III. Rome: REPUBLIC TO THE EMPIRE

A. Formation of the Republic

1. Cruel monarchy was removed and replaced by oligarchy.

2. Conquered Etruscans to the north and had too much land and people for a democracy.

3. Used representative government to make laws.4. Republic at first used only the nobles (patricians)

for offices.5. Evetually after much struggle, the common people

(pleibains) were allowed to hold offices as well.

B. Legislative1. Senate: merely a advisory body, the Senate made decrees which did not have to be

followed, but were.

a. Comes from sense (old men).

b. 300 patricians (wealthy) who serve for life, eventually plebs were allowed to join.

c. Power resided there.

2. Assemblies –

a. Comitia or committees were made of all of the people.

b. Concilia or councils represented specific groups of people

c. Comitia Centuriata – made up of soldiers, elected magistrates, declared war, highest court of appeals.

d. Comitia Tributa – represented tribes of Rome, voted on laws, elected lower officials.

e. Concilium Plebis – Passed laws for plebs, elected middle officials, evetually combined with tributa.

C. Executive Brancha. Quaester – financial officers• Aedile - organize the games, supervise public works. • Praetors -senior magistrates, chief law officer.• Consul - 2 for 1 year - preside over the Senate and are commanders - in

– chief. They could veto each other, call the assemblies to order, and were the head of government. Could run again in ten years.

• Dictator –In emergency times a man of merit could be appointed with absolute powers until the crisis abated.

• Pontifex Maximus – Chief priest that presided over official ceremonies, chose calendar, members of the priesthood.

• Censors - (of which there were two) was in his main duty the registrar of Rome. But he also oversaw the finances, including taxation, inspected the quality of public works and - more controversially - oversaw public morality

D. Campaigning according to Marcus Tullius Cicero…

1. have plenty of followers2. call everyone by name3. make promises, never say no.4. campaign in all parts of Rome

E. Candidate

1. "gleaming white," type of toga worn - it was like our business suit.

2. Campaigning was personal: No posters - wrote on the walls, Paid for games or food.

F. Development of the Republic 1. Patricians in the beginning controlled all offices and law.2. Plebs were not informed and faced harsh punishment.3. A series of revolts established a public, codified law and rights for plebs.4. After conquering Italy, other town were given Roman citizenship.5. Rome set its sights on Sicily, which was partially controlled by Carthage, an empire based out of Western North Africa.

G. Wars and Social Unrest1. Carthage and Rome engaged in two wars from 264 to 146 BCE. 2. Hannibal invaded Europe, bringing a huge army with elephants, but was unable to persuade other Italians to revolt. 3. General Scipio Africanus was able to outlast and destroy Carthage. 4. Patricians received slave labor and land.5. This caused the plebs to face unemployment and poverty.

H. Outcry and Welfare

1. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were elected tribunes in 2nd century BCE and wanted to redistribute patrician land.2. They and 3,000 supporters were murdered. 3. Eventually, all Romans were exempt from taxes, were provided with food and entertainment to stop them from revolting.

I. Military Influence

1. Generals Marius and Sulla used the military to control the Senate.2. Marius rules first and allows landless men to join, increasing his popularity.3. Sulla took over when he died, and increased the size of the Senate and limited veto powers.

J. Slavery and Power1. Spartacus, a gladiator, revolted and was followed by 70,000 others.2. Generals Crassus and Pompey eventually defeated him after heavy losses. Many were crucified. 3. Crassus had success to the east, Pompey rid the sea of pirates and a new general conquered Gaul (Caesar).4. Together, they shared power in the Triumvirate .

H. Balance Turns to Dictatorship1. Crassus is killed in the East when liquid hot gold is poured down his throat. 2. Caesar becomes very wealthy and shares wealth with the plebs. 3. Pompey becomes suspicious, especially when his wife Julia (Caesar’s daughter) does in

childbirth. 4. Nobility and Senate side with Pompey.5. Cato, Scipio (a descendant of the general), and Cicero fear Caesar will make himself king

and order him to give up his legions. 6. Caesar believes they acted illegally and brings his army into Italy which is illegal. 7. Pompey and many nobles flee, eventually to Greece where they raise an army. 8. Expenses and desertion wear down Pompey and Senators switch sides. 9. Cicero and young Brutus switch, Cato and Scipio commit suicide. 10. He flees to Egypt, but Ptolemy XIII has him beheaded. 11. Caesar is outraged that barbarians have killed a former Consul of Rome and have the

leadership of Egypt killed.12. He appoints his lover Cleopatra as Pharaoh and they have a son Cesarean.13. Caesar returns to Rome where his given dictators powers. 14. He appoints many plebs to the Senate and expands the welfare roles.15. He is eventually assassinated by a group of Senators led by Brutus and Cassius.

I. Dissolution of Republic1. Mark Anthony, Caesar’s young general-apprentice inherits his

popularity.2. Nephew Octavian inherits his fortune.3. A truce is offered to Brutus and Cassius, but they must leave the city. 4. Anthony and Octavian quarrel, but unite with noble general Lepidus in

the Second Triumvirate to attack Brutus and Cassius.5. The murderers are annihilated along with their supporters in Rome,

including Cicero. 6. Eventually Lepidus is demoted because of corruption, and Anthony and

Octavian start fighting again. 7. Anthony flees to Egypt, begins an affair with Cleopatra, and holds back

grain from Rome.8. He makes a will promising his children with Cleopatra parts of the

Republic and Cesarean Rome itself.9. The people are outraged.

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K. Roman Empire1. Augustus (nephew of Cesar) defeats Mark Anthony

and Cleopatra.2. Augustus rules from 27 BC to 14 AD and

successfully organizes “republic”3. Takes on title of “head magistrate.”4. Relatives (by blood and adoption) assume thrown

of “Caesar.”5. Some are undeserving, many assassinations.6. Persecution of Christians occurs.7. Ruled till 96 AD.8. Hand picked successors bring prosperity for a

century.

L. Decline of the Empire

1. Murder, corruption and military rule happen intermittently.

2. Christianity becomes official religion.3. The Empire is split into West and East

(Byzantine) 260 AD.4. The West falls to German Barbarians around

400 AD5. The East falls to Muslim Turks around 1453

AD.

M. Dark Ages and Feudalism.

1. Fear and anarchy is replaced by local warlords.

2. Eventually, they gather strength and land.3. The most powerful require allegiance from

the weak and becomes monarchs.4. The poor work on land and supply crops or

taxes.