CUTTING-EDGE TECHNOLOGY FOR MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY FILTRATIONHASDEN FILTRATION (GROUP 6)

CONTENTS

Background..................................................................................................................................................2

Literature Review........................................................................................................................................3

Membrane Filtration...............................................................................................................................3

Activated Alumina...................................................................................................................................6

Bone Charcoal..........................................................................................................................................7

Problem Statement.....................................................................................................................................8

Detailed Proposal........................................................................................................................................9

Program Objectives.................................................................................................................................9

Technical Approach.................................................................................................................................9

Program Tasks.......................................................................................................................................10

Phase 1: Research..............................................................................................................................10

Phase 2: Manufacturing.....................................................................................................................11

Phase 3: Marketing............................................................................................................................11

Team Expertise and Research Management.............................................................................................14

Training of High Quality Personnel (HQP)..................................................................................................15

Benefits to Canada....................................................................................................................................16

References.................................................................................................................................................16

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BACKGROUND

Fluoride is a naturally occurring element found in the earth’s crust; therefore, it is also commonly found in the planet’s water supply. Much like many other natural elements of the earth, fluoride can be beneficial to the planet’s living organisms, provided that the organisms are exposed to the substance in moderation. Across the world, fluoride levels are highly variable; some parts of the earth are naturally adequately fluorinated whereas other parts are not. These fluoride-insufficient areas often practice the adjustment of fluoride levels (termed “fluoridation”) to experience the benefits brought by the element, namely those pertain to dental health as fluoride is known to reduce tooth decay and other such oral aliments. However much beneficial, consuming fluoride in excess of recommended amounts can cause varying degrees of fluorosis within humans. Fluorosis often refers to a surface condition to do with one’s teeth; via overexposure to fluorides, human teeth begin to stain strongly, show surface irregularities, as well as more noticeably show the appearance of teeth pits. In severe cases, overexposure to excessive amounts of free fluorides may lead to rapid heart failure. Although not a disease, fluorosis is a pressing concern in all societies worldwide, regardless of the country’s welfare. Figure 1 shows levels of groundwater fluoride around the world.

Figure 1 - Levels of groundwater fluoride worldwide; retrieved from http://www.appropedia.org/Water_defluoridation

Overexposure to chemical substances are often deemed a problem exclusive to developing nations but it is important to know that fluorosis in particular is a public health problem of developed countries as well. In North America, it has been found that fluoride is unnaturally high in areas along the west-southwest region of the United States and near the great lake communities of Canada. Focusing on the Canadian regions that are known to have higher-than-average concentrations of fluoride, the affected jurisdictions often implement fluoride filtration mechanisms in their municipal water treatment plants for groundwater to minimize the chance of potential overexposure to the element. Current methods for defluorination are adequate however leave much to be optimized and improved.

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LITERATURE REVIEW

In this section, we are going to evaluate several existing filtration technologies in the market, focusing on the strengths and limitations of each technology. Through the literature review, we aim to propose a product that maximizes filtration efficiency and performance.

MEMBRANE FILTRATION

Membrane filtration is a pressure driven technology with a selective thin, semi-permeable barrier that allows the solvent and some compounds or particles to pass through while restricting the passage of other particles. The pass-through is determined by size and other properties of the compounds or particles as well as the filter membranes.

There are different kinds of molecules and particles with variation in sizes that contain in municipal water supply. Most of them are contaminants and need to be filtered out. By using membranes with pores of different sizes, it is possible to separate and remove the contaminant particles from the liquid stream.

A difference in pressure forces the components that are smaller than the membrane pores through the membrane as "permeate". The remaining components are retained as "retentate". A substantial flow moving parallel to the membrane prevents the membrane surface from getting blocked during the process. This is known as cross-flow filtration.

Figure 2 - Spiral-Wound Membrane element Construction , LIXUS Separation Technology-Membrane Filtration. (n.d.). Retrieved March 27, 2015, from http://www.lixus.net.cn/en/products/Membrane.aspx

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There are a various kinds of membrane filtration technologies that currently exist in the market. Depending on the density of the membrane, filtration can be driven by Reverse Osmosis (RO), Nanofiltration (NF), Ultrafiltration (UF) or Microfiltration (MF). Based on the figure below, it shows that NF has better filtration efficiency in comparison to UF and MF due to its smaller pore sizes and fibre diameters. The characteristic of NF of smaller fibre diameters increases the total surface area of the membrane and therefore is able to provide better retention of unwanted components and particles in the liquid.

