Ancient Rome

Why Study Rome?• “The founders hoped that, in America, we would see

these virtues of ancient Rome, and they knew that under such a constitution the United States would grow into an empire. They already spoke of a rising empire of America. They hoped that Rome of the republic would be our enduring model, but they feared, and rightly so, that one day, perhaps today, our model would be Rome of the Caesars, Rome of the first and second centuries A.D. For Rome of the Caesars and the United States today are the only two absolute superpowers that have existed in history.”

• J. Rufus Fears • University of Oklahoma

Ph.D., Harvard University

Road networks

Public monuments

Circus Maximus

Coliseum

Senate - Parliament

Emperor

Architecture

Assassination

Law

Empire

Slaves

Army

Gladiators

Language• ambulatory

amicableanimateannualaquaticauditoriumaviationcaloriecarnivorecasualcircumferencecolossalconsulcontemporarycorporationdeitydominationegotistequinoxfatuous fortifyfunction

inhabitlegionlinguisticslunaticmanualmedievalneutralnormaloratoricalpaternityplebeianridiculousscientificsenatesinuousterritoryvacantverbatim

Historical Development• Colonization – Greeks/Phoenicians/Etruscans/Latins • Etruscan domination• 509 BCE Defeat of the Etruscans – Tarquin the Proud,

establishment of the Republic• 450 BCE 12 Tables Law established• 295 BCE Rome conquers the Etrurians, Po Valley• 265 – 146 BCE Challenge to power – the Punic Wars I,II,III• 82 BCE - Consolidation of power – Social War, Sulla wins, Empire

begins• 59 BCE - Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, elected consul• 44 BCE Caesar assassinated• 30 - 180 CE – expansion of Empire – Pax Romana• 180 CE – Death of Marcus Aurelius• 305 CE – Death of Diocletian and the beginning of the Decline• 306 CE – Constantine establishes new capital at Byzantium –

empire splits• 337 CE – Conversion of Constantine• 390 CE – first sack of Rome - Celts• 410 CE – second sack of Rome – Goths• 480 CE – last western Roman emperor dies

• 1607 – establishment of first colonial town at Jamestown Virginia

• 1759 – End of French-Indian Wars – Britain wins colonial competition

• 1776 – Declaration of Independance

• 1865 – Challenge to domination – Civil War

• 1896 – Spanish American War – Monroe Doctrine

• 1929 – 1st Great Depression

• 1963 – Assassination of JFK

• 2009 – 2nd Great Depression ???

Roman Empire

• Centered at the capital of Rome• Language – Latin – still the official language of

many institutions and of science• Crash Course World History

Destiny

• Imperially ruled by a military dictator. Governed autocratically and shared power with popularly elected representatives as senators.

• Came to dominate Mediterranean extending north and west into Europe as far as France and Germany and east to India

• Roman society and law became the template for all civilization to come including most legal structures of modern society in N. America and Europe

Geography

• Rome centered on the Italian Peninsula in the center of the Mediterranean Sea or “Mare Nostrum”. Highly productive and fertile soil – huge cattle and pasture land available.

• Ostia – Rome’s port city• Tiber – river valley Rome is centered in• Via Salaria – the key road from Ostia to Rome,

a major salt route

Rome is founded

• 753 BCE – city of Rome is founded in the region of seven hills where the Tiber is easily bridged:

• Capitoline• Aventine• Palatine• Caelian• Oppian• Quirinal• Viminal

Neighbours• the Celts that dominate the Po River Valley at

the foot of the Alps, originally covered most of Europe, they are now limited to Briton and western France – dense population in N. Italy

• the Magna Graeca – Greek colonies covered most of S. Italy and spoke Greek, there were many such colonies by 800 BCE

• Etruscans – mysterious peoples North of Rome. They held great power over Rome in its early days.

Origins

• Originally, Rome was a small hill village surrounded by many different groups; This taught them a kind of people management a that served them well later on.

