The Role of Shapers in Virtual The Role of Shapers in Virtual Firm-based Practice Networks Firm-based Practice Networks using Wikis: Implications for using Wikis: Implications for

Systems EngineeringSystems Engineering

Ann Majchrzak, Ann Majchrzak, Professor of Information SystemsProfessor of Information SystemsUniversity of Southern CaliforniaUniversity of Southern California

majchrza@usc.edumajchrza@usc.edu

Background: What is a Wiki?Background: What is a Wiki?

Wikis = “Fast” Website: Wikis = “Fast” Website: Example Example Katrina Wiki Katrina Wiki

OpenOpen

Wiki Way: Wiki content not owned by individual authors; focus on community ; everyone can contribute and change content easily, if given access to page

Wiki Way: content maintenance principles. Simplified mark-up (language), rules for modifying and integrating other authors’ pages (“refactoring rules”), as well as page design standards (templates).

SimpleSimple

Wiki Way: Incremental growth. Links to missing pages permitted and rendered as open questions for someone else to address. Hyperlink automatically created when a missing page is added.

IncrementalIncremental

Wiki Way: observability of all content, past and present leads to broad reviews and better quality.

ObservableObservable

Wiki Way: Organic growth. A wiki structure can be changed by any wiki author, as the need arises.

OrganicOrganic

““Sweet Spots”:CSweet Spots”:Collaboration ollaboration and Coordinationand Coordination

Coordination across time zones

same

different

Collaboratorsfew many

Group-ware

Chat room

E-mail / Listserv

Discussion Forum

CMS Portal

Weblog

Wiki

““Sweet Spots”: Sweet Spots”: Dispersion of Dispersion of KnowledgeKnowledge

Knowledge Sources

few

many

Knowledge Recipientsfew many

Discussion Forum

E-mail / Listserv

CMS Portal

Group-ware

Wiki

Weblog

““Sweet Spots”: Sweet Spots”: Knowledge Knowledge MaintenanceMaintenance

Ease of Knowledge Maintenance

low

high

Knowledge Organizationlow high

Discussion Forum

E-mail / Listserv

CMS

Portal

Group-ware

Enterprise KMS

Community KMS

WikiWeblog

Systems Engineering Uses of Wiki Systems Engineering Uses of Wiki ApplicationsApplications

• Company, project, or department intranet with collaboratively editing pages on new technologies, project status, customer information (as a CRM with dashboards), bug tracking, competitor information (with RSS feeds)

• Fast problem identification and resolution mechanism

• Project management (meeting minutes, task status, repository, workflow automation)

• Solutions sharing (FAQ, best practice)• Distributed meeting coordination

Corporate DirectoryCorporate Directory

Summary of Wiki’s Potential for Summary of Wiki’s Potential for Systems EngineeringSystems Engineering

• Encourages people to share knowledge by project, practice area, function, problem, or issue within firms emergently

• Allows for organizing knowledge as it evolves

• The opportunity of a ‘shaping’ role emerges

*Wasko & Faraj 2005

ShapingShaping• Contributing by integrating, distilling,

organizing & rewriting contributions of others

• Shaping is a practice-based role*• Facilitates knowledge transformation by

helping community to exchange & combine its knowledge to refine its perspective & to take new perspectives**

* Brown & Duguid 2001, Feldman & Pentland 2003, Orlikowski 2002** Boland & Tenkasi 1995, Dougherty 1992, Carlile 2004, Nahapiet & Ghoshal 1998

Example of a Shaper: HowardExample of a Shaper: Howard

• 75-person software engineering group at a multi-billion dollar tech company

• “I spend up to two hours a day working on the wiki. Much of this time I reorganize other people’s materials, rename pages, create new links on the home page, or restructure the home page. Benefits aren’t to mean personally, but they help the group collaborate more effectively. They can find things easier”

Motivation for ResearchMotivation for Research• Prior research focused on why people

contribute personal content knowledge to networks & repositories*

• Shapers relatively ignored**• Shapers & Personal Knowledge

Contributors (PKCs) have different barriers to overcome: “some edit others work, & some don’ts”

* Fulk et al 1996, 2004; Bagozzi & Dholakia 2006, Bock et al 2005, Kalman et al 2005, Roberst et sl 2006, Wasko & Faraj 2005 **Butler et al in press is an exception

Research QuestionsResearch Questions

• Are there unique characteristics of participants in virtual practice networks who a) primarily shape vs b) primarily contribute personal knowledge?

• Are the factors explaining the level of participation in each role different?

Hyp 1: Unique Chars?Hyp 1: Unique Chars?PKCs

Lose sole claim to knowledge

Deep task expertise*- self-proclaimed- relative to others in network (network perceived to have well-developed transactive memory)

Shapers

Reactions of others to edits (especially if converging on domain)

Focus on divergence in domain**(new business opportunities)

More general expertise

Barriers:

H1: Predicted profile to overcome barriers

*Gray 2001, Kankanhalli et al 2005, Bock et al 2005, Menon et al 2006**Boland & Tenkasi 1995

Hyp 2: Explain Level of Hyp 2: Explain Level of Participation in Each Role?Participation in Each Role?

