addressed by these four references:*9.1. "Line-of-sight steering and stabilization," Netzer,

Yishay, Opt. Eng. 21(1), 96-104 (1982). "This article discusses various methods for steering the line-of- sight of an optical system based on controlling a sub system or a single optical element. The applicability



O'SHEA

of some of the methods for line -of -sight stabilizationis discussed" (from abstract).

*9.2. "Image rotation devices -a comparative survey,"Swift, D. W., Optics and Laser Technology 4, 175(1972). "This paper discusses image rotation devicesin general terms, and then attempts to collecttogether the more commonly used devices and to pre-sent comparative information on them .... In addi-tion a number of lesser known and novel ar-rangements are described" (from abstract).

9.3. "A compact derotator design," Durie, D. S. L., Opt.Eng. 13(1), 19 -22 (1974). An extensive examinationof a simple image derotator. Equations and graphsprovide sufficient information to design a derotatorfor a specific application. Mechanical design of theprism mounting is also discussed.

*9.4. "Image stabilization techniques for long rangereconnaissance camera," Lewis, George R., in LongFocal Length, High Altitude Standoff Recon-naissance, D. H. Jarvis, ed., Proc. SPIE 242,153 -158 (1980). Two -axis stabilized mirrors are usedto maintain a constant aerial reconnaissance imageon a film during flight. Scan equations, design,system layout, and testing are discussed.

10. BAFFLINGThe problem of stray light in optical systems is highly depen-dent on the application. In most cases it involves the detec-tion of faint images in the presence or surround of a brightbackground. As to its place in optomechanical design, thesubject straddles the field with that of optical design. Manypapers deal with optical design programs that incorporatestray light calculations but are of little use without access tothe programs. The following papers, however, should pro-vide some basic guidance.

*10.1. "Problems and techniques in stray radiation suppres-sion," Breault, Robert P., in Stray -Light Problemsin Optical Systems, J. D. Lytle and H. Morrow, eds.,Proc. SPIE 107, 2 -24 (1977). This paper presents"some basic concepts that the optical and /ormechanical designer can consider when initiallydesigning a sensor system" (from abstract). Probablythe most concise description of radiation suppressionstrategies available in the open literature.

*10.2. "First -order design of optical baffles," Freniere, Ed-ward R., in Radiation Scattering in Optical Systems,G. H. Hunt, ed., Proc. SPIE 257, 19 -28 (1981).Basic nomenclature, design techniques, and goals forstray -light reduction are presented.

11. ASSEMBLY AND ALIGNMENT

Since it is impossible to separate assembly of an opticalsystem from its alignment, I have combined the referencesto these two steps in the completion of an optical design.The part that assembly plays in optomechanical design isfairly obvious, but that of alignment is somewhat subtler. Inmost cases the provisions for alignment at an early stage ofthe optomechanical design are necessary to reduce redesignand maintain schedules.

*11.1. "Concepts and misconceptions in the design and


fabrication of optical assemblies," Thorburn,Eugene K., in Optomechanical Systems Design, M.Bayar, ed., Proc. SPIE 250, 2 -7 (1980). This is a suc-cinct description of the difficulties in fabricating op-tical components to specification. Practical aspectsof radius tolerancing, lens centration tolerancing andmeasuring, and thickness tolerancing are discussed.

*11.2. "Methods for the control of centering error in thefabrication and assembly of optical elements," Zaltz,Alexander, and Christo, Douglas, in Optical SystemsEngineering II, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE330, 39 -48 (1982). The paper includes calculation ofcentering error and methods for measuring and con-trolling centering error. Also includes tables of rela-tionships between error parameters and measurementmethods for single elements and complete opticalsystems.

*11.3. "Modular design /assembly /alignment approach toan infrared (IR) scanning system," Fischer, RobertE., in Optical Systems Engineering, P. R. Yoder, Jr.,ed., Proc. SPIE 193, 161 -169 (1979). Optomechan-ical design trade -offs that lead to a modular design ofan IR scanning system. Tolerances for fabrication,assembly, and alignment are given, and some assem-bly and alignment procedures are described. Go /no-go test procedures for modules are also given.