• At the outset – Rome was a monarchy• There were 7 kings according to early Roman

history, the last king was Tarquin the Proud, he was overthrown in 507 and the republic was established in 509.

Republic

• Republic – “res publica” – “public institution”• Commonwealth - rule by the citizenry • The Republic begins a long period of slow

expansion to engulf the plain of Latium.• Eventually, the Republic began to run up

against the Celts in the Po River Valley.

Conflicts

• 390 BCE – the Celts move in and sack Rome, they take all the hills of the city with the exception of the Capitoline.

• 280 BCE – Rome begins to run up against the Greek colonies. The Greeks appealed to mainland Greece for aid against the Romans. Phyrrus agrees to help and sends a fleet. Though they are victorious it is a very expensive win and the Romans have established themselves as a power in the western Mediterranean.

Early Roman Expansion• 753-280 BCE is the 1st stage in Roman expansion –

long and slow.• In this period, Rome takes on it’s defining character:

patriotism, persistence, discipline, republicanism.• Huge innovation• Romans expanded through their innovative

treatment of conquered people:1) incorporation – a degree of citizenship would be offered to conquered people2) alliance – even with defeated people. They are allowed to maintain a degree of autonomy.

Romans

• Understanding Rome means understanding a name first.

Quintus Fabius Maximus Cuncator

• The first name is the given name or “praenomen” – there were only 30 different names in Rome and only about 10 were used.

• The second name is the “nomen” or the clan – known as the “Gens” of the family, initially, 7 Gens rose to power in Rome and formed the nucleus of the patrician class.

• The third name is the “cognomen” – it identifies the family branch of the clan this was the most important part of the name as it would identify the person as a patrician or a plebeian.

• The final name was the “agnomen” – it was like a nickname and would be added later in life to commemorate an important event or victory.

Religion

• Each family and clan would have its own religious identity with a set of deities and ancestral worship – these were known as Lares et Penates

• Rome was intensely patriarchal and each clan would have a father who ruled absolutely over the rest of the family.

Patrician vs. Plebian

• Early republican Rome was rigidly divided into 2 groups:

• Plebians – 93% of the population• Patricians – 7 % of the population• This was a very caste like system with

intermarriage rare if not impossible

Land Ownership

• This class division was enshrined in the ownership of land. Since the Senate would have to approve major works like swamp drainage, the Senate would usually use this power to individually own the land drained. This land would then be given to other less wealthy farmers to rent. This formed a relationship between common families and their patrician benefactors.

Patron/Client

• This relationship became known as patron-cliente. It was the essential element that held early Roman society together.

• Clientage – the bond occurring between plebeian families pledging allegiance to patrician families in exchange for protection. A naturally occurring unwritten rule of voluntary subjugation.

Patricians

• Only patricians could hold religious or higher office. Education was denied to plebeians and the patricians dominated the legal system.

• They were formed from the legendary 100 families that first helped Romulus found Rome.

Senate Formed

• When supreme authority was taken from the kings it was given to 2 bodies:– 2 consuls– Senate

• Members were elected for only one year and they were not eligible to return to office until 10 years had passed.

Democracy

• The richest patricians always voted first and voted publicly – this created a bandwagon effect and the initial leader usually won.

• The senate worked with the consuls and an assembly – the senate had the most power and ran more if everyday life. They decided what would be voted on by the assembly

SPQR• S.P.Q.R. – Senatus Populus Que

Romanus – the conquering standard of the Roman army, it asserts that these lands have been won on behalf of the senate of Rome.

• This shows how the patrician senator class dominates everything in Rome and that resentment would soon grow from other non-citizens.

Plebian Political Bodies

• To counter the influence of the patricians in the senate, the plebeians formed their own political structure.

• The plebeians formed a plebeian only political body called the concillium. This body would elect an advocate called a tribune who would act on their behalf and represent their concerns.

• The term for a tribune was 1 year.