Figure 3 - Principles of the four main membrane filtration technologies , LIXUS Separation Technology-Membrane Filtration. (n.d.). Retrieved March 27, 2015, from http://www.lixus.net.cn/en/products/Membrane.aspx

One of the major disadvantages of RO systems is that they remove most of the minerals from the water leaving it with an acidic pH. This might not be desirable since there are some minerals in the water that is needed by our body for health purposes. Besides that, during the purification process, up to 20 gallons of water is removed to the drain for every gallon of filtered water produced.

Although NF and RO processes are similar, NF is operated at lower pressures and can yield the same permeate flux at lower pressure. The requirement of RO process of having higher pressure to maintain adequate filtration performance might add extra cost for the system to work effectively.

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Figure 4 - Nanofiltration by Synder Filtration, What are Nanofiltration Membranes? (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://synderfiltration.com/nanofiltration/membranes/

Figure 4 above shows NF technology that currently exists in the market by a company called Synder Filtration. It shows the capability of NF in filtering out most of the larger components in the water including bacteria, viruses and multivalent ions. But, the NF process is not particularly good in retaining monovalent ions, which includes fluoride.

Figure 5 - Components removed by different filtration technologies. Retrieved March 28, 2015, from http://synderfiltration.com/nanofiltration/membranes/

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From Figure 5, it can be seen that the filtration depends on the pore sizes of the membranes as well as the size of the particles.

NF is a separation process characterized by organic, thin-film composite membranes with a pore size range of 0.1 to 10nm. It is a relatively new process and is used to a lesser extent in the water industry. NF processes are able to provide a partial defluoridation in treating fluoride-rich waters. However, studies on NF performance on fluoride removal from water are limited.

Based on the analysis above, NF membrane shows a desirable filtration performance and mechanism as compared to other filtration technologies. However, modifications need to be done in order to effectively remove the fluorides or any other monovalent ions. One method to achieve this goal is by altering the design of the nanofiber membrane itself.

ACTIVATED ALUMINA

Activated alumina (AA) is a filter material specifically designed to remove fluoride and arsenic from water. It is a ceramic compound made of aluminum oxide with a very high surface-area-to-weight ratio, allowing high levels of fluoride adsorption. Most municipal water supplies add 2 ppm (parts per million) of fluoride. AA filters can reduce fluoride concentrations to below 0.1 ppm, or down to 99% of the normal fluoridated water level, which meets the optimal fluoride level of 0.7ppm (Health Canada, 2011).

Figure 6 - Activated alumina, retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_alumina

AA is manufactured from aluminum hydroxide by dehydroxylating it in a way that produces a highly porous material; this material can have surface areas significantly over 200m2/g.

It is widely used to remove fluoride from drinking water in certain regions. The amount of fluoride leached depends on how long the water is in contact with the alumina filter media. Basically, the more alumina in the filter, the less fluoride will be in the final, filtered water. Ideal pH for treatment is 5.5, which allows for up to a 95% removal rate (Roberto, 2008).

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It is found that the fluoride adsorption capacity of AA is considerably dependent upon the solution pH and diminished considerably with increasing solution pH from 4 to 11 (Roberto, 2008). The effect of pH is attributed to the electrostatic interactions between the surface of AA and the fluoride in solution. One setback is that AA dissolves at a pH lower than 4. The adsorption capacity also does not show any clear dependency on temperature. The adsorption of fluoride on AA is mainly due to both electrostatic attraction and chemisorption mechanisms, but not to ion exchange (Roberto, 2008).

Figure 7 - Application of activated alumina filters, retrieved from http://www.appropedia.org/Water_defluoridation

Figure 7 above shows the application of AA filtration technology in households. The filter is basically used to treat municipal water supply to reduce the fluoride content in the water before it can be channeled to the drinking water pipe.