*11.4. "Incorporation of assembly alignment methods atthe design stage of complex optical systems," Fisher,Richard L., in Optical Systems Engineering II, P. R.Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE 330, 2 -4 (1982). A list ofconsiderations to be incorporated early in a designprocess. Most descriptions are one paragraph longand a few have a simple example. What any gooddesigner ought to know.

Some specific examples of alignment techniques and theirrelation to the optomechanical design of the system are11.5. "Alignment design for a cryogenic telescope,"

Young, Philip, and Schreibman, Martin, in OpticalAlignment, R. N. Shagam and W. C. Sweatt, eds.,Proc. SPIE 251, 171 -178 (1980). Incorporation ofprovisions for alignment into the design of atelescope that had to be built and tested under one setof conditions and used under another set.

11.6. "Alignment of precision lens elements," Hopkins,Robert E., and Walsh, Kenneth F., in Optical Align-ment II, M. C. Ruda, ed., Proc. SPIE 483, 126 -130(1984). An interferometric technique for mountingelements in a precision lens is described. The chief at-traction of this method is that the requirements onedging the elements and machining the barrel arerelaxed in favor of parallelism of the barrel mountingsurfaces. Alignment is described.

11.7. "Alignment of rotational prisms," Sullivan, D. L.,Appl. Opt. 11, 2028 (1972). The optical, mechanical,and rotational axes of prisms used for rotating im-ages (e.g., Dove and Pechan prisms) must all bealigned to prevent a wobbling image. This paperanalyzes image movement to provide information onalignment.

*11.8. "Alignment of off -axis aspheric surfaces," Ruda,Mitchell, in Optical Alignment, R. N. Shagam and

O'SHEA

of some of the methods for line-of-sight stabilization is discussed" (from abstract).

*9.2. "Image rotation devices a comparative survey," Swift, D. W., Optics and Laser Technology 4, 175 (1972). "This paper discusses image rotation devices in general terms, and then attempts to collect together the more commonly used devices and to pre sent comparative information on them .... In addi tion a number of lesser known and novel ar rangements are described" (from abstract).

9.3. "A compact derotator design," Durie, D. S. L., Opt. Eng. 13(1), 19-22 (1974). An extensive examination of a simple image derotator. Equations and graphs provide sufficient information to design a derotator for a specific application. Mechanical design of the prism mounting is also discussed.

*9.4. "Image stabilization techniques for long range reconnaissance camera," Lewis, George R., in Long Focal Length, High Altitude Standoff Recon naissance, D. H. Jarvis, ed., Proc. SPIE 242, 153-158 (1980). Two-axis stabilized mirrors are used to maintain a constant aerial reconnaissance image on a film during flight. Scan equations, design, system layout, and testing are discussed.

10. BAFFLINGThe problem of stray light in optical systems is highly depen dent on the application. In most cases it involves the detec tion of faint images in the presence or surround of a bright background. As to its place in optomechanical design, the subject straddles the field with that of optical design. Many papers deal with optical design programs that incorporate stray light calculations but are of little use without access to the programs. The following papers, however, should pro vide some basic guidance.

*10.1. "Problems and techniques in stray radiation suppres sion," Breault, Robert P., in Stray-Light Problems in Optical Systems, J. D. Lytle and H. Morrow, eds., Proc. SPIE 107, 2-24 (1977). This paper presents "some basic concepts that the optical and/or mechanical designer can consider when initially designing a sensor system" (from abstract). Probably the most concise description of radiation suppression strategies available in the open literature.

*10.2. "First-order design of optical baffles," Freniere, Ed ward R., in Radiation Scattering in Optical Systems, G. H. Hunt, ed., Proc. SPIE 257, 19-28 (1981). Basic nomenclature, design techniques, and goals for stray-light reduction are presented.

11. ASSEMBLY AND ALIGNMENTSince it is impossible to separate assembly of an optical system from its alignment, I have combined the references to these two steps in the completion of an optical design. The part that assembly plays in optomechanical design is fairly obvious, but that of alignment is somewhat subtler. In most cases the provisions for alignment at an early stage of the optomechanical design are necessary to reduce redesign and maintain schedules.

*11.1. "Concepts and misconceptions in the design and

fabrication of optical assemblies," Thorburn, Eugene K., in Optomechanical Systems Design, M. Bayar, ed., Proc. SPIE 250, 2-7 (1980). This is a suc cinct description of the difficulties in fabricating op tical components to specification. Practical aspects of radius tolerancing, lens centration tolerancing and measuring, and thickness tolerancing are discussed.