Plebeians Grow in Power• Through the tribune/concillium system, the

plebeians gained some significant concessions from the senate.

• 451 BCE the 12 Tables are enacted – posted in the central square of Roman towns, these public laws formed the charter of rights for plebeians.

• 366 BCE – a plebeian becomes consul• 300 BCE – plebeians gain access to religious castes.• 287 BCE – the patricians give the concillium official

status, renaming it the concillium tribunus

The Concillium

• Anything passed in the concilluim would now become law. These votes were called plebiscites.

• Most of these concessions to the plebeians were merely cosmetic, they were meant to pacify the people.

• It was not until 187 BCE that both consuls were plebeians.

• 218 to 152 BCE – only 4 plebiscites passed.

1 a

• Rome was strategically located in the middle of the Italian Peninsula, saving centurions from having to march long distances. Located on the west coast, Rome focused on trade with the Mediterranean. Rome was located at the mouth of the Tiber River, which gave it the ability to control Italian trade on the river and throughout the Mediterranean.

1 b

• Empire expansion was aided by having access to rapid transit and communication, and being located strategically at the mouth of a river that provided for all Italy. The wealth of the Italian peninsula enabled Rome to become wealthy and prosperous city-state, capable of using some of its wealth to build a great army.

2

• The mountainous nature of the Italian peninsula hindered travel by land. Consequently, soldiers had greater difficulty marching for long distances. The lack of river systems would further reduce travel inland. The dry nature of the climate of certain areas would make supplying water to marching soldiers more difficult as well.

3

• The Italian peninsula was three times as large as that of Greece, Italia also lacked a good coastline for harbours and trade, unlike Greece. Rome was strategically located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, enabling it to control trade and traffic.

3 cont.

• Unlike Greece, the rugged mountainous terrain did not stop the Romans from uniting the entire peninsula. Rome had a more productive farming system than Greece but like the Greeks, the Romans eventually had to rely on colonization to solve the problem of food supply.

1

• The city of Rome probably developed because of its proximity to the Tiber River. This made transportation a relatively easy and cheap undertaking. The mountains provided a natural defense system for any settlers. The location on the Tiber River allowed for the control of trade in the surrounding inland regions.

2

• Aside from the hardened population of Romans, Latins also descended from early Indo-European settlers and established themselves on the Italian peninsula. They were joined by the Etruscans, who may have come from Asia Minor. As well, the Greeks had established a number of colonies to settle their excess population.

2 cont

• Etruscans had a great deal of influence over early Rome. They left behind construction projects like aqueducts, harbours, roads, bridges, and drainage systems. They also left an alphabet, metallurgy, and conscription.

3

• The Phoenicians were known for their trading and seafaring. It is possible that the Romans may have envied their wealth, and wanted to take over their extensive trading network. Control of the Mediterranean trading system was determined through the strait separating Sicily from Carthage in North Africa. Controlling this meant great wealth.

Homework

• Read pp 156 to 162 – do 1-3 p 158 AND 1-3 p 162

Republican Expansion – Italy

• Though the plebeians had won important concessions from the patricians (12 Tables, Tribunes, religious office, consuls, etc.) the Conflict of Orders still threatened the republic.

• The Senate discovered that the one thing that would unite plebs and patricians was external conflict.

• Rome began to extend it’s influence North and South

Italy Comes Under Control

• Latium comes under Roman control with the destruction of the city of Veii in 396 BCE

• An invasion of the Gauls in 390 BCE had resulted in the sacking of most of the city but also the destruction of the Etruscan cities to the north. The way was now clear for Roman expansion

• 338 BCE – Latins are crushed• 295 BCE – Po Valley conquered from the Celts

Rome vs. Greeks

• Rome then turns south to the Greek colonies of the Magna Graeca

• A series of battles vs. Greek King Pyrrhus that are lost but the Greeks lose 2/3rds of their troops – Greeks withdraw to Sicily

• 265 BCE – Rome controls all southern peninsula

Consolidation

• The Peninsula Victories consolidated the Romans in several ways:

• New land was opened up for ownership by the plebeians – more soldier farmers for the army.