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BONE CHARCOAL

Bone Charcoal has been known as an effective filter material for fluoride removal.

Figure 8 - Pills of bone charcoal. Retrieved from “Bone Char,” 2010. Copyright 2010 by Wikipedia

Figure 8 above shows an image of bone charcoal, which is made up of the remains of animal bones that were crushed, exposed to high temperatures, and then carbonized (Fluoride Health Concerns, 2012). The bone charcoal consists of a carbon structure that supports a porous hydroxyapatite matrix where a calcium phosphate hydroxide in crystalline form can be easily replaced by fluoride ions; as a result, fluoride reduction can be expected from this particular mechanism of ion exchange and absorption (Fluoride Removal from Drinking Water, 2004). Based on previous research and experiments, it is reported that bone charcoal can therefore be a successful approach for the reduction of fluoride.

Having bone charcoal as a filter material requires low flow rates, low pH, continual replacement and maintenance of the filtration media. This treatment can reduce fluoride by up to 90%. Past laboratory results indicate that after filtering 50 litres of water, fluoride removal dropped from 80% to 50% and after 100 litres, fluoride removal was 25% (Fluoride Health Concerns, 2012). In order to achieve an effective rate of fluoride removal, the filtration membrane must be well maintained and replaced at least every week. In the long run, this treatment suggests that this will not be a cost effective approach.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

In Canada, fluorides can be found in relatively copious amounts within our day-to-day lives either naturally or by means of artificial fluorination. Although there are evident concerns of high levels of fluoride resulting in problems to do with human health, high concentrations of fluoride in municipal water reservoirs also have negative impacts on the jurisdiction’s industrial sector as many of these industries utilize hydrofluoric acid (HF) as cleaning agents, for example. All in all, regulatory limits for fluoride in Canadian municipalities are highly varied; some regions of the country have banned fluorination altogether whereas others minimally manage to contain the concentrations of free fluorides in their municipal water plants. As an innovative filtration company, HASDEN Filtration aims to optimize

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free fluoride removal from the municipal water plants of Canadian regions particularly prone to having high levels of groundwater fluoride.

DETAILED PROPOSAL

The goal of this proposal is to produce alumina nanofiber membranes for fluoride removal. From the literature review, membrane filtration is a state-of-the-art technology for producing of safe and most importantly, higher quality of drinking water. It has the ability of providing a true barrier to harmful impurities. With small pore sizes, NF membranes exhibit good performance in filtering most unwanted particles including viruses, bacteria, and multivalent ions. It also capable of withstanding large pressure drops, which is suitable for municipal water treatment. However, it is not as effective in removing monovalent ions such as fluoride.

Fluoride is part of a metallic compound in our water; it can be eliminated with the attraction of a metallic substance with opposite magnetism (Chloramine Water Filters, 2015). Based on the alternatives mentioned earlier, we have decided that the most appropriate filter material would be alumina. It is used to attract contaminants and it is so far the best filter material that is able to achieve high removal rates of fluoride. Converting alumina into nanofiber form will yield a high surface area where this can result in higher absorption of contaminants. The high surface area of nanofibers allows effective and rapid absorption of impurities. Together with its high porosity and small pore size, nanofibers are able to provide improvements in both filtration efficiency and lifetime.

Taking everything in consideration, modifying the combination of both the NF membrane technology along with alumina as a filter material will be the best approach. In doing so, we will have the ability to generate a new and improved product for removing fluoride from water.

PROGRAM OBJECTIVES

There are three main objectives that we hope to accomplish through this program. During the research phase, we aim to determine the best approach for synthesizing alumina nanofiber membranes that can optimize fluoride removal. This includes using different materials and selecting the most appropriate ones through experiments. Once this is accomplished, the second objective is to determine the most suitable manufacturing method that produces good quality membranes at a suitable production rate. The third objective is to penetrate the water filtration industry and sell our product.