*11.2. "Methods for the control of centering error in the fabrication and assembly of optical elements," Zaltz, Alexander, and Christo, Douglas, in Optical Systems Engineering II, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE 330, 39-48 (1982). The paper includes calculation of centering error and methods for measuring and con trolling centering error. Also includes tables of rela tionships between error parameters and measurement methods for single elements and complete optical systems.

*11.3. "Modular design/assembly/alignment approach to an infrared (IR) scanning system," Fischer, Robert E., in Optical Systems Engineering, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE 193, 161-169 (1979). Optomechan ical design trade-offs that lead to a modular design of an IR scanning system. Tolerances for fabrication, assembly, and alignment are given, and some assem bly and alignment procedures are described. Go/no- go test procedures for modules are also given.

*11.4. "Incorporation of assembly alignment methods at the design stage of complex optical systems," Fisher, Richard L., in Optical Systems Engineering II, P. R. Yoder, Jr., ed., Proc. SPIE 330, 2-4 (1982). A list of considerations to be incorporated early in a design process. Most descriptions are one paragraph long and a few have a simple example. What any good designer ought to know.

Some specific examples of alignment techniques and their relation to the optomechanical design of the system are11.5. "Alignment design for a cryogenic telescope,"

Young, Philip, and Schreibman, Martin, in Optical Alignment, R. N. Shagam and W. C. Sweatt, eds., Proc. SPIE 251, 171-178 (1980). Incorporation of provisions for alignment into the design of a telescope that had to be built and tested under one set of conditions and used under another set.

11.6. "Alignment of precision lens elements," Hopkins, Robert E., and Walsh, Kenneth F., in Optical Align ment II, M. C. Ruda, ed., Proc. SPIE 483, 126-130 (1984). An interferometric technique for mounting elements in a precision lens is described. The chief at traction of this method is that the requirements on edging the elements and machining the barrel are relaxed in favor of parallelism of the barrel mounting surfaces. Alignment is described.

11.7. "Alignment of rotational prisms," Sullivan, D. L., Appl. Opt. 11, 2028 (1972). The optical, mechanical, and rotational axes of prisms used for rotating im ages (e.g., Dove and Pechan prisms) must all be aligned to prevent a wobbling image. This paper analyzes image movement to provide information on alignment.

*11.8. "Alignment of off-axis aspheric surfaces," Ruda, Mitchell, in Optical Alignment, R. N. Shagam and




W. C. Sweatt, eds., Proc. SPIE 251, 29 -36 (1980).Describes the alignment of off -axis aspheric systems,including those systems whose optical parameters areunknown. A wire test and the required autostigmaticcube is described, and examples of shadow patternsare illustrated.

11.9. "Development of a multidetector deflectionmeasurement system," Bissinger, H. D., and Robin-son, W. L., in Optical Alignment II, M. C. Ruda,ed., Proc. SPIE 483, 24 -32 (1984). Describes a seriesof lenses, beamsplitting cubes, and lateral effectdetectors that can be used to monitor the positionand tilt of a laser beam. Equations are given for theparameters and the calibration coefficients. Thecalibration procedure for the sensor is also given.

12. SCANNINGOne subfield of optics technology that has blossomed in re-cent years is scanning. Whether it is scanning an imageacross a target or scanning a focused laser beam across aphotoconductive drum, the design of the mounting and thelimitations of the mechanical error found in the motors andbearings are certainly an area of concern to an opticalengineer. The first of these references is intended as an in-troduction to the basics of scanning; the second, a recentoverview of the field:12.1. Elements of Modern Optical Design, O'Shea,

Donald C. (Wiley, New York, 1985). Elementarytextbook on optical design with a chapter on scannersand modulators.

12.2. Advances in Laser Scanning Technology, Beiser,Leo, ed., Proc. SPIE 299 (1982).

The next three entries address the problems of scanningmotors and the role they play in a system incorporating ascanner:*12.3. "Motors and control systems for rotating mirror

deflectors," Hayosh, Thomas D., in Laser ScanningComponents and Techniques- Design Considera-tions /Trends, L. Beiser and G. F. Marshall, eds.,Proc. SPIE 84, 97 -108 (1977). A comprehensivereview of the types of motors that can be used forscanning applications. A good knowledge of motorsis needed since the descriptions are rather terse. Atable of motor parameters versus motor types shouldbe helpful in sorting out the various types of motors.