• Conquered people were granted citizenship – improved living standard.

• 295 – 91 BCE – few conflicts on the peninsula

Punic Wars

• The Roman expansion brought them into conflict with the Carthaginian Empire of the Western Mediterranean.

• They had been allies earlier against the Greeks . Now with no Greeks, they became enemies.

• 265 BCE – Roman pirates attack and seize Messina – ask the Senate for aid against the Greeks

• The Greeks in turn, ask the Carthaginians for help against the Romans – the First Punic War begins.

1st Punic War

• 265 – 241 BCE• Naval power – Carthage vs. land power – Rome• Rome begins by invading and concluding a treaty

with Syracuse – 263 BCE. This makes the war a sea conflict.

• Romans have no navy, but rapidly construct their own from a wrecked Carthaginian trireme

Roman Navy• Romans made 20 fast ships

-200 rowers each – made for ramming

• 100 other large ships equipped with a gangplank called a corvus – troops could cross and turn a sea fight into an infantry engagement.

• These inventions win some initial victories but not a war.

Hamilcar Barca• Rome did not win through conquest but

eventually the Carthaginian General, Hamilcar Barca, had to surrender in 241 BCE

• Carthage could not keep up with Roman naval production.

• Carthage had to pay a huge indemnity• Sicily must be abandoned to Rome• Annual tribute of 1/10th of their crops• Rome gains Sardinia as well• Hamilcar and his son swear vengeance

on Rome

Carthage Rebuilds

• Carthage immediately begins to found a new empire in Spain.

• Rome and Carthage actually traded with each other successfully at this time.

• Both sides knew conflict would be inevitable.

Second Punic War

• The 2nd Punic War broke out in 218 BCE

• Carthage was led by Hamilcar’s son Hannibal and his son-in-law Hasdrubal.

• Hannibal leads 38000 troops and 37 war elephants over land to invade Italy from the north.

• The trip is brutal and Hannibal loses almost half his numbers.

Hannibal victorious

• Hannibal proves to be a better general than the Romans had anticipated .

• 23,000 troops and 18 elephants survive the journey to defeat the Romans at Trebia to seize the Po Valley. – Romans lost 20,000 men

• Lake Trasimene – 217 BCE – Roman General is replaced by Quintus Fabius Maximus “Cunctator”

• Cannae – 216 BCE – Varro is defeated, Maximus’ counterpart.

“I love it when a plan comes together”

3 Things Save the Republic

1. Colonies remained loyal to Rome – Hannibal had no local support

2. Strong social bond between patricians and plebeians – patron/client bond took over

3. Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus – Roman general launches a counterattack into Spain and captures Cathago Nova in 210 BCE – intercepts Hannibal’s reinforcements and destroys them.

Hannibal is Defeated at Zama in 202 BCE

• Carthage must surrender all colonial holdings• Forced to pay huge indemnities• Navy had to be suppressed

Yet Carthage is Allowed to Survive…

Benefits•Caused unification of Roman society•Kept the plebeians under control•Tribute would make some wealthy

Drawbacks•Potential future threat

Delenda est Carthago

• Eventually, pressure builds to crush Carthage once and for all. Roman censor Marcus Porcius Cato (Cato the Elder) would end every speech in the senate with “Carthage must be destroyed”

Trumped up reasons were given for Rome’s re-invasion of Carthage

• The 50 year peace treaty had expired• The indemnity had been paid off• Carthage was forced to obtain Roman

approval for all border disputes – Numidia had been raiding into Carthage and it retaliated without Roman Senate approval.