TECHNICAL APPROACH

Our prototype is named ANM-100, and it is essentially a NF membrane made from alumina nanofibers. Fibers with nanometer scale diameters have many desirable properties including a high surface area to volume ratio, high specific area, large porosity, and high permeability. These provides large surface areas where the water can interact with the fibers, ensuring good water flow through the membrane and at the same time filtering the larger unwanted particles. Metal oxides such as alumina are antimicrobial and act as a catalyst to increase oxidation rate (Zhang, 2009). When bacteria come into contact with the alumina nanofibers, the bacteria oxidizes and prevents fouling on the membrane surface. The charged surface of the alumina nanofibers creates electrostatic attraction that enhances

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the adsorption rate of heavy metal ions and viruses. This is beneficial since nanofiltration does not filter out monovalent ions such as fluoride well; the adsorption properties of alumina will ensure that most fluoride that does not get filtered is adsorbed instead.

Electrospinning is a low cost method to produce fibers with nanometer scale diameters. To produce alumina nanofibers for our membrane, aluminum acetate, which acts as a precursor for aluminum, is added to a polyurethane (PU) solution. PU is used as the polymer base due to its mechanical properties such as abrasion resistance and high temperature resistance (Mahapatra, 2013). The polymer-to-aluminum precursor’s weight ratio is maintained at 3:1. With reference to Figure 9 below, the PU/aluminum acetate solution poured into a syringe and the solution is driven to the needle tip using the syringe pump. The high voltage causes charges to build up on the tip, forming a droplet called the Taylor cone. When the energy is sufficient to overcome the surface tension, the droplet elongates and forms a liquid jet. The jet elongates and is loses its initial stability and is whipped by the electrostatic repulsion until it deposits on the grounded collector.

Figure 9 - The electrospinning process; retrieved from Cornell University, School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, “Formation of nanofibers via electrospinning

The as-spun fibers deposit randomly on the collector, forming a non-woven membrane mat. The fibers are then calcined in air for about two hours at 1000 ̊C to obtain pure alumina nanofibers.

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PROGRAM TASKS

The program tasks aim to meet the program objectives in three steps; research, manufacturing and marketing.

PHASE 1: RESEARCH

The first research phase will be to test the ANM-100 for the removal of contaminants and make modifications if necessary. Even though the main focus of the membrane filtration system is to decrease fluoride concentration, other contaminants such as viruses and bacteria should also be filtered. Since the contaminants on the larger scale will be filtered, only the smaller monovalent ions will pass through the membrane. Even though fluoride is very small, its high charge density makes it more strongly hydrated, allowing it to be more strongly retained on the membranes than other monovalent ions such as chlorides (Mahapatra, 2013). Thus, experiments should be conducted to measure the fluoride removal under different conditions such as pH and flow rates. The removal of other contaminants should also be measured to allow for clearer water.

Filtration membranes are prone to fouling as the larger particles accumulate on the surface of the membrane. However, inorganic materials such as alumina can increase the lifetime of the membrane as compared to polymeric membranes. Not only does alumina catalyse oxidation, it also improves the removal of natural organic matter (Choi, 2005). Thus experiments are needed to measure the ease of fouling. Appropriate cleaning methods such as backwashing and the use of chemicals will also be implemented to increase the lifetime of the membrane.

However, some challenges still remain. There may be a loss of reactive or microbial activity during the lifespan of the membrane. Boehmite (AlOOH) is used as a vaccine adjuvant and analgesics and can be considered safe (U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2009). Thus, this hydroxide form of aluminium will be preferential over aluminium oxide as the health effects are more understood. Due to limited research on the use of aluminium oxide nanoparticles, it is difficult to determine if adverse effects can occur. Thus, more research on the impact of aluminium oxide nanoparticles on human health and the environment needs to be done.

PHASE 2: MANUFACTURING

Once the initial research is completed to an extent, we will look into different production methods. Electrospinning is widely used for producing nanofibers and fiber diameters can be controlled by varying the different spinning parameters. However, production rates are low, typically of about 1g/hour (Huang, 2012). Other spinning methods can be used for higher yields such as needleless electrospinning or force spinning. Needleless electrospinning have much higher production rates of about 7g/hr, which is effective for industrial scale production (Huang, 2012). These methods will also have to be tested for fiber diameters and pore size to ensure that it meets the filtration specifications.