*12.4. "Design considerations for high performance scan-ner motors," Koch, Roy A., in Laser Scanning andRecording, L. Beiser, ed., Proc. SPIE 498, 54 -58(1984). Explanation of the hysteresis motor anddiscussion of its electrical and mechanical character-istics. The considerations that go into specifying ascanning motor are explored.

*12.5. "Technical considerations of rotating mirror deflec-tors simple and sophisticated," Hayosh, Thomas D.,in Laser Scanning Components and Techniques -Design Considerations /Trends, L. Beiser and G. F.Marshall, eds., Proc. SPIE 84, 123 -133 (1977).Calculation and description of cantilevered and in-tegral mirror -shaft constructions. Parameters to beconsidered in the design of a rotating mirror deflec-tor are discussed.

Another problem that occurs in scanning systems is that oftrying to reduce the inertia of a scanning mirror by making itas thin as possible in order to increase the frequencyresponse of the system. At high tangential velocities,however, these "slenderized" mirrors begin to distort. Tworeferences that address this problem are*12.6. "Dynamic mirror distortions in optical scanning,"

Brosnens, P. J., Appl. Opt. 11, 2987 (1972). Analysisof the deformations that can be expected from thin(small thickness -to -width ratio) rectangular scanningmirrors under high acceleration. This is most ap-plicable to periodic oscillating mirrors, such asgalvanometer scanners.

*12.7. "Deflection of a circular scanning mirror underangular acceleration," Conrad, D. A., Opt. Eng.14(1), 46 -49 (1975). Analysis of a thin circular mirrorundergoing angular deformation. All results aregiven in a dimensionless form so that calculations canbe made for a specific combination of any angularacceleration, plate stiffness, density, thickness, andradius.

A different type of scanning application, one involving alarge mirror, is described in the next reference:12.8. "Large scan mirror assembly of the new Thematic

Mapper developed for LANDSAT 4 earth resourcessatellite," Starkus, Charles J., in InfraredTechnology IX, I. J. Spiro and R. A. Mollicone,eds., Proc. SPIE 430, 85 -92 (1983). Description ofan ingenious use of "bumpers" to linearize theangular velocity of an oscillating scan mirror betweenturnaround points.

One type of motor -driven optic is the optical encoder.Although optical encoders are usually taken for granted, inhigh precision systems their operation and maintenancemust be examined.12.9. "Installation and maintenance of high resolution op-

tical shaft encoders," Breslow, Donald H., in Photoand Electro- Optics in Range Instrumentation, W . J.Carrion, J. Cornell, J. E. Durrenberger, and R.Peterson, eds., Proc. SPIE 134, 84 -92 (1978). Shaftencoders are usually added to a design as an after-thought. The author "present[s] a thorough reviewof the mechanical parameters that must be definedand controlled to properly interface a high resolutionencoder" (from abstract). Maintenance techniquesare also discussed.

There are probably additional subjects that could be includ-ed under the umbrella "optomechanical design" but theabove fields are the ones I have found most important in myown work. I would appreciate any comments, criticisms, ornotices of omissions. (Please remember, however, thatmany of my omissions were deliberate, as noted in the in-troduction.)

In my conversations with many people practicing opticalengineering, it is obvious that the subject of optomechanicaldesign has been considered an ancillary subject that is manytimes addressed after the fact. But as the field of opticsgrows and the systems become more complex, I expect to seemany of these isolated subjects incorporated into the designprocess at earlier stages, reducing the need for "fixes" in anoptical design. It will make for some exciting and rewarding



W. C. Sweatt, eds., Proc. SPIE 251, 29-36 (1980). Describes the alignment of off-axis aspheric systems, including those systems whose optical parameters are unknown. A wire test and the required autostigmatic cube is described, and examples of shadow patterns are illustrated.

11.9. ''Development of a multidetector deflection measurement system," Bissinger, H. D., and Robin son, W. L., in Optical Alignment II, M. C. Ruda, ed., Proc. SPIE 483, 24-32 (1984). Describes a series of lenses, beam splitting cubes, and lateral effect detectors that can be used to monitor the position and tilt of a laser beam. Equations are given for the parameters and the calibration coefficients. The calibration procedure for the sensor is also given.