Third Punic War

• 149 BCE – 146 BCE – the war was a one-sided slaughter. Roman General Scipio Aemilianus (grandson of Scipio Africanus)

• Carthage is utterly destroyed• Harbour is dismantled• People sold into slavery• Salt sown into the surrounding fields –

sterilizes the soil

The Victory Over Carthage is Followed by Several Other Key Victories:

• Corinth is destroyed• Philip V of Macedon is defeated• Seleucid Kingdom is Greece is overthrown• In each case the leadership is replaced by

oligarchs favoured by Rome – hated by locals• Rome now controls all of the Mediterranean.

The Punic Wars Have a Huge Impact on Roman Society:

• Republic begins to decline – power becomes centralized in the imperium

• Rome is now a naval power• New treatment of defeated peoples – no autonomy,

huge indemnities, no citizenship• Landholders displaced in the Italian Peninsula by

wealthy landowning class.• Huge population increase in Rome – Multiethnic,

multilingual, more stratified• A huge rise in the importance and power of the army

Imperium – Crisis Government• Imperium – supreme power to command

(execute laws, decree punishment)• This power was shared by the 2 consuls but in

times of crisis, consuls could name a temporary dictator – 6 month term

Other Offices Were Created

• Praetors – exercised imperium in the city in the absence of the consuls

• Quaestors – controlled finances of the city and the army

• Censors – assigned individuals to their place in society and determined their taxes, filled vacancies in the Senate, granted public works contracts

• Patricians would rise through progressively higher offices to the position of consul – cursus honorum

Homework

• Read pages 166 to 168 and do 1 and 2 on page 168.

• Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus believed that the widening difference between the rich and the poor was unstable and threatened the security of Roman society. Land was the key to wealth and the rich patrician class had used slave labour and cheap imports from conquered regions to drive the small landowners from their property.

• These landless plebeians were flocking to Rome and were a source of discontent. In Gaius’ case, he was concerned about the treatment of conquered peoples and the withholding of citizenship from them. Both their reform initiatives failed because of obstruction in the Senate.

• A) the wealthy were determined not to relinquish their power in the republic. The power struggle between Optimates, led by Sulla, and Populares, led by Marius, led to a civil war and a series of dictatorships. The emergency rule also led to a series of dictatorships which weakened the republic.

• B) Ruthless power struggle between the army and the Senate. The dictatorship of Julius Caesar. His subsequent assassination. The flight of Caesar’s assassins ended the claim to legitimacy of the Senate. All these factors led to an erosion of stability.

The Roman Army

• To grasp the transition from Republic to Empire initiated by the Punic Wars, it is essential to understand the Roman Army.

Republican Army• The early republican Army of Rome was a citizen

soldier army. To be a citizen meant to serve in the military. Wealth therefore bought the tools of war and along with that came rank.

• Wealthy soldiers would supply their own horses and armour and would command from the rear.

• Ordinary small farmers would be used as infantry – front line forces.

Marius’ Reforms of the Army

• The army would no longer be open only to those who were wealthy and owned land – any citizen could join.

• Soldiers are no longer divided by equipment and experience – uniformity

• Cohort structure established• Retirement and pensioning of older soldiers• Generals could now conscript their own new

solders from conquered lands

Roman units

• Contubernium – 8 men – tent group• Century – 10 contuberniums – 80 to 100 men

– commanded by 2 centurions• Cohort – 6 centuries• Legion – 10 cohorts• Cavalry would be used to protect the flanks

but the center of the formation was the infantry.

Tactics• The primary weapon in the Roman army was engineering. • Roads, bridges, improvised fortifications, supply networks,

treatment of casualties – most important – siege works• Specialists called immunes were exempt from combat to

perform these services• Superior logistics meant that Rome could mass more men

and supplies in better condition than their opponents. • The legion could move over 20 miles per day over rough

ground and construct identical camps nightly.

Tactics• Selection and preparation of battleground was

essential – high ground improved range, mobility. Sun should always be behind you

• After Marius, cohorts would be assembled in two to three lines of various formations, the saw, wedge, tortoise, orb, skirmish, etc.