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PHASE 3: MARKETING

The marketing strategy requires several key parameters and these key parameters are concluded in one single concept named “marketing mix” which defines the 4P’s. During the 1960’s, a marketing professor from Michigan State University, E Jerome McCarthy proposed four P’s which are: Product, Price, Promotion and Place (distribution).

Product

The product itself should be the central role for market success. The ANM-100 features alumina as the main component for the membrane. Water treatment plants across Canada normally use imported filtration membranes mainly from China and Japan. One of the major suppliers for the filtration membrane is Toray membrane from Japan. The ANM-100 will be able to reduce the fluoride concentration to 0.7mg/L which is considered to be acceptable in Canada to avoid any potential health risks.

Place (Distribution)

Our main target is the water treatments at the Greater Toronto Area (GTA). There are several water treatment plants operating across Greater Toronto Area. They are the RC Harris plant, FJ Horgan plant, RL Clark plant and Island water treatment plant. Therefore, our company needs to ensure and obtain at least one regular customer for their water treatment plant. These water treatment plant filters water coming from Lake Ontario for drinking water. Across Canada, the minimum acceptable concentration of fluoride is supposed to be below 0.7mg/L and according to sample tests made across Canada; British Columbia is the only province that results with fluoride concentration around 0.4-0.5mg/L thus water treatment plants in BC do not require defluoridation process, while Ontario provides us with fluoride concentration 0f 1.5mg/L which can potentially be harmful to human body.

Price

For pricing, our company is competing with other suppliers who have lower price for their membranes especially suppliers from Asia as their overall cost of manufacturing the membranes is lower compared to Canada. Asian suppliers earn more benefits from lower minimum wage, labour cost, capital cost etc. On the other hand our company in Canada takes a higher wage for both capital and operating costs. Capital costs include all the equipment, inventories and facility site space while operating cost includes labour, utilities, transportation, and maintenance and installation. Operating our facility in Canada requires more investment either from private sector or from federal government.

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Filtration membrane Mechanism Function Price (US$)

4 inch Toray RO membrane Reverse Osmosis Water Desalination

500

RO Membranes Fabricated 1000L/h Reverse Osmosis Water Purification

3150

UF Membrane Ultrafiltration Water Treatment

1900

RO Water Treatment Reverse Osmosis Water Desalination

1000

Reverse osmosis membrane Reverse Osmosis Water Treatment

1500

Shenzhen Ecowell Purification Company Limited Nanofiltration Water Treatment

300

Nanofiltration membrane Nanofiltration Water Treatment

4000

Hollow fiber membrane module membrane Nanofiltration Water Treatment

4000

Nanofiltration Nanofiltration Water Treatment

20000

Table 1 - Price Comparison to estimate the reasonable price of our filtration membrane

Research on current existing membranes enables us to determine a reasonable cost for the ANM-100. With reference to Table 2, our target selling price will be around $3000 to be competitive.

Promotion

Our company has to opt between becoming the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) and licensing our prototype to existing companies. OEM refers to being independent by having ownership on facilities, investments, funding and distribution channels which include modes of transportation. Pursuing OEM is risky and requires strong marketing strategy to penetrate the market. The second option is by licensing our prototype to existing companies before creating our own company. This option gives advantage by having access to the distribution line in the market and access to production facility. However, licensing requires profit sharing and even sharing on the decision making process. Both options are good in nature but require strategic approaches to take the target market. There are several competitors in this business, namely Toray Membrane from Japan and several membrane manufacturers from China (Guangzhou Expert Aqua, Shenzen etc). After careful considerations, our company decided to grow into OEM and our goal is to become a leading corporation in 20 years.

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Schedule (Year) Goal

1

Proposal to National Institute for Nanotechnology, obtain funding for respective prototype from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)Patent our prototypeObtaining product standard approval by International Organization for Standardization (ISO)Obtain funding from Initial Public Offering (IPO) for capital funding to build facility that manufactures the membraneBuild up facility to manufacture the membraneHire employees and initiate the company marketing strategy (promotion)Launching our product (recognition from National Institute for Nanotechnology)

2 - 10

Having multiple regular customers (water treatment plants) especially from Greater Toronto area.Expand our market to other cities - Cooperation in technology with existing filtration membrane (China, Japan or United States)Advancing our Research and DevelopmentHaving at least one investment coming either from government or private investment from other core business.