PKCs

Lose sole claim to knowledge

Social Exchange: Benefits > Costs

ShapersReactions of others

to edits (especially if converging on domain)

Social Capital: Combination Process to foster new intellectual capital

Barriers:

H2: Diff theories to explain level of participation

*Gray 2001, Kankanhalli et al 2005, Bock et al 2005, Menon et al 2006**Boland & Tenkasi 1995

Hyp 2 (cont):Hyp 2 (cont):Predictors to Level of ParticipationPredictors to Level of Participation

Costs in time

Benefits for indiv work

Benefits for group work (member of core group)

Benefits to orgztn

Exchange/Combo Opportunity - # accesses by community

Anticipation of new knowledge creation - perceived novelty of task

Motivation to combine/exchange - worth to organization

Combination capability - Received reputation

PKCs ShapersSocial Exchange Theory Social Capital Theory

Research Methods: Survey of firm Research Methods: Survey of firm wiki users that protects firm & wiki users that protects firm &

personal identity personal identity • Solicitation on 10 listservers likely visited

by firm-based wiki participants• Followed accepted recs for decreasing

response bias• Identified Shapers & PKCs within sample:

factor analysis of types of contributions, then median splits on two types

Means for Shaper vs PKC Contributions

A.Entire Sample Mean (1=never,

7=all the time), (Sd)N=168

B.Shaper Sub sample

Mean(Sd)N=47

C.PKC Sub-sample

Mean(Sd)N=47

How often have your contributions to the wiki been:

Adding new pages 5.0(1.4) 3.9(1.1) 5.7(1.3)

Adding content to existing pages 5.4(1.1) 4.5(1.0) 6.0(0.9)

Rewriting whole paragraphs 2.3(1.3) 2.5(1.2) 1.7(0.9)

Reorganizing a set of pages 2.8(1.5) 2.9(1.3) 2.3(1.3)

Integrating ideas already posted onto existing pages 3.5(1.5) 3.8(1.3) 2.6(1.4)

H1 Confirmed: Profiles Different for H1 Confirmed: Profiles Different for Shapers vs. PKCs Shapers vs. PKCs

Mean Difference Between Subgroups

Independent Variables B S.E. Wald Sig. eB

PKC Shaper 4.70 4.17 Expertise Depth -.488 .232 4.439 .035 .614 t = 2.31, p< .05 .79 .41 Transactive Memory

System -.977 .460 4.499 .034 .377

t = 2.76, p< .01 2.0 2.57 Use of Wiki to

Identify Bus. Opportunities

.495 .201 6.034 .014 1.64

t = 2.31, p< .05

Control Variables 32.62 21.83 Months Individual

Using Wikis -.033 .014 5.576 .018 .967

t = 2.35, p< .05 4.81 4.77 Months Organization

Using Wikis .246 .277 .784 .376

t = .11, p= .91 4.43 4.34 Months Wiki in

Existence -.086 .285 .091 .763

t = .22, p= .83

78.5% classification accuracy

H2 & H3 TestH2 & H3 Test

• Moderator Regressions

2-Tiered Regression Results on Level of 2-Tiered Regression Results on Level of Participation for Shapers and Personal Participation for Shapers and Personal

Knowledge Contributors Combined Knowledge Contributors Combined Variables Entered Model 1 Model 2 Constant Freq. Wiki Access .24** .27*** Task novelty .13 .21** Use of Wiki to Improve Org. Processes

.34*** .33***

Reputation Received .03 .03 Costs in Time -.18* -.18* Benefits to Indiv. Work .30*** .25* Membership in core group .13 .09 Sub-group .16 .14 Grp X Freq. Access .00 Grp x Task Novelty .25* Grp X Costs in Time .16* Grp X Benefits to Indiv. -.07 Grp x Member Core Grp -.26*** Grp X Reputation Rec’d .19* Adjusted R2 .37*** .51*** Change in R2 .29*** .16***

***=p<.001; **p<.01, *p<.05

Interaction EffectsInteraction Effects

Interaction EffectsInteraction Effects

Regressions of Level of Regressions of Level of Participation for Each Group Participation for Each Group

a. Personal Knowledge Contributors only (n=47) Variables Entered Standardized B Coefficient Main Effects: Costs in Time -.32** Benefit to Individuals’ Work .25* Membership in Core Group .30* Use of Wiki to Improve Work Processes

.35**

Adjusted R2 .40*** b. Shapers only (n=47) Variables Entered Standardized B Coefficient Main Effects: Freq. of wiki accesses .30** Task Novelty .38** Reputation Received .29* Use of Wiki to Improve Work Processes

.33**

Adjusted R2 .53*** **p<.01, *p<.05

Implications for Systems Implications for Systems EngineeringEngineering

• Seed networks with technology and technology norms that encourage collaborative editing

• Encourage networks to take on novel tasks, encourage benefits at multiple levels in organization, promote network to increase frequency of accesses

• DON’T assume that deep task expertise is needed for each network or need to assign formal rolesGive network the seeds; allow it to bloom