• Cavalry protected the flanks until the enemy broke and ran, then they would run them down

• When front troops tired, they could retire and rest while troops in the rear relieved them.

Tactics

• Surrender or negotiation was always preferable to open battle. A desperate enemy would fight to the death.

• Siege was all important; Romans developed numerous types of battle machines for siege warfare but they were too cumbersome to use in pitched battle.

Onager

Ballista

Tower

Scorpio

The Ideal Soldier• The ideal of the farmer-soldier was glorified, but as

war became a constant in Roman life, men began to not return to the plough after the battles ended.

• War became a better source of income through booty and plunder.

• After the destruction of the farms surrounding Rome during the Punic Wars, rich citizens take them over and form massive estates worked by slaves - latifundia

Imperial Army

• Soldiers become professionals and through war a new social ladder becomes available.

• After the battle of Cannae, Rome suspends the Constitution and allows consuls to rule for a second or third term. The office is quickly dominated by military commanders.

• Soldiers now swear allegiance to the emperor or general rather than the senate and the republic

Imperial Army• Foot soldiers become less and less important as

cavalry and specialized troops are needed against exotic foreign fighters.

• 212 CE - Citizenship is extended to all peoples in conquered provinces, no longer a benefit to be in the army.

• Legions created from foreign fighters • The backbone of the army, the farmer-soldier, rapidly

disappears - after long campaigns their farms back home were sold from under them.

Power of Military• Alliance and incorporation of newly conquered

lands gives way to direct control from Rome. • New territories are treated as provinces and

the military commanders can sell the rights to tax the region to rich syndicates of citizens who are then allowed to tax at their own discretion with the enforcement of the army. – tax farming

Praetorian Guard• By the time of Augustus, there were 28 legions. This grew

to 35 as the empire expanded.• The most prestigious of these were the 9 Praetorian

Guard cohorts. • Paid three times more than regular troops, these hand-

picked soldiers were the personal guard of the emperor and acted like the secret police of the imperial domus – expanded to 12 cohorts by Caligula

• These soldiers became a source of imperial power themselves, at times naming the successor for a hefty fee.

Standards

• The standard was the visual representation of each legion and was used to gather and communicate position during the chaos of battle.

• Pole topped with the name and number of the legion as well as various symbols representing significant victories and engagements the legion had been in.

• The position of standard bearer – aquilifer- was of high esteem and the soldier was marked by wearing a lion skin over his armour. To lose the standard in battle was considered one of the highest shames.

• Recovering the silver eagle - aquila - from the legion standard was often the focus of entire campaigns.

Standards• Standards - revered as sacred

objects. They had their own tents in the center of camps and were used in religious ceremonies.

• The importance of standards shows the loyalty each legion had to its leader. This loyalty to rank became essential in the formation of empire that would form after Augustus.

For tomorrow

• Read pp170 to 171 “The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire “

• Do questions 1 and 2 on p 171

• Read “Perspectives on the Past – p 172 to 173• You must write 3 things that are similar to the

United States today and 3 things that different!

1. Where did the first breaches in the defense in the Roman Empire occur? How did the Romans

handle them?• The first breaches came from the Parthians in

the east. Rome responded by conquering Armenia and Mesopotamia. Hadrian created buffer states that would be ruled by kings friendly to Rome.

2. Evaluate the effectiveness of the administrative changes that Diocletian introduced during his rule.

• Diocletian’s decision to divide the empire into two along the Danube River was an attempt to ease control over the vast area. Diocletian would rule the east while Maximian would rule the west.

• Succession broke down after the co-emperors abdicated in 305 CE and 18 years of civil war followed.

• Not effective!

Decline of the Roman Empire Rome

• Politics – many bloody disputes over succession. Civil war common, military control, corruption.

• Economics – running the vast empire was too expensive. Overtaxed the middle classes and devalues currency.