10 - 20

Expanding our market to other provinces(Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba)Be the main leading supplier for filtration membrane across CanadaHaving multiple facilities/factories manufacturing the membrane all across CanadaHaving our own Board of Directors and multiple investorsRegister as a “corporation”

Table 2 – Business proposal timeline

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A SWOT analysis is then performed. It is a planning strategy used to evaluate certain key parameters involved in a project or business introduced by an American business and management consultant Albert S. Humphrey during his work at Stanford Research Institute (SRI).

Table 3 - SWOT analysis

TEAM EXPERTISE AND RESEARCH MANAGEMENT

Our current partners in the company will assume senior level positions and be responsible for the hiring of staff and management. Currently, while we are in the research phase of our product development, we will be recruiting senior level researchers and PhD students with vast experience in water filtration systems. Our Head of Research will be responsible for managing and directing the team of researchers for the initial development and testing of our product.

Our senior level researchers will be responsible for the application of research grants and awards through NSERC and possibly private sectors. Water bottling companies may be potential sponsors for our research, as our product could be utilized for defluoridation of mineral or spring water. We believe securing funding for our research will prove to be not too difficult since global demand for drinking water has increased. In addition, water quality is rapidly deteriorating in parts of the world where

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Product is efficient in removing fluorideLow cost production method will increase revenueStrength

Price of the product is higher compared to product coming from AsiaCapital cost to build up the facilityHuman resources (employees etc)

Weakness

Technical experts from various fields including technology, business and financeExisting target market (water treatment plants in Greater Toronto Area)Licensing our product to existing supplierFunding from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), Initial Public Offering (IPO)

Opportunities

Competitors from Asian suppliers especially China and JapanThreats

population, industrialization and urbanization are increasing. Shortage of drinking water is believed by many to be the number one problem facing the world in the coming years.

The Head of Research will be responsible for the management of funds awarded by external agencies. Marketing and research department will work closely to determine where the need for funding lies. Marketing department will play a key role in assessing the needs of the customers so that research is conducted accordingly. It will be each individual researcher’s responsibility to conduct research activities in accordance to the highest standards of professionalism, safety and ethics.

The roles and responsibilities of the senior partners will be as follows:

Chief Executive Officer – Nadeeshika Wickrama Arachchi

Lead the development and execution of the Company’s long-term strategy Communicate with shareholders, government authorities, and the public on behalf of the

company Allocate the yearly budget in accordance with the company’s strategy

Head of Research – Steffi Tan

Manage a team of researchers and develop networks with outside researchers in the public and private sectors

Develop, implement and promote the research strategy for the company

Chief Financial Officer – Estelle Marjorie Nathan

Manage the finances of the company and authorize large expenditures Seek funding from investors and liaise with banks, lenders, and shareholders on financial

matters

Marketing Manager – Arshad Hassni

Conduct market research to understand the needs of the customer Develop and implement the company’s marketing plan Identify unexploited or new markets for the company’s products and services

Production Manager – Dishoo Randhawa

Oversee the production processes and draw up a production schedule Work with managers to implement the company’s policies and goals Supervise the work of all junior staff

Quality Control, Safety, Environmental Manager – Muhammad Harith Mohd Fauzi

Devise and establish the company's quality procedures, standards and specifications Ensure the company is compliant with environmental, safety and quality guidelines set out by

provincial and federal authorities

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Implement strategies to reduce waste and increase efficiency

TRAINING OF HIGH QUALITY PERSONNEL (HQP)

Our senior researchers will be responsible for hiring masters and undergraduate co-op students for our research and development department. The company will allocate enough budget and resources to hire 4 new co-op students each year for a 1-year work term. Students will be selected based on their past experience and academic performance.

The co-op students will be split into teams of 2 and each team will be assigned to a research supervisor. The students will rotate groups at the end of 6 months to ensure they are fully engaged in all levels of research at the company. One of the teams will be responsible for research into improvement of the company’s current technology. The other team will be focused in research and development of new and innovative products, to maintain the company’s competitive edge.

