Animal nutrition Animal diet needs Overview of food processing Evolutionary adaptations of...
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![Page 1: Animal nutrition Animal diet needs Overview of food processing Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systemsEvolutionary adaptations of vertebrate.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062516/56649dbe5503460f94ab13f2/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Animal nutrition
• Animal diet needs
• Overview of food processing
• Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems
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Animal diet needs
• It must provide fuel for cellular work
• It must supply the organic raw materials needed to construct organic molecules
• Essential nutrients that the animal cannot make from raw materials must be provided in its food
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Fuel for cellular work
• Most of the energy budget from food goes into ATP production
• Nearly all of an animal’s ATP generation is based on the oxidation of energy-rich molecules: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
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Raw materials for biosynthesis
• When an animal takes in more calories than it needs to produce ATP, excess can be used for biosynthesis
• Animals can fabricate a great variety of organic molecules from a source of organic carbon and organic nitrogen
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Nutrients in preassembled form
• Animals require 20 amino acids– And can synthesize about half of them
• The remaining amino acids, the essential amino acids– Must be obtained from food in preassembled
form
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• Protein in animal products are complete in amino acid make up
• Most plant proteins are incomplete
Corn (maize)and other grains
Beansand other legumes
Essential amino acids for adults
Methionine
Valine
Threonine
Phenylalanine
Leucine
Isoleucine
Lysine
Tryptophan
Figure 41.10
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• Animals can synthesize most of the fatty acids they need
• The essential fatty acids are certain unsaturated fatty acids
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• Vitamins are organic molecules– Required in the diet in small amounts
• Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients– Usually required in small amounts
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Overview of food processing
• The four steps of food processing– Ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination
• Digestive systems in animals
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Food processing
• The four stages of food processing
Figure 41.12
Piecesof food
Smallmolecules
Mechanicaldigestion
Food
Chemical digestion(enzymatic hydrolysis)
Nutrient moleculesenter body cells
Undigested material
INGESTION1 DIGESTION2 ELIMINATION4ABSORPTION3
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• Sponges digest their food entirely by the intracellular mechanism
Azure vase sponge (Callyspongia plicifera)
Osculum
Spicules
Waterflow
Flagellum
CollarFood particlesin mucus
Choanocyte
Phagocytosis offood particles Amoebocyte
Choanocytes. The spongocoel is lined with feeding cells called choanocytes. By beating flagella, the choanocytes create a current that draws water in through the porocytes.
Spongocoel. Water passing through porocytes
enters a cavity called the spongocoel.
Porocytes. Water enters the epidermis through
channels formed by porocytes, doughnut-shapd
cells that span the body wall.
Epidermis. The outer layer consists of tightly
packed epidermal cells.
Mesohyl. The wall of this simple sponge consists of
two layers of cells separatedby a gelatinous matrix, themesohyl (“middle matter”).
The movement of the choanocyte flagella also draws water through its collar of fingerlike projections. Food particles are trapped in the mucus coating the projections, engulfed by phagocytosis, and either digested or transferred to amoebocytes.
Amoebocyte. Amoebocytes transport nutrients to other cells ofthe sponge body and also produce materials for skeletal fibers (spicules).
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6
7
4
3
2
1
Figure 33.4
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• Animals with simple body plans– Have a gastrovascular cavity that functions in
both digestion and distribution of nutrients
Figure 41.13
Gastrovascularcavity
Food
Epidermis
Mesenchyme
Gastrodermis
Mouth
Tentacles
Mesenchyme
Food vacuoles
Gland cells
Flagella
Nutritivemuscularcells
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• Animals with a more complex body plan– Have a digestive tube with two openings, a
mouth and an anus
• This digestive tube– Is called a complete digestive tract or an
alimentary canal
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Alimentary canals
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The human digestive system
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From mouth to stomach: the swallowing reflex and esophageal peristalsis (Layer 3)
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Secretion of gastric juice
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• Gastric ulcers, lesions in the lining– Are caused mainly by the bacterium
Helicobacter pylori
Figure 41.18
1 µ
m
Bacteria
Mucuslayer of stomach
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The duodenum
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• The enormous microvillar surface– Is an adaptation that greatly increases the
rate of nutrient absorption
Epithelialcells
Key
Nutrientabsorption
Vein carrying blood to hepatic portal vessel
Villi
Largecircularfolds
Intestinal wallVilli
Epithelial cells
Lymph vessel
Bloodcapillaries
Lacteal
Microvilli(brush border)
Muscle layers
Figure 41.23
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• Amino acids and sugars– Pass through the epithelium of the small
intestine and enter the bloodstream
• After glycerol and fatty acids are absorbed by epithelial cells– They are recombined into fats within these cells
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• These fats are then mixed with cholesterol and coated with proteins– Forming small molecules called chylomicrons,
which are transported into lacteals
Figure 41.24
Large fat globules are emulsified by bile salts in the duodenum.
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Digestion of fat by the pancreatic enzyme lipase yields free fatty acids and monoglycerides, which then form micelles.
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Fatty acids and mono-glycerides leave micelles and enter epithelial cells by diffusion.
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Fat globule
Lacteal
Epithelialcells ofsmallintestine
Micelles madeup of fatty acids,monoglycerides,and bile salts
Fat dropletscoated withbile salts
Bile salts
Chylomicrons containing fattysubstances are transported out of the epithelial cells and into lacteals, where they are carried away from the intestine by lymph.
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Enzymatic digestion in the human digestive system
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• The large intestine, or colon– Is connected to the small intestine
Figure 41.25
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• A major function of the colon– Is to recover water that has entered the
alimentary canal
• The wastes of the digestive tract, the feces– Become more solid as they move through the
colon– Pass through the rectum and exit via the anus
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• The colon houses various strains of the bacterium Escherichia coli– Some of which produce various vitamins
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Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems
• Ingestion adaptations
• Digestion adaptations
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Dentition and diet
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The digestive tracts of a carnivore (coyote) and a herbivore (koala) compared
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Symbiotic Adaptations
• Many herbivorous animals have fermentation chambers– Where symbiotic microorganisms digest
cellulose
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• The most elaborate adaptations for an herbivorous diet– Have evolved in the animals called ruminants
Figure 41.28
Reticulum. Some boluses also enter the reticulum. In both the rumen and the reticulum, symbiotic prokaryotes and protists (mainly ciliates) go to work on the cellulose-rich meal. As by-products of theirmetabolism, the microorganisms secrete fatty acids. The cow periodically regurgitates and rechews the cud (red arrows), which further breaks down thefibers, making them more accessible to further microbial action.
Rumen. When the cow first chews andswallows a mouthful of grass, boluses(green arrows) enter the rumen.
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Intestine
2
Omasum. The cow then reswallowsthe cud (blue arrows), which moves tothe omasum, where water is removed.
3 Abomasum. The cud, containing great numbers of microorganisms, finally passes to the abomasum for digestion by the cow‘s own enzymes (black arrows).
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Esophagus