• Defense – as power decreases, concern over invasion increases; Huns, Visigoths, Alemanni, Vandals.

U.S.• ?????

• ?????

• ?????

Roman Religion

• Roman religion was modelled on Greek and Latin predecessors

• Specific gods would govern every aspect of daily life – polytheistic and anthropomorphic

Roman Gods• Jupiter – master of the gods, main god of the Romans, held

thunder in his hands• Juno – wife of Jupiter, goddess of women and fertility• Mars – God of war• Venus – Goddess of beauty and love• Minerva – goddess of wisdom, learning, and crafts – symbol was

the owl• Neptune – god of the sea• Vulcan – blacksmith of the gods, commanded volcanoes• Bacchus – god of wine and partying• Vesta – goddess of the home – most important temple in Rome

Household Spirits

• Each house had its own protecting spirits:• Lares – ancestors of the family• Penates – kind spirits who guarded the pantry

Roman Gods

• Romans believed that their gods were all powerful but not infallible – they would exhibit anger, jealousy, and pettiness.

• When the empire came into contact with other cultures, often their gods were absorbed without difficulty – appeared more attractive.

Augustus’ Religious Reform• In 17 BCE he celebrated 3 days of new

celebrations marking a “new age”• He assumed the office of pontifex maximus

– chief priest of Rome• Restored temples and revived cults that

had died out during the Civil Wars• Promoted religious participation by all

citizens• Named new festival dates• Restored the traditions of paterfamilias –

traditional family order

Goals were twofold:1- Restoring Roman morality, piety, sacred order, and faith after the violence and aggression of the Civil Wars2- Promotion of his own cult – Augustus modelled his cult after a state religion, throughout the empire, worship of Augustus was worshipping Rome itself.•These stabilizing reforms resulted in a 150 year period of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana

Pax Romana• This period saw the expansion of Roman culture,

architecture and ideas throughout the empire. • Augustus used conquered lands to pension 32 of his 60

legions leaving 28 at a full time professional army - Romanization throughout the empire.

• This also had the effect of disseminating other non-Roman religious ideas

Non – Roman Deities• By the 1st century CE several cults gain popularity:• Anatolian Cybele – mother-goddess cult imported from

Turkey• Isis – Egyptian goddess of motherhood and procreation• Mithras – Persian god of light and truth, popular among

soldiers

• Rome tolerated the existence of these cults - could co-exist with the state gods and the worship of the emperor.

Judea

• Jews had always violently resisted polytheistic influences. Pompey had conquered Judea in 63 BCE but carefully did not interfere in Jewish religious life.

• Judea was left as a puppet kingdom and was allowed to continue its independant religious worship

2 religious groups in Judea:

• Sadducees – worked with Rome as long as they were allowed to worship at the temple

• Hasidism – rejected all compromise with Rome, most prominent sect was the Pharisees – practised strict dietary and custom rules to distinguish themselves from non-Jews – they led insular lives awaiting the prophesied messiah who would deliver them from Roman rule

6 BCE – birth of Joshua ben Joseph – also called Jesus of Nazareth

• Born in Galilee – a stronghold of Hasidism

• Preached love of peace, God, and neighbour

• Imagery of tolerance of suffering for an anticipated elevated state

• Future rewards for pious behaviour in the present

• Similar to many Jewish religious thinkers of the time but Jesus was non-political and made claims to be the messiah

Text based religion

• All that is known about Jesus and his early followers comes from early Greek texts 100 – 200 CE

• Accounts of Jesus’ life and words – gospels• Letters to religious communities – epistles• Historical narratives and visionary writings

The Bible• 4 of the 50 total gospels along

with 21 epistles, an account of the early community (Acts), and 1 book of revelations gradually came to be accepted as the definitive text of the faith

• Combined with the Jewish Scripture – these books formed the Bible.