Students’ personal growth and development will be emphasized during their time at the company by encouraging them to think critically and share their ideas with the team. Our goal is to spark the students’ interest in research activities pertaining to water filtration and potentially re-hire high quality students after completion of their studies. We believe that the best way to attract and train high quality personnel is by providing an intellectually challenging environment, and an opportunity to personally impact the company’s future by valuing their work and enforcing a strong corporate culture.

BENEFITS TO CANADA

Water treatment plants that operate across GTA filter water source from Lake Ontario. The source from Lake Ontario is tested to have 1.5mg/L fluoride, thus de-fluoridation is required. Fluoride concentration levels higher than (150mg/L) is considered toxic and may be fatal if consumed. Concentrations below 150mg/L may lead to cardiac arrest, coma, diarrhea, fatigue, abdominal pain and nausea. Research studies state that 5mg/L is considered to be danger and could lead to mutagenicity. Excessive content of fluoride in the body also leads to musculoskeletal (bone fracture due to fluoride forming crystals) and dental caries.

Dental caries formed from the localized dissolution of tooth enamel by acids produced by bacteria deposited on the surface of the tooth. Clinical studies have shown that fluoride from drinking water leads to inhabitation of demineralization and the enhancement of remineralization of early caries. Therefore scientific studies provide that 0.7mg/L exposure of fluoride in drinking water gives a good optimum trade-off between the risk of dental fluorosis and the protective effect against dental caries.

Canada is one of the leading countries to put health care as their top priority. It’s Ministry of Environment and Health regulates laws and policies on health and safety of its citizens. This utterly includes requiring de-fluoridation up till 0.7mg/L fluoride in water.

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REFERENCES

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Appropedia.org,. (2015). Water defluoridation - Appropedia: The sustainability wiki. Retrieved 6 April 2015, from http://www.appropedia.org/Water_defluoridation

Bulusu, K. R., & Pathak, B. N. (1980). Discussion of" Water Defluoridation with Activated Alumina". Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, 106(2).

Chloramine Water Filters. (2015). In Friends of Water. Retrieved from http://www.friendsofwater.com/Chloramine_Water_Filters.html

Fluoride Removal from Drinking Water. (2004). In Buy Activated Charcoal. Retrieved from http://www.buyactivatedcharcoal.com/fluoride_removal

In-Hwan Choi, In-Chul Kim, Byoung-Ryol Min, Kew-Ho Lee (2005) “Preparation and characterization of ultrathin alumina hollow fiber microfiltration membrane” Desalination 193 (2006) 256–259

Jagtap, S., Yenkie, M. K., Labhsetwar, N., & Rayalu, S. (2012). Fluoride in drinking water and defluoridation of water. Chemical reviews, 112(4), 2454-2466.

Pontié, M., Diawara, C., Lhassani, A., Dach, H., Rumeau, M., Buisson, H., & Schrotter, J. C. (2006). Water Defluoridation Processes: A Review. Application: Nanofiltration (NF) for Future Large-Scale Pilot Plants. Advances in Fluorine Science, 2, 49-80.

Leyva-Ramos, R., & Mendoza-Barron, J. (2008). Fluoride Removal From Water Solution by Adsorption on Activated Alumina Prepared From Pseudo-Boehmite.

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Maheshwari, R. C. (2006). Fluoride in drinking water and its removal. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 137(1), 456-463.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2009) “Common Ingredients in U.S. Licensed Vaccines”, http://www.fda.gov/BiologicsBloodVaccines/SafetyAvailability/VaccineSafety/ucm187810.htm

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Vitasalus FluorideMaster Premium Whole House Fluoride Water Filtration System. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2015,from http://www.equinox-products.com/Vitasalus-FluorideMaster-Premium-Whole-House-Home-Fluoride-Water-Filter-Filtration-System.htm

Water defluoridation. (n.d.). Retrieved March 29, 2015, from http://www.appropedia.org/Water_defluoridation

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Zhang X.W.; T. Zhang; J.W. Ng and D. D. Sun (2009) "High-Performance Multifunctional TiO2 Nanowire Ultrafiltration Membrane With Hierarchical Layer Structure for Water Treatment" Advanced Functional Materials, 19, 3731-3736.

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