12. SCANNINGOne subfield of optics technology that has blossomed in re cent years is scanning. Whether it is scanning an image across a target or scanning a focused laser beam across a photoconductive drum, the design of the mounting and the limitations of the mechanical error found in the motors and bearings are certainly an area of concern to an optical engineer. The first of these references is intended as an in troduction to the basics of scanning; the second, a recent overview of the field:12.1. Elements of Modern Optical Design, O'Shea,

Donald C. (Wiley, New York, 1985). Elementary textbook on optical design with a chapter on scanners and modulators.

12.2. Advances in Laser Scanning Technology, Beiser, Leo, ed., Proc. SPIE 299 (1982).

The next three entries address the problems of scanning motors and the role they play in a system incorporating a scanner:*12.3. "Motors and control systems for rotating mirror

deflectors/' Hayosh, Thomas D., in Laser Scanning Components and Techniques Design Considera tions/Trends, L. Beiser and G. F. Marshall, eds., Proc. SPIE 84, 97-108 (1977). A comprehensive review of the types of motors that can be used for scanning applications. A good knowledge of motors is needed since the descriptions are rather terse. A table of motor parameters versus motor types should be helpful in sorting out the various types of motors.

*12.4. "Design considerations for high performance scan ner motors," Koch, Roy A., in Laser Scanning and Recording, L. Beiser, ed., Proc. SPIE 498, 54-58 (1984). Explanation of the hysteresis motor and discussion of its electrical and mechanical character istics. The considerations that go into specifying a scanning motor are explored.

*12.5. "Technical considerations of rotating mirror deflec tors simple and sophisticated," Hayosh, Thomas D., in Laser Scanning Components and Techniques Design Considerations/Trends, L. Beiser and G. F. Marshall, eds., Proc. SPIE 84, 123-133 (1977). Calculation and description of cantilevered and in tegral mirror-shaft constructions. Parameters to be considered in the design of a rotating mirror deflec tor are discussed.

Another problem that occurs in scanning systems is that of trying to reduce the inertia of a scanning mirror by making it as thin as possible in order to increase the frequency response of the system. At high tangential velocities, however, these "slenderized" mirrors begin to distort. Two references that address this problem are*12.6. "Dynamic mirror distortions in optical scanning,"

Brosnens, P. J., Appl. Opt. 11, 2987 (1972). Analysis of the deformations that can be expected from thin (small thickness-to-width ratio) rectangular scanning mirrors under high acceleration. This is most ap plicable to periodic oscillating mirrors, such as galvanometer scanners.

*12.7. "Deflection of a circular scanning mirror under angular acceleration," Conrad, D. A., Opt. Eng. 14(1), 46-49 (1975). Analysis of a thin circular mirror undergoing angular deformation. All results are given in a dimensionless form so that calculations can be made for a specific combination of any angular acceleration, plate stiffness, density, thickness, and radius.

A different type of scanning application, one involving a large mirror, is described in the next reference:12.8. "Large scan mirror assembly of the new Thematic

Mapper developed for LANDSAT 4 earth resources satellite," Starkus, Charles J., in Infrared Technology IX, I. J. Spiro and R. A. Mollicone, eds., Proc. SPIE 430, 85-92 (1983). Description of an ingenious use of "bumpers" to linearize the angular velocity of an oscillating scan mirror between turnaround points.

One type of motor-driven optic is the optical encoder. Although optical encoders are usually taken for granted, in high precision systems their operation and maintenance must be examined.12.9. "Installation and maintenance of high resolution op

tical shaft encoders," Breslow, Donald H., in Photo and Electro-Optics in Range Instrumentation, W. J. Carrion, J. Cornell, J. E. Durrenberger, and R. Peterson, eds., Proc. SPIE 134, 84-92 (1978). Shaft encoders are usually added to a design as an after thought. The author "present[s] a thorough review of the mechanical parameters that must be defined and controlled to properly interface a high resolution encoder" (from abstract). Maintenance techniques are also discussed.