• Emphasised the story of Jesus as fulfilling Jewish tradition

Death of Jesus• Jesus preached for 3 years in Judea• Drew large crowds and excited some to demand

independence from Rome• Some rejected his teachings as blasphemy and saw

him as a threat to the religious status quo• His preachings became a focal point for discontent

and controversy• Jesus was ordered executed by crucifixion by the

Roman procurator Pontius Pilate in 30 CE in order to preserve order

Christ to Christianity

• Soon after his death, his followers had claimed he had risen from the dead and formed another sect of Judaism – Christianity

• Purification rite of initiation – immersion in flowing water

• Ritual meal – bread and wine

Paul of Tarsus

• one of the earliest converts to Christianity• Key individual in the spread of the early

church• Founded the earliest churches throughout the

eastern Roman empire.• Systematized Christian thought – opened

membership to non-Jews

Repression and Growth

• Judaism – not problematic for Rome – non aggressive, inherited religion, not converting

• Christianity – aggressive and successful, based on new conversions, could not tolerate polytheistic state religion.

• Christianity experiences extreme repression – those who would not sacrifice to the emperor on demand were killed.

• Suppression serves to spread new religion more rapidly – more violent the repression, more the religion spread.

The Church

• As the number of Christians increased, the organization of the sect grew – hierarchical structure develops

• Leaders of Christians in each major city became Bishops assisted by priests, deacons and deaconesses.

Religious Schism

• Once the Church expands, it is challenged by outside ideas and influences

• Split develops:• Montanists – Christians should be celibate and

fast until the imminent Second Coming• Gnostics – Christ was a divine being in human

form who imparted secret wisdom to the people• Arians – Jesus was divine but mortal - human

One True Faith

• Bishops – responsible for defending the faith from these schisms – leaders of the communities directly founded by the apostles became leaders among bishops – patriarchates

• Alexandria• Antioch• Corinth• Rome

Council of Nicaea

• The early period of the Christian Church comes to an end with the Council of Nicaea – complete assembly of all bishops.

• They codify the One True Faith and all others are suppressed

• Agree and publish the Nicene Creed

How would this conflict with Roman religious customs?

• The Nicene Creed (CE 381)• I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible

and invisible.• And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all

worlds; God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God; begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made.

• Who, for us men and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit of the virgin Mary, and was made man; and was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate; He suffered and was buried; and the third day He rose again, according to the Scriptures; and ascended into heaven, and sits on the right hand of the Father; and He shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end.

• And I believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of Life; who proceeds from the Father and the Son; who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified; who spoke by the prophets.

• And I believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins; and I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.

The Fall of Rome• After Marcus Aurelius – Rome tailspin• Early Rome – Principate – rule through the

people• Late Rome – Dominate – rule through brute

force• Inflation was huge – bribery • “3 Fortune Rule”• 1 to pay the bribes• 1 to pay the jury that investigates it• 1 to live on

The Fall of Rome

• Early army – a great career, advancement through performance and loyalty, service guarantees citizenship

• Late army – peasant conscripts, raided Roman cities, no loyalty

• Leads to numerous barbarian raids – 211 – 284 CE

• Decline of imperium• 2nd C – 80 years – 4 emperors• 3rd C – 73 years – 21 emperors, 17 assassinated, 1 captured

The Fall of Rome• Empire splitting – East flourishes, west declines

– fending off Gothic raids• Germanic tribes move into Italy, pushed by the

Huns• Vandals – sack Rome from Spain• Angles/Saxons – invade over the North Sea• Ostrogoths – move into Northern Italy – led by Theodoric c

500CE• Lombards – move into southern France c 600 CE• Franks – 450 CE, North of Rhine, Merovingian Kings, first

established by Clovis c 450 CE

The Last Emperor• Rolumus Augustus• deposed by Germanic

Barbarians in 476 CE• Only a teenager• Odoacer, leader of a tribe of

Germanic settlers in the Italian peninsula – becomes “King” of Rome

• Eastern half of the empire would last until 1453 CE!!