There are probably additional subjects that could be includ ed under the umbrella "optomechanical design" but the above fields are the ones I have found most important in my own work. I would appreciate any comments, criticisms, or notices of omissions. (Please remember, however, that many of my omissions were deliberate, as noted in the in troduction.)

In my conversations with many people practicing optical engineering, it is obvious that the subject of optomechanical design has been considered an ancillary subject that is many times addressed after the fact. But as the field of optics grows and the systems become more complex, I expect to see many of these isolated subjects incorporated into the design process at earlier stages, reducing the need for "fixes" in an optical design. It will make for some exciting and rewarding



O'SHEA

times for those who pay attention to putting their opticaldesign down in the real world.

13. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank Paul R. Yoder, Jr., of Perkin -Elmer for amanuscript copy of his text and the accompanying referencelist. I also thank Dan Vukobratovich of the Optical SciencesCenter at the University of Arizona for the list of referencesfrom his SPIE course on optomechanical design and for hiscontinuing dialogue, suggestions, and criticisms. The refer-ence staff of Georgia Tech library provided assistance with adatabase search. I wish to thank my host at the OpticalSciences Center, Bob Shannon, for his hospitality in excitingsurroundings. Finally, I thank the Eastman Kodak Com-pany for its assistance during my sabbatical at the OpticalSciences Center.

Donald C. O'Shea received his B.S. degreein physics from the University of Akron(Ohio) in 1960 and his M.S. degree inphysics from Ohio State University in 1963.After obtaining his Ph.D. degree in physicsfrom Johns Hopkins University in 1968 hewas a postdoctoral fellow at Gordon McKayLaboratories at Harvard University. Since1970 he has been on the faculty of theSchool of Physics at the Georgia Instituteof Technology, where he is now an Associ-

ate Professor and Coordinator of the Applied Optics program. Forthe past seven years he has been the principal lecturer of a course,Laser System Design, given twice a year at the University ofWisconsin Extension. His current interests are in the fields ofelectro- optics, optical physics, optical engineering, especially op-tomechanical design, and optics education. He is the coauthorwith W. T. Rhodes and W. R. Callen of Introduction to Lasers andTheir Applications (Addison -Wesley, 1977) and author of Elementsof Modern Optical Design (Wiley, 1985). He has been a member ofseveral OSA and SPIE committees on education and chaired theSPIE Education Committee in 1984. Dr. O'Shea is a member of OSAand a Fellow of SPIE.


O'SHEA

times for those who pay attention to putting their optical design down in the real world.

13. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank Paul R. Voder, Jr., of Perkin-Elmer for a manuscript copy of his text and the accompanying reference list. I also thank Dan Vukobratovich of the Optical Sciences Center at the University of Arizona for the list of references from his SPIE course on optomechanical design and for his continuing dialogue, suggestions, and criticisms. The refer ence staff of Georgia Tech library provided assistance with a database search. I wish to thank rny host at the Optical Sciences Center, Bob Shannon, for his hospitality in exciting surroundings. Finally, I thank the Eastman Kodak Com pany for its assistance during my sabbatical at the Optical Sciences Center. s

Donald C. O'Shea received his B.S. degree in physics from the University of Akron (Ohio) in 1960 and his M.S. degree in physics from Ohio State University in 1963, After obtaining his Ph.D. degree in physics from Johns Hopkins University in 1968 he was a postdoctoral fellow at Gordon McKay Laboratories at Harvard University. Since 1970 he has been on the faculty of the School of Physics at the Georgia Institute of Technology, where he is now an Associ

ate Professor and Coordinator of the Applied Optics program. For the past seven years he has been the principal lecturer of a course, Laser System Design, given twice a year at the University of Wisconsin Extension. His current interests are in the fields of electro-optics, optical physics, optical engineering, especially op tomechanical design, and optics education. He is the coauthor with W. T. Rhodes and W. R. Callen of Introduction to Lasers and Their Applications (Addison-Wesley, 1977) and author of Elements of Modem Optical Design (Wiley, 1985). He has been a member of several OS A and SPIE committees on education and chaired the SPIE Education Committee in 1984. Dr. O'Shea is a member of OS A and a Fellow of SPIE.



Annotated bibliography of optomechanical design - … bibliography of optomechanical... ·...

Documents

Transcript of Annotated bibliography of optomechanical design - … bibliography of optomechanical... ·...